1. Prior to the start of the final retreat of the ice sheet ~ 18,000 years ago. Whole area covered by ice up to >400m thick. 2. Ice retreats to north of Norley/Cuddington, leaving deposits of Boulder Clay (blue), then stops. Unable to retreat west of Ridge because of pressure exerted by ice-flows from Welsh highlands. Retreat of ice- sheet halted here. 3. Outwash from the static ice-front to north of Norley/Cuddington and through gaps in the Ridge (blue arrows). Leave deposits of glacial sands and gravel. 4. Final total retreat of the ice-sheet leaves further extensive accumulations of Boulder Clay. Sandstone Ridge high ground
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1. Prior to the start of the final
retreat of the ice sheet ~
18,000 years ago.
Whole area covered by ice up
to >400m thick.
2. Ice retreats to north of
Norley/Cuddington, leaving
deposits of Boulder Clay
(blue), then stops.
Unable to retreat west of
Ridge because of pressure
exerted by ice-flows from
Welsh highlands.
Retreat of ice-
sheet halted here.
3. Outwash from the static
ice-front to north of
Norley/Cuddington and
through gaps in the Ridge
(blue arrows).
Leave deposits of glacial
sands and gravel.
4. Final total retreat of the ice-sheet leaves further extensive accumulations of Boulder Clay.
Sandstone Ridge
high ground
Hydrogeology WorkshopPresent Geology (1)
• And it has all resulted in this:Go to British Geological Survey (BGS) ‘Geology of Britain Viewer’ @
Hydrogeology WorkshopIntroduction to Hydrogeology (1)
What is groundwater and its place in the hydrological cycle?
Ocean
Evaporation
Heat/Radiation
Clouds form
Circulation in the atmosphere
Precipitation
Runoff
Transpiration and
evaporation
Recharge
Water table
Groundwater flow
Discharges
Groundwater discharges:
•River/lakes
springs/wetlands;
•Sea/estuaries
•Abstractions
(wells/boreholes)
Saline
water
Hydrogeology WorkshopIntroduction to Hydrogeology (2)
Some basic terminology
Aquifer:• Rock which allows water to flow in
‘significant’ quantities (Ridge area examples: Terrace/Glacial Sands and Gravel, Sherwood Sandstones)
Aquiclude:• Rock through which virtually no water
flows. (Ridge area examples rare strictly speaking but could include Mercia Mudstones, Halite formations, Glacial Boulder Clay)
• Can be a layer above a ‘confined’ aquifer.
Aquitard:• Rock which allows ‘small’ amounts of
water to flow through it. (Ridge area examples Mercia Mudstones, Halite formations, Glacial Boulder Clay)
• Can be a layer above a ‘semi-confined’ aquifer.
Porosity; Void space, expressed as % of rock volume.
• Primary porosity – intergranular;
• Secondary porosity –fractures/fissures;
• Effective porosity – space in which groundwater flow is ‘active’ (also related to ‘storage’).
Permeability (Hydraulic Conductivity)
• Property which allows fluid (water) to move through rock/soil.
Hydrogeology WorkshopIntroduction to Hydrogeology (3)
Some basic terminology
• Water table: – Surface of groundwater, interface between the saturated aquifer and
the unsaturated zone.
• Piezometric Level: – ‘Pressure’ (head) of water in a confined or semi-confined aquifer.
Effectively where the water level will be in a borehole drilled into the aquifer.
• Aquifer conditions:– Unconfined: Aquifer which contains the water table. Water
can enter it from recharge.
– Confined: Fully saturated aquifer with piezometric surface
(e.g. level of water in a borehole) above its top. Sometimes known as ‘artesian’. Strictly speaking, no water enters as recharge from above.
– Semi-confined: Fully saturated aquifer with piezometric
surface (e.g. level ,of water in a borehole) above its top. BUT water can leak into it from above.
– Perched aquifer: An upper unconfined aquifer (i.e. It
contains a water table) which is separated from a lower one , with an intervening unsaturated zone.
Based on Brassington, R. (1988) Field Hydrogeology, Geological Society Handbook, Open University Press, Milton Keynes/Halstead Press, New York – Toronto, P.4, fig. 1.2
Confined or semi-confined Unconfined
Hydrogeology WorkshopIntroduction to Hydrogeology (4)
Groundwater Flow
Bath Tubs and Black Boxes
Where does it want to go?• In at the top (recharge/leakage) and out at the bottom (discharge to
rivers, lakes, sea etc).
• From high groundwater level/pressure (higher ground) to low level/pressure (lower ground/lower pressure).
Hydrogeology WorkshopIntroduction to Hydrogeology (5)
Groundwater Flow
Bath Tubs and Black BoxesHow does it get there?• Driven by hydraulic gradients