Contentshunting instinct present in both tigers and lions suffers the effects of irritation and trauma from human presence. Being a zoo-cum-national park, human presence is unavoidable.

Contents

TIGERPAPER Hunting Instincts of Big Cats & Possibilities of Reintroduction Back in the Wild.................................................................... 1 Wildlife Diversity in Lal Suhanara National Park, Pakistan............. 4 Conservation Project at Phra Thong and Kho Khao Islands, Southwest Thailand............................................................... 11 Deer (Cervidae:Artiodactyla:Mammalia) Wildilife Potential With Future Expectations....................................................... 13 Community-Based Conservation Approach Around Nameri National Park, Assam, India.................................................... 16 Feeding Ecology and Factors Influencing the Range of the Dusky Toque Monkey, Udawattakelle Sanctuary, Sri Lanka……. 20 Monitor Lizard in Baluchistan, Pakistan....................................... 28 Population Status and Conservation of Chital in Kalakkad- Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve................................................... 30 Tiger Gives Birth to Four Cubs in Hanoi Zo o............................... 32 FOREST NEWS

Confronting Invaders: APFC Takes on Forest Invasive Species….. 1 XII World Forestry Congress Calls for Harmonizing Needs Of People and Planet............................................................... 3 20th Session of Asia -Pacific Forestry Commission Pegged to Convene in Fiji............................................ ............................4 Putting Heads Together in the South Pacific................................ 5 Toward the Establishment of a Regional Model Forest Center/ Network for Asia-Pacific....................................................... 6 Managing Forests to Alleviate Poverty – Exploring the Options….. 7 RAPO Staff Movements............................................................ 10 Asia-Pacific Forestry Chips and Clips......................................... 11 New RAP Forestry Publications................................................ 13 FAO Asia-Pacific Forestry Calendar.......................................... 16

Tigerpaper Vol.30:No.3 Jul.-Sept.2003 1

HUNTING INSTINCT OF CAPTIVE BIG CATS &POSSIBILITIES OF REINTRODUCTION BACK IN THEWILD WITH REFERENCE TO CAPTIVE CATS OF VAN

VIHAR NATIONAL PARK, BHOPAL (M. P.), INDIA.

by Chandra Shekhar Dubey

Introduction

Van Vihar National Park is a zoo-cum-nationalpark situated in the heart of Bhopal town, thecapital of Madhya Pradesh. Established as zooin 1980 and upgraded to a national park in 1983,it has an area of 445 ha. Earlier this was a gamearea or “shikargah” of the Nawab of Bhopal.After Independence, the area was barren andsome areas were under cultivation. The firsttiger, named Cheeku, was brought in fromBandhavgarh National Park on April 1982. Thepark also contains lions, leopards, bears, hyenas,nilgai, chital, sambar, blackbuck, four-hornedantelope, chinkara and wild boar. One wildlifeveterinarian is posted at Van Vihar to check andmonitor the health and clinical condition ofanimals.

The daily diet prescribed by the veterinarian isgiven to every caged animal (i.e. tiger, lion,leopard, bear and hyena). The diet is based onage, sex and the physical and clinical conditionof the animal. The daily diet of a tiger rangesfrom 6 to 12 kg of buffalo meat; lions receive 6to 11 kg. Routine physical and pathologicalcheckups are performed.

All captive cats are allotted a house with anattached kraal and share a common enclosure.Every kraal has the minimum facilities neededto fulfil daily normal activities. The largerenclosures are mainly exhibit enclosures and arelarge enough for the animals to hunt and chasetheir prey. Two big enclosures are have an areaof more than five ha. These are where all thehunting instances described below wererecorded. Prey is not introduced into the smallerenclosures or kraals in order to avoid clashes orinjuries due to the lack of space. Reintroductionback into the wild is the basic objective of the

Central Zoo Authority (CZA) to keep populationup to a optimum level and to help the survival ofendangered cat species in the wild.

Without a doubt, the tigers and Asiatic lions areendangered and the zoo can make a realcontribution to the survival of the species (vanBemmel, 1975).

Methodology

Information was obtained through directobservation and the keeping of records for eachanimal over a long period. The activities andbehavior of all cats were directly monitored andrecorded for two and a half years.

The daily activities of all caged animals arerecorded in a daily register. Whenever thekeeper finds any abnormal activities, he informsthe concerned officer and the veterinarian. Allactivities are recorded in the record register.Feeding is one of the part of daily activities.Changes in the behavior of animals attract theattention of everyone concerned. The dataincludes the pattern of hunting and the prey, dateand time of kill.

Results

Records have been kept of the hunting behaviorof tigers and lions in the park. Ungulates presentin the tiger and lion exhibit enclosures werefound to have been hunted. Hunting episodeswere observed from outside the enclosures. Themost common daily activities among most of thecats were the chasing of prey, tree barkscratching, spraying for marking territories androaring. Human interaction was found to be high

Tigerpaper Vol.30:No.3 Jul.-Sept.20032

in the exhibit enclosure and moderate in thehouses and kraals. When tourist numbers arehigh, a noisy scene is common at the exhibitenclosures. At the houses and kraals, the mostfrequent visitors are only keepers, veterinarian,field staff and park officials.

Daily observations indicate that the naturalhunting instinct present in both tigers and lionssuffers the effects of irritation and trauma fromhuman presence. Being a zoo-cum-nationalpark, human presence is unavoidable. Thenational park provides a nearly natural habitat,other than the human presence and the restrictedmovements of the cats.

Status of hunting tigers of Van Vihar

% Malti: tigress born in Van Vihar NationalPark on 22nd March 1987; has given birth totwo cubs named Sultan and Salma.

% Salma: tigress born in Van Vihar NationalPark on 25th May 1993.

% Sultan: tiger born in Van Vihar NationalPark on 17th September 1992.

% Naresh: tiger brought from MadhavNational Park (Shivapuri) from the wild on9th August 1998.

% Sita: tigress brought from Jagadalpur forestout of wild status on 12th June 1994.

% Rini (White): white tigress brought fromNandankanan Zoo, Orissa on 2nd February1995.

Out of six animals, only two, one male and onefemale, were brought from wild and rest arezoo-born cats.

Status of hunting lions of Van Vihar

% Rani: lioness brought from Junagarh Zoo toVan Vihar NP on 28th September 1986.Born in Junagarh Zoo on 7th September1983.

% Rehana: lioness brought to Van Vihar NPon 12th February 1992 from Indore Zoo.Born on 12th February 1988.

% Inder: lion brought from Indore Zoo alongwith Rehana on same date. Born in IndoreZoo on 12th July 1991.

% Indrani: lioness brought from Indore Zoowith Rehana and Inder on same date. Born

in Indore Zoo on the 12th February 1992 andsister of Inder.

All four lions were zoo-bred animals and theyhave never experienced life in the wild.Symptoms of irritation and trauma werefound tobe higher in cats brought in from the wildcompared to those born in zoos.

Discussion

The presence of the hunting instinct in big wildcats is natural. Generally, among cats the parentstake care of the cubs until they reach the sub-adult age. Parents teach their cubs about hiding,attacking, chasing and hunting skills (Prater,1948). If the parents themselves were born incaptivity and neither had ever learned huntingand always been supplied with food since anearly age, there is a question of whether theyhave the ability to hunt. If hunting is instinctive,then they could be kept in bigger enclosures andleft to live a freer life with no artificial feedingand a minimum of human interaction to take thefirst step towards reintroduction back into thewild. It is predicted that this particulargeneration of zoo-kept animals will not surviveor may become man-eaters or cattle-lifters ifreintroduced back into the wild, possibly due tothe high human interaction and traumaticconditions they have faced so far. Thus, givinga large enclosed space with all basicrequirements to a pair or to one male and twofemales (for tiger), the next generation maybecome more prepared for reintroduction backin the wild. Zoos are necessary for theconservation of species, especially endangeredand threatened ones. But now zoo objectives arerestricted to exhibiting animals in a crowdedshowcase to get gate fees. Zoo authorities intendto keep more and more species whether theyhave adequate space or not. After studying thepedigree books of tigers and lions, no big catshave been reintroduced back into the wildduring the last thirty years (Anon, 2001). Thereare many instances where wild cats have beencaptured from the wild and kept in captivestatus, even though they were not dangerous,and the authorities had enough time toreintroduce them back in the wild like strayedtigers of the Sundarbans (Mukherjee and Tanti,2001). Bureaucracy and/or politics are the main


causes behind capturing these wild cats andkeeping them in captivity.

Conclusion

The greatest possible care should always betaken to preserve the species in a form as near toits wild state as possible and to maintain thosecharacteristics which particularly fit it for life inthe wild (Warland, 1975). Big enclosures give afeeling to these cats of living in a natural habitat,despite the human interference and a dailyroutine life style. The prey base present insidethe enclosure drives these cats to develop theirhunting instincts and skills, supplementing thedaily feed that is available to them. Larger areasand better planning is needed for the breedingand reintroduction back in the wild of these catsin phased manner.

A basic, big enclosed area is a necessity forkeeping at least three to five cats (dependingupon the species – in the case of tiger it shouldbe three to five and for lion it should be twopacks of four to five animals per pack) with asufficient prey base, i.e. 350 to 450 ungulatesper cat. Other than the area, basic facilitiesshould be made available like water, hides,grasses, forage, etc. for both prey and predators.Supplementary feed could be supplied until allcats become self-sufficient in hunting andcatching their own food. Only closed vehiclesshould be allowed in the area to avoid humaninterference. Our prediction is that the nextgeneration must be self sufficient before theycan be reintroduced back in the wild.

Conservation, breeding and reintroduction backin the wild should be the basic objectives of allzoos and the CZA, and further study andplanning, is needed. There is no shortage ofbasic areas in the state and country for the abovepurposes. Wildlife tourism could be anotheropportunity, provided these areas developed asbreeding-cum-reintroduction centers have the

least human interference. If we really want tofurther the survival of big cats, we will have totake the right action or we will merely wasteboth and time and efforts (van Bemmel, 1975).

References

Anon. 2001. National Pedigree Book ofBengal Tigers. Central Zoo Authority, NewDelhi.

Chandra. J. and Dubey C. S. 2000.Management plan of Van Vihar NationalPark, Bhopal for 2001-2010. ForestDepartment (Wildlife Wing) of Governmentof Madhya Pradesh.

Mukherjee, S. and Tanti, G. 2001. Capture andrelease of a strayed tiger under theSunderban Tiger Reserve Area.Tigerpaper 28(2):18-20.

Prater, S.H. 1948. The Book of IndianAnimals. Oxford University Press.

Van Bemmel, A. C. V. 1975. Breeding Tigersas an Aid to their Survival. BreedingEndangered Species in Captivity. Ed.Martin, R. D., pp-329-336, Academic Press,London.

Warland, M. A G. 1975. A Cautionary Note onBreeding Endangered Species inCaptivity. Breeding Endangered Species inCaptivity. Ed. Martin, R. D., pp-373-377,Academic Press, London.

Author’s address: Care for the Wild India, A-003 Radha Krishna Apartment, Opp. University,Narayan Nagar, BHOPAL - 462 026, India,Phone ++91 755 787963, 489977, e-mail:[email protected]


WILDLIFE DIVERSITY IN LAL SUHANARA NATIONALPARK, BAHAWALPUR, PAKISTAN

by M. Anwar Maan, Abdul Aleem Chaudhry and Muhammad Sajid Nadeem

Introduction

Lal Suhanara National Park lies in the southernpart of Punjab Province, about 32 km east ofBahawalpur and 2 km south of Lal Suhanararailway station. The park is located between29°12' and 29°28' N and 71°48' and 72°08' E atan altitude of 125-140 m above sea level. Thepark has an area of 515.90 km2 and is flanked bythe desert of Cholistan. The area was declared anational park in 1972. The climate issubtropical, characterized by low and erraticrainfall (90-200 mm per year), temperaturesranging from 50° C during summer to -2° Cduring winter, low relative humidity (60%), highrate of evaporation and strong summer winds.The hottest months are May and June. Winddirection in summer is southeastern and inwinter it is northeastern.

The habitat is sandy, sandy loam with a thicklayer of leaf litter. Due to the sandy nature of thesoil, the decomposition rate of leaf litter is verylow, resulting in the slow addition of organicmatter to the soil. A plantation was raised in thenational park by the forest department.However, patches of natural vegetation existwith exotic plant species. Prosopis cineraria,Ziziphus jujuba, Z. mauritiana, Salvadoraoleoides, Call igonum polygonoides,Cymbopogon jwarancusa, Lasiurus scindicus,Ochthochloa compressa and Tamarix aphyllaare remnants of natural vegetation with theplantation. The species in the forest plantationinclude Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia nilotica,Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Prosopis glandulosa,Saccharum bengalense and Populus sp. Thedense plantation has almost totally eliminatedthe ground flora, perhaps due to poor lightintensity and the previous season’s non-decomposed plant material, forming anunderstory canopy layer.

Within the park, enclosures have been built tohouse ungulates. blackbuck (Antilopecervicapra), nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus)and chinkara (Gazella gazella) have beenhoused for breeding. These three ungulatespecies were dwellers of Cholistan and theirnumbers gradually declined in the naturalhabitat. The former two are now extinct inCholistan. A pair of rhinoceros are also housedin the national park.

A lake (23.65 km2) has been built in the park,forming a wetland area. Fish have beenintroduced into the lake and it is an importantwintering ground for migratory waterfowl.However, eutrophication is a serious problem,decreasing the available water source forwaterfowl.

Lal Suhanara National Park is of immense valuedue to the forest plantation, wildlife enclosures,picnic spots and commercial fishing in thefishpond.

The flora of the park is no doubt welldocumented in the Forest Management Plan;however, studies regarding the fauna of the parkare very limited. Chaudhry et al. (1992) studiedthe avifauna of Changa Manga ForestPlantation. The present study was carried out inMay 1998 and March-April 1999 and the birds,mammals, reptiles, fish and insects weredescribed for the first time in Lal SuhanaraNational Park. It will provide basic data todevelop future management strategies forconservation of biodiversity in the national park.

Materials and methods

To facilitate the study, the plantation wasdivided into four sub-habitats which werethoroughly surveyed: a) canal-side plantation; b)main forest plantation; c) un-commanded area;


d) wetland area.

Wildlife species were recorded by studyingtransects of variable length. In most transects,the length was 3 km, depending on theavailability of track. In patches of plantationwith thick canopy and undergrowth, thevisibility of the transect was reduced comparedto areas with sparse vegetation cover. Hence, thewidth of the transects was fixed according to thevegetation cover. Direct and indirect clues to thepresence of wildlife species were noted asfollows:% Calls - grey and black partridges and song

birds;% Footprints - nilgai, chinkara and predatory

mammals;% Droppings - nilgai, chinkara, jackal,

porcupine and desert hare;% Quills - porcupine;% Urination - desert hare;% Burrows - porcupines and rodents;% Scratches on ground - wild boar.

The identification of avifauna was madefollowing Roberts (1991), Ali and Ripley (1987)and Woodcock (1990). Mammals, reptiles andfish were identified following Roberts (1991)and Mirza (1998). Care was taken that the sunwas always behind the observer so that theplumage patterns of the birds could bedistinguished. 12x50 binoculars were used anddata was recorded on pre-designed data sheets.

Results and discussion

A) Canal-side plantation

The vegetation was a homogenous type. Thickleaf litter covered the forest floor and had a verylow decomposition rate. The thick leaf litterretards the understory growth of herbs andgrasses. These patches of plantations were notvery fertile for wild animals. However, due tothe flow of the irrigation canal the sub-habitatwas important for wildlife species due to theecotone effect. The availability of water wasvital for diurnal as well as nocturnal species. Allungulates avoided the thick canopy plantationsand preferred open areas, concentrating alongthe irrigation canal, water courses andcompartment roads. The maximum number of

bird species (60) were found in this habitat. Thelist of wildlife is given in the annexures.

B) Main forest plantation

This area also had thick leaf litter and littleundergrowth. Wild boar, rodents and birds ofprey preferred such habitat. Canopy-philicwildlife species preferred this type of habitatwhile canopy-scopic species were concentratedalong the sides of the plantation.

C) Un-commanded area

The un-commanded area was represented byuneven sand dunes with natural vegetation,characteristic of Cholistan. It was the favoritehabitat of jackal, fox, desert hare, rodents andreptiles. Birds had little preference for suchhabitat, but it was suitable for some species suchas birds of prey, chats and shrikes.

D) Wetland area

The lake developed in the national park is animportant wetland for migratory waterfowl.Lotus, typha and reeds are important plantspecies of the lake. Internationally importantwaterfowl visit this lake during winter.

Resident bird species are little affected byseasonal changes. Summer and winter visitorsonly appear in plantations during specificseasons. Grey and black francolins are importantgame birds; however, both species are decliningdue to excessive hunting and netting.

Small numbers of nilgai and chinkara haveinvaded the national park from Cholistan.According to Roberts (1991), blackbuck,chinkara and nilgai were once widely distributedin Cholistan, but due to ruthless hunting nilgaiand blackbuck are now extinct and onlychinkara survive in Cholistan, with a smallnumber in the park living in natural conditionsalong with other mammalian species.

Among the birds, the migratory species areoriental in origin (Roberts, 1991). However,waterfowl migrate from Siberia and enterPakistan following the Indus flyway or the greenroute, and return to their breeding grounds after


wintering in Pakistan. Eighty-two terrestrialspecies were observed, out of which 65 wereresident. Chaudhry et al. (1982) reported 63resident bird species in Changa Manga WildlifeSanctuary. This similarity in resident birdspecies indicates a wide range of distributionand adaptability to different sets of ecologicalconditions. In the present study, three species ofterrestrial birds were winter visitors; however,Chaudhry et al. (1992) recorded ten wintervisitor species in Changa Manga.

The wetland in the national park is under threatof siltation and eutrophication. With bettermanagement, it could be developed into apotential wetland for a variety of winteringwaterfowl.

Conclusion

The study suggests that the national park haspotential as a habitat for wildlife species.However, the following steps will be importantfor the conservation of wildlife diversity:C Build public awareness about sustainable

utilization of resources to preserve thebiodiversity.

C Plant fruit plants in patches/groves alongwater courses and compartment roads. Thiswill be an important source of food for avariety of birds.

C Remove excess vegetation from the lake tocontrol eutrophication.

References

Ali, S. and S.D. Ripley. 1987. Handbook of theBirds of India and Pakistan. OxfordUniversity Press, Bombay.

Chaudhry, A.A., Malik, S.A. and G.A. Awan.1992. A survey of avian species of ChangaManga Wildlife Sanctuary. Proc. PakistanCongr. Zool. Vol.12. pp.671-681.

Mirza, Z.B. 1998. Illustrated Hand Book ofAnimal Biodiversity of Pakistan. Center ofEnvironmental Research and Conservation.F-10/3 Islamabad, Pakistan.

Roberts, T.J. 1991. Birds of Pakistan.Vol.I&II. Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Roberts T.J. 1991. Mammals of Pakistan.Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Woodcock, M.W. Collins Hand Guide to the

Birds of the Indian Sub-Continent.William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd., London.

Authors’ addresses: M. Anwar Maan, AssistantGame Warden, Punjab Wildlife Department, 2Sanda Road, Lahore, Pakistan; Abdul AleemChaudhry, Chief Conservator, ForestDepartment, 2-Cooper Road, Lahore, Pakistan;Muhammad Sajid Nadeem, ZoologyDepartment, New Campus, Punjab University,Lahore, Pakistan.


Annex A

List of birds recorded at Lal Suhanara National Park

Order Family Scientific Name English Name Habits Breeding Status

Accipitriformes Accipitridae Elanus caeruleus Black shoulder kite R + CMilvus migrans govinda Pariah or Indian kite R + AHaliastur indus Brahminy kite R + RNeophron percnopterus Common vulture R + CGyps bengalensis White back vulture R + ACircus aeruginosus Marsh harrier W - CButeo rufinus Long-legged buzzard W - CPernis apivorus Honey buzzard R + FButastur teesa White-eyed buzzard R + AAccipiter badius cenchroides Shikra or sparrow hawk R + C

Ciconiformes Ardeidae Egretta garzetta Little egret R + CBubulcus ibis Cattle egret R + CEgretta intermedia Intermediate egret W - CArdea cinerea Grey heron R + CArdea purpurea Purple heron R + CArdeola grayii Pond heron or paddy bird R + CIxobrychus cinnamomeus Chestnut bittern R + F

Anseriformes Anatidae Aythya ferina Common pochard W - AAythya nyroca Ferrugenius duck W - SNetta rufina Red crested pochard W - SAnas crecca Common teal W - AAnas penelope Eurasian wigeon W - AAnas strepera Gadwal W - CAnas platyrhynchos Mallard W - AAnas acuta Pintail W - AAnas clypeata Shoveler W - A

Falconiformes Falconidae Falco tinnunculus Common kestrel W - CGalliformes Phasianidae Francolinus francolinus Black partridge R + F

Francolinus pondicerianus Grey partridge R + CGruiformes Rallidae Gallinula chloropus Water hen or Moorhen R + A

Amaurornis phoenicurus White breasted water hen R + FPorphyrio porphyrio Purple gallinule R + C

Turnicidae Fulica atra Coot W - ACharadriiformes Charadriidae Hoplopterus indicus Red-wattled lapwing R + A

Recurvirostridae Himantopus himantopus Black winged stilt R - AColulmbiformes Collumbidae Streptopelia decaocto Ringed or collared dove R + A

Streptopelia tranquebarica Red turtle dove SM + AColumba livia Blue rock pigeon R + A

Pteroclidiformes Pteroclididae Pterocles exustus Common sandgrouse R + C-APterocles orientalis Imperial sandgrouse W - C

Apodiformes Apodidae Apus affinis House swift SM - ACoraciiformes Alcedinidae Halcyon smyrnensis White breadted kingfisher R + C

Ceryle rudis Pied kingfisher R + CCoraciidae Coracias benghalensis Indian roller or blue jay R + CMeropidae Merops orientalis Little green bee-eater SM + A

Merops apiaster European bee-eater SM - CUpupidae Upupa epops Hoopie W - C

Cuculiformes Cuculidae Eudynamys scolopacea Common koel SM - CClamator jacobinus Pied crested cuckoo SM - CCuculus varius Common hawk cuckoo SM - CCentropus sinensis Pheasant crow R + C

Pelecaniformes Phalacrocoracidae Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis Cormorant W - APodicipediformes Podicipedidae Tachybaptus ruficollis Little grebe R + CPsittaciformes Psittacidae Psittacula krameri Rose-ringed parakeet R + AStrigiformes Strigidae Athene brama Spotted owlet R + C

Asio otus Long-eared owl W - SPiciformes Capitonidae Megalaima haemacephala Copper smith R + C


Picidae Dinopium benghalense Golden back woodpecker R - CPicoides mahrattensis Mahratta woodpecker R + F

Scolopacidae Calidridinae Calidris minuta Little stint W - AGallinagininae Gallinago gallinago Common or fantail snip W - C

Passeriformes Alaudidae Galerida cristata Crested lark R + AAlauda gulgula Small sky lark R + AAmmomanes deserti Desert lark R + C

Corvidae Corvus splendens House crow R + A+

Dendrocitta vagabunda Indian tree pie R + CDicruridae Dicrurus macrocerus Black drongo R + ACampephagidae Pericrocotus cinnamomeus Small minivit R + CEstrildidae Estrilda amandava Red munia R + F

Lonchura punctulata Spotted munia R + FHirudinidae Riparia riparia Collared sand martin W - C

Hirundo rustica Common swallow R + AHirundo smithii Wire tail swallow R + C

Laniidae Lanius excubitor Great gray shrike SM + CLanius schach Ruffous back shrike W - F

Motacillidae Motacilla flava Yellow wagtail W - UMotacilla alba dukhunensis White wagtail W - AMotacilla maderas patensis Large pied wagtail W - U

Monorchidae Terpsiphone paradisi Paradise flycatcher R + CNectariniidae Nectarinia asiatica Purple sunbird R + CPasseridae Passer domesticus Common sparrow R + A+

Ploceidae Ploceus philippinus Indian baya R + APloceus manyar Streaked weaver R + A

Pycnonotidae Pycnonotus lecogenys White cheeked bulbul R + APycnonotus cafer Red vented bulbul R + A

Rhipiduridae Rhipidura aureola White browed fantail R + CRhipidura albicollis White throated fantail R + S

Sturnidae Acridotheres tristis Common myna R + A+

Acridotheres ginginianus Bank myna R + ASylviidae Acrocephalus stentoreus Great reed warbler W - C

Acrocephalus scirpaceus Reed warbler W - RSylvia nana Desert warbler W - CPhylloscopus nitidus Green warbler R + FCisticola juncidis Fantailed warbler R + CSylvia borin Garden warbler R + C

Timaliidae Turdoides caudatus Common babbler R + ATurdoides striatus Jungle babbler R + A

Turdinae Saxicola caprata Pied stone-chat/bush chat R + ACopsychus saularis Magpie robin R + SSaxicoloides fulicata Indian robin R + CPhoenicurus phoenicurus White fronted redstart PM - RPhoenicurus ochruros Black or Indian redstart W - C

Note: For all bird species, status as given in Roberts, T.J. 1991 & 1992. The birds of Pakistan Vol.1 Vol.2, Oxford UniversityPress, Karachi.

Habit: R=resident, W=wintering, SM=summer migrant, PM=passage migrantBreeding: +=breeds in the area, -= does not breed in the areaStatus: A=abundant, A+=very abundant, F=frequent, C=common, U=uncertain, S=scarce, SR=scarce, becoming rare, R=rare,F-C=frequent to common, C-A=common to abundant


Annex B

List of mammals recorded in Lal Suhanara National Park


Artodactyla Bovidae Boselaphus tragocamelus Blue bull or nilgai R + SAntilope cervicapra Blackbuck R + S2

Gazella bennettii Chinkara R + SSuidae Sus scrofa cristatus Wild boar R + C

Carnivora Canidae Canis aureus Jackal R + SCanis lupus Wolf R + SVulpus vulpus Desert fox R + A

Felidae Felis chaus Jungle cat R + CFelis caracal Caracal R + S

Viverridae Herpestes auropunctatus Small Indian mongoose R + SHerpestes edwardsi Large Indian mongoose R + CViverricula indica Small Indian civet R + U

Chiroptera Pteropidae Pteropus giganteus Indian fruit bat R + SInsectivora Erinaceidae Hemiechinus auritus Hedgehog R + ULagomorpha Leporidae Lepus nigricollis Desert hare R + FRodentia Hystricida Hystrix indica Indian porcupine R + S

Sciuridae Funambulus pennanti Indian palm squirrel R + UCricetidae Tatera indica Indian gerbil R + CMuridae Mus musculus Field mouse R + U

Nesokia indica Indian mole rat R + U

Note:Habit: R=residentBreeding: +=breeds in the area, -=does not breed in the areaStatus: A=abundant, F=frequent, C=common, U=uncertain, S=scarce, S+=very scarce, R=rare

Annex C

List of reptiles recorded in Lal Suhanara National Park


Squamata Agamidae Uromastyx hardwicki Uromastrix lizard R + UElapidae Bungarus caeruleus Krait R + U

Naja naja Cobra R + UGekkonidae Hemidactylus brooki Sand lizard R + U

Calotes versicolour Garden lizard R + UVaranidae Varanus bengalensis Monitor lizard R + UViperidae Vipera russelli Russell’s viper R + U

Note:R=resident, +=breeds in the area, U=uncertain


Annex D

List of fish found in lake of Lal Suhanara National Park

Serial Scientific Name Common Name

01 Notopterus notopterus But pri02 Notopterus chitala Chital pri03 Labeo gonius Seriah04 Labeo nigripinnis Dhambro05 Catla catla Thalla06 Cirrhinus mrigala Mori07 Puntius chola Cola popra08 Cyprinus caprio Gulfam09 Aorichthys aor Singhari10 Mystus cavasius Tingara11 Wallago attu Malli12 Eutropiichthys vacha Jhali13 Xenetodon cancila Kawan14 Channa marulivs Soul15 Channa punctata Doula16 Channa gerchua Tillapia18 Monopterus cuchia Kochia19 Mastacembelus armatus Bam20 Puntius punjabensis Piniali popra

Annex E

List of insects found in Lal Suhanara National Park

Family Species English Name

Tenebrionidae Adesmia aenescens ?Arthrodosis sp. ?Pimelia inexpectata ?Pimelia indica ?Blaps mucronata Darkling beetleTrachyderma sp. ?Unidentified beetle Ground beetle

Formicidae Formica rufa Desert antScarabaeidae Scarabaeus cateratus Dung rollerTetrigidae Tetrix subulata Ground hopper


CONSERVATION PROJECT AT PHRA THONG AND KHO KHAO ISLANDS, SOUTHWEST THAILAND

by Monica Aureggi, Supot Chantrapornsyl and Lucy Young

Introduction

In 1996, a conservation project was launchedalong the Andaman Sea coast of Thailand.Initially it was based only at Phra Thong island,but in 2001 an additional site was established atKho Khao island. Both islands are located inPhang Nga province. The project is run by aninternational research team, coordinated byNaucrates, an Italian NGO, and the PhuketMarine Biological Center.

The main purpose of the project is to protect seaturtles, mangroves and reefs, and to investigateother topics related to the local wildlife in orderto formulate a conservation management planfor the area. At Phra Thong island, where theproject work is currently in its seventh season,investigations have been carried out on litoralvegetation, reptiles, tourism impact assessmentand mangrove forest. The work at Kho Khaoisland follows the same strategy to focus onthree main aspects such as conservation workbased on scientific research, building awarenessfor tourists and developing an educationalprogram for the local community. The KhoKhao site has completed the second surveyseason and in addition to the turtle monitoringprogram, a tourism impact assessment and apreliminary evaluation of the status of the reefwas conducted.

Project location

Phra Thong island is one of three relatively largeislands located just off the coast of Phang Ngaprovince on the southwest coast of Thailand.Mangroves cover the eastern shore of the island,whereas fine sand beaches (15 km) are foundon the western side. Three fishing

villages and two small tourist resorts are located

on the island.

Kho Khao island is located south of Phra Thongisland and close to the mainland. Sandy beachesare found on the western side of the island whilemangrove canals are found on the eastern side.There are two main fishing villages. Shrimpfarming is developed on the eastern part of theisland. Although the island was the site ofintense tin mining activities in the past, there arestill some natural habitats left. Tourismdevelopment had been limited to two resorts butis now spreading along the western coast,threatening the adjacent ecosystems. Forest,mangroves, beach forest and coral reefs are stillpresent on the island.

Conservation project activities and results

The total length of the beach was monitoredduring daily walks by at least three peopleduring each nesting season (from December toApril) on both islands. Eggs were carefullyrelocated to near the project base in order toprovide them protection. Daily checks wereconducted until they hatched.

When the project started, three nesting specieswere identified: olive ridley (Lepidochelysolivacea), leatherback turtle (Dermochelyscoriacea) and green turtle (Chelonia mydas).The number of nests recorded ranged from 4 to13 at Phra Thong and one olive ridley nest wasrecorded at Kho Khao in 2003.

The nesting season for the olive ridley andleatherback turtles runs from October toFebruary, with some rare olive ridley nestingactivity in September and March. The greenturtles nest from March to July.


Table 1: Nests found per season at Phra Thong Island

Species Season

1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03

OR 6 3 8 7 4 4 2

LT 9 5 3

GT 5 3 31

Total No.of nests

11 12 13 10 7 4 5

Note: OR=Olive Ridley; LT=Leatherback; GT=Green Turtle; 1tracks not confirmed to be nests.

Five species of marine turtles have beenrecorded in Thailand: olive ridley andleatherback turtles occur along the southwestcoast, on Surin and Similan islands, and in theAndaman Sea. Green turtles and hawksbillturtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) are thought tobe common in the Gulf of Thailand and areoccasionally found nesting along the southwestcoast (Chantrapornsyl, 1997). [Ed. note:According to Dr. Robert Mather, CountryRepresentative, WWF-Thailand, there have beenno records of the fifth species, loggerheadturtle, in the last 15-20 years.]

Phra Thong island, together with the twoadjacent islands (Ra and Kho Khao) areconsidered as one of the main marine turtlenesting grounds on the southwest coast ofThailand (Chantrapornsyl, 1992). However, dataconcerning Phra Thong island showed an 82%reduction in olive ridley nests from 1979 to2003, mainly due to the massive egg collectioncarried out during the previous 20 years(Aureggi and Chantrapornsyl, in press). Theseresults could indicate the beginning of thespecies’ extinction in the area (Aureggi andChantrapornsyl, in press).

The conservation project has helped reduce theamount of egg poaching (Aureggi et al., inpress), protect the nests, safely release more than2,000 hatchlings into the sea, and rescue animalsincidentally caught in fishing nets (Aureggi andChantrapornsyl, in press).

The project also has an information display area

where visitors can learn about sea turtles,conservation activities and other wildlife on theisland. This includes slide shows, talks anddemonstrations. An education program isconducted each season with a lesson at schoolevery month concerning different conservationtopics related to the area.

Although the conservation project activelyworks toward conserving the biodiversity of theisland, human activities are still threatening thesurvival of the sea turtle population in the area.Fishing activities and tourism developmentremain the main threats on both islands.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank CaroleBeauclerk for her volunteer work incoordinating the educational program and to allthe volunteers who took part in the project. Aspecial thanks to Loredana Follador for herlogistical support and to the local community fortheir participation and help.

References

Aureggi, M. and S. Chantrapornsyl (in press). Isa long term educational programeffective to prevent extinction?Proceedings of the SEASTAR2000 3rd

Workshop, Bangkok 16-19 December 2002.

Aureggi, M. Gerosa, G. and S. Chantrapornsyl(in press). Elimination of egg poaching


activity at Phra Thong island,Thailand. First Italian Meetingon Sea Turtle Biology andConservation. Policoro, Italy.

Chantrapornsyl, S. 1992. Biology andConservation of Olive Ridley Turtles(Lepidochelys olivacea) in the AndamanSea, Southern Thailand. Phuket MarineBiological Center Research Bulletin 57:51-66.

Chantrapornsyl, S. 1997. Status of MarineTurtles in Thailand. Unpublished

manuscript. 9pp.

Mather, Robert. Marine Turtle Conservationin Thailand. Tourism Authority ofThailand website.

http://newsroom.tat.or.th/others/1924.asp

Authors’ addresses: Monica Aureggi and LucyYoung, c/o Naucrates, Onlus, Via Corbetta, 11 -22063 Cantu’ (CO), Italy, e-mail:n a u c r a t e s 1 2 @ t i s c a l i n e t . i t ; S u p o tChantrapornsyl, Phuket Marine BiologicalCenter, P.O. Box 60, Phuket 83000, Thailand.

DEER (CERVIDAE:ARTIODACTYLA:MAMMALIA)WILDLIFE POTENTIAL WITH FUTURE EXPECTATIONS

by Freddy PattiselannoIntroduction

The wildlife living in tropical forests are animportant resource that is hunted for food, sale,and for social and cultural reasons by localcommunities living in and around the forests.Wildlife provides significant calories for ruralcommunities as well as essential protein and fats(Bennet et al., 2000); Townsend, 2000).According to Redford (1993), wild game is animportant source of protein for rural people andits sale is an important source of cash. Shaw(1991 cited by Robinson and Bodmer, 1999)indicated that most hunting is for subsistence orfor commerce.

As Bigalke (1973) summarized from severalliteratures, in modern times, aside fromungulates (peccary, moose, caribou and bison),deer (white-tailed deer, mule deer and elk (orwapiti)) has played an important role in wildlifeutilization farms, focusing on game utilization inNorth America. Other literature cited that deer isone of the wildlife species hunted by manbecause of its economic value in both marketand subsistence (Bodmer, 1994; Cullen Jr. et al.,

2000). In West Papua, together with wild pig,deer is one of the target animals widely huntedthroughout the area (Pattiselanno, 2002).

In an effort to domesticate some wildlife asfarmed animals, rearing in captivity currentlytends to be gaining attention. Deer is one of thefarmed animals that is being developed in a widerange of climatic and vegetative regions. Thedomestication of deer has presented uniqueopportunities and challenges to pastoral farmers.

Under Indonesian government policy(Department of Agriculture Act No. 362/Kpts/TN.120/5/1990), deer are classified as wildlifethat can be reared as farm animals. Deer farmingis now considered as a source of incomegeneration for the country.

In some western countries (e.g. New Zealand,Australia and several countries in Europe) deerproduction systems are well developed and deerare currently farmed as self-replacing herds,under either intensive or finishing units (Sinclair


and Woodford, 2000). The basic reason for thesignificant increase in deer exploitation aroundthe world is to supply food for people. In wildconditions deer are conventionally hunted for itsmeat as a source of protein and for the antlers,which are fashioned into decorative ornaments.

The following report will explore the utilizationof deer, based on a review of literature on theutilization aspect of deer as wildlife and themanagement approach related to sustainablemanagement. This paper will aim to explain thecontrasting utilization aspects of deer in terms ofhunting and deer farming development.

Utilization of deer

Traditionally, the exploitation of deer is afamiliar wildlife hunting activity. As targetanimals, deer is commonly utilized as a sourceof animal protein for human diets. Furthermore,in some countries where hunting is recognizedas a sport activity, deer as a game species hasmore advantages, not only for recreationalpurposes, but also for the prestige gained by thehunter.

It is also important to note that deer hide is verypopular for making hand-made accessories (e.g.wallets, bags, jackets and shoes) because of thehigher quality compared to other animals. Deerantler is also now being commercialized forhousehold use, specifically as traditionaldecorations. Typically, the more branches on theantler, the more desirable the product, whichmultiplies the price.

Presently, the need for deer meat is rapidlyincreasing for the following reasons. Accordingto Woodford and Dunning (1992) the dressingpercentage of Rusa deer is 51-64%. In terms ofnutrients, deer meat (venison) has more protein,phosphor and niacin compared to beef and lamb.For health reasons, we may be better offconsidering deer meat due to its low cholesterolcontent compared to beef, lamb and pork(Subekti, 1995). Rusa carcasses yield more leanmeat than cattle and typically have little fat(about 5.2-9.6%) (Sookhareea et al., 1995 citedby Dryden, 2000).

According to Haigh and Hudson (1993) cited by

Subekti (1995), since up to now we have mainlydepended on cow’s milk, it is exciting to lookfor other sources. For example, the nutrientcontent of deer’s milk is higher in protein(12.7%) compared to cow’s milk (3.4%),sheep’s milk (5.5%) and goat’s milk (4.5%).

Modern research is increasingly recognizing thetherapeutic benefits of deer velvet. Deer velvetcontains prostaglandin, important cell functionregulators that play a key role in the body’sresponse to injury, inflammation, infection andpain.

On the basis of some of the examples statedabove, tropical and sub-tropical deer productionsystems have been developed in a wide range ofclimatic and vegetative regions. Commercialdeer farms based on extensive and intensivesystems are rapidly attaining the status of amainstream animal industry across Europe,Asia, North America and Australia (Asher,2000).

Description of farmed deer

IUCN (1998) stated that deer belong to theanimal group classified under the Order:Artiodactyla, Family:Cervidae. According toFletcher (1998) cited by Asher (2000), Red deer(Cervus elephus), represented by subspeciesdistributed naturally across Europe, Asia andNorth America, is one of the newest ruminantdomesticants in pastoral farming. The temperateorigin species Fallow (Dama dama) is alsobeing farmed (Sinclair and Woodford, 2000).

Two tropically adapted species, i.e. Rusa(Cervus timorensis) and Chital (Axis axis) arebeing farmed in tropical and sub-tropical regionsof Australia. The two most important sub-species from a farming perspective are JavanRusa (Cervus timorensis rusa) and MollucanRusa (Cervus timorensis mollucensis). JavanRusa are widely farmed in Australia, NewCaledonia and Mauritius, with lesser numbersfarmed in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and thePhilippines. There are also herds of Rusa invarious parts of Malaysia and the Philippinesthat have been established from Australian-bredanimal combinations between Javan andMollucan parentage (Dryden, 2000).


Advantages of deer farming

Basically, the potency of deer as farmed animalsbenefits farmers in terms of production: venison,velvet antler and by-products (Dryden, 2000).The development of deer farming in NewZealand has come a long way in 25 years andaccording to Asher (2000), there are presently 2million deer farmed across 4,500 properties,generating an annual revenue of $NZ240 millionfrom the export of venison and velvet antlerproducts.

In Western Australia, since 1979 deer farminghas been a growing livestock industry and by1990 there were 74 registered properties runningto 7,800 deer (Kelly, 1998). Recent survey dataindicates an industry of some 20,000 head fromapproximately 100 farmers in Queensland(Sinclair and Rickert, 2000), which wouldderive around 60% of gross income fromvenison, with velvet and live animal salescontributing 35% and 5% respectively.

Aside from commercial purposes, in terms ofconservation, the development of deer farmingis one of several strategies that are now beingconsidered for implementation as reservoirs ofgenetic variation in order to protect the geneticresources. (Pamberton and Smith, 1991). Inaddition, deer farming could also be developedunder extensive systems where deer are heldbehind wire but involving minimal husbandry,such as in Mauritius (Dryden, 2000). We cantherefore utilize the availability of tropicalpasture with native grass in relation to themanagement strategies offered.

Conclusions

The utilization of deer as a farmed animal is ofcurrent importance due to the commercial value(i.e. venison as an animal protein source forhuman diets; velvet antler as a medicinalproduct; by-products such as the hide) and forthe conservation issue (as a reservoir of geneticvariation).

References

Asher, G. 2000. Genetic improvement and

reproductive control of farmed Red Deerand Wapiti (Cervus elephus). Asian-Aus J.Anim. Sci. 13, Supplement July 2000C: 54-61.

Bigalke, R.C. 1973. Technological problemsassociated with the utilization ofterrestrial wild animals. In: R.L. Reid(Ed.) Proceedings of the 3rd WorldConference on Animal Production,Melbourne, Australia. pp.36-46.

Bennet, E.L., Nyaoi, A.J. and J. Sompud. 2000.Saving Borneo’s bacon: the sustainabilityof hunting in Sarawak and Sabah. In: J.G.Robinson and E.L. Bennet (Eds.) Huntingfor sustainability in tropical forests. NewYork, Columbia University Press. pp. 305-324.

Bodmer, R.E. 1994. Managing amazonianwildlife: biological correlation of gamechoice by detribalized hunters. EcologicalApplications, 5(4):872-877.

Cullen Jr, L., Bodmer, E.R. and C. Valladares-Padua. 2000. Ecological consequences ofhunting in Atlantic forest patches, SaoPaulo, Brazil. Oryx Vol.35(2):137-144.

Dryden, G. Mc. L. 2000. An overview of sub-tropical and tropical deer productionsystems. Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13,Supplement July 2000C:62.

IUCN/SSC Deer Specialist Group. 1998. Asia’sdeer. In: C. Wemmer (Ed.) Deer, Status,Survey and Conservation Action Plan.International Union for Conservation andNatural Resources.

Kelly, B. 1998. Introduction to deer farming.Farmnote No.45/89. Australian DeerFarming Association.

Pamberton, J.M. and R.H. Smith. 1991. Geneticmanagement of deer farms. AustralianDeer Farming Aug 2(4):1-14.

Pattiselanno, F. 2002. Wildlife hunting in WestPapua: commercial exploitation vsconservation ethics. Poster presented in the


Wildlife Society 9th AnnualConference, Bismark, NorthDakota, U.S.A.

Robinson, J.G. and R.E. Bodmer. 1999.Towards wildlife management in tropicalforest. Journal of Wildlife Management63:1-13.

Sinclair, S.E. and K.R. Rickert. 2000. Anoverview of the incorporation ofmanagement systems for Red and RusaDeer in Queensland within decisionsupport system. Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci.13, Supplement July 2000C:62.

Sinclair, S.E. and K.B. Woodford. 2000.Tropical/sub-tropical deer farming inAustralia. Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci. 13,Supplement July 2000C:62.

Semiadi, G. 1998. Tropical deer breeding.Masyarakat Zoologi Indonesia, Bogor (inIndonesian).

Subekti, D.T. 1995. Identify the deer farming.Majalah Ruminansia No.3-Th.IX:34-36 (inIndonesian).

Townsend, W. 2000. The sustainability ofsubsistence hunting by the SirionoIndians of Bolivia. In: J.G. Robinson andE.L. Bennet (Eds.) Hunting forsustainability in tropical forests. New York,Columbia University Press. pp.267-281.

Woodford, K.B. and A. Dunning. 1992.Production cycles and characteristics ofrusa deer in Australia. In: R.D. Brown(Ed.) The Biology of Deer. Springer-Verlag,New York. pp.197.202.

http://www.afns.ualberta.ca/hosted/deer/overview.htm Deer classification.

http://www.animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/chordata/mammalia/artiodactyla.html OrderArtiodactyla.

http://www.orderoutdoors.com/wl4d.htmWhitetail deer, Artiodactyla, Mammals.

The author is Senior Lecturer, AnimalProduction Department. His address is: c/oAnimal Science Laboratory, Papua StateUniversity Manokwari, Gunung Salju St. AmbanManokwari 98314, West Papua, Indonesia; E-mail: [email protected]

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION APPROACHAROUND NAMERI NATIONAL PARK, ASSAM, INDIA

by Dilip Chetry, Rekha Medhi and P.C. Bhattacharjee

Introduction

India has one of the world’s most extensivenetworks of protected areas, covering nearly4.5% of the country’s geographical area. Overtwo-thirds of the Protected Areas (PAs) areinhabited by human populations in India andthere is daily interaction between the localcommunities and the forest officials. However,a considerable number of wildlife still resideoutside the protected areas in places that are

owned by or under the control of localcommunities (Kothari et al., 1998). Therefore,there is a need for a more democratic mode ofnatural resources management such asCommunity-Based Conservation (CBC). Thiscould be described as conservation of biologicaldiversity or wildlife based on the involvement oflocal communities instead of the traditional topdown approach.

The main objectives of the present study are to


identify the nature of dependence of localcommunities (four forest villages) on the forestresource; evaluate the pressures on the forest,especially due to wood collection; evaluate thesocio-economic status of the villages; and torecommend solutions based on communityparticipation.

Study site

The study site included the fringe villages ofNameri National Park and Balipara ReserveForest. Nameri was declared a national park in1998 and has an area of 200 km2, situated in thedistrict of Sonitpur, Assam. The forest type istropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, moistdeciduous forest with cane and bamboo brakesand narrow strips of grassland along the rivers.Over 310 species of birds have been recorded,including the white-winged wood duck.Mammalian fauna represented include tiger,leopard, gaur, Himalayan black bear, sloth bear,dhole, hispid hare, elephant, capped langur, etc.

Balipara Reserved Forest is predominantly semi-evergreen with an area of 187.56 km2 and isencircled by seven forest villagers. The forest isunder pressure from encroachment (socio-political factors), unregulated fuel woodcollection for domestic and commercial use,illegal timber felling, grazing, hunting andpoaching, and the development of highways,railways, etc.

Methods

The study was conducted in December 1999using the Bench Mark Survey. Sixtywoodcutters were interviewed on the spot andtheir socio-economic profiles, land use patternsand forest dependency were recorded. For thevillage profiles, the villagers of Gamani, ChatoGaro, Tarajan and Dharakati villages wereinterviewed. Householders were interviewedrandomly to find out about the forestdependency, social structure, economic status,man-animal conflicts and interactions with theforest department and civil administration.Interviews with forest officials and other civiladministration officers were also recorded.

Results

% Fuel wood collection

The field visits and interviews revealed that 73%of the woodcutters were men, 10% women and16% children. Non-tribal people made up 80%.The majority of the woodcutters were in the agegroup 16-30 years. 11.6% of the peoplecollected wood daily, 28.3% weekly, 8.3%fortnightly and 16.6% monthly. The remaining35% were frequent collectors. 36% of thewoodcutters traveled 5-10 km per visit to collectwood, spending about 2-4 hours.

% Man-animal conflicts

All four forest villages faced problems of cropdamage by wild animals, particularly by theelephants. The maximum damage (26.67%) wasrecorded in Chotia Garo villages. These villageswere also subjected to livestock predation byleopards and tigers. Human fatalities byelephants were recorded from two villages.

% Forest dependence

The villagers are 100% dependent on the forestfor fuel wood and grazing, but there is only a2% dependence for non-timber forest products(NTFP).

% Interviews with the forest staff andadministrative staff

The authors solicited views from a range offorest officials from range officers to forestguards and identified the following problems:C difficulty in communicating with the

villagers;C lack of coordination between departments;C difficulties faced due to delays in salary

payment; andC lack of field equipment.

From interviews of district administrationofficers, the following weaknesses were noted:C non-involvement of grassroots people in

decision making;C lack of communication between villagers

and the district administration;C short-term strategies; andC lack of alternative livelihoods.


Discussion

All over India, the local community has beentransformed from being a relativelyindependent, self-reliant and self-determiningentity to one dependent on the vagaries ofmoney markets, labor, contractors andgovernments (Fernandes, 1992; Sharma, 1998).They were engaged as wage laborers indevelopment projects and their forests andgrasslands have been plundered for profit. Inrecent times, they have contributed to thedestructive process due to cultural break downs,population explosions, etc. At the same time,local communities in the N.E. region are alsowitnessing the fastest rate of deforestation andevery village is a conduit for feeding the fuelwood and timber needs of the urban areas(Kothari et al., 1996). Similarly, in the presentstudy area the unregulated collection of fuelwood and timber flows to the urban areas likeBalipara and Tezpur. The woodcutters collect48.5 of wet wood and 35.5% of regeneratingtrees, which is the major factor leading to thedestruction of the forest. If this processcontinues, then this forest will not last for morethan five years.

The rate and scale of fuel wood collection canbe minimized through the Joint ForestManagement (JFM)/Assam Joint (PeopleParticipation) Forestry Management Rule 1998.The use of improved stoves and alternativelivelihoods for the villagers involved will reducethe pressure on the forest. The illegal felling andtimber trade by outsiders can be regulated bystrict implementation of the Forest ProtectionRegeneration Committee (JFM). The success ofJFM in West Bengal, Harayana and Gujarat hasstrengthened its acceptance (Deb & Malholtra,1993; McGean, 1991; Poffenberger, 1990 a&b).

People should be made aware about theprovision of compensation for damage to cropsand livestock by wild animals from theconcerned authority. To teach villagers how toprevent further damage to crops and livestock,an awareness program should be undertaken bythe Forest Department. Villagers can also insuretheir crops and livestock through an insurancecompany.

Noting the 100% dependency of villages onforests for fuel wood and grazing against a 2%dependency on non-timber forest products(NTFPs), the Forest Department should initiatea study to explore possibilities of sustainableharvest of NTFPs.

The villagers have very limited land (about 2 ha)for cultivation and 4.88% of the families did nothave any land at all. This group should betargeted when implementing the Community-Based Conservation Approach. These familiesshould be involved with the CBC program eitherwith an alternative livelihood or with a loan forstarting a trade such as fish culture, mini teagarden, pineapple plantation, etc.

The Forest Department, the DistrictAdministration and NGOs should come forwardto help the local people to understand thepooling of resources such as the StateGovernment’s Rural Development Scheme(implemented through the Distr ictAdministration) and JFM Scheme and theCentral Government’s Eco-developmentScheme and Biodiversity Conservation Project(CBCP).

The government machinery, especially theForest Department, must become sensitive topeople’s opinions, aspirations and needs so as tomake the protected areas sustainable (Karnik,1996). The local people must be taken intoconsideration from the beginning and at everystage starting from conception to inception,planning, execution, monitoring and evaluation.The process should be transparent. There shouldbe a meaningful dialogue between the peopleand the various groups involved, including thegovernment.

The local people should be given additional helpby providing them opportunities to makechanges in their consumption patterns throughthe use of smokeless chullas, solar cookers,biogas and so on. The people should bemotivated to take up spinning, weaving andother handicrafts as alternative occupations. Theeco-tourism concept can be developed invillages like Dharikati and Tarajan. The peopleshould be assisted to plant trees, bushes, grasses,bamboos, climbers and medicinal herbs of their


choice. A democratic decision making processinvolving the local committees will lead to thesuccess of this Community-Based ConservationApproach.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank their friends inthe Conservation and Wildlife ManagementTraining Programme, 1999 conducted by theSmithsonian Institute, and Aaranyak Nature’sClub, Assam. We are also grateful to INDO-USPrimate Project, a cooperative programme ofthe Ministry of Environment and Forests,Government of India, and the US Fish andWildlife Service (Grant AgreementsNo.INT/FWS-22) for sponsoring Dilip Chetryfor the training course.

References

Deb, D. and K.C. Malholtra. 1993. People’sparticipation: the evolution of JointForest Management in South WestBengal. In: S.B. Roy & A.K. Ghosh (Eds.)People of India. Bio-cultural Dimension -Inter India Publication, New Delhi.

Fernandes, W. (Ed.) 1992. NationalDevelopment Tribal Deprivation. NewDelhi, Indian Social Institute.

Karnik, A. 1996. Joint Management ofBhimashankar Sanctuary: an alternativeproposal. In: A. Kothari, N. Singh and S.Suri (Eds.) People and protected areas:towards participatory conservation in India.Sage Publication, New Delhi. pp.167-181.

Kothari, A., Singh, N. and S. Suri (Eds.) 1996.People and protected areas: towards

participatory conservation in India. SagePublication, New Delhi.

Kothari, A. Anuradha R.V. and N. Pathak. 1998.Community based conservation: issuesand prospects. In: A. Kothari, R.V.Anuradha, N. Pathak and B. Taneja (Eds.)Community and conservation. SagePublication, New Delhi. pp.1-57.

McGean, B. 1991. NGO support groups inJoint Forest Management: emerginglessons. Working Paper 13. SustainableForest Management Working Paper series,Ford Foundation, New Delhi.

Poffenberger, M. 1990a. Joint management offorest lands: experiences from SouthAsia. Ford Foundation, New Delhi.

Poffenberger, M. 1990b. Forest managementpartnerships: regenerating India’sforests. Workshop on Sustainable Forestry,New Delhi. Ford Foundation, New Delhi.

Sharma, B.D. 1989. Report of theCommissioner for Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes. 29th Report, New Delhi,Government of India.

The Governor. 1998. The Assam Joint(people’s participation) ForestryManagement Rules, 1998. The AssamGazette. Government of Assam.

Authors’ address: c/o Animal Ecology &Wildlife Biology Lab, Department of Zoology,Gauhati University, Assam, India; E-mail:[email protected]


FEEDING ECOLOGY AND FACTORS INFLUENCING THERANGE OF THE DUSKY TOQUE MONKEY (Macaca sinicaaurifrons) IN UDAWATTAKELLE SANCTUARY, SRI LANKA

by Rajnish Vandercone and Charles Santiapillai

Introduction

The macaque (Macaca sinica) is endemic to SriLanka, and the Udawattakelle Sanctuary, locatedin Kandy in the Central Province, is one of theareas where the species occurs in significantnumbers. At present, macaques spill out fromthe sanctuary and cause considerable damage tohuman property in the surrounding settlements.Many people attribute the conflict between manand monkey to the sudden explosion of themacaque population caused by thesuperabundance of food. The present study wascarried out in the Udawattakelle Sanctuary to tryto understand the feeding ecology and factorsinfluencing the ranging behavior of toquemacaques.

Of the four species of primates represented inSri Lanka, the toque macaque has the widestdistribution. Others include the grey langur(Presbytis entellus), purple-faced langur (P.senex) and the prosimian (Loris tardigradus).The following three sub-species of the toquemacaque have been recognized in Sri Lanka(Phillips, 1981):1. The toque monkey or “red monkey”

Macaca sinica sinica (Linnaeus, 1771) isthe nominate sub-species that is the mostwidely distributed in the island. It isplentiful but confined to the low country dryzone.

2. The dusky toque monkey Macaca sinicaaurifrons (Pocock, 1931) is plentiful in thewet zone and in the lower hills of the hillzone.

3. The mountain toque monkey Macaca sinicaopisthomelas (Hill, 1942) is restricted to theHorton Plains at an altitude of 1,500 m inthe central mountains of Sri Lanka.

Study site

The study was carried out in the UdawattakelleSanctuary (115 ha), located in the CentralProvince (Andrews, 1961). The sanctuary lies tothe east and northeast of the center of Kandytown; thus, the forest is bordered on west andsouthwest by highly urbanized areas, whichinclude the historic Temple of the Tooth and theancient Palace complex. To the south ofUdawattakelle is the famous artificial lake ofKandy-Bogambara Wewa. The areas that lie tothe east and the north of Udawattakelle areeither suburbs of Kandy or village settlementsthat have a high human population density.Udawattakelle receives an annual rainfall ofabout 1,750 mm from both the southwestern andnortheastern monsoons. Not being a virginforest, Udawattakelle has a mixture of native aswell as exotic plant species, which in some areashave been planted somewhat like a botanicalgarden. The flora in these planted areas show nostratification; they do not conform to the floralpattern of hill rain forests, which are typical ofprimeval forests in the areas of moderateelevation in the Central Highlands of Sri Lanka.Also, in certain areas the vegetation isdominated by only a few or sometimes a singlespecies of plant. Yet, especially in the elevatedinterior where human interference has remainednegligible throughout the recent past, there is avisible stratification of flora, which iscomparable to that of the above-mentionedforest type.

Methods

The study was carried out from February 2001to December 2002 during which period theforest was visited twice a month. Macaqueswere observed visually, aided with a pair of7x50 binoculars. The different troopsencountered were identified by the facialmarkings and other physical peculiarities of


their members and monkey identification cardswere created for a few individuals of each troop.A total of seven troops were identified.Individuals were observed and the material theyfed on was recorded. Samples of the food plantsthat were difficult to identify in the field werecollected for later identification. Of the fourtroops that were closely observed during thestudy (A, B, C and D), troop A was studied indetail. Members of troop A were followedthroughout the day from the time they werespotted in the morning until they retreated deepinto the forest in the evening. Their positionswere marked on a map, which helped todetermine their approximate home range.

Results

Feeding

The list of plants utilized and the vegetal partsconsumed are given in the Appendix. Foragingoccurred throughout the day except duringheavy rains, when there was a total cessation ofactivity. However, foraging was most intenseduring the morning (from 0700 to 1045 hrs) andevening (from 1430 to 1600 hrs). Foraging tookplace the least frequently during the afternoon(between 1200 and 1400 hrs). Adult femalesspent more time foraging than adult males,during which time a high level of threatbehavior was observed. The repertoire ofmacaque behavior observed during the studyinclude the following six threat displays:

Stare - The eyes of the aggressor were openedwide and fixed on the victim.

Raised eyebrow threat - The eyebrows of theaggressor were raised and its eyes were focusedon the victim.

Opened mouth threat - The eyebrows of theaggressor were raised as in the raised eyebrowthreat, but the mouth was opened in an ‘O’shape.

Grabbing - The aggressor seized a portion of thebody of the victim, most often by the hand or inthe head region. The threat was usuallyaccompanied by shaking the victim or by one orboth of the above displays.

Biting - The aggressor bit the victim; however,the bites never caused wounds.

Chasing - The aggressor ran after the victim andusually pounced on it or pinned it to the ground.

A threatening posture displayed during feedingprevented subordinate animals from approachingdominant individuals. Furthermore, when asubordinate that was feeding was threatened bya dominant individual, it sat still until thedominant individual left the location. But onmost occasions, a threat from a dominantindividual displaced the subordinate from whereit was feeding. Threat behavior reduced thefeeding efficiency of subordinate animals, whichwere left with very little food to consume.

During the study period, macaques wereobserved to utilize more than thirty species ofplants belonging to sixteen families. Twelvewere utilized for the fruit, six for the flowers,fourteen for the leaves, one for bark and one forsap. Although macaques predominantlyconsumed plant material, they were alsoobserved to feed on animal matter. Macaquesregularly fed on insects, mainly ants, termites,moths, butterflies and grasshoppers. They spenta large proportion of their time foraging forthese insects on the forest floor. Macaques werealso observed feeding on frog eggs of the genusPolypedates and on the mucus secretions ofsnails of the genus Acavus. The macaquesinserted their fingers into the shells of Acavusand extracted the mucus but never fed on theflesh of the snail. All four troops (A,B,C,D) thatfrequented the Thapowanaya region fedextensively on refuse from the garbage dumpsfound there and at another one adjacent to theroad leading to Udawattakelle. They fed largelyon the discarded rice and fruits, which are highin energy. The refuse they fed on probably meta significant proportion of their total energyrequirements.

What was most remarkable about the macaques’diet was their ability to adapt to differenthabitats, and take advantage of whatever staplefood items that the area had to offer.

Range


During the study period it was only possible todetermine the range of troop A, which refers tothe total area utilized during the observationperiod. Troop A ranged over an area ofapproximately 14 ha, which overlapped heavilywith those of troops C and D, and to a lesserextent with that of troop B in the area known asThapowanaya. This area was utilized by all fourtroops at some stage during the study period.

The extent of the range utilized was largelydetermined by the range utilization pattern ofother troops, the distribution of food resources,and the mating season. The extent of the rangeutilized by troop A was largely decided by thepattern of movement of troops D and B. TroopB was dominant to all other troops in the area.At the beginning of the year 2002, troops B andD regularly occupied the following areas: a)Trinity College grounds; b) the main roadleading to the forest; and c) Thapowanaya.Troop B utilized the area mainly in the morningand evening while troop D occupied the regionin the afternoon. During this period, troop Anever occupied this road or the playing field, buton occasions visited the Thapowanaya areawhen troops B and D were not in the vicinity.However, the visits to the Tapowanaya areawere brief and the troop always appeared verynervous. Whenever troop A spotted individualsof troop B, they would quickly retreat into theforest without any hesitation, thus avoiding intertroop encounters. Fights were not observedbetween troops A and B. However, after July,troop B ceased utilizing this area and troop Abegan to frequent the area when troop D was notaround. But on several occasions inter troopfights broke out between troops A and Dwhenever troop A moved too close to wheretroop D was. Inter troop encounters resultedwhen the troop space came into contact, or wasin danger of coming into contact, with that ofthe other group. Troop space could be defined asthe space occupied by members of a troop at agiven time. During an inter troop encounter, theadolescent and subadult males were the first toget involved, followed by the more establishedmales. The subadult and adolescent males weremostly confined to the periphery of the troopand had the tendency to initiate inter troop fightsmore readily than the others. Females werenever involved in fights. These encounters

usually lasted only a few minutes until thesubordinate troop A retreated. Troop D alwayswon its battles with troop A. In May 2002, troopC began utilizing the Thapowanaya region andthe area around the Royal Pond, but it wasobserved only in the early morning before troopA visited the locality or in the afternoon (1330to 1530 hrs) when troop A had left the locality,thereby preventing inter troop encountersbetween troops A and C. In December 2002, thearea was less frequently visited by troop D andtroop A enjoyed a greater degree of freedom ofmovement.

The macaques fed on a wide range of plantmatter, but preferred the seeds of Micheliachampaca. Mature fruit of Michelia champacaappeared from late February to May, and wouldsplit open exposing the seeds. Fruits and seedswould fall to the ground in large numbers, atwhich time troop A would visit this arearegularly and forage on seeds. Macaques pick upthe seeds and roll them between their palms,possibly to get rid of the sand, and then removethe seed coat with their teeth before consumingthem. Similarly, troop A utilized Malvaviscusarboreus shrubs whenever they were floweringso that they could feed on the nectar.

During the mating season, troop A rarely visitedthe Thapowanaya area, but was spotted mostlyin the forest. A few individuals ranged outside,but most of the troop occupied the forestedregions. If the troop was feeding on a forestpath, the consorting pair/s would emerge brieflyto feed and then retreat back into the forest.

Discussion

The enduring social unit in macaque life is thetroop, which is composed of individuals of bothsexes and all ages, most of which are closelyrelated genetically and interact frequently, andall of which jointly exploit a rather well definedhome range. The macaques at Udawattakelleutilized over thirty species of plants as food.They also consumed insects, mucus from thesnails of the genus Acavus and eggs of the froggenus Polypedates. Considering their diet, themacaques at Udawattakelle are omnivores.


In comparison, the macaques at Polonnaruwa inthe low country dry zone of Sri Lanka areknown to utilize at least sixty-four species ofplants as food, in addition to insects and otheranimals (Dittus, 1974). Their staple foodconsists of the species that ranks highest inavailability. Unlike the macaques atUdawattakelle, carnivorous behavior wasobserved among the Polonnaruwa population. Itappeared to be opportunistic, non-cooperative,and included lizards, birds (and their nestlingsand eggs), young tree mice and palm squirrels.Phillips (1981) also reported carnivorousbehavior among toque macaques. As in the caseof the macaques in Udawattakelle, a high level(81%) of threat behavior was observed in thePolonnaruwa population, especially whileforaging.

The marked difference in the diet of thePolonnaruwa and the Udawattakelle macaquesis that the latter feed heavily from garbagedumps. The four troops that utilized theThapowanaya area were observed to spend aconsiderable time of their day in close proximityto the garbage dumps. This observation, togetherwith the scarcity of troops within the forestduring the daytime, suggests that most of themacaques emerge from the forest and feed onfood available outside, probably in homegardens and garbage dumps. They feed mainlyon discarded rice, fruit and other carbohydrate-rich food that is abundant in garbage dumpsaround the forest. Furthermore, sinceUdawattakelle is surrounded by humansettlements, the macaques probably have asteady supply of garbage throughout the year.

By contrast in Polonnaruwa, only a few troopsfed on garbage, while the majority weredependent on the forest for food. Thesuperabundance of food in the form of garbagecould account for the large troop sizes (20-76)observed at Udawattakelle, compared to thoserecorded from Polonnaruwa (8-46). Theabundance of food may reduce the competitionfor food among macaques and hence may lead toa decrease in mortality. The limited evidencefrom Udawattakelle suggests that the mortalityof infants may be low in a population that isprovisioned with food. All infants that wereborn to troop A during the two birth seasons that

occurred during the study period survived.Studies done on other macaque coloniesindicated that the provision of food can increasethe size of a population several-fold over a veryshort period of time. The Takasakiyama colonyof Japanese macaques (Itani et al., 1963;Carpenter & Nishimura, 1969) and the CayoSantiago colony of Rhesus monkeys (Koford,1965) which are artificially provided with foodhave increased their numbers three and one-halftimes over ten years and seven-fold over twelveyears respectively. Southwick (1961) showedthat the density of a population of Rhesusmonkey in India was higher in town (8.8/ha) vis-a-vis their natural habitat (0.2-0.5/ha). Neville(1968) attributes this to the nature of the foodsources. When considering these facts it isapparent that the abundance and nature of foodplays an important role in regulating the size ofmacaque populations.

The range of a troop is the area that the memberswould travel over in order to meet their basicrequirements. After approximately seventy-fivehours of observation, troop A was found torange over an area of approximately 14 ha,which represents the minimum estimate of thehome range. The factors that influence the extentof the range utilized are similar in bothUdawattakelle and Polonnaruwa. InPolonnaruwa, troops were affected by the rangeutilization patterns of other troops. They alsoextended their ranges in order to exploit the onlyGlycosmis sp. nearest to them. They showed apattern of range utilization similar to that oftroop A in Udawattakele during the matingseason, at which time consorting pairs inPolonnaruwa preferred the Glycosmisundergrowth due to the greater availability ofcover to hide from males from other troops. Thisis probably the same reason why troop Apreferred the forest to the open areas near theThapowanaya during the mating season. Dittus(1974) established a positive correlationbetween troop size and range. The relationshipis given by the equation HR=9+1.5N, where Nis the troop size. Dittus (1974) also states thatthe relationship between troop size and homerange is a function of the amount and thedistribution of resources an area can offer.According to the formula given by Dittus(1974), the range of troop A should be 63 ha.


Although knowledge of the range of troop A isincomplete, it is highly unlikely that the fullrange of troop A would be 63 ha, as it spent over70% of its time near the Thapowanaya areawhere high energy food in the form of garbagewas available in abundance. In Polonnaruwa,troops that fed on rice from a rice mill hadsmaller home ranges in comparison to othertroops of similar size that were entirelydependent on the forest for food (Dittus, 1974).

At present, owing to the high density humanpopulation around Udawattakelle and the factthat macaques spill out of the forest, theinteractions between humans and monkeys haveincreased. Unfortunately, these interactions havebeen damaging to both. Macaques destroy homegardens and damage property. And there havebeen instances where people have been bitten byagitated macaques during attempts to drive themaway from homes. In turn, people are hostiletowards the macaques. At Udawattakelle, anumber of animals bore signs of humanharassment in the form of missing limbs andbroken tails. Sometimes people go to the extentof even harassing macaques within the forestsanctuary. If this situation continues it will beonly a matter of time before the public questionsthe wisdom of maintaining a colony ofmacaques at Udawattakelle. Therefore, ifUdawattakelle is to maintain its status as theprincipal abode of the endemic toque macaquein Kandy, then appropriate measures have to betaken to resolve the conflict between man andmonkey.

References

Carpender, C.R. and A. Nishimura. 1969. TheTakasakiama colony of Japanesemacaques (Macaca fuscata). Proceedings

of the Second International Congress ofPrimatology, 1:16-30.

Dittus. 1974. Ecology and behavior of thetoque monkey Macaca sinica. Ph.D.dissertation, University of Maryland,Washington, D.C,

Itali, J., Tokuda, K., Furuya, Y., Kano, K. andY. Shin. 1963. The social construction ofnatural troops of Japanese monkeys inTakasakiyama. Primates, 4:1-42.

Koford, C.B. 1965. The population dynamicsof Rhesus monkeys on Cayo Santiago. In:I. Devore (Ed.) Primate Behavior: FieldStudies of Monkeys and Apes. pp.160-174.Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York.

Neville, M.K. 1968. Ecology and activity ofHimalayan foothill rhesus monkeys(Macaca mulatta). Ecology, 49:111-123.

Phillips, W.W.A. 1981. Manual of theMammals of Sri Lanka. Wildlife andNature Protection Society of Sri Lanka.Colombo.

Southwick, C.H., Beg, A.M. and M.R. Siddiqui.1961. A population survey of rhesusmonkeys in northern India. IITransportation routes and forest areas.Ecology, 42:698-710.

Authors’ address: c/o Department of Zoology,University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, SriLanka.

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MONITOR LIZARD (VARANIDAE:REPTILIA) INBALUCHISTAN, PAKISTAN

by Mohammad Nawaz and Yasmin Nawaz

Introduction

Monitors are the world’s heaviest and largestliving lizards, reaching up to 3 meters in lengthand 200 kg in weight. The existing 30 species inthe world are so similar morphologically thatthey are included in a single genus, i.e. Varanus.Ranging from Africa throughout Southeast Asiato Australia, all species are carnivores and feedon a variety of prey, including insects,invertebrates, small mammals and birds.

The herpetofauna of Pakistan has not beenproperly explored and very little is known aboutthem except through a few authors. Minton(1966) and Merten (1974) described amphibiansand reptiles of West Pakistan. Khan (1980) hasmade a greater contribution on the herpetofaunaof Pakistan. Boulenger (1890) described reptiliaand batrachia of British India, including Ceylonand Burma. Auffenberg (1990, 1989) also didwork on monitor lizards in Pakistan.

This investigation is an attempt toward makinga systematic and detailed survey to identify andassess the status of monitor lizards in theprovince of Baluchistan in Pakistan.

Pakistan is important both zoogeographicallyand faunistically. The eastern region isinfluenced by the Palaeartic region while thenortheast is influenced by the Oriental region.

Herptiles are a generally neglected group amongthe vertebrates throughout the world, includingin Pakistan, although they play an important rolein nature in the food chain and keeping theecological balance.

Study area

In terms of area, Baluchistan is the largestprovince in Pakistan (350,000 km2) but has thesmallest number of inhabitants (populationapproximately 8 million). It extends between the

northern latitudes 24° - 32° and longitudes of60° - 70° east. Climatic conditions are arid,ranging from dry to hyper arid and temperaturesvary widely from cool to tropical. Only about2% of Baluchistan is cultivated, due to thescarcity of water. The wildlife resources inBaluchistan are still rich in variety compared toother provinces, but low in number and continueto degrade rapidly. The remedial measures takenso far have not been able to halt or reverse thedecline.

The study was conducted between 1999-2002,and covered all the districts of Baluchistan.Many reptiles were collected from differentlocalities, but Varanus was the largest and mostendangered species and was given specialattention to find out their status and the factorsresponsible for their decline in this area.

Methods

All of the information included in this paper isbased on the authors’ own observations in thefield and interviews conducted with localpeople, wildlife and forest staff, and alsotrappers. All specimens are preserved with theauthors at the Zoology Department, BaluchistanUniversity, Quetta, Pakistan.

Observations and Results

During this survey of herptiles, three species andone subspecies of Varanus were observed andidentified in the field. A few specimens weretrapped and examined for ecto- andendoparasites, particularly the Haematozoan.

% Varanus bengalensis Daudin, 1802This is a widespread species that lives in allbiotopes ranging from forest to desert.Minton (1966) described this animal asoccurring throughout Pakistan at low andmoderate elevations. During the presentstudy, this species was observed and


collected for museum specimens from alldistricts of Baluchistan. Due to the rapidgrowth of urbanization, this species, alongwith other wildlife, is declining rapidly.Trade in its skin and fat for medicinalpurposes is also a contributing factor to itssignificant reduction in numbers.

% Varanus griseus caspius Eichwald, 1831Usually called the desert monitor. Minton(1966) reported this species from northernBaluchistan (from Pishin district). Duringthis survey specimens were collected fromPishin, Quetta, Chaghai, Khuzdar, Kalat,Loralai and Zhob areas. It is killed by thelocal people and the population is smallerthan that of V. bengalensis.

% V.g. koniecznyi Merten, 1954This subspecies was not recorded by Minton(1966). Merten first recorded it fromKarachi. In our collection it was recordedfor the first time from Baluchistan in Pishindistrict.

% V. fluvescens Canter, 1847Very characteristic and the rarest speciesrecorded for the first time from Pakistan(Baluchistan). Body is a yellowish browncolor above with irregular markings whichare generally confluent into broad crossbars.

One specimen was collected from a water bodyand was shot by an air gun. Only the head wasvisible above the water. It was all dark in colorwith no spots or bands on the body.Unfortunately it was not preserved in themuseum. It might be a new species record butthis will be confirmed by resurveying the Bolanarea.

Another specimen was preserved in theherpetology laboratory. A unique specimennever before seen, recorded or described byanyone from the sub-continent. On the basis ofthe rounded nostril nearest to the end of thesnout and the tail that was compressed andkeeled above it, it resembled V. salvator, thewater monitor. But it differed in the presence ofstar-like white spots in transverse rowsthroughout the body and traverse white bars on

the tail. It might be a new species on record butwe are waiting for the adult specimen collection.The only specimen present at the momentmeasures 2 feet in total length.

Discussion

The earliest excavation record in Harappaindicates that Varanus was exploited as early as2,500 B.C. and is still being exploited today forboth medicinal and commercial purposes. Atpresent very little information exists about thelizard’s population in the wild. Besides beingkilled for the wildlife trade (skin), habitat lossand disturbance by vehicular traffic, along withthe effects of the influx of Afghan refugees, aremajor factors contributing to its decline innumbers.

Although Varanus sp. is included in theendangered list of IUCN’s Red Data Book, itneeds special attention from both national andinternational organizations. If the above trendscontinue unchecked, the monitor lizard willbecome a rare sight in the coming decades. Allspecies are endangered and need conservationmanagement programs to ensure their existenceand survival.

References

Auffenberg, W. 1989. Utilization of Monitorlizard in Pakistan. J. Intl. TRAFFICNetwork. Vol.II, No.1:8-12.

Auffenberg, W. 1990. Notes on the biology ofVaranus grisius koniecznyi. J. Bomb. Nat.Hist. Soc. 87:26-36.

Boulenger, G.A. 1890. The fauna of BritishIndia including Ceylon and Burma.Reptilia and Batrachia. Taylor andFrancis, London. pp.541.

Khan, M.S. 1980. Affinities andZoogeography of Herptiles of Pakistan.Biologia, 26(1-2). pp.113-165.

Minton. 1966. A contribution to theherpetology of West Pakistan. Bull. Am.Nat. Hist. 134:27-184.


Merten, S.R. 1974. Die amphibians andreptilians West Pakistan (3. nachtag)senckenberg boil. 52:7-15.

Prashad. 1936. Animals remains in Harappa,Pakistan. Indian J. Sci. 6:32-38.

The authors are Professor and AssociateProfessor in the Department of Zoology,Baluchistan University, Quetta, Pakistan; E-mail: [email protected];[email protected]

PRESENT POPULATION STATUS AND CONSERVATION OFTHE CHITAL (Axis axis) IN THE KALAKKAD-

MUNDANTHURAI TIGER RESERVE, TAMIL NADU, SOUTH INDIA

by L. Muthu Andavan

Introduction

The chital (Axis axis) is one of the three sub-orders of deer which belong to the familyCervidae (Jodan et al., 2000). This sub-order iswholly confined to the Kalakkad-Mundanthuraiareas, and it has been included in the “List of theimportant species to be protected in India” in thefirst-ranked category. Conservation efforts havebeen made to protect them in their ranges and anature reserve has been established for theirprotection since the 1980s. Monitoring programson population size and habitat use of chital wereconducted in the winter of 2001 in theKalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve(KMTR), which was set up in 1988-89 for theprotection of tiger. The results are reported here.

Study Area

Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve coversan area of about 895 km2. The reserve is locatedin the Western Ghats of South India,geographically situated between 8/25' to 8/53'Nand 77/10' to 77/35'E (Vasudevan, 2001). Theelevation in the reserve ranges between 196 m to1,850 m. The temperature ranges between 4/Cand 32/C, and the annual rainfall is about 2,000mm. The peak rainy season is October toDecember along the western edge of the Ghats(Nair, 1991). The vegetation includes such treespecies as Aglaia elaeagnoidea var. cortallensis,

Pleiospermium alatum, Suregada angustifolia,Kingiodendron pinnatum, shrub species such asStenosiphonium wightii, Toddalia asiatica,Securinega leucopyrus, and herb species such asDicliptera cuneatum, Diatocanthus albiflorusand Biophytum longibracteatum.

Anthropogenic activities do not disturb thisreserve very much because there are fewtransport facilities. There are, however, trailsavailable for people to travel on foot. Localpeople cultivate most of the relatively gentleslopes below 196 m elevation. These activitiesdo not affect the chital population very muchbecause this animal prefers lower elevations inthe reserve.

Study Methods

To locate the chital, two line transects of variedlength were set along the plateau of the reserve– one at 08/40'-08/41' N latitude and 077/20'-077/19'E longitude at an elevation of 200-227m, and the other at 08/40'-08/41'N and 077/20'-077/21E with an elevation of 268-273. Recordswere kept on group size, elevation andperpendicular distance from animals to transectlines. Efforts were made to determine the sexand age of the animals. The equipment used forthis study included the Global PositioningSystem (GPS), range finder and binoculars. Thesex ratio and age structure of the animals were


determined by observations made using theabove equipment.

To monitor the habitat the survey team marked40 quadrats in 3,274 ha in the buffer zone of theMundanthurai and Papanasam Ranges. Thisincluded forest types in the reserve such as teakand mixed deciduous at 200-273 m elevation.Each quadrat measured 40 m x 100 m, separatedfrom each other by distance (500 m intervals) orelevation (73 m), or both. The quadrats wherechital tracks were found were taken as the indexof habitat use by the animals.

The sex ratio and age structure were calculatedfrom the data of 42 observations. A total of 41adult males, 100 adult females, 129 sub-adultsand 59 fawns were found from 2001 to 2002 inthe same areas. The sex ratio of the chitalpopulation was almost 12:30. The percentage ofadults to sub-adults to fawns was 43:38:18 andthe percentage of adult females to fawns was30:18.

Population Density and Structure

Transect lines (4,000 m) were laid out within a1.6 ha area where the chital are confined duringthe winter months. The density of chital in thenature reserve was estimated to be about 54 to62 individuals and the cluster size was about 17to 20. The detection probability was 52 to 60and the encounter rate was about 30 to 19(Thomas et al., 1998).

Conservation of the Chital in KMTR

The distribution of chital in KMTR is confinedto the Ashambu Hills (Vasudevan, 2001). Itsranges are located in the following beats:Padarmalai (1,1481 ha) and Koiltheri (1,793 ha).

All sub-species of chital have been listed in thefirst ranked category for protection since 1988-89.

The KMTR was initially established for the lion-tailed macaque in 1977 and the tiger benefittedbecause its distribution range overlapped that ofthe lion-tailed macaque in the higher elevations.The KMTR has played an important role in theprotection of the tiger. In the future, intensivemanagement measures in this reserve will alsobenefit the chital in the area.

References

Jodan, E.L. and P.S. Verma. 2000. ChordateZoology. Chand and Company Limited,New Delhi. pp.658-59.

Karthikeyan, V., Ajit, K. and R. Chellam. 2001.Structure and composition of rainforestfloor amphibian communities inKalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve.Current Science 80(3):406-412.

Nair, S.C. 1991. The Southern WesternGhats: A Biodiversity Conservation Plan.INTACH, New Delhi. p.92.

Thomas, L., Laake, J.L., Derry, J.F., Buckland,S.T., Borchers, D.L., Anderson, D.R.,Burnham, K.P., Strindberg, S., Hedley, S.L.,Burt, M.L., Marqes, F., Pollard, J.H. andR.M. Fewster. 1998. Research Unit forWildlife Population Assessment.University of St. Andrews, U.K.

Author’s address: Sri Paramakalyani Centre forEnvironmental Sciences, ManonmaniamSundaranar University, Alwarkurichi - 627 412,Tamil Nadu, S. India.


FIRST TIME IN VIETNAM – TIGER GIVES BIRTH TO FOURCUBS IN HANOI ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS

by Nguyen The Chan

On 20 April 2003 at Hanoi Zoo, a female tigernamed “Lam Nhi” gave birth to four cubs in onelitter. There were three females and one male.

The mother and her cubs were carefully nurturedby the zookeepers and they stayed in goodhealth, attaining an average weight of 3.5 kgafter one month.

Lam Nhi is an Indochinese tiger (Panthera tigriscorbetti). She was confiscated in Thua Thien-Hue Province and arrived at Hanoi Zoo inAugust 1998, wounded and weighing 30 kg.Lam Nhi has been given intensive cared for fiveyears which culminated in the successful birth ofher litter of four.

The father of the cubs is a male Indochinesetiger that came to Hanoi Zoo in May 1997.

This is the first successful captive breeding ofIndochinese tiger at Hanoi Zoo and has greatscientific significance which will contribute tothe preservation of endangered wildlife inVietnam.

Hopefully Lam Nhi will successfully bear morelitters in the future.

The author is Curator of Mammals, HanoiZoological Gardens.

First Indochinese tigers cubs born at Hanoi Zoo (Photo: Nguyen The Chan)

Forest News 1

FOREST NEWSVol.XVII:No.3

CONFRONTING INVADERS: APFC TAKES ON FOREST INVASIVE SPECIES

The damage caused by invasive species imposesenormous costs on the forests of the Asia-Pacificregion in terms of ecological destruction,economic losses and detrimental social effects.Overall losses associated with invasive speciesin many countries are estimated to account foraround one percent of the GDP, with the UnitedStates, for example, sustaining losses estimatedat US$137 billion per year. Forest lossescomprise a significant portion of this.

Consequently, there are enormous benefits to bereaped by minimizing these losses. The Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Conference wasbased on the premise that success in developingand implementing solutions for invasive speciescan be achieved only by forming strongcollaborative partnerships within and amongcountries. The establishment of a new Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species Network istherefore expected to be a major step forward inmeeting the challenges posed by invasivespecies in the region.

Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive SpeciesConference

More than 130 participants from 20 countriesattended the Asia-Pacific Forest InvasiveSpecies Conference, held in Kunming, China,17-23 August 2003. The conference was hostedby the Province of Yunnan, and was organizedas an initiative of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission in technical collaboration with the

Asia-Pacific Association of Forest ResearchInstitutions (APAFRI), and the Food andAgriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO). The conference was sponsored by theState Forestry Administration of China, theChinese Academy of Sciences, the NaturalScience Foundation of China and the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture Forest Service.

The conference provided opportunities to shareexperiences and knowledge relating to thethreats of invasive species to forests and forestproducts – and to develop proposals for regionalcooperation and action in addressing invasivespecies problems. Thirteen technical paperswere presented, covering issues ranging frompest risk assessments and incursion pathways tothe use of the International Plant ProtectionConvention to manage invasive species affectingforests. The conference also held interactiveworking group sessions to help prioritize issuesfor action, and a panel discussion and plenarysession in which an action plan forimplementation was developed.

Keynote addresses were provided by Ms. SallyCampbell, Biologist Team Leader, USDA ForestService and Mr. Wei Diansheng, DirectorGeneral, Department of Silviculture, StateForestry Administration of China. Ms. Campbelloutlined a global perspective on forest invasivespecies and told participants that invasivespecies are an accelerating problem worldwidedue to increased trade, travel, and transport of

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goods. She also described some of the scientific,political and ethical challenges associated withinvasive species, which include scarce resourcesto fund management and control activities, andhuman health issues relating to pest incursionsand eradication activities.

In a presentation outlining the invasive speciessituation in China, Mr. Wei told the conferencethat China has more than 8,000 forest pests, with100 causing substantial damage. More than 8million hectares of forest are affected each year.Economic losses are estimated at 6 billion yuan(US$703 million) per annum.

Technical presentations explored specificaspects and challenges relating to invasivespecies, including sharing national experiences.Generic aspects of invasive species werecovered in presentations dealing with:C basic science and nature of the problem of

forest invasive species;C pest risk assessments and incursion

pathways;C FAO activities in relation to invasive

species;C ecological and economic impacts of invasive

species incursions; andC using the IPPC to manage invasive species

affecting forests.

Case specific presentations were made on:C developing a biosecurity strategy for

Australia;C managing invasive species threats to oil

palm and rubber in Malaysia; C the unintended spread of introduced

plantation species in India;C Acacias and their invasiveness in

secondary/disturbed forests in the wettropics;

C pine wood nematode and other forestpathogens in Japan; and

C assisted natural regeneration – counteringthe impacts of Imperata grass infestations inthe Philippines.

The conference divided into three facilitatedbreakout groups, which were asked to consider

knowledge and information gaps in relation toinvasive species. Each breakout group identifiedfive key regional issues and recommendedcomplementary actions to address them. Groupsbrainstormed key issues and rationalized theseinto common groups and highest priorities. Thelists of key issues included:C national, regional and international

cooperation and collaboration amongcountries;

C capacity building and training;C research needs and collaboration;C policy development aspects;C information development, management and

sharing;C quantification of ecological and economic

impacts;C pest management tools and strategies;C taxonomy and invasives characteristics;C risk assessment;C deliberate introductions; andC pathway management.

Conference outcomes

The concluding session of the conferenceencompassed a panel discussion on the topic“Where to now on invasive species in Asia andthe Pacific?” Five panelists made briefpresentations and the floor was then opened fordiscussion. A wide-ranging dialogue particularlyfocussed on the establishment of an Asia-PacificForest Invasive Species Network and anassociated Working Group, and how these mightfunction. Three key outcomes were agreed uponduring the session:1. An Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive Species

Network should be established under theumbrella of the Asia-Pacific ForestryCommission. The Chinese Academy ofSciences would assume the role of taskmanager for coordinating the network.

2. An Asia-Pacific Forest Invasive SpeciesWorking Group should be established todevelop a program of collaborativeactivities.

3. Each APFC member country shouldnominate a focal point to serve as a point ofcontact for the network and for collaborative

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forest invasive species activities. FAO ispresently in the process of contactingcountries to obtain their nominations.

Field visits

Two field visits were undertaken to observeinfestations of pine shoot bark beetle (Tomicuspiniperda) and Crofton weed (Eupatoriumadenophorum) in the area of the Stone Forest ofYunnan, and the Sino-American Cooperation

Forest Health Project in Lijiang. Included werefield visits to old-growth stands of Lithocarpusvariolosus and associated species, mixed-speciesplantations, monitoring stations for observationof forest micro-climate and soil and watererosion, and biogas pit promotion activities.Also observed were activities geared atprevention and control of Pissodes yunnanensis,a new insect pest affecting Pinus yunnanensis inYulong County, Lijiang City.

XII WORLD FORESTRY CONGRESS CALLS FORHARMONIZING NEEDS OF PEOPLE AND PLANET

The XII World Forestry Congress, held 21-28September 2003 in Québec City, Canada,attracted over 4,000 participants from more than140 countries.

Participants included governmental andinternational organizations, NGOs, individualsfrom rural communities, private forest owners,labor, indigenous people, youth, industry,environmental organizations and the scientificand academic communities.

A wide spectrum of issues, in the context of theCongress theme: “Forests, Source of Life,” wasconsidered under three program areas: Forestsfor People, Forests for the Planet, and Peopleand Forests in Harmony.

The FAO global forest resources assessmentcompleted in 2000 revealed an annual netreduction of 12.4 million hectares of forest intropical developing countries over the previousdecade. Worldwide, some 1.6 billion people relyon forests for their livelihoods.

The participants of the Congress pledged towork towards reducing deforestation

significantly over the next decades, expandingor maintaining forest cover, enhancing forestrestoration and strengthening the role ofplantations in supplying wood products.

The Congress called for sustained politicalcommitment, a stronger forest sector, bridgeswith other partners and sectors, sustainedinternational cooperation, recognition of theknowledge of indigenous people andmanagement of forests and trees at local andregional scales. Above all, the Congress urgedcountries to move the intergovernmentaldialogue on forests from talk to action.

The final statement urged the world communityto promote policies, partnerships, education,management and better monitoring, evaluationand reporting on the progress in achieving thebalance between the needs of people and theplanet.

The Congress requested FAO to monitor, assessand report on progress in the implementation ofthe conclusions outlined in its final statement. Aprogress report will be presented to the XIIIWorld Forestry Congress to take place in 2009.

Forest News4

20th SESSION OF ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY COMMISSIONPEGGED TO CONVENE IN FIJI

Participants attending the 20th session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission (APFC) in April2004 are in for a rare and special treat. TheCommission has accepted the kind offer of theGovernment of Fiji to convene its next generalsession in the South Pacific island paradise. Thosefortunate enough to attend are sure to enjoy thesuperb hospitality and fascinating culture of theFijian people, and spectacular beauty of the SouthPacific islands.

The Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission meets ingeneral session every two years, in addition tocarrying out its various inter-sessional activities.The general session provides member countriesand other interested organizations an opportunityto assess the successes and challenges in forestryin Asia and the Pacific, and to develop programsfor regional cooperation.

APFC will convene its 20th session in Nadi, Fiji,19-23 April 2004. The agenda will include thefollowing:C State of forestry in the region: regional trends

and developments in forestry in Asia and thePacific;

C Progress and implementation of APFC andFAO-supported activities and global forestryinitiatives;

C Financing sustainable forest management:securing and managing required resources;

C Forest conventions, treaties and more: areregional agreements the way to go?

The meeting will also feature an in-sessionseminar, “In Search for Excellence: ExemplaryForest Management in Asia and the Pacific.” TheIn Search for Excellence initiative was launched inNovember 2001. It has documented examples ofpositive forest management across a broad rangeof forest eco-types, ownership structures, size andmanagement objectives from 20 countries in the

Asia-Pacific region. From among the 170nominations, 30 forests were selected for in-depthcase studies. The process and findings of theinitiative will be shared during the seminar.

A number of side meetings will also be organizedin conjunction with the APFC session, details ofwhich will be forthcoming. Collaboratingorganizations wishing to organize side meetings atthe time of the APFC session should contact theAPFC Secretary at the contact points below.

One side meeting that is already confirmed is apre-session workshop on Implementation of theIPF/IFF Proposals for Action and National ForestProgrammes. This important workshop will beconvened 16-17 April 2004 at the same venue asthe main APFC session.

Formal invitations for the APFC session will soonbe extended to member countries and recognizedinternational non-governmental organizations(NGOs) and intergovernmental organizations.Member countries are strongly encouraged toinclude a range of individuals from thegovernment, private sector, universities and NGOsin their delegations. Individuals wishing toparticipate in the APFC session should arrange tobe registered as part of their country’s officialdelegation. This is best done by contacting theresponsible officials at government forestryagencies.

For more information on the session, pleasecontact the APFC Secretary at the followingaddress:Patrick Durst Senior Forestry OfficerFAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, ThailandTel: (66-2) 697-4139; Fax: (66-2) 697-4445E-mail: [email protected]

Forest News 5

PUTTING HEADS TOGETHER IN THE SOUTH PACIFIC

The Heads of Forestry (HoF) of 14 Pacific islandcountries and territories met in Nadi, Fiji, 19-23May 2003. The meeting was organized by theSecretariat of the Pacific Community (SPC) andattracted more than 30 participants fromgovernment, non-governmental organizations,regional and international agencies. The HoFmeeting had not been convened for three years andtherefore provided a welcome opportunity for the14 forestry leaders to deliberate on forestrymatters in the Pacific. The theme for the meeting“Planning the future of the forests and trees sectorof the Pacific,” provided a useful framework forthe lively discussions that ensued.

The program included updates on regional forestryprograms, review of the regional forestry strategy,agency statements and an introduction to theNational Forest Programme Facility. A field visitenabled participants to gain some insights into theharvesting operations in Fiji HardwoodCorporation’s mahogany plantations and attemptsto optimize Fijian landowners participation inforestry operations.

Major items for deliberation included the proposedrevision of the Regional Forestry Strategic Plan(2001-2004) and a recent review of the LandResources Division (LRD) of SPC. Participantsrecommended adding two objectives to theRegional Forestry Strategic Plan: one providingsupport to countries in meeting commitmentsrelated to international conventions, and thesecond to promote the use of regional expertise instrengthening national capacities. Working groupsdrafted new program components for the additional objectives and a revised

Strategic Plan will be circulated for furthercomments and endorsement in the near future.

An intense debate focused on the findings of thereview of the SPC Land Resources Division.Although SPC recently accepted the report, itseleven recommendations are still underconsideration. Deliberations focused onRecommendation 10(a), which recommends anorganizational restructuring of the Land ResourcesDivision into two large programs, i.e. Biosecurityand Trade Support and Integrated Farm andForest Development. This new structure wouldreplace the old structure consisting of anagriculture and forestry program with links in thearea of agroforestry. The HoFs recommendedunanimously that the current Land ResourcesDivision structure be retained and that linkagesbetween agriculture and forestry be strengthened.The HoFs were particularly concerned thatforestry and agroforestry were at risk of beingsubsumed completely under agriculture by thenew structure.

Other issues considered during the meeting relatedto plant genetic resources, landowner participationin forest operations, the current economic situationin Solomon Islands, the importance ofagroforestry for small island states, capacitystrengthening in forest policy and legislation, andthe need for support by regional and internationalorganizations. In this regard, the introduction tothe National Forest Programme Facility waswelcomed and the HoFs recommended that SPCpropose an appropriate regional activity that canbe supported by the Facility. A proposal iscurrently being drafted for consideration by thenext NFP Facility Steering Committee.

Forest News6

TOWARD THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A REGIONAL MODELFOREST CENTER/NETWORK FOR ASIA-PACIFIC

A consultation was convened 20-22 May in HuaHin, Thailand, to discuss the proposedestablishment of a Regional Model ForestCenter/Network for Asia-Pacific (RMFC/N-AP).The consultation was jointly organized by FAO,the International Model Forest NetworkSecretariat (IMFNS), the FAO/IMFNS Project forRegional Consultations on Model Forests in theAsia-Pacific Region (GCP/RAS/197/CAN) andthe FAO/IMFNS Regional Model Forest BridgingInitiative (GCP/RAS/195/CAN).

The main objective of the consultation was todevelop a framework, including terms ofreference, organizational structure, work plan,budget, donor support, collaborating agencies,implementation strategy, and other issuespertaining to the establishment of RMFC/N-AP.

The consultation was attended by 15 participantsfrom the Philippines, Thailand and Indonesia; theEU/UNDP Small Grants Programme to PromoteTropical Forests (SGP PTF); RegionalCommunity Forest Training Center (RECOFTC),the World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF-ChiangMai), IMFNS and FAO.

The consultation emphasized the need for activecollaboration with various agencies, particularlySGP PTF, RECOFTC, ICRAF, etc. Following theconsultation, a project document on theestablishment of RMFC/N-AP is being preparedand will be forwarded to project countryrepresentatives (China, Indonesia, Myanmar,Philipines, and Thailand) and other key partnersfor comments. The final project document willthen be submitted to donors for support.

The consultation also provided the opportunity toupdate model forest (MF) activities in thePhilippines, Thailand and Indonesia and to reviewactivities proposed by countries for the coming

year. Myanmar and China did not send anyrepresentatives, but sent letters endorsing theestablishment of a Regional Model ForestCenter/Network for Asia-Pacific.

In Ulot Watershed MF in the Philippines,collaboration with the Samar Island BiodiversityProject (SIBP) and others is ongoing. A national-level MF workshop on “Sharing of experiencesand lessons learnt from Ulot Model Forest” wasorganized in March 2003. Representatives fromthe 16 regions covered by the Department ofEnvironment and Natural Resources (DENR),Philippines, signed a resolution recommending theadoption of the model forest approach (MFA) toimplement various DENR projects in the country.The DENR Secretary was requested to issue adirective to institutionalize the MFA withappropriate guidelines.

In Thailand, MF activities are focused onstrengthening the partnership group; collaborativemanagement of bamboo and other resources; andimproving the livelihoods of communities. TheUSDA Forest Service is providing support toexpand collaborative management of bamboo toadditional communities. The proposal fromThailand for ITTO support for Ngao MFdevelopment has been approved by theInternational Tropical Timber Council, but isawaiting funding from donors. Thailand isconsidering establishing a second MF in adifferent forest ecosystem. The Royal ForestDepartment, is currently undergoing a majorreorganization, which may affect theimplementation of MF activities.

Indonesia has expressed a strong interest inpursuing the model forest approach. Presently,there are three MF initiatives in the country,namely Labanan MF, Margowitan MF andBulungan Model Forest.

Forest News 7

MANAGING FORESTS TO ALLEVIATE POVERTY – EXPLORING THE OPTIONS

The idea of managing forests specifically to helpalleviate rural poverty has been discussed forsome time. Although conceptually appealing, itsrealization appears blocked by numerous hurdles.Nevertheless, after almost a decade of seriouswork on issues related to forests and poverty, theexperiences in the region are showing increasingpromise. To highlight and promote these positiveexperiences and opportunities, FAO recentlysupported the organization of a series of threeworkshops in the region.

The sub-themes of the three workshops were: i)the changing roles for research, development andtraining institutions; ii) opportunities with theClean Development Mechanism (CDM),environmental services and biodiversity; and iii)community forestry.

Changing role for research, development andtraining institutions

The first workshop in the series dealt withinstitutional changes needed for to address thenew roles of forestry research, development andtraining agencies. It was held in Dehra Dun, India,17-18 June 2003, and was organized by FAO, theForestry Research Support Programme for Asiaand the Pacific (FORSPA), the Asia PacificAssociation of Forestry Research Institutions(APAFRI) and the Indian Council for ForestryResearch and Education (ICFRE). Fifty-twoparticipants from 12 countries in the regionattended the 2-day workshop. There was aproductive mix of senior scientists and researchmanagers from various government agencies, aswell as a number from the private sector, NGOsand community groups involved in public sectorresearch programmes.

The objectives of the workshop were to review thecurrent state of knowledge and developments withrespect to the role forests play in reducing rural

poverty and the changes in approaches andstrategies needed. In all, 24 presentations weremade, grouped according to the following themes:C managing forest for poverty alleviation:

strategies and mechanisms;C quantification and geo-referencing poverty;C lessons from past and current projects and

programs;C understanding the problem and agenda for

forestry research;C forest policy and the role of R&D institutes in

poverty alleviation; andC future research perspectives for poverty

alleviation.

The latter two themes were especially pertinent inexamining the policies, institutional changes andresearch needs necessary to tap the potential offorests for poverty reduction. It was clearlyhighlighted that, with few exceptions, nationalforestry agencies (research, development andtraining) in the Asia-Pacific region have yet tofully recognize these changes and their impacts, orto reshape themselves to meet these new demandsand additional new roles. The workshoprecommended the establishment of a mechanismfor national institutes in the region to interact,network and exchange information andexperiences in tackling rural poverty and forestconservation.

Opportunities with the Clean DevelopmentMechanism, environmental services andbiodiversity

The second workshop in the series looked into thepotential of the Clean Development Mechanism(CDM), ecological services, and biodiversity toimprove the welfare of rural communities. Theworkshop was convened 27-29 August 2003, inSeoul, Republic of Korea. FAO, FORSPA,APAFRI, the Seoul National University, the KoreaForest Service, and the Northeast Asian Forest

Forest News8

Forum collaborated in organizing the workshop. Atotal of 35 participants from 13 countries attended.

The participants were roughly divided in theiropinions on the potential for CDM, environmentalservices, and biodiversity to mitigate ruralpoverty. The first group, following the traditionalresearch path of reviewing the accumulated data,questioned the very premise that it was possible toaddress rural poverty through forest management.They argued that deforestation in manydeveloping countries is closely correlated withcorruption, and unless this egregious character iseliminated through developments in other sectors,e.g. education, good governance, better policies,ownership rights and surveillance, the forests willcontinue to decline and poverty will remain.

On the other hand, the larger group, usingempirical approaches, did not feel curbed by suchpessimism and proceeded to examine the varietyof mechanisms that could be used to captureadditional wealth for rural communities.

Within the framework of ecological services,discussions touched on market-based instrumentsfor watershed protection, environmental servicesfor the upland poor, urban-rural partnerships forproviding drinking water, and plowing backrevenues earned from hydropower generation torural communities.

The potential for forestry to tap the CDM receivedconsiderable attention. However, it wasrecognized that CDM is not fully clarified andthere is a clear need for market mechanisms andappropriate assessment methods for forest ownersto realize its full potential.

The still highly intractable issue of translating thebenefits of biodiversity into tangible financialrewards for rural communities was alsoconsidered. While the true worth of biodiversityremains elusive, attempts to capture financialbenefits are beginning to show promise.

The workshop developed several proposals forfurther action, viz.: i) an information clearinghouse on CDM for the region; ii) encouraging

small CDM projects to aid poverty alleviation; iii)institutional arrangements for mobilizing privateindustry’s input in implementing the “Conventionof Biological Diversity;” and iv) economicincentives for private investment in conservation.

Overall, there is heightened interest throughout theregion for tapping the benefits of carbon credits,ecological services and biodiversity conservationfor alleviating rural poverty. While a few countriesare already exploring these avenues, the majorityhave no experience in doing so. If further progressis to be made, there is a strong need for regionalinstitutional initiatives and arrangements toprovide the necessary information, enablingmechanisms and guidelines.

Can community forestry make money?

The third workshop in the series focused on thepotential for community forestry to contribute topoverty alleviation. The workshop was held 1-2September 2003, in Beijing China. It wasorganized by FAO, FORSPA, APAFRI, and theChinese Academy of Forestry. Fifty-threeparticipants from 15 countries attended.

The objectives of the workshop were to:C review community forestry concepts,

practices, and conditions where successes areachieved;

C identify new and innovative mechanisms toelevate community forestry from a subsistencerole to that of a lucrative industry;

C examine the policy and financial issuesneeded to strengthen the introduction,adoption, and practice of community forestry;and

C provide a forum for national institutes in theregion to exchange information andexperiences in tackling rural poverty throughcommunity forestry.

Discussions centered mainly on non-wood forestproducts (NWFPs) , gender aspects, and countryexperiences dealing with forest tenure, farmforestry, land reclamation, customary practices,local knowledge, and village cooperatives.Another session on poverty reduction mainly

Forest News 9

looked further into research needs and models forcommunity-based resource management.

One discussion group considered the specific roleof non-wood forest products in communityf o r e s t r y a n d p o v e r t y a l l e v i a t i o n .Recommendations included a call for reviewingcurrent forest policies relevant to the use ofNWFPs, with particular reference to tenure, userrights, permits, land use, credit, taxation, businesssustainability, conservation of resources, and theeffectiveness of farmers’ organizations.

A second working group addressed the role ofgender. It recommended mainstreaming genderconcerns at the government level and buildingawareness and capacity for collecting and usingsegregated information about gender roles andresponsibilities.

Other recommendations for further developingand supporting community forestry wereproposed. These included enhancing informationexchange and t echno logy t r ansfer ,institutionalizing folk knowledge, improvinginformation on markets, and establishing a

regional network of stakeholders.

A proposal was made for a framework for sharingcountries’ experiences, logically organized underthe auspices of an international or regional bodysuch as APAFRI or FAO. A second proposal wasto develop criteria and indicators to evaluatecommunity forestry.

The main conclusion, strongly stressed by theworkshop participants, was that communityforestry can play a role in alleviating poverty, butonly if implemented in a deliberate manner withpoverty reduction as an objective. Suchcommunity forestry approaches cannot beimplemented in the absence of positive supportingpolicies.

Follow up

The organizers of the three workshops arecurrently in the process of editing reports andproceedings, which should be available by the endof 2003.

“After you have exhausted what there is in business, politics, conviviality, love and so on – have foundthat none of these finally satisfy, or permanently wear – what remains? Nature remains; to bring outfrom their torpid recesses, the affinities of a man or woman with the open air, the trees, fields, thechanges of seasons – the sun by day and the stars of heaven by night. We all begin from theseconvictions.”

Excerpt from “Specimen Days” by Walt Whitman (1892)

10 Forest News

RAPO STAFF MOVEMENTS

Mr. Simmathiri Appanah has been appointed asthe new National Forest Programmes Adviser forAsia and the Pacific. Mr. Appanah succeedsDarmo Suparmo, who retired in December 2002.

Mr. Appanah was formerly with the ForestResearch Institute Malaysia (FRIM) from 1981-2000, where his last position was as the Directorof the Division of Natural Forests.

He was appointed Senior Programme Adviser ofthe Forestry Research Support Programme forA s i a a n d t h e P a c i f i c ( F O R S P A )(GCP/RAS/163/NET) in June 2000 and served inthat capacity until June 2003.

Mr. Philip McKenzie, a national of TheNetherlands, joined RAPO as an AssociateProfessional Officer in mid-April 2003. Mr.McKenzie will be working on forest policy relatedissues in the region.

Mr. McKenzie graduated with a M.Sc. in TropicalForestry from the Wageningen AgriculturalUniversity, The Netherlands, in 1999.

Prior to joining FAO, Mr. McKenzie worked forFORM Ecology Consultants, where he wasresponsible for issues related to forest certificationand forest management.

Ms. Miyuki Ishikawa, a national of Japan, joinedRAPO as an Associate Professional Officer(Forest Economics and Policy) in May 2003.

Ms. Ishikawa obtained a B.A. in law from SophiaUniversity, Japan (1997), a Post-GraduateDiploma from the Institute of DevelopingEconomics Advanced School, Japan (1999), aswell as a Master in Public Administration/International Development from John F. KennedySchool of Government, Harvard University(2001).

Prior to joining RAPO she worked with the FAORepresentation in Laos as Programme Officerunder a voluntary programme.

Mr. Tang Hon Tat was recently awarded theAsia Pacific Commonwealth Forestry AssociationMedal of Excellence for 2002. The award waspresented in September at the World ForestryCongress in Quebec, Canada.

In presenting the award, the CommonwealthForestry Association acknowledged Mr. Tang asfollows:

“The Association considers you to be anoutstanding contributor to the profession offorestry over a long time of solid commitment. Youhave demonstrated by your leadership in dealingwith the interests of 22 Pacific Island DevelopingCountries and Territories the ability to advancethe development of sustainable use andmanagement of forests. Thus you have alsoassisted people associated with the forests to maketheir own contribution to their particularenvironments.”

Mr. Tang has been recruited as half time ProjectCoordinator for the FAO/IMFNS Regional ModelForest Bridging Initiative (GCP/RAS/195/CAN).He was formerly Chief Technical Adviser of theFAO/Japan Trust Fund regional project on“Assistance for the Implementation of the ModelForest Approach for Sustainable ForestManagement in the Asia Pacific Region”(GCP/RAS/177/JPN).

Mr. Ravi Hegde, former Associate ProfessionalOfficer with the project “Assistance for theImplementation of the Model Forest Approach forSustainable Forest Management in the Asia PacificRegion” (GCP/RAS/177/JPN), has been offeredadmission and financial support to enter the Ph.D.program at the Faculty of Forestry, University ofBritish Columbia, Canada, in January 2004.

Forest News 11

ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CHIPS AND CLIPS

CHINA’S MDF INDUSTRY

Rapid expansion in facilities has made China aworld leader in medium-density fiberboard (MDF)production. China presently has 236 MDFmanufacturing plants with an annual capacity of 8million cubic meters. Most of the facilities arelocated in eastern China.– ITTO Market Information Service –

WOOD STOVE PROGRAMME DOUSED

An evaluation of the National Programme onImproved Chulhas (NPIC) in India has seen thelong-running wood stove programme disbanded.The programme has been running for 17 years andinstalled around 34 million chulhas in 2001-2002.Ostensibly, the programme has been shut downbecause of widespread corruption and lack ofpeople’s participation. Question marks were alsoraised about the effectiveness of the chulhas, with50 percent of surveyed participants finding onlymarginal saving in woodfuels and 10 percentreporting increased consumption.– Down To Earth online newsletter –

THAI ELEPHANTS OFF THE STREETS

Several domesticated Thai elephants have left thestreets of Bangkok and are now working in theforests as part of the Elephant Patrols for ForestConservation and Ecotourism project. The project,funded by the Honda Thailand Foundation, hastaken the elephants from begging for food inBangkok, to carrying out forest patrols withforestry officials to stop illegal logging.– Bangkok Post –

NEPAL AWARD FOR FECOFUN

The Ministry of Environment in Nepal haspresented the Federation of Community ForestUsers (FECOFUN) with the national Environment

Prize. The prize is awarded each year as part ofWorld Environment Day celebrations in Nepal.– FECOFUN Press Release –

FOREST CONSERVATION AID FROMDENMARK

Denmark will give the Thai government more thanUS$6 million for the second phase of the WesternForest Complex Ecosystem Management Project.The second-phase of this forest conservationproject will run for 5 years.– Bangkok Post –

GROWTH IN CHINESE FURNITUREMANUFACTURING

China’s furniture manufacturing industry iscurrently valued at around 140 billion yuan(US$17 billion), with more than 50,000manufacturing enterprises. This compares with anindustry valuation of just 1.3 billion yuan in 1978,implying an average annual growth rate of 15percent over the intervening 25 years. Chinesefurniture exports in the first 6 months of 2002were valued at around US$2.6 billion.– ITTO Market Information Service –

BANGLADESH INVESTING IN PULPPLANTATIONS

The Bangladesh government has announced plansto establish a 5,800 hectare forest plantation inBandarban and surrounding districts. The forestwill primarily supply wood to nearby pulp andpaper mills.– The Independent –

LEAKY BUILDINGS A HEALTH HAZARD

New building techniques and the use of untreatedframing timber are being blamed for widespreadproblems with leaky buildings in New Zealand.The total value of affected housing is estimated to

Forest News12

be more than NZ$250 million. Now, scientistshave discovered that mould growing in manyleaky buildings is poisonous and constitutes aserious health hazard. The stachybotrous funguscauses headaches, rashes and respiratoryproblems, and may cause damage to people’sDNA, with the risk of cancer and deformities inunborn children.– Nzoom.com –

NATIONAL FOREST COMMISSIONFORMED

The first National Forest Commission (NFC) hasbeen set up with the former Chief Justice, Justice B.N.Kirpal, as its Chairperson. The Commissionwill submit its report within two years. Theseven-member Commission will review and assessthe existing forest policy and legal framework andtheir impact from the ecological, scientific,economic, social and cultural points of view. Itwill also examine the current status of forestadministration and institutions, both at the nationaland State levels, to meet the emerging needs ofcivil society. The Commission will recommendspecific policy options for achieving sustainableforest and wildlife management and development,bio-diversity conservation and ecological security,besides suggesting ways and means to makeadministration more effective to achieve policygoals. The other members of the Commission arethe Director-General of Forests (Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests), M.K. Sharma, theformer Tamil Nadu Chief Secretary, A.P.Muthuswamy, noted environmentalists, ChandiPrasad Bhatt and M.K. Ranjitsinh, and J.S. Singhof the Benaras Hindu University. The AdditionalDirector-General of Forests will be the ex-officiomember/secretary of the Commission. – India’s National Newspaper –

HUGE NEW PROTECTED AREA INAUSTRALIA

A massive area of Australia’s central desert hasbeen declared a protected area and turned over toAboriginal management. The Ngaanyatjarra

indigenous area covers 98,000 square kilometers– an area twice the size of Switzerland.Ngaamyatjarra aims to protect the culture of itsAboriginal inhabitants, as well as the flora andfauna of areas largely untouched by Europeaninfluences, including pastoral grazing. It is thefifteenth indigenous area to be declared inAustralia, and the largest ever, incorporatingsections of the Gibson, Great Sandy and GreatVictoria deserts.– Reuters –

LOGGING BANNED IN JAVA

The Indonesian government has announced an endto all logging on Java in a move designed toprotect water supplies and the remaining naturalforests. Demand for water on Java is presentlyestimated at 38 billion cubic meters per annum,while current supplies are only 27 billion cubicmeters. The government plans to undertakesignificant reforestation of lands presently used forwater intensive agriculture such as rice-farming toeliminate the water deficit. Reforestation effortstargeting 1 million hectares by 2005 have beenannounced. At present, Java’s forest cover isaround 5 percent of the total land area, and forestareas are still being cleared for agriculture.– Jakarta Post –

COMMUNITY FORESTRY – “DO NOT PASSGO, DO NOT COLLECT $200"

Much like in the board game Monopoly©, it seemscommunity forestry in Nepal has landed on theIncome Tax square, with a governmentannouncement that a 40 percent income tax will beimposed on Community Forestry User Groups.The Federation of Community Forestry Users(FECOFUN) has vowed to defy the new order,with measures as extreme as destroying the treesand civil disobedience being proposed as means ofopposing the tax. The Government argues that theforests are a national resource and benefits fromthe forests need to be shared among all Nepalis.– RECOFTC Community Forestry E-News –

Forest News 13

NEW RAP FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS

COMMUNITY-BASED FIRE MANAGEMENT: CASE STUDIES FROM CHINA, THE GAMBIA,HONDURAS, INDIA, THE LAO PEOPLE’S DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC AND TURKEYRAP Publication 2003/08Forest Resources Development Service, Working Paper FFM/2

The frequency and intensity of forest fires haveincreased dramatically in many parts of the worldin recent years, resulting in major impacts onforests and on rural and urban people andeconomies. Faced with increasing fire occurrencesand decreasing fire suppression budgets,government agencies, local organizations andforest users must consider the full range of firemanagement options from around the world. Byconsidering proactive approaches – in particularthose that engage local communities in theplanning and implementing of fire managementactivities – fire management organizations mayavoid the pitfalls and mistakes of the past. Thispublication features case studies documenting arange of local fire management scenarios, eachwith a diverse set of land uses and desiredoutcomes. The community-based firesmanagement (CBFiM) approaches from the LaoPeople’s Democratic Republic (Lao PDR), TheGambia, Honduras, India, China and Turkeypresented in this publication illustrate a recentshift in direction; a movement away fromcentralized and state-driven forest firemanagement towards decentralized and mainlycommunity-based management regimes. Theseapproaches offer promise of being more effective

and more sustainable than conventional firemanagement and suppression approaches over thelong term. However, they may operate effectivelyonly where local populations are alreadyadequately empowered to manage and use naturalresources. It is imperative that practical steps aretaken to capture the opportunities that CBFiM hasto offer and to identify viable frameworks formoving these initiatives forward. It is hoped thatthis publication will serve to advance thesemeasures wherever appropriate.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF WOODFUEL CONSUMPTION ANDPRODUCTION: A CASE STUDY OF CEBU PROVINCE, PHILIPPINES (MARCH 2003)EC-FAO Partnership Programme (2000-2002)

Fuelwood, charcoal and other forms of biomassenergy contribute considerably to meeting theenergy requirements of the Philippines as well asmany other countries in the Asia-Pacific region.The collection, distribution and sale of these fuelsalso provide income and employment to thousandsof Filipinos. Yet, despite this importance, little is

known about how woodfuels are managed,produced, traded and used in the Philippines.These fuels are often considered inferior, and thereis a widespread belief that fuelwood collection isa major cause of deforestation and environmentaldegradation. At best, woodfuels are more or lessignored by policy makers. At worst, they are

Forest News14

perceived to be a problem that needs to beaddressed.

The study shows that, in relative terms, woodfuelsas a source of energy have lost importance.However, while the demand for liquifiedpetroleum gas (LPG) as a primary fuel increaseddramatically between 1992 and 2002, the overallconsumption of woodfuels has remained fairlystable over time due to population growth.Furthermore, the study shows that woodfuelproduction is not a major source of environmentaldegradation. Widespread reforestation andintensive tree management practices in many partsof Cebu are due, at least in part, to the existence ofcommercial woodfuel demand in Cebu City andCebu’s commercial woodfuel system represents a

sustainable approach to meeting a significantportion of the island’s energy needs.

WOOD ENERGY INFORMATION ANALYSIS IN ASIA (APRIL 2003)EC-FAO Partnership Programme (2000-2002)

In most developing countries, woodfuels(fuelwood and charcoal) are the main forestproducts derived from forests and trees outsideforests. In order to formulate appropriate policiesfor the forestry and energy sectors, it is vital tounderstand how woodfuels are produced, tradedand utilized. This study was undertaken to reviewexisting data collection approaches and to assessthe status of woodfuel information systems inselected Asian countries. Analyses of the socio-economic importance and ecological impact ofwoodfuels production, utilization and trade werealso undertaken. Finally, organizational andinstitutional issues related to strengtheningcapacities for wood energy information systemswere addressed.

The study shows that adequate information onwoodfuels remains scarce in most countries. Datacollection focuses mostly on householdconsumption. Data are rarely disaggregated andoften unreliable. Wood energy consumption datacontinue to have limitations, particularly forenergy demand projections. Few countries conductregular national-level energy consumption surveysbecause of cost and time constraints. This makesit difficult to plan woodfuel production and assess

its environmental and socio-economic impact. Thestudy makes a number of recommendations toovercome current constraints and suggests threedifferent types of surveys and the use of casestudies in selected areas, representative ofdifferent situations at national levels.

Forest News 15

COMMUNITY FORESTRY: CURRENT INNOVATONS AND EXPERIENCESA Digital Learning Resource©RECOFTC and FAO, 2003, Bangkok, Thailand

“Community forestry: current innovations andexperiences – a digital learning resource” wasdeveloped from ideas and materials presented atthe International Conference “AdvancingCommunity Forestry Innovations andExperiences” held in Chiang Mai, Thailand, 25-28September 2001. The conference was organizedby the Regional Community Forestry TrainingCenter (RECOFTC), the Food and AgricultureOrganization (FAO), the World AgroforestryCentre (ICRAF), the World Conservation Union(IUCN), the Sustainable Management ofResources in the Lower Mekong Basin Project(SMRP) and the German Ministry of EconomicCooperation and Development (BMZ).

The focus of the conference was on providing anopportunity for community forestry practitionersto exchange experiences so as to contribute to thedevelopment of a better understanding of thedynamic context in which community forestry is

implemented, and where community forestry isheading.

A short booklet includes a conference overviewand a reflection paper based on many of thediscussions and experiences shared during theconference. Packaged along with the booklet is aninteractive CD that allows users to learn about theinnovations and issues discussed at theconference.

The CD-ROM was compiled and written byMichael Victor and Karen Edwards and developedby Robert Starkweather, Minds Eye, Cambodia.The system requirements for using the CD ROMare:C for Windows:

- Windows 98+- CD-ROM Drive

C for Macintosh :- MAC OS X- Quicktime 5- CD-ROM Drive

Forest News16

FAO ASIA-PACIFIC FORESTRY CALENDAR

17-20 November 2003. Kisarazu City, Chiba Prefecture, Japan. International Expert Meeting on theDevelopment and Implementation of National Codes of Practice for Forest Harvesting: Issues andOptions. Contact: Yuji Imaizumi, International Forestry Cooperation Office, 1-2-1 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8952, Japan; Fax: +81-3-3593-9565; E-mail: [email protected]

3-4 December 2003. Bangkok, Thailand. Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Executive CommitteeMeeting. Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand;Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

12-17 January 2004. Lampang & Chiangmai, Thailand. Regional Consultation on Developing Monitoringand Evaluation Systems for Model Forests, and on Developing a Model Forest Network for Asia-Pacific.Contact: Tang Hon Tat, Coordinator, FAO/IMFNS Regional Model Forest Bridging Initiative (RMF/BI),GCP/RAS/195/CAN, c/o FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Bangkok 10200,Thailand; Tel: (66-2) 697-4136; Fax: (66-2) 697-4432; E-mail: [email protected]

January 2004. India (venue to be confirmed). Workshop on Incentives for Forest Plantation Developmentin South Asia. Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and thePacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand;Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

January 2004 (dates to be confirmed). Hanoi, Vietnam. Workshop on Incentives for Forest PlantationDevelopment in East Asia. Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand;Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax:(662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

March 2004. Zheijiang, China (dates and venue to be confirmed). Development of Timber Certification inChina: Progress and Issues. Contact: Patrick Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asiaand the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand;Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax:(662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

16-17 April 2004. Nadi, Fiji. Regional Workshop on Implementation of IPF/IFF Proposals for Action andNational Forest Programmes. Contact: Simmathiri Appanah, National Forest Programme Adviser for Asiaand the Pacific, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok10200, Thailand;Tel. (662) 697-4136; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

19-23 April 2004. Nadi, Fiji. 20th Session of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission. Contact: Patrick Durst,Senior Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road,Bangkok 10200, Thailand;Tel. (662) 697-4139; Fax: (662) 697-4445; E-mail: [email protected]

FOREST NEWS is issued by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific as part of TIGERPAPER.This issue of FOREST NEWS was compiled by Patrick B. Durst, Senior Forestry Officer, FAO/RAP.

FORESTRY PUBLICATIONS: FAO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC (RAP)

For copies, please write to: Forestry Section, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

1. Leucaena Psyllid in the Asia Pacific Region:

Implications for its Management in Africa (RAPA Publication 1994/13)

2. Asia-Pacific Tropical Forestry: Ecological Disaster or Sustainable Growth? (RAPA Publication 1994/18)

3. Workshop Report: Reform of the Forestry Sector: Towards a Market Orientation in China, Laos, Mongolia, Myanmar, and Vietnam (RAPA Publication 1995/4)

4. Beyond Timber: Social, Economic and Cultural Dimensions of Non-Wood Forest Products in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 1995/13)

5. A Guide to the Identification of Diseases and Pests of Neem (Azadirachta indica) (RAP Publication 1995/41)

6. Non-Wood Forest Products in Bhutan (RAP Publication 1996/6)

7. Asia-Pacific Agroforestry Profiles: Second Edition (APAN Field Doc. No.4/RAP Publication 1996/20)

8. The Khao Kho Story: Reclaiming the Barren Hills of Thailand's Central Highlands (RAP Publication 1996/27)

9. Reports Submitted to the Regional Expert Consultation on Eucalyptus - Vol.II (RAP Publication 1996/44)

10. Forests and Forest Management in Mongolia (RAP Publication 1997/4)

11. Non-wood Forest Products: Tropical Palms (RAP Publication 1997/10)

12. Gone Astray: The Care and Management of the Asian Elephant in Domesticity (RAP Publication 1997/16)

13. Directory of Selected Tropical Forestry Journals and Newsletters (2nd Edition) RAP Publication 1997/17 - FORSPA Publication No.19/1997.

14. Forest Dependent Survival Strategies of Tribal Women: Implications for Joint Forest Management in Andhra Pradesh, India (RAP Publication 1997/24)

15. Labor-Intensive Harvesting of Tree Plantations in the Southern Philippines (RAP Publication 1997/41)

16. Ecotourism for Forest Conservation and Community Development (RAP Publication 1997/42

17. Leasing Degraded Forest Land: An Innovative Way to Integrate Forest and Livestock Development in Nepal (RAP Publication 1998/4)

18. Carbon Dioxide Offset Investment in the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector: Opportunities and Constraints (RAP Publication 1998/9)

19. Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - Executive Summary: The Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study (RAP Publication 1998/22)

20. Asia-Pacific Forestry Towards 2010 - Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study

21. Regional Strategy for Implementing the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific

22. Trees Commonly Cultivated in Southeast Asia - An Illustrated Field Guide 2nd Edition. (RAP Publication 1999/13)

23. Decentralization and Devolution of Forest Management in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2000/1 - RECOFTC Report No.18)

24. Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission Fifty Years (RAP Publication 2000/2

25. Development of National-level Criteria and Indicators for the Sustainable Management of Dry Forests in Asia: Workshop Report (RAP Publication 2000/07); Background Papers (RAP Publication 2000/08)

26. Forests Out of Bounds: Impacts and Effectiveness of Logging Bans in Natural Forests in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/08); Executive Summary (RAP Publication 2001/10)

27. Regional Training Strategy: Supporting the Implementation of the Code of Practice for Forest Harvesting in Asia-Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/15)

28. Trash or Treasure? Logging and Mill Residues in Asia and the Pacific (RAP Publication 2001/16)

29. Proceedings of the International Conference on Timber Plantation Development

30. Monograph on benzoin (Balsamic resin from Styrax species) (RAP Publication: 2001/21)

31. Applying Reduced Impact Logging to Advance Sustainable Forest Management (RAP Publication: 2002/14

32. Report of the Asia-Pacific Forestry Commission 19th Session (RAP Publication: 2002/21 FO/APFC/2002/REP)

33. Communities in Flames: Proceedings of an International Conference on Community Involvement in Fire Management (RAP Publication: 2002/25)

34. Giants On Our Hands (RAP Publication: 2002/30) 35. Community-based fire management: case studies

from China, The Gambia, Honduras, India, the Lao People’s Democratic Republic and Turkey. (RAP Publication 2003/08)

Periodicals Tigerpaper/Forest News APANews

Contentshunting instinct present in both tigers and lions suffers the effects of irritation and trauma from human presence. Being a zoo-cum-national park, human presence is unavoidable.

Documents