Hybrid Power Full Seminar Report

8/9/2019 Hybrid Power Full Seminar Report

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1. INTRODUCTION

Energy is a requirement that is endlessly and

exhaustingly utilized the world over. With the increase in the rate of various

developmental activities around the world the energy being consumed is also

increasing with the result that conventional energy resources are fast getting

depleted and even hydel reserves are proving less than sufficient to satisfy the

growing energy demand. As a result consumers around the world have to bear the

brunt of increasing power cuts and power costs. Hence for the future power

independence is fast becoming a vital requirement. The concept design therefore

formulates a system which provides internally generated energy for homes and also

integrates a sub system into the household such that the dependence on the

electricity board is eliminated.

HYBRID GENERATING UNIT

The generating unit for the proposed design utilizes a hybrid power

source as a means of powering the household loads. The hybrid power source

combines wind and solar energy to service the household requirements.

Hybrid system for home is a combined system of wind and solar power generation system. Aero turbines convert wind energy into rotary

mechanical energy. A mechanical interface consisting of a step!up gear and a

suitable coupling transmits the energy to an electrical generator. The output of this

generator is connected to the "attery or system grid. The battery is connected to

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the inverter. The inverter is used to convert #$ voltages to A$ voltages. The load

draws current from the inverter.

The apparatus involved for the windmill section are%

• &enerator

• 'ain shaft with (eafs

• &ear Wheel Arrangement

Wind power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping small to

)*W medium to +, *W and large -,, *W to megawatt frame size.

olar energy implies the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. /t

provides daylight ma*es the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to

grow. olar energy is also put to two types of use to help our lives directly solar

heating and solar electricity

olar electricity is the technology of converting sunlight directly in to

electricity. /t is based on photo!voltaic or solar modules which are very reliable

and do not require any fuel or servicing. olar electric systems are suitable for

plenty of sun and are ideal when there is no main electricity

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MULTI-BLADE (LEAF)

GENERATOR

SHAFT

BATTERY INVERTER

LIGHTING LOAD

(OR) GRIDSOLAR

PANEL

1.1 HYBRID SYSTEM BLOCK DIAGRAM

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1.2 CONTROL CENTRE

The control centre has been designed integrated within the household. The

entire system shall be wireless based. However against contemporary systems

already in the mar*et the proposed design shall be based on an Wi!0i networ*

which shall be circulated by a laptop or system based transponder. Thus the

designed control centre shall have the advantages of being wire free as well as

based upon an easily available apparatus that is a laptop or a system which can be

found in most households.

The design is aimed at replicating all functions performed by a

normal energy control centre%

Each room supply control hutdown start restart control

#immer control

"rea*ing control

All the above systems shall be integrated to develop a power

efficient system for the future.

2. HYBRID GENERATING STATION

Hybrid system for home is a combined system of wind and solar power

generation system. Aero turbines convert wind energy into rotary mechanical

energy. A mechanical interface consisting of a step!up gear and a suitable

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coupling transmits the energy to an electrical generator. The output of this

generator is connected to the "attery or system grid. The battery is connected to

the inverter. The inverter is used to convert #$ voltages to A$ voltages. The load

is drawn current from the inverter.

• &enerator 'ain shaft with (eafs &ear Wheel Arrangement

Wind power ratings can be divided into three convenient grouping small to

)*W medium to +, *W and large -,, *W to megawatt frame size.

olar energy means all the energy that reaches the earth from the sun. /t

provides daylight ma*es the earth hot and is the source of energy for plants to

grow. olar energy is also put to two types of use to help our lives directly solar

heating and solar electricity.

olar electricity is the technology of converting sunlight directly in to

electricity. /t is based on photo!voltaic or solar modules which are very reliable

and do not require any fuel or servicing. olar electric systems are suitable for

plenty of sun and are ideal when there is no main electricity.

2.1 WIND ENERGY INTRODUCTION

Wind result from air in motion. Air in motion arises from a pressure

gradient. 1n a global basis one primary forcing function causing surface winds

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of shore breezes. At night the direction of the breezes is reversed because the land

mass cools to the s*y more rapidly than the water assuming a s*y. The second

mechanism of local winds is caused by hills and

mountain sides. The air above the slopes heats up during the day and cools down at

night more rapidly than the air above the low lands. This causes heated air the day

to rise along the slopes and relatively cool heavy air to flow down at night.

Wind turbines produce rotational motion3 wind energy is readily converted

into electrical energy by connecting the turbine to an electric generator. The

combination of wind turbine and generator is some times referred as an aero

generator. A step!up transmission is usually required to match the relatively slow

speed of the wind rotor to the higher speed of an electric generator.

/n /ndia the interest in the windmills was shown in the last fifties and early

sixties. A part from importing a few from outside new designs was also

developed but it was not sustained. /t is only in the last few years that

development wor* is going on in many institutions. An important reason for this

lac* of interest in wind energy must be that wind in /ndia area relatively low and

vary appreciably with the seasons. #ata quoted by some scientists that for /ndia

wind speed value lies between + *m4hr to )+!-, *m4hr. These low and seasonal

winds imply a high cost of exploitation of wind energy. $alculations based on the

performance of a typical windmill have indicated that a unit of energy derived

from a windmill will be at least several times more expensive than energy

derivable from electric distribution lines at the standard rates provided such

electrical energy is at all available at the windmill site.

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The above argument is not fully applicable in rural areas for several reasons.

0irst electric power is not and will not be available in many such areas due to the

high cost of generation and distribution to small dispersed users. econdly there is

possibility of reducing the cost of the windmills by suitable design. (astly on

small scales the total first cost for serving a felt need and low maintenance costs

are more important than the unit cost of energy. The last point is illustrated easily%

dry cells provide energy at the astronomical cost of about 5s.6,, per *Wh and yet

they are in common use in both rural and urban areas.Wind energy offers another

source for pumping as well as electric power generation. /ndia has potential of

over -,,,, 'W for power generation and ran*s as one of the promising countries

for tapping this source. The cost of power generation from wind farms has now

become lower than diesel power and comparable to thermal power in several areas

of our country especially near the coasts. Wind power pro7ects of aggregate

capacity of 8 'W including 9 wind farms pro7ects of capacity :.8+ 'W have been

established in different parts of the country of which 6 'W capacity has been

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2.3 The Natue !" the W#$%

The circulation of air in the atmosphere is caused by the non!uniform

heating of the earth2s surface by the sun. The air immediately above a warm area

expands3 it is forced upwards by cool denser air which flows in from surrounding

areas causing a wind. The nature of the terrain the degree of cloud cover and the

angle of the sun in the s*y are all factors which influence this process. /n general

during the day the air above the land mass tends to heat up more rapidly than the

air over water. /n coastal regions this manifests itself in a strong onshore wind. At

night the process is reversed because the air cools down more rapidly over the land

and the breeze therefore blows off shore.

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The main planetary winds are caused in much the same way% $ool surface

air sweeps down from the poles forcing the warm air over the topics to rise. "ut

the direction of these massive air movements is affected by the rotation of the earth

and the net pressure areas in the countries!cloc*wise circulation of air around low

pressure areas in the northern hemisphere and cloc*wise circulation in the

southern hemisphere. The strength and direction of these planetary winds change

with the seasons as the solar input varies.

#espite the wind2s intermittent nature wind patterns at any particular site

remains remar*ably constant year by year. Average wind speeds are greater in

hilly and coastal areas than they are well inland. The winds also tend to blow more

consistently and with greater strength over the surface of the water where there is

a less surface drag.

Wind speeds increase with height. They have traditionally been measured

at a standard height of ten meters where they are found to be -,!-+? greater than

close to the surface. At a height of :, m they may be 6,!:,? higher because of

the reduction in the drag effect of the earth2s surface.

2.& WIND POWER

The power in the wind can be computed by using the concept of *inetics.

The wind will wor*s on the principle of converting *inetic energy of the wind tomechanical energy. We *now that power is equal to energy per unit time. The

energy available is the *inetic energy of the wind. The *inetic energy of any

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particle is equal to one half it2s mass times the square of its velocity or )4-m @-.

The amount of air passing in unit time through an area A with velocity @ is A@

and its mass m is equal to its volume multiplied by its density ρ of air or

mρA@

Bm is the mass of air transverse the area A swept by the rotating blades of a

wind mill type generatorC.

ubstituting this value of the mass in the expression for the *inetic energy

we obtain *inetic energy ).4- ρA@.@- watts.

)4- ρA@6 watts

Equation tells us that the maximum wind available the actual amount will be

somewhat less because all the available energy is not extractable!is proportional to

the cube of the wind speed. /t is thus evident that small increase in wind speed can

have a mar*ed effect on the power in the wind.

Equation also tells us that the power available is proportional to air density

).--+ *g4m6 at sea levelC. /t may vary ),!)+ percent during the year because of

pressure and temperature change. /t changes negligibly with water content.

Equation also tells us that the wind power is proportional to the intercept area.

Thus an aero turbine with a large swept area has higher power than a smaller area

machine3 but there are added implications. ince the area is normally circular of

diameter # in horizontal axis aero turbines then A ∏4> #- Bsq.mC which when

put in equation gives

Available wind power Dα ρ π4> #-@6 watts

)48 ρπ #-@6

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2.' PRESSURE AND VELOCITY GRAPH

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The power extracted by the rotor is equal to the product of the wind speed as

it passes through the rotor Bi.e. @r C and the pressure drop ∆ p. in order to maximize

the rotor power it would therefore be desirable to have both wind sped and

pressure drop as large as possible. However as @ is increased for a given value of

the free wind speed Band air densityC increases at first passes through a maximum

and the decreases. Hence for the specified free!wind speed there is a maximum

value of the rotor power.

The faction of the free!flow wind power that can be extracted by a rotor is

called the power!coefficient3 thus

Dower of wind rotor

Dower coefficient

Dower available in the wind

Where power available is calculated from the air density rotor diameter and

free wind speed as shown above. The maximum theoretical power coefficient is

equal to ):4-9 or ,.+;6. This value cannot be exceeded by a rotor in a free!flow

wind!stream.

2.( Ma)#*u* P!+e

The total power cannot be converted to mechanical power. $onsider a

horizontal!axis propeller!type windmill henceforth to be called a wind turbine

which is the most common type used today. Assume that the wheel of such a

turbine has thic*ness α b. (et pi and @i

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are the wind pressure and velocity at the upstream of the turbine. @e is less than @i

because the turbine extracts *inetic energy.

$onsidering the incoming air between / and a as a thermodynamic system

and assuming that the air density remains constant Bsince changes in pressure and

temperature are very small compared to ambientC that the potential energy is zero

and no heat or wor* are added or removed between i and a the general energy

equation reduces to the *inetic and flow energy!terms only%

2., W#$% E$e- C!$/e0#!$

Traditional windmills were used extensively in the 'iddle Ages to mill grain

and lift water for land drainage and watering cattle. Wind energy converters are

still used for these purposes today in some parts of the world but the main focus of

attention now lies with their use to generate electricity. There is also growing

interest in generating heat from the wind for space and water heating and for glass!

houses but the potential mar*et is much smaller than for electricity generation.

The term Fwind millG is still widely used to describe wind energy conversionsystems however it is hardly adopt. #escription any more. 'odern wind energy

conversion systems are more correctly referred to as WE$2 aero generations2

wind turbine generators2 or simply wind turbines2.

The fact that the wind is variable and intermittent source of energy is

immaterial of some applications such as pumping water for land drainage I

provided of course that there is a broad match between the

energy supplied over any critical period and the energy required. /f the wind

blows the 7ob gets done3 if it does not the 7ob waits.

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However for many of the uses to which electricity is put the interruption of

supply may be highly inconvenient. 1perators or users of wind turbines must

ensure that there is some form of bac*!up to cover periods when there is

insufficient Bor too muchC wind available. 0or small producers bac*!up can ta*e

the form of%

BiC "attery storage

BiiC $onnection with the local electricity distribution system3 or

0or utilities responsible for public supply the integration of medium I sized

and large wind turbines into their distribution net wor* could require some

additional plant which is capable of responding quic*ly to meet fluctuating

demand.

2. Tu#$e T!+e S0te*

As stated earlier the horizontal axis wind turbines are mounted on towers

and there are wind forces on the tower. "oth upwind and downwind locations have

been used so that tower design is an essential aspect of the overall system design.

Vet#a45A)#0 Mah#$e0

@ertical I axis rotors can be either drag!or lift!based. The cup anemometer

is an example of a drag!based vertical axis wind device. The drag on a cup is

greater when its concave side faces the wind which causes the device to rotate.

(ift also plays a small part% the cups crossing the wind experience a small lift

because their convex surfaces deflect the wind and causes a pressure reduction.

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Droperly the single biggest disadvantage with vertical axis machines is that

far less is *nown about them than horizontal axis ones. This handicap is rapidly

being removed.

A%/a$ta-e0 !" 0uh WEC 00te* ae6

). The ma7or advantage of this design is that the rotor blades can accept

the wind from any compass.

-. Another added advantage is that the machine can be mounted on the

ground eliminating tower structures and lifting of huge weight of machine

assembly i.e. it can be operated close to the ground level.

6. ince this machine has vertical axis symmetry it eliminates yaw

control requirement for is rotor to capture wind energy. A dual purpose and

relatively simple shaft axis support is anticipated as well as ground level

power output delivery due to presence of vertical shaft. This may in turn

allow easier access and serviceability.>. Airfoil rotor fabrication costs are expected to be reduced over

conventional rotor blade costs.

+. The absence of pitch control requirements are synchronous operation

may yield additional cost savings.

:. The tip speed ratio and power coefficient are considerably better than

those of the !rotor but are still below the values for a modern horizontal!

axis two!bladed propeller rotor.

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D#0a%/a$ta-e0

B)C Although a #arrieus machine has many directional symmetry for wind

energy capture it require external mechanical aid for start up. Tests indicate that

with small machines the problem can be solved by attaching !rotors at the top

and bottom of the vertical BrotationalC axis. This approach does not appear to be

feasible with larger machines but if the wind power system connected to a utility

grid the generator can serve as a motor to start the turbine. The Balternating!

currentC load can also provide a means for controlling the speed of the rotor

regardless of the wind speed so that variable!pitch blades are not required. At

very high speeds stalling occurs and the rotation stops automatically.

B-C 5otor power output efficiency of a #arrieus wind energy conversion

system is also somewhat lower than that of a conventional horizontal rotor.

B6C "ecause a #arrieus rotor is generally situated near ground proximity it

may also experience lower velocity wind compared to a tower mounted

conventional wind energy conversion system of comparable pro7ected rotor disc

area. This may yield less energy output.

B>C "ecause a #arrieus rotor encounters greatly varied local flow conditions

per revolution greater vibratory stresses are encountered which will affect rotor

system lifeJ High tension cable it down of tower!shaft may require large extensive

bearing for support.

B+C 0inally since a #arrieus rotor cannot be yawed out of the wind or its

blades feathered special high torque bra*ing system must be incorporated.

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TABLE 16WINDMILL SPECI7ICATION TABLE

2.8.SOLAR ENERGY UTILI9ATION

2.8.1 DIRECT METHOD

-.;.).) Dhoto @oltaic 'ethod

-.;.).- Thermal 'ethod

2.8.1 DIRECT METHOD O7 UTILI9ATION O7 SOLAR

ENERGY6

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The most useful way of harnessing solar energy is by directly converting it

into electricity by means of solar photo!voltaic cells. unshine is incident on olar

cells in this system of energy $onversion that is direct conversion of solar

radiation into electricity. /n the stage of conversion into thermodynamic from is

absent. The photo!voltaic effect is defined as the generation of an electromotive

force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation. Energy conversion

devices which are used to convert sunlight to electricity by use of the photo!

voltaic effect are called solar cells.

/n recent years photo!voltaic power generation has been receiving

considerable attention as one of the more promising energy alternatives. The

reason for this rising interest lie in D@2s direct conversion of sunlight to electricity

the non polluting nature of the D@ widespread are of D@ generation has been

hampered by economic factors. Here to force the low cost of conventional energy

sunlight has obviated the development of a broad!based D@ technology. At the

present time D@ generation can be 7ustified only for special situations mostly for

remote sites where utility lines on other conventional means of furnishing energymay be prohibitively expensive and is one of the most attractive non!conventional

energy sources of proven reliability from the micro to the 'ega!watt level.

(i*e other energy system this system also has some disadvantages

B)C #istributed nature of solar energy

B-C Absence of energy storage

B6C 5elatively high capital cost.

2.8.2 PHOTOVOLTAIC PRINCIPLES6

The photo!voltaic effect can be observed in nature in a variety of materials

that have shown that the best performance in sunlight is the semiconductors as

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stated above. When photons from the sun are absorbed in a semiconductor that

create free electrons with higher energies than the created there must be an electric

field to induce these higher energy electrons to flow out of the semi!conductor to

do useful wor*. A 7unction of materials which have different electrical properties

provides the electric field in most solar cells.

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7IG.1

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7IG.2

7IG.3

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3. COMMISSIONING

The panel is mounted over the top the pole with a help of a clamp at an

angular distance ))K south of equator so it is able to collect the solar energy at the

maximum level then the frame with light is mounted at a height of )-+K from the

pole. Then a metal box with the (#5 control and a charge controller and with the

->@ battery is mounted over the pole at a height of -m from the ground level.

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The connections are made as per first the panel is connected to charge

controller and then to the battery and to an inverter then the connection is given to

the light with (#5 control.

3.1 POLE DATA6

&alvanized steel pole

Dole diameter ),cm

Height +.+m

Thic*ness of the pole 6mm

3.2 CONCRETE6

$ement

and

Aggregate B>,mm sizeC

$ement sand and aggregate ratio -%>%8

Water cement ratio ,.+

Then a trench of ) b h ).+m is made and the cement mixture made is

filled upto ).+m in the trench and the pole is mounted inside the trench upto ).+m

from the ground level. The pole is mounted inside the trench and the trench is

filled with the cement mixture and made to set. And bric*wor* is done above the

ground level of ).+m with )%6 ratio and plastered with )%> ratio of cement and

sand.

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3.3 SOLAR PANEL COMMISSIONING6

#uring the day time the battery gets charged and when the intensity of light

decreases the (#5 ma*es the light to gets 1< and the light glows by using the

stored charge in the battery.

/f electrical contacts are made with the two semiconductor materials and the

contacts the connected through an external electrical conductor the free electrons

will flow from the n!type material through the conductor to the p!type material

Bfigure -C. Here the free electrons will enter the holes and holes and become bound

electrons thus both free electrons and hole will be removed. The flow of electrons

through the external conductor constitutes an electric current which will continue

as long as move free electrons and holes are being formed by the solar radiation.

This is the basis of photo!voltaic conversion that is the conversion of solar energy

into electrical energy. The combination of n!type and p!type semiconductors thus

constitutes a photo!voltaic cell or solar cell. All such cells some rate direct current

that can be converted into alternating current it desired.

The photo!voltaic effect can be observed in almost any 7unction of material

that have different electrical characteristics but the best performance to date has

been from cells using semiconductor materials especially all of the solar cells used

for both space and terrestrial applications have been made of the semiconductor

silicon. 0uture cells may use such materials as the emiconductors li*e &allium

arsenate copper sulphate cadsulphide etc.

3.& Sa"et S0te*0

Sa"et 00te*0 !" the +#$% tu#$e0 !*:#0e the "!44!+#$- "eatue06

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3.' E$/#!$*e$ta4 A0:et0

Wind turbines are not without environmental impact and their operation is

not entirely ris*!free. 0ollowing are the main effects due to a wind turbine.

;#< E4et!*a-$et# #$te"ee$e. /nterference with T@ and other electromagnetic

communication systems is a possibility with wind turbines as it is with other tall

structures. T@ interference is most li*ely in areas where there is a wea* signal

because of the distance from the transmitter where existing reception is none too

good due to the surrounding hills and where the wind turbine is exposed in good

position to receive and scatter the signals. #ispensing with aerials and sending T@

signals by cable in areas that would otherwise be affected can overcome

interference.

;##< N!#0e. The noise produced by wind farms falls into two categories. The first

type is a mechanical noise from the gearbox generating equipment and lin*ages

and the second type of aerodynamic in nature produced by the movement of the

turbine blades. 1ne component of the latter is the broad band noise which ranges

upto several *ilo hertz and the other is a low frequency noise of )+!-, Hz.

5evolving blades generate noise which can be heard in the immediate vicinity of

the installation but noise does not travel too far.

;###< V#0ua4 E""et0. 'egawatts power generating wind turbines are massive

structures which would be quite visible over a wide area in some locations. @arietycharacteristics such as co lour pattern shape rotational speed and reflectance of

blade materials can be ad7usted to modify the visual effects of wind turbines

including the land scape in which they are installed.

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&. CONTROL CENTRE

The Energy $ontrol $entre BE$$C is the constituent of the

electricity board which maintains and regulates all aspects of energy distribution to

a specified area of charge. To implement a household power system which is

completely independent of the electricity board a control scheme has been

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&.1 DESIGNED CONTROL GUI=0

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HAN MODEM


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control interface. "ased on a Home Area


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indoors. 0emtocells are cells designed for use in residential or small business

environments and connect to the service provider2s networ* via a broadband

internet connection. =mbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller

cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells. /ndoor coverage which is the

requirement of the particular control structure is supported by &' and may be

achieved by using an indoor picocell base station or an indoor repeater with

distributed indoor antennas fed through power splitters to deliver the radio signals

from an antenna outdoors to the separate indoor distributed antenna system. The

modulation used in &' is &aussian minimum!shift *eying B&'MC a *ind of

continuous!phase frequency shift *eying. /n &'M the signal to be modulated

onto the carrier is first smoothed with a &aussian low!pass filter prior to being fed

to a frequency modulator which greatly reduces the interference to neighboring

channels Bad7acent channel interferenceC.

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&.&.2 STRUCTURE O7 GSM NETWORK

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A common &' networ* invariably consists of the following%

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behavior and maximum load capacitance. /nterface mechanical characteristics

pluggable connectors and pin identification. 0unctions of each circuit in the

interface connector. tandard subsets of interface circuits for selected telecom

applications. The standard does not define such elements as character encoding Bfor

example A$// "audot code or E"$#/$C the framing of characters in the data

stream Bbits per character start4stop bits parityC protocols for error detection or

algorithms for data compression bit rates for transmission although the standard

says it is intended for bit rates lower than -,,,, bits per second. 'any modern

devices support speeds of ))+-,, bit4s and above power supply to external

devices.

#etails of character format and transmission bit rate are controlled by the serial

port hardware often a single integrated circuit called a =A5T that converts data

from parallel to asynchronous start!stop serial form. #etails of voltage levels slew

rate and short!circuit behavior are typically controlled by a line!driver that

converts from the =A5TNs logic levels to 5!-6- compatible signal levels and a

receiver that converts from 5!-6- compatible signal levels to the =A5TNs logiclevels. The original #TEs were electromechanical teletypewriters and the original

#$Es were BusuallyC modems. When electronic terminals Bsmart and dumbC began

to be used they were often designed to be interchangeable with teletypes and so

supported 5!-6-. The $ revision of the standard was issued in );:; in part to

accommodate the electrical characteristics of these devices.

ince application to devices such as computers printers test instruments and soon was not considered by the standard designers implementing an 5!-6-

compatible interface on their equipment often interpreted the requirements

idiosyncratically. $ommon problems were non!standard pin assignment of circuits

on connectors and incorrect or missing control signals. The lac* of adherence to

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the standards produced a thriving industry of brea*out boxes patch boxes test

equipment boo*s and other aids for the connection of disparate equipment. A

common deviation from the standard was to drive the signals at a reduced voltage%

the standard requires the transmitter to use O)-@ and !)-@ but requires the

receiver to distinguish voltages as low as O6@ and !6@. ome manufacturers

therefore built transmitters that supplied O+@ and !+@ and labeled them as P5!

-6- compatible.P

(ater personal computers Band other devicesC started to ma*e use of the standard so

that they could connect to existing equipment. 0or many years an 5!-6-!

compatible port was a standard feature for serial communications such as modem

connections on many computers. /t remained in widespread use into the late

);;,s. While it has largely been supplanted by other interface standards such as

=" in computer products it is still used to connect older designs of peripherals

industrial equipment Bsuch as based on D($sC and console ports and special

purpose equipment such as a cash drawer for a cash register.

"ecause the application of 5!-6- has extended far beyond the original purpose of

interconnecting a terminal with a modem successor standards have been

developed to address the limitations. /ssues with the 5!-6- standard include%

The large voltage swings and requirement for positive and negative supplies

increases power consumption of the interface and complicates power supply

design. The voltage swing requirement also limits the upper speed of a compatible

interface.ingle!ended signaling referred to a common signal ground limits the

noise immunity and transmission distance. 'ulti!drop connection among more

than two devices is not defined. While multi!drop Pwor*!aroundsP have been

devised they have limitations in speed and compatibility.

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As an alternative =" doc*ing ports are available which can provide connectors

for a *eyboard mouse one or more serial ports and one or more parallel ports.

$orresponding device drivers are required for each ="!connected device to allow

programs to access these ="!connected devices as if they were the original

directly!connected peripherals. #evices that convert =" to 5 -6- may not wor*

with all software on all personal computers and may cause a reduction in bandwith

along with higher latency.

Dersonal computers may use the control pins of a serial port to interface to devices

such as uninterruptible power supplies. /n this case serial data is not sent but the

control lines are used to signal conditions such as loss of power or low battery

alarms.

&.'.3 Sta$%a% %eta#40

/n 5!-6- user data is sent as a time!series of bits. "oth synchronous and

asynchronous transmissions are supported by the standard. /n addition to the data

circuits the standard defines a number of control circuits used to manage theconnection between the #TE and #$E. Each data or control circuit only operates

in one direction that is signaling from a #TE to the attached #$E or the reverse.

ince transmit data and receive data are separate circuits the interface can operate

in a full duplex manner supporting concurrent data flow in both directions. The

standard does not define character framing within the data stream or character

encoding.#iagrammatic oscilloscope trace of voltage levels for an uppercase

A$// PMP character B,x>bC with ) start bit 8 data bits ) stop bit.The 5!-6-

standard defines the voltage levels that correspond to logical one and logical zero

levels. @alid signals are plus or minus 6 to )+ volts. The range near zero volts is

not a valid 5!-6- level3 logic one is defined as a negative voltage the signal

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condition is called mar*ing and has the functional significance of 100. (ogic zero

is positive the signal condition is spacing and has the function 1


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and modems have female connectors with #$E pin functions. 1ther devices may

have any combination of connector gender and pin definitions. 'any terminals

were manufactured with female terminals but were sold with a cable with male

connectors at each end3 the terminal with its cable satisfied the recommendations

in the standard.Dresence of a -+ pin #!sub connector does not necessarily indicate

an 5!-6-!$ compliant interface. 0or example on the original /"' D$ a male #!

sub was an 5!-6-!$ #TE port Bwith a non!standard current loop interface on

reserved pinsC but the female #!sub connector was used for a parallel $entronics

printer port. ome personal computers put non!standard voltages or signals on

some pins of their serial ports.The standard specifies -, different signal

connections. ince most devices use only a few signals smaller connectors can

often be used. 0or example the ; pin #E!; connector was used by most /"'!

compatible D$s since the /"' D$ AT and has been standardized as T/A!+9>.

'ore recently modular connectors have been used. 'ost common are 8D8$

connectors. tandard E/A4T/A +:) specifies a pin assignment but the PRost erial

#evice Wiring tandardP invented by #ave Rost Band popularized by the =nix

ystem Administration Handboo*C is common on =nix computers and newer

devices from $isco ystems. 'any devices donNt use either of these standards.

),D),$ connectors can be found on some devices as well. #igital Equipment

$orporation defined their own #E$connect connection system which was based

on the 'odified 'odular Sac* connector. This is a : pin modular 7ac* where the

*ey is offset from the center position. As with the Rost standard #E$connect uses

a symmetrical pin layout which enables the direct connection between two #TEs.

Another common connector is the #H), header connector common on

motherboards and add!in cards which is usually converted via a cable to the more

standard ; pin #E!; connector Band frequently mounted on a free slot plate or

other part of the housingC.

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The signals are named from the standpoint of the #TE. The ground signal is a

common return for the other connections3 it appears on two pins in the Rost

standard but is the same signal. The #"!-+ connector includes a second Pprotective

groundP on pin ). $onnecting this to pin 9 Bsignal reference groundC is a common

practice but not recommended.

=se of a common ground is one wea*ness of 5!-6-% if the two devices are far

enough apart or on separate power systems the ground will degrade between them

and communications will fail which is a difficult condition to trace.

&.'.& S#-$a40

$ommonly!used signals are%

Ta$0*#tte% Data ;T)D<

#ata sent from #TE to #$E.

Ree#/e% Data ;R)D<

#ata sent from #$E to #TE.

Re?ue0t T! Se$% ;RTS<

Asserted Bset to logic , positive voltageC by #TE to prepare #$E to receive data.

This may require action on the part of the #$E e.g. transmitting a carrier or

reversing the direction of a half!duplex channel.

Rea% T! Ree#/e ;RTR<

Asserted by #TE to indicate to #$E that #TE is ready to receive data. /f in use

this signal appears on the pin that would otherwise be used for 5equest To end

and the #$E assumes that 5T is always asserted.

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C4ea T! Se$% ;CTS<

Asserted by #$E to ac*nowledge 5T and allow #TE to transmit. This signaling

was originally used with half!duplex modems and by slave terminals on multidrop

lines% The #TE would raise 5T to indicate that it had data to send and the

modem would raise $T to indicate that transmission was possible. #ata Terminal

5eady B#T5C

Asserted by #TE to indicate that it is ready to be connected. /f the #$E is a

modem this may Pwa*e upP the modem bringing it out of a power saving mode.

This behaviour is seen quite often in modern DT< and &' modems. When this

signal is de!asserted the modem may return to its standby mode immediately

hanging up any calls in progress.

Data Set Rea% ;DSR<

Asserted by #$E to indicate the #$E is powered on and is ready to receive

commands or data for transmission from the #TE. 0or example if the #$E is a

modem #5 is asserted as soon as the modem is ready to receive dialing or other

commands3 #5 is not dependent on the connection to the remote #$E Bsee #ata

$arrier #etect for that functionC. /f the #$E is not a modem Be.g. a null modem

cable or other equipmentC this signal should be permanently asserted Bset to ,C

possibly by a 7umper to another signal.

Data Ca#e Detet ;DCD<

Asserted by #$E when a connection has been established with remote equipment.

R#$- I$%#at! ;RI<

Asserted by #$E when it detects a ring signal from the telephone line.

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The standard does not define a maximum cable length but instead defines the

maximum capacitance that a compliant drive circuit must tolerate. A widely!used

rule!of!thumb indicates that cables more than +, feet B)+ metresC long will have

too much capacitance unless special cables are used. "y using low!capacitance

cables full speed communication can be maintained over larger distances up to

about ),,, feet. 0or longer distances other signal standards are better suited to

maintain high speed.

ince the standard definitions are not always correctly applied it is often necessary

to consult documentation test connections with a brea*out box or use trial and

error to find a cable that wor*s when interconnecting two devices. $onnecting a

fully!standard!compliant #$E device and #TE device would use a cable that

connects identical pin numbers in each connector Ba so!called Pstraight cablePC.

P&ender changersP are available to solve gender mismatches between cables and

connectors. $onnecting devices with different types of connectors requires a cable

that connects the corresponding pins according to the table above. $ables with ;

pins on one end and -+ on the other are common. 'anufacturers of equipment with8D8$ connectors usually provide a cable with either a #"!-+ or #E!; connector

Bor sometimes interchangeable connectors so they can wor* with multiple devicesC.

Door!quality cables can cause false signals by crosstal* between data and control

lines Bsuch as 5ing /ndicatorC.

0or functional communication through a serial port interface conventions of bit

rate character framing communications protocol character encoding datacompression and error detection not defined in 5 -6- must be agreed to by both

sending and receiving equipment. 0or example consider the serial ports of the

original /"' D$. This implementation used an 8-+, =A5T using asynchronous

start!stop character formatting with 9 or 8 data bits per frame usually A$//

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character coding and data rates programmable between 9+ bits per second and

))+-,, bits per second. #ata rates above -,,,, bits per second are out of the

scope of the standard although higher data rates are sometimes used by

commercially manufactured equipment. /n the particular case of the /"' D$ baud

rates were programmable with arbitrary values so that a D$ could be connected to

for example '/#/ music controllers B6)-+, bits per secondC or other devices not

using the rates typically used with modems. ince most devices do not have

automatic baud rate detection users must manually set the baud rate Band all other

parametersC at both ends of the 5!-6- connection.

RTS@CTS ha$%0ha#$-

/n older versions of the specification 5!-6-Ns use of the 5T and $T lines is

asymmetric% The #TE asserts 5T to indicate a desire to transmit to the #$E and

the #$E asserts $T in response to grant permission. This allows for half!duplex

modems that disable their transmitters when not required and must transmit a

synchronization preamble to the receiver when they are re!enabled. This scheme is

also employed on present!day 5!-6- to 5!>8+ converters where the 5!-6-Ns

5T signal is used to as* the converter to ta*e control of the 5!>8+ bus ! a

concept that doesnNt otherwise exist in 5!-6-. There is no way for the #TE to

indicate that it is unable to accept data from the #$E.

A non!standard symmetric alternative commonly called P5T4$T handsha*ingP

was developed by various equipment manufacturers% $T indicates permission

from the #$E for the #TE to send data to the #$E Band is controlled by the #$E

independent of 5TC and 5T indicates permission from the #TE for the #$E to

send data to the #TE. This was eventually codified in version 5!-6-!E Bactually

T/A!-6-!E by that timeC by defining a new signal P5T5 B5eady to 5eceiveCP

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which is $$/TT @.-> circuit )66. T/A!-6-!E and the corresponding international

standards were updated to show that circuit )66 when implemented shares the

same pin as 5T B5equest to endC and that when )66 is in use 5T is assumed

by the #$E to be 1< at all times.

Thus with this alternative usage one can thin* of 5T asserted Blogic ,C meaning

that the #TE is indicating it is Pready to receiveP from the #$E rather than

requesting permission from the #$E to send characters to the #$E.

6!wire and +!wire 5!-6-

A minimal P6!wireP 5!-6- connection consisting only of transmit data receive

data and ground is commonly used when the full facilities of 5!-6- are not

required. Even a two!wire connection Bdata and groundC can be used if the data

flow is one way Bfor example a digital postal scale that periodically sends a weight

reading or a &D receiver that periodically sends position if no configuration via

5!-6- is necessaryC. When only hardware flow control is required in addition to

two!way data the 5T and $T lines are added in a +!wire version.

T#*#$- 0#-$a40

ome synchronous devices provide a cloc* signal to synchronize data

transmission especially at higher data rates. Two timing signals are provided by

the #$E on pins )+ and )9. Din )+ is the transmitter cloc* or send timing BTC3 the

#TE puts the next bit on the data line Bpin -C when this cloc* transitions from 100

to 1< Bso it is stable during the 1< to 100 transition when the #$E registers the

bitC. Din )9 is the receiver cloc* or receive timing B5TC3 the #TE reads the next bit

from the data line Bpin 6C when this cloc* transitions from 1< to

100.Alternatively the #TE can provide a cloc* signal called transmitter timing

55


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BTTC on pin -> for transmitted data. Again data is changed when the cloc*

transitions from 100 to 1< and read during the 1< to 100 transition. TT can be

used to overcome the issue where T must traverse a cable of un*nown length and

delay cloc* a bit out of the #TE after another un*nown delay and return it to the

#$E over the same un*nown cable delay. ince the relation between the

transmitted bit and TT can be fixed in the #TE design and since both signals

traverse the same cable length using TT eliminates the issue. TT may be generated

by looping T bac* with an appropriate phase change to align it with the

transmitted data. T loop bac* to TT lets the #TE use the #$E as the frequency

reference and correct the cloc* to data timing.

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7IG.(6 MA> 232 MODEM INTER7ACE

57


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7IG ,6 POWER SUPPLY LAYOUT

58


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&.'.' POWER SUPPLY DESCRIPTIONS

The present chapter introduces the operation of power supply

circuits built using filters rectifiers and then voltage regulators. tarting with

an ac voltage a steady dc voltage is obtained by rectifying the ac voltage then

filtering to a dc level and finally regulating to obtain a desired fixed dc

voltage. The regulation is usually obtained from an /$ voltage regulator unit

which ta*es a dc voltage and provides a somewhat lower dc voltage which

remains the same even if the input dc voltage varies or the output load

connected to the dc voltage changes.

A bloc* diagram containing the parts of a typical power supply and the voltage

at various points in the unit is shown in fig );.). The ac voltage typically )-,

@ rms is connected to a transformer which steps that ac voltage down to the

level for the desired dc output. A diode rectifier then provides a full!wave

rectified voltage that is initially filtered by a simple capacitor filter to produce a

dc voltage. This resulting dc voltage usually has some ripple or ac voltage

variation. A regulator circuit can use this dc input to provide a dc voltage that

not only has much less ripple voltage but also remains the same dc value even if the input dc voltage varies somewhat or the load connected to the output dc

voltage changes. This voltage regulation is usually obtained using one of a

number of popular voltage regulator /$ units.

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Transformer 5ectifier 0ilter /$ regulator (oad

&.'.( IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS6

@oltage regulators comprise a class of widely used /$s. 5egulator /$ units

contain the circuitry for reference source comparator amplifier control device

and overload protection all in a single /$. Although the internal construction of

the /$ is somewhat different from that described for discrete voltage regulator

circuits the external operation is much the same. /$ units provide regulation of

either a fixed positive voltage a fixed negative voltage or an ad7ustably set

voltage.A power supply can be built using a transformer connected to the ac

supply line to step the ac voltage to a desired amplitude then rectifying that

ac voltage filtering with a capacitor and 5$ filter if desired and finally

regulating the dc voltage using an /$ regulator. The regulators can be selected

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for operation with load currents from hundreds of milli amperes to tens of

amperes corresponding to power ratings from milliwatts to tens of watts.

THREE5TERMINAL VOLTAGE REGULATORS6

0ig shows the basic connection of a three!terminal voltage regulator /$ to a

load. The fixed voltage regulator has an unregulated dc input voltage @i applied

to one input terminal a regulated output dc voltage @o from a second terminal

with the third terminal connected to ground. 0or a selected regulator /$ device

specifications list a voltage range over which the input voltage can vary to

maintain a regulated output voltage over a range of load current. The specifications

also list the amount of output voltage change resulting from a change in load

current Bload regulationC or in input voltage Bline

regulationC.

7IG 67#)e% P!0#t#/e V!4ta-e Re-u4at!06

& @.

0igure );.-: shows how one such /$ a 98)- is connected to provide voltage

regulation with output from this unit of O)-@ dc. An unregulated input voltage @i

61

INOUT

UNREGULA

TED DC

VOLTAGE


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is filtered by capacitor $) and connected to the /$2s /< terminal. The /$2s 1=T

terminal provides a regulated O )-@ which is filtered by capacitor $- Bmostly for

any high!frequency noiseC. The third /$ terminal is connected to ground B&


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TABLE 2 P!0#t#/e V!4ta-e Re-u4at!0 #$ , 0e#e0

IC

Pat

Out:ut V!4ta-e ;V< M#$#*u* V# ;V<

98,+ O+ 9.6

98,: O: 8.6

98,8

O8 ),.+

98),

O), )-.+

98)-

O)- )>.:

98)+

O)+ )9.9

98)8

O)8 -).,

&.'.,GUI MODULES

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I$t!%ut#!$

The most commonly used $haracter based ($#s are based on HitachiNs H#>>98,

controller or other which are compatible with H#>>+8,. /n this pro7ect document

we will discuss about character based ($#s their interfacing with various

microcontrollers various interfaces B8!bit4>!bitC programming special stuff and

tric*s you can do with these simple loo*ing ($#s which can give a new loo* to

your application.

TABLE 3

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TABLE &6CHARACTER LCD PINS WITH 2 CONTROLLER

=sually these days single controller ($# modules are used more in the mar*et. o

in the pro7ect document we will discuss more about the single controller ($# the

operation and everything else is same for the double controller too.

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##5A' ! #isplay #ata 5A'

#isplay data 5A' B##5A'C stores display data represented in 8!bit character

codes. /ts extended capacity is 8, 8 bits or 8, characters. The area in display

data 5A' B##5A'C that is not used for display can be used as general data

5A'. o whatever you send on the ##5A' is actually displayed on the ($#.

0or ($#s li*e )x): only ): characters are visible so whatever you write after ):

chars is written in ##5A' but is not visible to the user.

0igures below will show the ##5A' addresses of ) (ine - (ine and > (ine

($#s.

$&51' ! $haracter &enerator 51'


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generator 51' generates + x 8 dot or + x ), dot character patterns from 8!bit

character codes Bsee 0igure + and 0igure : for more detailsC. /t can generate -,8 +

x 8 dot character patterns and 6- + x ), dot character patterns. =ser defined

character patterns are also available by mas*!programmed 51'.

7#-ue 86 LCD haate0 !%e *a: "! ') %!t0

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As can be seen in both the code maps the character code from ,x,, to ,x,9 is

occupied by the $&5A' characters or the user defined characters. /f user want to

display the fourth custom character then the code to display it is ,x,6 i.e. when

user send ,x,6 code to the ($# ##5A' then the fourth user created charater or

patteren will be displayed on the ($#.

$&5A' $haracter &enerator 5A'

As clear from the name $&5A' area is used to create custom characters in ($#.

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/n the character generator 5A' the user can rewrite character patterns by

program. 0or + x 8 dots eight character patterns can be written and for + x ),

dots four character patterns can be written. (ater in this pro7ect document i will

explain how to use $&5A' area to ma*e custom character and also ma*ing

animations to give nice effects to your application.

"0 ! "usy 0lag

"usy 0lag is an status indicator flag for ($#. When we send a command or data to

the ($# for processing this flag is set Bi.e "0 )C and as soon as the instruction is

executed successfully this flag is cleared B"0 ,C. This is helpful in producing and

exact ammount of delay. for the ($# processing.

To read "usy 0lag the condition 5 , and 54W ) must be met and The '"

of the ($# data bus B#9C act as busy flag. When "0 ) means ($# is busy and

will not accept next command or data and "0 , means ($# is ready for the next

command or data to process.

/nstruction 5egister B/5C and #ata 5egister B#5C

There are two 8!bit registers in H#>>98, controller /nstruction and #ata register.

/nstruction register corresponds to the register where you send commands to ($#

e.g ($# shift command ($# clear ($# address etc. and #ata register is used for

storing data which is to be displayed on ($#. when send the enable signal of the

($# is asserted the data on the pins is latched in to the data register and data isthen moved automatically to the ##5A' and hence is displayed on the ($#.

#ata 5egister is not only used for sending data to ##5A' but also for $&5A'

the address where you want to send the data is decided by the instruction you send

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to ($#. We will discuss more on ($# instuction set further in this pro7ect

document.

$ommands and /nstruction set

1nly the instruction register B/5C and the data register B#5C of the ($# can be

controlled by the '$=. "efore starting the internal operation of the ($# control

information is temporarily stored into these registers to allow interfacing with

various '$=s which operate at different speeds or various peripheral control

devices. The internal operation of the ($# is determined by signals sent from the

'$=. These signals which include register selection signal B5C read4write signal

B54WC and the data bus B#", to #"9C ma*e up the ($# instructions BTable 6C.

There are four categories of instructions that%

• #esignate ($# functions such as display format data length etc.

• et internal 5A' addresses

• Derform data transfer with internal 5A'

• Derform miscellaneous functions

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TABLE '6 C!**a$% a$% I$0tut#!$ 0et "! LCD t:e HD&&,

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The programming platform used for the pro7ect design specific

functions are 'D(A" and /$D51&. 0or the purpose of system based interfacing

hyperterminal or telnet may be used.

UincludeVpic.h

Uinclude Vmath.h

void mcuXinitBC3

void lcdXinitBC3

void commandBcharC3

void writeBcharC3

void lcdXdisBconst unsigned char Ywordunsigned int nC3

void delBC3

void delayBunsigned int delC3

void forwardBC3

44void reverseBC3

44void rightBC3

44void leftBC3

44void stopBC3

void mobXinitBC3

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void serXinitBC3

void serXoutBunsigned charC3

void serXdisBconst unsigned charYdaunsigned char noC3

unsigned char vZ-+[b3

unsigned int s)3

unsigned char dactimei7x*3

bit a3

adcBchar datC3

unsigned char mvadcXsadcXtch3

unsigned int temp3

unsigned char aa3

void msgXrxBC3

void msgXsendBC3

void forwardBC3

44void reverseBC3

44void rightBC3

44void leftBC3

44void stopBC3

static bit rigXrev \BBunsignedC ]D15T#Y8O,C3

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delBC3delBC3delBC3

mcuXinitBC3

serXinitBC3

mobXinitBC3

delBC3

commandB,x,)C344clear display

44 commandB,x8,C3

44 lcdXdisBPTemp%,,, P):C3

44 44 stopBC3

4Y

stopBC3

delBC3delBC3delBC3

forwardBC3

delBC3delBC3delBC3

reverseBC3

delBC3delBC3delBC3

rightBC3

delBC3delBC3delBC3

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leftBC3

delBC3delBC3delBC3

stopBC3

Y4

whileB)C

^

s)OO3

adcXsadcB,x8)C3

adcXtadcB,x8;C3

44adcXtadcB,x8;C3

commandB,x8+C3

writeBadcXs4),,O,x6,C3

writeBadcXs?),,4),O,x6,C3

writeBadcXs?),O,x6,C3

commandB,xc+C3

writeBadcXt4),,O,x6,C3

writeBadcXt?),,4),O,x6,C3

writeBadcXt?),O,x6,C3

44 ifBs)),,,C

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44^

44commandB,x8,C3

44 lcdXdisBP' 5E$E/@/


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adcBchar datC

^

temp,3

forBaa,3aaV:3aaOOC

^

A#$13

temptempOmv3

_

44 mvtemp4:3

returnBmvC3

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_

void mcuXinitBC

^

T5/A,003

T5/",,,3

T5/#,,,3

T5/E,,,3

A#$1


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44 serXoutBNANC3serXoutBNTNC3serXoutB,x,dC3

44 delBC3


44 delBC3


44 delBC3

44 serXdisBPATO$D'P8C3

44 serXoutBNPNC3

44 serXoutBNNC3

44 serXoutBN'NC3

44 serXoutBNPNC3

44 serXoutB,x,dC3

44 delBC3

serXdisBPATO$'&0)P;C3

serXoutB,x,dC3

delBC3 delBC3

_

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4Yvoid msgXrxBC

^

i7)3$5E< )3

serXdisBPATO$'&5)P;C3

serXoutB,x,dC3

delBC3delBC3

$5E< ,3

ifBi-+C

^

ifBvZ>[N0NC forwardBC3

44 else ifBvZ>[N"NC reverseBC3

44 else ifBvZ>[N(NC leftBC3

44 else ifBvZ>[N5NC rightBC3

44 else ifBvZ>[NNC stopBC3

44 else 3

serXdisBPATO$')P;C3

serXoutB,x,dC3

delBC3

_

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_ Y4

void msgXsendBC

^

serXdisBPATO$'&P8C3

serXoutBNPNC3

serXdisBP;:999>,>)-P),C3

serXoutBNPNC3

serXoutB,x,dC3

delBC3delBC3

serXdisBP@1(T%P+C3

serXoutBadcXs4),,O,x6,C3

serXoutBadcXs?),,4),O,x6,C3

serXoutBadcXs?),O,x6,C3

serXdisBP$=55E


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serXoutBadcXt?),O,x6,C3

serXoutB,x)aC3

delBC3 delBC3 delBC3

_

4Yvoid interrupt functBvoidC

^

ifB5$/0)C 44 ch* the rx flag

^

5$/0,3

x5$5E&3

ifBi-+C

^

vZ7[5$5E&3

7OO3

_

else iOO3

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_

_Y4

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void serXinitBC

^

D"5& )-;3 44 for ;:,, baud rate >'Hz crystal

"5&H )3 44 baud rate high

R


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T5E& ss3

whileB`T/0C3

T/0 ,3

delayB),,,C3

_

void serXdisBconst unsigned charYdaunsigned char noC

^

unsigned char ss3

forBss,3ssVno3ssOOC serXoutBdaZss[C3

_

void forwardBC

^

commandB,xc,C3

lcdXdisBP 015WA5# P):C3

lefXfor)3 44on

lefXrev,3

delayB-,C3

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rigXfor)3

rigXrev,3

_

4Yvoid reverseBC

^

commandB,xc,C3

lcdXdisBP 5E@E5E P):C3

lefXfor,3

lefXrev)3

rigXfor,3

delayB-,C3

rigXrev)3

_Y4

4Yvoid rightBC

^

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commandB,xc,C3

lcdXdisBP 5/&HT P):C3

lefXfor)3

lefXrev,3

rigXfor,3 44right

delayB-,C3

rigXrev)3

delayB++,,,C3

stopBC3

_

void leftBC

^

commandB,xc,C3

lcdXdisBP (E0T P):C3

lefXrev)3

lefXfor,3

delayB-,C3

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rigXfor)3 44left

rigXrev,3

delayB++,,,C3

stopBC3

_

void stopBC

^

commandB,xc,C3

lcdXdisBP T1D P):C3

lefXfor,3

lefXrev,3 44 T1D

rigXfor,3

rigXrev,3

_Y4

void delayBunsigned int delC

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^

whileBdel!!C3

_

void lcdXinitBC

^

T5/",,,3

T5/E,,,3

commandB,x68C3

commandB,x,:C3

commandB,x,$C3

commandB,x,)C3 44 lcd clr

_

void commandBchar sC

^

D15T"s3

D15TE,x,>3 44 ,,,, ,),,

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' . ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

'.1 ADVANTAGES

D51@/#E /


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'.2 DISADVANTAGES

(ADT1D4RTE' $A


97/106


98/106

:. &eoffrey "lewitt #epartment of &eomatics =niversity of


99/106

99


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APPENDI>51

COST ANALYSIS

COST ANALYSIS

O/ea44 P!et C!0t6 5s.:,,,,4!

S!"t+ae C!0t6

).'D(A" % 5s.),,,,

-./$D51&% 5s.8,,,

Ha%+ae Re?u#e*e$t0 C!0t6

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102/106

APPENDI>52

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PHOTOS

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Hybrid Power Full Seminar Report

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