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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia Geography and Climate
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2
The Dolgans: General Information
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4
The Dolgans: Beliefs and Cultural Traditions
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5
The Dolgans: Traditional Nature Use
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7
The Evenks. General Information
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12
The Evenks: Traditional Nature Use
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12
The Evenks: Worldview and Spiritual Traditions
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21
The Evens. Ethnohistorical Review
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23
The Evens. Traditional Nature Use
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24
The Evens vs the Environment and Climate Change
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30
The Yukaghirs: Ethnohistorical
Review........................................................................................
44
The Yukaghirs: Traditional Culture in the Late Twentieth Century
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The Yukaghirs: Traditional Nature Use
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48
The Yukaghirs: Traditional Worldview
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51
The Yukaghirs: Climate Change and its Impact on Traditional
Lifestyle ..................................... 54
The Yakuts: Ethnohistorical Review
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56
The Yakuts: Traditional Economy and Life Sustenance
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56
The Yakuts: Traditional Beliefs about Nature and
Humans..........................................................
60
The Yakuts: Adapting to the Climate Changes
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64
Sources
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67
About Authors
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69
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
Geography and Climate
The territory of the present-day Republic of Sakha (Yakutia)
occupies the northeastern part of the Eurasian continent. Its total
area, including the adjacent islands in the Arctic Ocean, is
31,032,000 square km. The Republic stretches 2000 km from north to
south and 2500 km from west to east. The easternmost point is on
the border with the Krasnoyarsk Krai (105° east. long.), the
westernmost point is on the border with the Chukotka Autonomous
Okrug (165° east. long.), and the southernmost is in the Stanovoy
Range (55° 30' north lat.). The northernmost mainland point is at
Nordvik Cape (74° north lat.), and the most northern island is
Henrietta Island (77° north lat.). More than 40% of the republic’s
territory is located above the Arctic Circle.
Yakutia is primarily a mountainous territory. Almost two-thirds
of its area is occupied by mountains and plains. Several mountain
systems pass through the entire northeastern part of the region,
primarily in an east-west direction. These include the Verkhoyansk
Range, which serves as the watershed between Lena and Yana Rivers,
and Tas-Khayakhtakh Range to the east of Yana River. The Cherskiy
Range is the most massive mountain system in northeast Asia. It
consists of seven to eight parallel mountain chains stretching for
thousands of kilometers. The Cherskiy Range has an almost
latitudinal direction and arcs across the upper Indigirka basin.
The northwestern part of the region includes the northern edges of
the central Siberian plateau, which consists of a system of
flat-peaked mountains scattered in different directions. Their
average height is approximately five hundred to six hundred meters.
The terrain generally slopes from south to the north in the
direction of the Laptev and East Siberian Seas. Tundra stretches
out for 2000 km along their shores in a thin line a hundred to
three hundred kilometers deep.
Central Yakutia (the valleys of Lena, Aldan, and Vilyui Rivers,
and the area between the Lena and Aldan Rivers) is characterized by
a flat ridge relief around 100–250 m above the sea level. Only at
the watershed between the Lena and Vilyui Rivers does their height
rise to 300–500 m above the sea level. These special features of
the landscape of Central Yakutia were a determining factor in
defining the economic use of the territory. The alases – shallow
depressions of thermokarst origin that appear under the influence
of thawing ice – are widely developed in the area. Indigenous
people would build their dwellings primarily at the bottom of an
alas, or near the edge of the wood, in places less noticeable and
better protected from cold winds.
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
The Lena, Kolyma, Indigirka, Yana, Olenek, Olekma, Vilyui, Aldan
and other large-volume rivers flow through the territory of the
republic. Many of these rivers cross the entire republic carrying
their waters in the Arctic Ocean. The basins of the lower and
middle Lena, Kolyma, and Indigirka Rivers are dominated by vast
North Siberian, Yana-Indigir, and Kolyma plains. There are plenty
of lakes that stretch almost non-stop, connected with each other
and often connected to the nearest large rivers by small grassy
streams. The surfaces of many lakes, such as the Nidzhili,
Labynkyr, Ozhogino, Chukochye, Nerpichye lakes, measure up to
hundreds of square kilometers. Many lakes are surrounded by good
grasslands and hayfields, and their waters are filled with various
fish. The lowlands are often covered with the so-called badarans,
swamps that stretch for tens of kilometers and are nearly
impassable in the summertime.
Almost the entire mainland part of Yakutia is a zone of solid,
centuries-old permafrost. This cryolithic zone is 300-400 m thick
(up to 1500 m in the Vilyui zone). In certain places the permafrost
comes to the surface forming great aufeis, the so-called taryns.
The region has a harsh continental climate with a severe winter and
a short, warm summer. The snow cover stays from six and a half to
nine months every year. The maximum temperature range is more than
100°С. The tundra zone has rather moderate winter temperatures, but
the winds can be severe.
There are four landscape zones on the territory of Yakutia. The
largest part of the vast territory (almost 80%) is covered with
taiga forests; the rest of the territory is occupied by the tundra,
forest tundra, and the Arctic deserts.
The territory is dominated by the Dahurian larch (85% of the
forest area). Other types of commonly found trees include pine,
dwarf pine, fir, and birch.
The fauna is quite diverse, representing practically all types
of Arctic and taiga ecosystems. The islands of the Arctic Ocean are
home to the walrus, eared seal, seal, and polar bear. The mainland
is home to the reindeer, moose (elk), musk deer, bighorn, and wolf.
There are many animals with highly valued fur such as the Arctic
fox, sable, red fox, squirrel, ermine, etc. Hunting for these
animals was always an important part of the life of the indigenous
peoples of Yakutia. Fur trade items began to be exported to Russia
and beyond its borders in the 1630s. In the pre-Revolutionary
period, fur served as a form of taxation, and afterwards became a
form of state monopoly. More than fifty species of fish inhabit the
numerous bodies of water. Many of these fish, such as the Siberian
white salmon, sturgeon, Arctic cisco, broad whitefish, whitefish,
vendace, etc. are sought after by
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
fishermen. Yakutia is well-known as the nesting place for more
than 250 types of bird. To this day, the spring and fall hunting
seasons play an important role in the life of indigenous peoples.
They hunt for molted birds and upland game: ducks, geese, quails,
heather cock, and hazel grouse.
A republican ecological policy has been developed to preserve
the flora and fauna of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia). The policy
established the priorities for nature preservation and the measures
aimed at nature conservation as national goals. The establishment
of specially-protected national territories, Ytyk Kere Sirder
(sacred lands), is the priority for the Government of the Sakha
(Yakutia) Republic. These natural reserves are meant to protect the
ecosystem from the negative impact of human activity and adverse
natural factors. Preservation of the wealth and diversity of flora
and fauna would maintain the ecological balance in the areas
inhabited by the indigenous peoples of the North.
The Dolgans: General Information
The Dolgans – self-definition Dolgan, Dulgan, and Sakha – are
the northernost Turkic-language people comprising several groups of
northern Yakuts and Evenk clans, as well as Samoyedic tribes and
Russian back settlers. The Dolgans live in the northern part of
Krasnoyarsk Krai, in Taimyr (Dolgan-Nenets) District, as well as in
Anabarsky District in the north-east of the Republic of Sakha
(Yakutia). The census of 2010 recorded 7885 Dolgans living in the
Russian Federation.
History
The Dolgan ethnos was formed in the seventeenth and the
eighteenth centuries in the North of Siberia. The first mentioning
of the Dolgans was published in the works by the nineteenth century
explorers of Siberia, M.A. Kastren and A.F. Middendorf. An
important factor in the formation of the new ethnic community was
the fact that the Dolgans were Orthodox Christians (at least
formally), unlike, for example, their northern neighbors, the
Nganasans, who spoke a language that belonged to another language
family and whose material and spiritual culture was completely
different.
Language
The Dolgan language used to be attributed as a dialect of the
Yakut language. Currently it is considered as an independent
language close to the Yakut. The Dolgan language belongs to the
Turkic group of the Altai language family and
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
includes the Norilsk, Pyasinsk, Avamsk, Khatang, and Popigai
dialects. The Dolgan writing system is based on the Cyrillic
alphabet. It was officially accepted in the late 1970s. At present
the educational and methodological literature for teaching the
Dolgan language is being developed.
The Dolgans: Beliefs and Cultural Traditions
The Dolgans were considered to be Christians and performed many
Orthodox rituals, but at the same time they almost fully retained
their old beliefs. Their deities and spirits were divided into
three categories. The first group consisted of ichchi, bodiless
invisible beings whose souls could take over inanimate objects and
animate them. The second group consisted of aiyy, the spirits that
helped humans. The third group consisted of the malicious abaasy,
spirits that brought sickness and misfortune. Abaasy resided both
on earth and in the underworld. They strived to steal human souls,
take them underground, and then take over the human body. A person
whose body was overtaken by the abaasy fell gravely ill. In that
case, the Dolgans believed that only a shaman could help. If the
shaman was able to identify which of the evil spirits entered the
ill person’s body he could drive them away and cure the person.
However, if the shaman failed, the ill person died. The Dolgans
also believed in the saitaan. According to their beliefs the
saitaan could be an oddly shaped rock or a wild reindeer antler, in
other words, any object that the shaman used to plant ichchi, the
soul. The saitaans possessed powerful magic and in the eyes of the
Dolgans were a kind of an amulet that brought luck in hunting and
in everyday activities.
The Dolgans managed to preserve plenty of cultural traditions,
which are based on extensive ethnocultural experience that reflects
centuries-long ethnic traditions of peoples of the Arctic. Cultural
heritage of the Dolgans includes a number of diverse ethnic
features of different origin, their combination forms a unique
ethnic identity, which distinguishes the Dolgans from their
neighbors and other cognate peoples that are of common origin and
practice similar economic and cultural activity. Nevertheless, one
can trace the relics of the culture of ancient nomads,
forest-tundra reindeer herders, in the cultural heritage of the
Dolgans.
The Dolgan folklore combines the original Dolgan features with
the elements of art of different peoples that became part of the
Dolgan ethnos. Thus, Dolgan folklore includes the Yakut olonkho,
Evenk legends, Russian tales, etc. The distinctive folklore genres
reflect real northern environment and the everyday life of the
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
nomads. Most Dolgan songs narrate about different seasons of the
year, and the surrounding environment: rivers, mountains, trees,
and the tundra. These are improvisation songs. Hunters and reindeer
herders would sing them during long journeys. A song could consist
of a single phrase, and sometimes the Dolgans vocalized the melody
only. Round songs were also popular.
When the long polar night is over, in the end of April or
beginning of May the Dolgans celebrate the Festival of the Sun “Big
Day” or hana kun, based on the ancient sun-worship rituals, common
cultural tradition of northern nomads. During the celebration the
Dolgans dance one of the most popular rounds Kheiro around a pole
dug into the ground. The dance is not only a tribute to the Sun and
reviving nature, it has a special magic and religious meaning, it
contributes to absolution and fulfillment of good will.
Olonkho is one of the main Dolgan folklore genres. They
distinguished yryalaak olonkho (legends and narration with songs
and heroic epos) and hatyy olonkho (usual tale). The traditions of
Dolgan olonkho are close in plot, contexture and pictorialism to
the northern versions of the Yakut heroic epos. Dolgan
story-tellers usually performed olonkho in the evenings after
supper. They recited the narrative part of the epos and sang the
songs of the heroes. Different songs of different heroes had their
own melody. Dolgans respected talented olonkhosuty and considered
them as persons selected by kind divine beings and good spirits,
aiyy. They believed that the heroes of the story could come into
existence, influence the way hunting went and help in the time of
sickness and troubles. Therefore, legends and tales were never
recited in spring during the arrival of wild geese and wild
reindeer migration or the night before hunting because the images
called forth by the prophetic word of the narrator could scare off
the game. Dolgan shamans used to include story-telling in their
rituals.
Musical genres of Dolgan folklore (cradlesongs, lyrical and love
songs tuoisuu) have much in common in melody, style and intonation
with the song forms of the northern tribes of Yakut reindeer
herders.
Myths explained natural phenomena, regulated the rules of
behavior and the norms of common law. The Dolgan mythology includes
the works that confirm the religious belief about the existence of
the three worlds and the different spirits and deities that reside
in them. The Dolgans did not have a systemized mythology about the
origin or creation of the world or about great gods and their
deeds. Their
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
myths tell about the instances of contact with the spirits from
different worlds and indicate how a person should act in that
case.
Tales were the most widespread and persistent genre that has
survived to this day. The types of tales were traditional including
the tales about animals, magical tales, and everyday life tales.
The personages of the animal tales included the bear, wolf, fox,
hare, polar owl, and different fish. All of them were
anthropomorphized, granted human character traits and speech.
Dolgan magical tales borrowed narratives and motives, especially
the ones from Russian tales. Everyday life tales are similar to
stories of real life events. There are no magical transformations
or magical powers, instead they mostly tell about the intelligence,
bravery, and perseverance of the main hero.
In older days the Dolgans always gave part of the wild reindeer
meat and part of the caught fish to their relatives and
neighbors.
In the process of adaptation to the environment the reindeer
herders, fishers, and hunters developed a complex of rules and
taboos. This allowed them to use natural resources without
exhausting them, and without disturbing the stable ecosystem. They
subconsciously respected the necessity to protect the surrounding
flora and fauna from aimless annihilation. They came up with
various restrictions, taboos, and rituals. These beliefs and
traditions were preserved in folklore and customs. Next generations
learn the traditions from legends and tales. The Dolgans have
acquired reindeer herding and other skills of everyday nomadic
activities in tundra since their childhood.
The Dolgans: Traditional Nature Use
Traditional Dolgan nature use activities include reindeer
herding, hunting wild reindeer and fur animals, and fishing. They
practiced a nomadic way of life and did not leave the forest tundra
zone. Dolgan reindeer herding combined the traditions of the Tungus
riding reindeer herding with skills borrowed from the Samoyedic
peoples. For example, the Dolgans use reindeer herding dogs, like
the Nenets and the Nganasan, practice reindeer milking
characteristic of the Evenks. The reindeer were used for riding and
packing (in the summer) and for driving a sled (in winter). The
sled types are mainly similar to the Nenets and the Nganasan types,
but the Dolgans also used sleds of the Yakut type, with low
straight-set stanchions. The Dolgans use the Tungus type of saddles
and way of riding. The harness method was different from that of
the Nenets. The head reindeer was put into harness and
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
controlled by the rein on the right, while the Nenets, Enets,
and Nganasan controlled it by the rein on the left.
Dolgan hunting traditions have preserved some archaic forms,
dating back to those of ancient indigenous peoples of the North
Asia – spearing wild reindeer at river crossing, hunting with the
use of a specifically trained luring reindeer, as well as skills
borrowed from the Samoyedic peoples – hunting wild reindeer with a
leather net. In the past the Dolgan widely used Arctic fox hunting
using a line of rat traps. Fishing with a fish net was the most
widely spread among other fishing. Set nets were used both in
summer and in winter.
The Dolgans hunted Arctic fox, reindeer and birds, such as
geese, ducks, and quail. Traditionally the Dolgans hunted wild
reindeer using slingshots and bows and arrows. They still use
crossbows. At present the use of firearms, originally borrowed from
the Russians, is widespread. They used poisoned bullets. The poison
was derived from the rancid fat of wild reindeer. Spearing of
reindeer during river crossing had a lot of importance. In the
summer and the fall hunting dogs were used to track down reindeer.
In the fall the Dolgans used a specifically trained luring reindeer
during the drive period of the wild reindeer.
In winter the Dolgans hunted wild reindeer by driving them. They
used a light-weight sled pulled by four domesticated reindeer and
for hours hunted the tracked down herd. In winter the hunters
masked the sled with a screen attached to the runners in order to
get close to the herd. They moved around using wide Tungus-type
skis.
The Dolgans used nets, snares, and traps to hunt water birds.
For catching quails they tied a live female quail as bait. For
Arctic fox hunting they used traps, or jaws. The Arctic fox was
primarily hunted for trading purposes.
Special stand-up nets made of thread or horsehair brought from
Yakutia were used in fishing. The Dolgans bought small boats from
the Russians and the Yakuts.
Dwellings
The Dolgan traditional nomadic dwelling consisted of a conical
Tungus-type tent covered with suede covers (in the summer) and
reindeer pelts (in winter). In the old days the Dolgans also set up
the golomo and Yakut-type sheds without windows and plank beds,
which were later replaced by sledge supported houses and balloks.
The household buildings consisted of different types of sheds on
high stilts.
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
The Dolgan dwelling called ballok was borrowed from the Russian
long-term residents of the North. It is a carcass house made of
rods set up on sledges. In the right corner from the door there was
a kuchigar, a box for firewood lined with tin on the inner side.
Next to it there was a small propped up iron stove. Its chimney
went through a socket in the roof and stood about half a meter
above. It was stopped with a small satchel filled with reindeer
fur. The kitchen utensils were placed behind and next to the stove.
The washing stand was also placed there, a table and seats were by
the window.
The sleeping quarters and the baby crib were across from the
kitchen side of the dwelling. In a big ballok sleeping places could
also be located on the side of the stove. The people slept on
feather beds and thick reindeer pelts. During the day the beds were
rolled up against the wall or carried out of the ballok. The pelts
were left for sitting. Reindeer herders quickly appreciated the
advantages of the ballok. It did not have to be taken apart and put
back together again like the tent when travelling with the herd. In
the beginning of the last century the indigenous population of the
North adapted the ballok to their lifestyle conditions. As its size
increased, the way of attaching it to the sleds was changed. Living
balloks were ordered from Russian craftsmen.
Traditional Clothes
Dolgan clothing is well adapted to the severe climate conditions
of where they live and to their everyday life activities.
Leatherworking done by using scrapers (the scraper handles were
ornately decorated) and sewing were considered as woman’s
responsibility.
The Dolgan traditional clothes have elongated hem on the back.
The Dolgans explain that when they sit down on the cold ground this
elongated hem serves as an extra mat. The clothes and footwear were
sewn using tendon thread. Unlike other peoples of the North the
Dolgans had a single-layer outwear. Usually it was sewn during the
polar day period. It was a hard exhausting labor that demanded
time, patience, zeal, and mastery. The mastery of using the scraper
was taught from childhood.
Dolgan women’s clothing was fitted and elongated on the back.
The flaps in the front could be pulled together edge-to-edge and
buttoned up or tied up with suede ties. The lower part of the flap
was flared and had slipped sewn on the sides.
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
Dolgan clothes (in particular, female) were decorated with
embroidered geometrical ornaments and beads. A distinctive feature
of decoration of Dolgan clothes is the use of various materials and
different techniques: embroidery by reindeer neck hair, sinew,
coloured cotton thread, beads, application by textile, leather
patchwork, etc.
Men’s clothing is sewn from long-fur reindeer pelts that were
worn on top of an Arctic fox or red fox fur coat. This type of
clothes keeps the body warm and is comfortable for working in the
tundra. Wide ankle-long shirts, with a hood and flared at the
bottom, called sakui are worn on top of the clothes on frosty days
during long journeys. Sakui sewn of white close fabric is worn on
top of all layers of clothes during snowstorms and on windy
days.
The Dolgans had a great variety of headwear and each of them had
its own special purpose: they used to wear festive and everyday
hats. They had a bonnet-shape form and mainly consisted of four
parts: on both sides, back and front, all lined with Arctic fox or
hare fur on the inside. The hat closely fit the head protecting the
ears and the back of the neck, and was tied in the front with
narrow suede ties. The Dolgans had a great variety of headwear and
each of them had its own special purpose.
Footwear was sewn out of reindeer fur and also greatly varied.
It was divided into everyday short and long footwear, outside
footwear, and festive footwear. Men’s and women’s mukluks had
vertical panels decorated with colorful beads. The upper part of
the mukluks was sewn out of red cloth about twelve to thirteen
centimeters wide. It was decorated with rose-shape beadwork that
alternated with vertical decorative strips. Usually this type of
footwear was sewn out of very dark or white reindeer furs. Fur
boots meant for outside wear were padded inside with stockings made
of well-shaved adult reindeer skin. Children’s footwear was
characterized by the round shape of the nose. These shoes were
comfortable to wear and easy to put on. The soles of all footwear
were made out of shaved reindeer skin with the fur on the inside.
During fall and spring days the Dolgans put dry grass inserts
inside the shoes to soak up moisture.
The Dolgans have strongly developed applied arts: beadwork and
clothing and footwear ornamentation with reindeer fur and beads.
Reindeer, mammoth bone and wood carving (decorating reindeer
harness plates, knife handles, etc.), tin and brass incrustation,
metal plate print and stamping are widespread. The ornaments
evidence the influence of two artistic cultures: Yakut (arc and bow
motives, spiral
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
and curvilinear patterns) and Tungus (linear and circular
ornaments, fork-and cross-shaped patterns) traditions.
Culinary Traditions
Dolgan dishes of reindeer meat and fresh fish seem to be simple
and inelaborate, but one should acquire special skills to cook them
properly.
Reindeer meat was the most important part of a Dolgan family
diet. The meat was mostly boiled, but could also be frozen and
smoked. After killing a reindeer the herders like to eat fresh raw
meat, liver, and kidneys. Young reindeer antlers seared above the
fire are a traditional delicacy. Concentrated meat broth with
different added soups, potatoes, cereal, or macaroni is also very
popular. Ecologically pure delicacies, such as frozen reindeer
liver and marrow, are special northern gourmet items served
uncooked.
The fish is used for food by both reindeer herders and village
residents. In the fall and in winter the Dolgans prefer slices of
frozen fish served cold: Siberian white salmon, white fish, and
lake herring. In summer the Dolgans love to eat raw (fresh-caught)
fish (sagudai) or pickled fish. Boiled fish is used in food all
year round. Preparing and drying fish for future use is still a
widespread custom. Dried fish is called yukola and kyardilyak.
Edible plants are also present in Dolgan diet. Wild onion, the
roots of certain plants, and berries (cloudberry, blueberry, and
red billberry) are all used for food.
Young geese killed in the spring are dried for future use, or
boiled.
Dolgan women bake flatbreads and pancakes.
Transportation
Traditionally the Dolgans used reindeer and dog sleds as means
of transportation The most universal means were reindeer. In
summertime the Dolgans rode with a saddle, and in winter they used
reindeer-driven sleds. Since the reindeer herds grazed all year
round the Dolgans had to catch for riding the necessary number of
reindeer in the herd. Herders and the youngsters caught the
reindeer using a special noose called maut. The skill of using the
maut had to be learned from childhood. The most valuable maut was
long, thin, and firm. Sometimes the Dolgans organized special
reindeer drives to catch the animals.
The packing reindeer caravan was organized in a certain order.
The leading reindeer was followed by a reindeer with a child
cradle, then followed a reindeer
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
Peoples Inhabiting the Arctic and Far North
Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
with bedding and the reindeer with packing sacks and crates. The
last reindeer in the caravan dragged the tent beams. In spring the
Dolgans travelled with a boat for river crossings.
In winter the Dolgans put harness on the reindeer to drive the
sleds. Winter harness consisted of a headstall for the leading
reindeer on the right, head ropes for the strapped reindeer, and
connecting belts.
The Evenks. General Information
The Evenks are spread across the Russian Federation from west to
east on the territory of Tyumen and Tomsk Oblasts; Krasnoyarsk
Krai; Irkutsk, Chita, and Amur Oblasts; the Republics of Yakutia
and Buryatia; Khabarovsk Krai; and Sakhalin Oblast. According to
the population census of 2002, there were 35,527 Evenks living in
the Russian Federation. By 2010 their population had increased to
37,843 people. In 2002 18,232 Evenks lived in the Republic of Sakha
(Yakutia) and by 2010 more than 21,000.
The number of those speaking the Evenk language varies among the
regions. Amur Oblast and Khabarovsk Krai have a highest percentage
of Evenks speaking their native language. In the Evenk Autonomous
Region around 50% of Evenks speak the Evenk language compared to
12–15% in Yakutia and Buryatia. All of the Evenks speak Russian as
their first or second language, most are bilingual, and some
trilingual (Yakut or Buryat language).
In terms of economy the Evenks greatly differ from the other
peoples of the North, Siberia, and the Far East. They are
predominantly hunters and reindeer herders. Evenk hunters spend
half of their lives riding reindeer. The Evenks also had groups
that hunted on foot, but in general riding reindeer is universally
practiced by this people.
The Evenks: Traditional Nature Use
Hunting
In terms of hunting the territory of Evenk residence can be
divided into two large zones. The first, western zone is between
Yenisei and Lena Rivers, excluding the mountainous area of the Lena
headwaters. There are no areas with peaks higher than the top of
the trees. The second zone is located to the east of the Lena River
and Lake Baikal. It is a mountainous area interlaced with high
peaks. For that
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reason hunting with a bow was prevalent in the west, while in
the east hunting was primarily done with crossbows and snares. The
region of the Lena headwaters was located between these two
zones.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the bow was
replaced by the gun, and in the regions where the Evenks continued
to live near Russian villages, they adapted Russian traps (jawed
traps, sable traps, and clamping traps).
The Evenks hunted moose (elk) at the end of winter and the
beginning of spring. The rest of the time, they hunted it only
occasionally. The hunter would pursue the moose on skis following
its tracks. The hunter would run against the wind and shoot from a
concealed spot in the bushes. When hunting among the peaks of the
Baikal area, the hunters put covers of roe deer skin over their
skis so that they would not make noise.
Hunting by tracking and pursuing animals demanded endurance and
developed commitment. It often happened that the hunter had to
pursue a moose for more than a day. The hunter might fall down from
exhaustion, but would not abandon the chase, and after getting some
rest, he would continue his pursuit.
In the autumn hunting season the moose (elk) would usually be
pursued by a dog. After finding a fresh set of tracks, the hunter
would let the dog off the leash. It would chase down the animal and
try to keep it at bay until the hunter arrived.
In some regions, hunters used boats to hunt the moose in summer.
At night the hunter waited for the moose to come down to the river,
and then he carefully made his way against the wind among the
thickets rowing with two small oars. When the animal came to the
river bank, the hunter would spear or shoot it. This type of
hunting required particular cunning, observation, and skill.
In the fall the Evenks of the upper Lena hunted moose at the
river crossings, when the animals were moving into the areas that
would get less snow in winter. The Evenks would set up an ambush in
the nearby bushes and shoot the animals swimming across the river
and coming onto the shore. The Olyokminsk Evenks set up crossbows
in the fences used for driving moose during hunting. The Evenks of
the upper Lena would sometimes team up with Russians to cut down
the fence in certain places, then dig holes there, reinforce the
sides with poles, cover the openings with mats, and then camouflage
them with fir needles and branches.
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Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
The Evenks hunted wild reindeer in spring and in the fall, and
used the same concealment and pursuit tactics as for the moose. In
the Vilyui River area and in the tundra the Evenks waited for the
herds at river crossings.
In the forest tundra zone, in the areas of the upper Vilyui and
Olenek Rivers, and also in the areas of the middle Aldan River
tributaries, certain Evenks hunted using a specially trained decoy
reindeer ondodo. Staying downwind, the hunter released the decoy
reindeer on a long strap, moving behind it until he could approach
and kill the wild reindeer. In the fall, during the driving period,
the decoy reindeer was released to join the wild reindeer. While
the reindeer were fighting, the wild reindeer would pay no
attention to the hunter.
Reindeer Herding
In the taiga zone of southern Yakutia, where most of the Evenks
in this republic live, reindeer herding primarily supports
transportation. Reindeer are used for riding, packing, and for
pulling sleds, as well as for milking.
In Evenkia, Buryatia, the southern part of Yakutia, Khabarovsk
Krai, and Amur, Chita, and Sakhalin Oblasts, people raise the Evenk
breed of reindeer. The Evenk reindeer have long legs and are
surprisingly tall. The weight of grown males is 135-168 kg, and the
weight of the females is 108-120 kg.
The reindeer were mostly kept in small herds and were permitted
to graze freely. After the winter hunting season had ended, several
families would usually join up and move to places convenient for
reindeer calving. Herding reindeer in common continued throughout
the summer. In winter the reindeer usually grazed by the camps of
the hunter families. Every time the family moved, they would take
different routes. In the summer they would travel along the
drainage divides and in winter along the rivers. Permanent pathways
led only to trading posts.
The Evenks are true nomads. Added together, the length of all
the moves made by hunters and reindeer herders in a single year
could reach hundreds of kilometers. Certain families covered
distances that measured up to a thousand kilometers.
Fishing
The rivers of southern Yakutia thaw in the beginning of May.
After the floating ice has gone from the taiga streams, fish begin
to go upriver to their spawning places. The names of the rivers and
streams reveal a lot about what kinds of fish live in a certain
area. For instance, the names of the Olyokma River's tributaries
mean the
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
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Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
following: Khatystyr – sturgeon, Nirechan – grayling, and
Jalinda – taimen. The name Olyokma came from the Evenk word ollo,
which means “fish”.
The Evenks count taimen as one of the cult fish. In Evenk
mythology this fish is believed to carry the soul of the shaman in
the water world. It is prohibited to eat the head of the taimen nor
can it be fed to dogs. The head of the shaman fish is dried and
hung on a tree as a talisman against evil spirits.
Fishing tools such as bone hooks and harpoon heads have been
used in the North since the Paleolithic times (20,000-25,000 years
ago). They are divided up into the simple tools (spears, fish nets,
drag-nets, etc.), hooks, nets, and traps.
The spear is a striking or throwing tool with a shaft-hole head
that has from one to six barbs. There were two types of spears: the
throwing spear with a detachable head and the striking spear with a
head tightly secured to the shaft. The detachable spearhead was set
on the shaft. As soon as the head pierced the fish, it came off the
shaft, which then served as a float. The spear with a fixed head
was used to kill small, common fish.
Lighting the fish, that is, fishing with a torch and a spear,
was also fairly common. A burning bundle of birch bark or kindling
wood was attached to the nose of a boat going downstream in the
dark. The light attracted the fish, which were then killed with the
spear. The same method was used in winter for ice hole fishing when
the fish would come to the ice hole for air.
The Evenks, Nanai, Ulchi, Nivkh, and other peoples caught fish
from a boat or river bank using a marik, a hook tied or set into a
special groove in a pole, up to as much as six meters in length. A
thong attached to the end of the hook was also tied to the shaft.
When the hook pierced the fish, it came out of the shaft and the
fish hung on the thong. The Evenks also used a marik with a
non-detachable hook.
Means of Transportation
The Evenks used hunting skis without reindeer skins (kingne, or
kigle) for moving across icy crusted snow and skis with reindeer
skin glued on the undersides suksilla for moving in deep snow. The
latter were thin, human-height, fir boards around 35 cm wide,
curved in the middle, with sharp, upward-curving ends. The area for
the foot had glued-on birch bark and was equipped with straps for
the leg. In order to prevent making any noise, some Evenks put a
cover made of dog, wolf, or wolverine pelt on their skis. The
Evenks moved on skis without the use of ski poles or used only a
single pole sevgure. The poles were used not for pushing off,
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but mostly for grabbing onto tree trunks when climbing upwards
and for slowing down during descent. For this purpose there was a
metal hook on the upper end of the pole.
The Evenks had several types of boats. The most widely
distributed boats of the nineteenth and the beginning of the
twentieth centuries were canoes of several constructions. They were
used for hunting reindeer, moose (elk), and water birds, for
fishing, and for individual travel. For crossing the rivers, in
addition to boats, the Evenks also used rafts temu. At the end of
the nineteenth century the Evenks also used a certain kind of
leather boat mereke.
Reindeer herding Vitimo-Olyokminsky and Dzhugzhur Orochon Evenks
used the reindeer for riding even during hunting. This mobility
allowed them to travel long distances.
Dwellings, Buildings, and Housewares
A conical tent served as the traditional Evenk dwelling and was
called dyu, or dyug. The Evenks left a hole at the top of the tent
for smoke and light to pass through. The tent covers, the nyuks,
were different depending on the season. In wintertime they were
made with several layers of planks, felt, earth, animal or reindeer
skins. In the summer, they used reindeer skins or birch bark. In
winter the bottom hem of the tent was held closed with snow or pine
branches. In the summer the bottom was opened for airing. The
entrance to the tent was low (so that the heat would not escape)
and closed with a piece of animal skin or birch bark. Near the
entrance there was a place called chona for household items, and
the place of the head of the household right next to it. The Evenks
kept all their belongings in special packing bags on wooden
platforms near the tent. The hearth for lighting and warming the
tent was located in its center. In the summer it was not used for
cooking, as the Evenks would start another hearth outside near the
tent. The hearth of the tent was considered sacred. To the right
and to the left were places for family members be. Opposite the
entrance was the honorary place for guests, malu.
The dwellings of those Evenks who raised horses and cattle were
similar to the Russian cabins, but were lower, though in many ways
they resembled Russian household buildings. Many Evenk horse
breeders lived in Mongol-type tents. The temporary camps of Evenk
reindeer herders were called urikit, and the permanent camps
(mostly winter camps) on river banks were called meneyen. Winter
camps consisted of one or two tents, but summer camps could include
up to ten tents, and on the festival days even more. In the
eighteenth century certain Evenks began to
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abandon their reindeer and settled down near Russian, Yakut, and
Buryat villages to practice small handicrafts. Some of them lived
in a conical dwelling called golono (gloom). It was made out of
timbers cut from split tree trunks. The interior of the golono
dwelling was no different from the interior of the dyu tent.
Housewares and dishware (spoons, cups, vessels for water and
milk, baskets for handicrafts, baby cradles, and packing bags) were
made out of wood and birch bark. The handicraft baskets were
decorated with beads.
Evenk blacksmiths made various small objects such as knives,
spear heads, jewelry, etc. The main methods of ironwork included
casting, pressing, engraving, and forging. They would buy or trade
cauldrons for making food from the Russians in exchange for
fur.
The women engaged in leatherwork and sewed clothes, sleeping
bags, blankets, tent covers, and fur kumalan mats. All that work
was done by hand.
The women decorated household items made of skin, fur, and
cloth, while the men engraved objects made of wood and bone. There
were no master craftsmen, though certain craftswomen were highly
respected by their relatives. The Evenks created wonderful and
colorful ornamental designs that could be put on different objects
such as dishware, clothes, and other household items. Colored
thread, silk, and beaded threads were widely used by the Evenks
from the time of the arrival of the Russian population.
Traditional Cuisine
The main food of the Evenks in all regions was the meat of moose
(elk) and northern reindeer, upland game and water birds. In the
summer, surplus meat was dried in the sun or over the fire on
special fixtures. The blood and intestines of reindeer and moose
were used to make sausages. Reindeer brains fried on a special
roasting plate in the form of a basket were considered a delicacy.
The Evenks preferred to eat raw bone marrow, kidneys, and tendons
from the marrowbone.
Fish dishes were cooked almost the same way as the meat dishes.
The fish was boiled, fried, dried, and later even salted. The
northern Evenks ate raw frozen fish. In the summer they also drank
reindeer milk.
Due to their nomadic lifestyle the Evenks did not prepare
supplies for long-term use. For this reason they never hunted or
fished for more game than they needed for food for a short
period.
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They usually drank boiled hot water. Only hunters would drink
cold water when they were parched from pursuing an animal.
They ate regularly four times a day with precise time intervals
in-between. The first two meals were light, while the other two
were more substantial. This regularity in eating was broken only
when traveling and hunting. Formerly, the Evenks would eat by the
fire. Later this custom was preserved only as part of a ritual.
Before eating the Evenks would drink tea or boiled water with a tea
substitute. Anyone who arrived at the start of the meal could
participate in it equally with the hosts.
Variety in food was determined by the seasons. In spring, April
and May, the Evenks would mostly eat meat of hoofed animals,
alternating with a small amount of upland game. In May and June
they would sometimes get fish, and beginning in the second half of
July the meat or fish diet would be supplemented with fresh
berries. In September the amount of meat increased and was
supplemented with pine nuts. In October and November the main dish
was upland game, alternating with the meat of hoofed animals and
bears, and sometimes fish. Only in December and January did the
Evenks use their supplies of dried meat and fish as the main
dish.
All Evenks preferred the meat of wild rather than domestic
reindeer. They would never eat wolf meat, nor the meat of fur
animals, loons, herons, and storks. They also would not eat dog
meat.
Transbaikal hunters and cattle breeders added dairy products to
meat and fish. Sedentary Evenk fishermen mostly ate various types
of fish, while the Okhotsk Evenks also added seal meat and fat to
their diet.
From the time of their acquaintance with the Russians, aside
from tea, the Evenks also began to add bread in form of flatbread
and baked round loaves.
The observations of researchers from the expeditions in the
1920s reveal a lot about the role of meat in the Evenk diet:
instead of a greeting, “Hello”, one would ask: “What did you eat?”,
“What did you kill?” And any Evenk would answer the question of
“What did you eat?” not with the word “meat”, but with the name of
the body part of the animal he ate.
For all Evenks the main methods for cooking meat were boiling in
water without any seasoning and with very little salt, or frying it
without salt on a skewer called silavun (the rod also gave the name
to the fried meat pieces silan. The brain, the
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meat from under the tendons or from the back sides, the tongue,
and the kidneys were considered to be delicacies. The tongues, if
there were several of them, were smoked in advance.
Reindeer milk was usually put into tea, and also used to put
into flour porridge and mashed berries. If there was a lot of milk,
the Evenks would put a jug of milk into a kettle of boiling water
and boil it. Thickened milk was eaten with bread.
Sedentary Evenk hunters ate eared seal meat boiled and fried. A
portion of the eared seals that were killed was frozen. Eared seal
fat was used as flavoring, and sometimes it was mixed with
mossberries. Fish, like meat, was eaten boiled or fried on a rod.
Frozen fish (tala) was usually eaten before tea, cutting it along
the spine. Fish roe was eaten boiled or frozen.
The Evenks would also prepare fish for future use. Dry flat
breads (kanna) were made by mixing roe, milt, and pieces of meat
and then attaching this to a board, where it was fried by the fire,
and then dried up under the sun. Sulta is boiled fish ground with
raw roe into porridge and dried under the sun. Nyak is sun-cured
Pacific salmon. Kololi is fish roe sun-dried and cured over the
fire in the tent. Khachibas is sun-cured Pacific salmon to feed the
dogs.
Vegetable food was characteristic of the spring and summer
seasons. In the spring they collected birch juice. All berries (bog
bilberry, blueberry, cloudberry, etc.) were eaten raw with tea. If
there was enough reindeer milk, the Evenks would treat themselves
to menin, milk poured over mashed bog bilberries. The first pine
nuts were eaten with the shell. Sometimes the Evenks would bake
them in the ashes, pound them into meal, and then pour boiling
water over the nut meal to make porridge.
The Evenks living near the Yakuts would eat larch sap (charа).
It was cut into small pieces and boiled in a soup made from
bone.
The Evenks learned about grain and flour before they came into
contact with the Russians, which is evident from their Evenk names,
burduk and talgan. In the old days the flour was used only to make
pottage or to fry it with fat. Evenks learned to make bread from
the Russians and would make just enough bread for one day. Only for
the hunters that had to go taiga for several days would Evenks make
more bread. If the hunters took a woman with them, then they would
also take enough flour for her to make fresh bread every day at the
camp.
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Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
Seven, tekemin was a ritual dish. It was made of well chopped up
bear meat boiled and mixed with boiled fat, and was eaten no more
than two or three spoons at a time.
The Evenks would use bars of tea. They would drink several cups
of tea without sugar before food. Northern and Transbaikal Evenks
drank tea with salt. In winter places with no fresh water, the
Evenks broke ice and put it by the entrance of the tent in a
chuman. When traveling or hunting, they would also melt snow in a
cauldron or a kettle. If no tea was available, they would use dry
red bilberry leaves, briar fruit, or pigweed leaves.
Clothing
The most widespread traditional outerwear for the Evenks of
Yakutia, both men and women, was the parka, a short, fitted coat
with straight tie-up flaps, made of reindeer pelts. The collar of
the parka was either cut round or sewn-on. Evenk attire also
included a belt and gloves. A cap served as the main headgear and
was worn either separately or sewn onto the parka. Fur was widely
used for hems on outerwear.
After coming into contact with the Russians, the Evenks began to
sew trousers and shirts out of cloth and suede. Before that the
Evenks would put a parka on with nothing underneath and used short
pants and leggings of fur instead of trousers. The appearance of
cloth promoted an abundance of color in the Evenk clothing. The
reindeer parka was gradually replaced by a homespun coat. Its cut
was borrowed from the Russian peasant clothing. The homespun coat
was accompanied by fur footwear made of reindeer skin.
Mukluk footwear made of reindeer skin were, and still are, an
extremely rational and comfortable piece of footwear. Even though
this type of footwear quickly wore out and had to be replaced with
a new pair, it still combines the practical with the beautiful. A
skillful craftswoman could give a slender and elegant form to the
mukluks she made. On both of its sides were two symmetrical,
vertical beaded inserts connected with a beaded strip across the
front below the knees. At the top, the mukluks were decorated with
a wide ornate edge that consisted of dark and light squares of
edge-sewn fur mosaic. Later this was replaced with a cloth or
velvet border with arched or striped design beaded embroidery.
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
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Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
The Evenks: Worldview and Spiritual Traditions
Although most Evenks today are no longer nomads in the classical
sense of the term, they still adhere to the traditional worldview
and rituals. Traditional ritual practice is most fully retained by
Evenk reindeer herders and hunters, although the Evenks living in
the cities still retain some of the ancient ritual traditions as
well.
The most popular rituals are the ones covered by the Evenk term
Imty: every hunter, fisherman, and most men and women perform the
“feeding of fire” at the most important moments of their lives. The
Evenks believe that through fire a human can address different
spirits and deities. They feed the fire and ask for luck in hunting
and fishing, in family affairs, and during festivities.
It is characteristic of the Evenk ritual folklore to address the
spirits and to make requests in a quiet hardly audible voice, or as
Evenks say, to “say inside oneself” (men dyaldui), that is, to say
something in one’s mind rather than out loud. The custom stems from
the belief that the master spirit of the taiga likes silence and
has good hearing.
Below we provide a short description of the most popular
collective rituals tied to the most important Evenk event, the
Bakaldyn (or Ikenipke) Festival. In modern interpretation, it is
the New Year celebration. In the past the rituals described below
were successive component actions of a single, whole shamanic
ritual, Singelavun, for procuring hunter’s luck. Here they are
described in the order in which present-day Evenks perform them
during the Bakaldyn Festival.
Chichipkavun, Cleansing Ritual, is meant to rid Evenk people of
the accumulated problems and misfortunes that have accompanied them
in the course of the past year. The Chichipkavun Ritual is
conducted in the following manner. A Chichipkan idol is made of
larch tree. Then a bonfire is started next to it. Two people
(usually older people) cleanse every participant of the ritual with
ledum smoke and then let them pass “through” Chichipkan. After the
last participant has finished the ritual, the idol is put on the
ground, its legs tied with a rope, and then it is placed on a
special platform. In certain cases (when the ritual is performed to
heal someone), the idol is completely burned.
Imty is the ritual of “Feeding the Fire”. The fire is fed on
many occasions, almost daily, because the whole life of the Evenk
depends on fire. During the Bakaldyn, the Imty ritual is entrusted
to someone from the older generation. That person feeds the fire
with greasy food and addresses the spirit of that particular area
asking that the Evenks be provided with luck and good lives. This
ritual is often combined
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Climate Change Adaptation: Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous
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with the symbolic feeding of Sevek-Mo, a sacred tree of the
Evenk that symbolizes the Universe of three-layered worlds. The
celebration is usually conducted on the bank of a river, and, after
Imty is completed, the participants address the spirit of the
river, treat it to food, and ask it for prosperity.
Elluvka is a ritual of inclusion into the clan (family) fire
circle. In the old days this ritual was used only with newborn
children. In this way the new family member was introduced to the
grandmother spirit of the fire, Enyekan Togo. The forehead of the
newborn was rubbed with soot from the hearth and was accompanied by
a phrase that went along of: “Here’s our new person, accept him/her
as a blood relative, as ours”. At present this ritual is often
performed during the Bakaldyn celebration and any child participant
of the celebration can be included into the fire circle. It is a
very meaningful ritual. From an early age the child has to feel as
part of its people.
The Ulganni ritual is next in popularity for the Evenks. When
they perform it during Bakaldyn, they tie strips of cloth to a
chosen tree and address Aiikhit Eni, who, according to the Evenk
worldview, is the highest deity and who gives souls to humans,
animals, and everything that lives on Earth.
Singkelevun is a ritual for procuring hunter’s luck (from the
Evenk word singken meaning luck or fortune) and is one of the most
ancient hunting rituals for all Evenk groups. In the old days this
ritual was an eight-day shamanic ritual, “the magic hunt” for the
soul of the moose (elk). At present the ritual is performed by
hunters without a shaman, but with the same goal of procuring
hunter’s luck (the soul of the moose). The hunters make an moose
figurine (less commonly they make a figurine of a wild reindeer)
from willow rods and place it on the edge of the ritual area. Then
hunters equipped with bows and arrows imitate the process of the
hunt. They find the moose tracks, use them to find the moose, and
then shoot it. The best conclusion of the “hunt” is for the arrow
to pierce the moose and make it fall down (to make sure this
happens, the hunters tie a rope or a maut, a lasso, to the figurine
with which they pull down the figurine when the arrow pierces it).
Afterwards the “moose” is cut open and placed on a platform. It is
believed that in this way the hunter’s luck is procured.
The ritual part of the celebration is concluded with Evenk round
dances, because in Evenk culture round dance songs still have a
sacral meaning tied to the ritual practice.
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Hunters and Herders of Eastern Siberia
The Evens. Ethnohistorical Review
The Evens – self-designation yvyn, eben, evun – are one of the
native ethnic minorities of the Far East and East Siberia. The Even
language belongs to the Manchu-Tungus group of the Altaic language
family. According to the All-Russia Population Census of 2010,
31730 Evens lived in the Russian Federation. Today they mainly live
in the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic, Magadan Oblast, Kamchatka and
Khabarovsk Krais. Traditionally the Evens were involved in one of
the three types of economic activities: taiga reindeer herding,
combined taiga and coastal type (hunting, fishing and reindeer
herding were of equal importance), and coastal fishing and hunting.
Almost 70% of the Evens practiced the combined taiga-coastal type
and migrated for more than a thousand kilometers in spring from
continental taiga to the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk and in autumn
– back.
Beliefs, Rituals, and Customs
The model of the world within the religious and mythological
beliefs of the Evens followed the general traditional pattern of
the Tungusic peoples of Siberia. The Universe Neelbeen was divided
into upper, middle and lower spheres (worlds). The Middle World,
the world of the living people, animals, birds, and plants, was
believed to have one level. The Lower World (the world of the dead)
and the Upper World (the world of the gods) were believed to be
multi-level. According to the Even beliefs, the Middle World was
inhabited by spirits. These included the spirits of the earth, the
spirit of water, the spirit of fire, and countless spirits of the
forest, local areas, mountains and mountain passes, rivers, lakes,
rocks, objects, and things. The Lower World Buni was inhabited by
evil spirits arinkil and ibdiril who brought misfortune and various
illnesses. The Upper World was inhabited by the Supreme Deities. It
was the country of heavenly residents, such as the gods of the sun,
the moon, lightning, and thunder. The Supreme Deity Seveki was
believed to be an old man who gave life to all people, animals, and
plants, and was the main keeper of the threads of human lives
(fates).
The Moon Ilan and the Sun Neltin also hold a special place in
the belief system of the Evens. They believed that the Moon
originated from flint and was female, while the Sun originated from
tinder and was male. A ritual dedicated to worshipping the Moon and
the Sun was accompanied by a ritual dance. In many Even myths, the
male and the female principles appear as equivalent opposites. The
sky, the earth, and the people are born from their union. According
to Even mythology, the Sky Nyanin and the Earth Teer are two major
bodies responsible
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for the creation of the world, producing and maintaining the
life on the earth. The sky embodies the male principle (father),
and Earth embodies the female principle (mother).
The Sacred Reindeer Kudai
The Evens called reindeer, their main fortune, nolten orolni
(sunny) and reindeer fawns were called “the children of the sun”.
The Even tradition considers the reindeer as a sacred animal sent
by the gods. The reindeer accompany humans not only in their life
on earth, but also in the heavens, which can reached only riding a
reindeer. From olden times the Evens esteemed the kudai reindeer as
a protector of an individual and the whole family, and even the
whole clan.
The kudai was chosen with great care from among many reindeer by
experienced herders, the elders or the fathers, in the old days the
kudai could only be chosen by the shamans. Only a reindeer with a
heavenly mark (a white or spotted reindeer with a tuft of hair
called tigok sometimes found underneath the skin on the neck) could
be selected as a kudai.
Traditional Calendar
The traditional calendar of the Evens keeps track of the months
according to human body parts, which was characteristic not only
for the Evens, but also for other peoples of Siberia and Central
Asia. The Evens divide the year into thirteen lunar months and
count them according to the head and the arms. The beginning of the
year is the top of the head, the left shoulder is the next month
(the year is counted coming down the body from the head), and the
last month is the right shoulder (after making a circle around the
body the year has come back up). The hunting and reindeer herding
calendar of the Evens has been strongly influenced by the generally
accepted modern calendar. However, the archaic calendar is still
used by the elders in reindeer herding.
The Evens. Traditional Nature Use
Hunting, reindeer herding, and fishing were the bases of the
complex nomadic economy of the Evens. The area of reindeer herding
used by different clans occupied a vast territory from the lower
Vilyui River to the Indigirka River, and from the lower Aldan River
to the Sea of Okhotsk.
The hunting for wild animals (reindeer, elk, mountain sheep,
musk deer) and birds (great groose, partridge, goose, duck) used to
be the best way to meet the
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subsistence demands of the Evens. Hunting for bear, wolf, eagle,
swan, and some other birds was allowed but it was regulated by
special rules and was accompanied by appropriate rituals. Hunting
for fur animals was also practiced.
Reindeer herding (originally reindeer were mainly used for
transportation) has become an important form of nature use, which
formed special nomadic lifestyle and distinctive culture of the
Evens.
Semi-sedentary fishermen comprise around 5% of the Evens. They
spent most of their time on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk fishing
and hunting sea mammals. Only in winter did they go to the taiga to
hunt, and as a rule they did not go far from their permanent place
of residence.
In the past the gathering of the wild harvest took a special
place in the nomadic life of the Evens. In spring the Evens
gathered roots and used them for food and as medicine. They also
used to eat Dahurian larch sap wood. In July-August black currant,
heathberry, red bilberry, and igelte berries ripened, and they
would be gathered in warm weather, when it was dry and easy all
around. In the fall they gathered pine nuts. The nuts they gather
are from the dwarf Siberian pine bolgit. The Evens could identify
squirrel habitat by how well the nuts grew and ripened, and there
they would hunt squirrels in winter. Gathering was secondary type
of nature use activity.
The Evens did not strive to preserve berries, nuts, and edible
roots for winter. Everything that was gathered was eaten fresh.
Reindeer Herding: Riding and Pack Animals
The thick forests and the rough northeastern taiga made it
difficult and sometimes impossible to use reindeer sleds. For this
reason the Evens, who originally inhabited the taiga zone, used
reindeer as a riding and packing animal. Riding and packing
reindeer were used all year round, especially during summer
travelling.
The Evens divided reindeer oralbu into two groups, one for
packing inuche and the other for riding uchak. The strongest and
toughest, yet calm and unafraid, castrated males and sterile
females were specifically trained for carrying cargo in. That kind
of reindeer could carry twenty-five to thirty kilograms. Not every
reindeer could be used for riding. The Evens also chose the largest
and strongest animals for riding and highly valued them. Pack
animals were trained from the age of two, and riding animals were
trained from the age of four or five.
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Narrow taiga trails taught the reindeer to go in a line and
follow one another. The reins from the head of each following
reindeer were tied to the saddle of the one in front. For this
purpose special horn or bone plates were attached to the rear
pommels of the cargo saddles. This way the Evens could build a long
caravan stretching for hundreds of meters, or even for almost a
kilometer if the family was large or wealthy. Summer trails usually
followed along the watersheds, and winter trails along the rivers,
or treeless areas “tundras”. The order in which the caravan
traveled when moving camp was strictly regulated and had different
features in each season. In the summer the herd was moved first,
making several rest stops. An hour or two after that, the riders
would follow in the same direction with the caravans of pack
reindeer, but using different roads.
Reindeer Herding: Sledding
Winter sled transportation was most convenient and economical in
open spaces. It was used primarily in the tundra and forest tundra.
Its advantages were evident. The usual weight of a sack is 20-40
kg, but a sled can carry 100-160 kg. Packing reindeer move at the
speed of three to four km per hour, while the sled reindeer move at
the speed of twelve to thirteen km per hour. The sleds turku are
mostly made out of larch, fir, and birch.
Nomadic lifestyle demands an especially strict order of cargo
placement. For this reason the Evens place parts of the tent,
housewares and various items on separate sleds that are divided
into light sleds and cargo sleds in accordance with their role for
travelling.
For moving from one place to another the caravan is made up of
five or six (rarely more) sleds. The reindeer pulling the cargo
sleds are tied with a strap to the back of the sled in front of
them. The first cargo sled is tied to the light sled leading the
caravan. Usually the women lead these groups of sleds, while the
whole caravan is led by a man riding at the very front in a light
sled. Cargo sleds in the caravan are placed in a particular order.
The sleds in the front carry soft cargo, the middle sleds carry
boxes, boards, etc., and the sleds carrying tent poles follow in
the back.
Sledge-Dog Breeding and Horse Husbandry
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, cattle-breeding
began to spread in the northeastern and southwestern borderlands of
Yakutia. At the same time there was also a gradual reduction in
“meat and fur animals” due to unregulated hunting, which led to a
decrease in hunting and reindeer herding among the local
people.
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These economic conditions forced a part of the Tungus people to
turn to cattle-breeding and horse husbandry. In the nineteenth
century horse husbandry practically did not develop and by the end
of the century there were about 115–130 thousand horses left. The
number of horses raised by the Evens began to decrease in early
twentieth century due to an epidemic among the animals. By the
beginning of 1930s, wealthy Even reindeer herders still raised
horses and let them graze all year round. In winter they were kept
separately from the reindeer, and in the summer horses and reindeer
were herded together.
According to popular belief the ancestors of the Evens were not
acquainted with this type of transportation. They adapted it from
the northern indigenous people of the Arctic Ocean coast much
later, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Dogs became the
main transportation animals for those Evens who practiced fishing
and resided along large rivers and on the coast of the northern
seas, because fishing and sea mammal hunting could also provide
food for the dogs as well as humans.
Settlements and Dwellings
By the beginning of the twentieth century, the Evens had three
types of settlements: reindeer herders and hunters camps, sedentary
Even settlements, and hunters’ lodges.
The camps, small temporary settlements, were usually located
along reindeer herding routes. Two or three families would live
there, and most often they were related to each other. The camps
became crowded only in spring (when there could be up to twenty
tents), and even more people would gather together for festivals,
communal meetings, and meetings with relatives.
The settlements of sedentary Evens and hunters’ lodges were
concentrated on the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk and Anadyr River
basin, places good for fishing or hunting sea mammals, and also
near already existing residential localities. In time, some of them
became large settlements.
Traditional dwellings of nomadic Evens are called ilumu and
chorama-dyu; both are types of mobile tents. An ilumu is a conical
pole construction, and chorama-dyu is a cylindrical-conical
dwelling.
The form of dwelling most widespread over the entire Even
territory was the conical tent because it was more compact than
chorama-dyu. Birch bark tents became rare by the 1930s due to the
difficulty of making birch bark covers. Suede
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tents remained popular for much longer. At present the tents,
which are used for smoking meat and hides, are covered with canvas
tarpaulin.
Chorama-dyu were also an essential element of Even settlements,
especially in the northern treeless areas of Yakutia. To this day
this type of tent is used by the tundra reindeer herders of
northeastern Yakutia, because they protect against the strong winds
that prevail on the coast of the Arctic Ocean in winter.
Food
Meat and fish took an extremely important place in the Even diet
in the past. Domesticated reindeer were seldom used for food. The
Evens to this day prefer the meat of the game and use every part of
the animal for food. Meat is usually consumed boiled. They enjoy
warm brain and marrow of recently killed reindeer and antler as a
delicacy. The Even favourite dishes are uncooked kidney bosta,
liver khakan, eyes yasal, lights evto, throat kapka and the
cartilage nosma.
From the seventeenth century and up to the beginning of the
twentieth, almost all Even groups practiced milking the does of
domesticated reindeer. They drank tea with reindeer milk, and even
used the milk to make butter, kyerchekh sour cream, and buttermilk.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, trade between Russians
and Yakuts brought flour, grain, salt, tea, sugar, tobacco, and
vodka to the Evens.
Housewares and Crafts
One of the main economic activities that formed the lifestyle
and material culture of the Evens was making housewares and hunting
gear. At the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the
twentieth centuries, the Evens used dishware made of wood and birch
bark. Sometimes they used copper or cast-iron cauldrons and copper
teakettles that they got from the neighboring peoples.
The Evens often used reindeer and ram horns in making
housewares. They made spoons, ladles, and dippers out of ram's
horns. These spoons could be used for a very long time. They also
used hooks for hanging dishware and cradles made of the horns of
domesticated and wild animals. The women sewed various bags and
sacks out of suede, reindeer skin, bird feet, fish skin, and bought
materials for storing fur clothing, pieces of fur, pelts, wood
shavings, etc.
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Clothing
Even outerwear was divided according to its role into everyday
wear, hunting and travelling wear, festive wear, and ritual wear.
The main materials for making clothes were fur and suede. Both
men's and women's outerwear consisted of button-down caftans tied
at the top with two or three suede thongs. Under the caftan they
would wear a jacket. The complete costume also included hip covers,
leg and knee covers, boots, hats, and gloves, or mittens. The
outerwear had the same cut and structure for both genders; the
difference was only in the ornamentation.
Means of Transportation
In the past, herding domestic reindeer was secondary, as they
were only used for transportation among the Evens. The ways and
means of transportation of the Evens were suited for constant
travel all year round. Originally they used the reindeer for
riding. Their gradual colonization of the forest tundra and tundra
regions brought them into contact with the Chukchi and the Koryaks
in the east and the Samoyedic peoples in the west. This led to the
adoption and spread of reindeer sled transportation. This type of
transportation began to spread among the Evens in the second half
of the nineteenth century.
Skis
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, almost all
groups of Evens and Evenks used hunting skis. The Evens had two
types of skis, the non-sliding, unlined hunting skis called kaisar,
and sliding, lined skis called meringte. The skis should be
lightweight, flexible, and sturdy, go smoothly, and slide well. For
this reason their length, thickness and width had to be measured
exactly. A certain measuring system was developed for that purpose.
The standard length was calculated based on the height of the
future owner, and the width in the middle part of the skis was
measured by two distances between the outstretched thumb and index
finger (30 to 40 cm). The ends of the ski were tapered a little (to
27 cm), and sometimes the back end was made more narrow than the
front. It was difficult to get a board of a right thickness, which
is important for the flexibility of the skis. The thickness could
not exceed four or five mm. Only the support area for the foot was
made thicker.
Apart from winter skis lined with reindeer hides, the Evens,
like other taiga hunters, use another type of skis. Unlike the
lined skis, these are more varied in
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size and especially in shape. The shape sometimes was similar to
that of the lined skis. Unlined skis are primarily used in the
spring on the ice crust, when moving on lined skis in the forest
becomes difficult. The method of making the skis is the same as
making meringte skis, but unlined skis are more crudely made and
are not curved. Since they had no curve, their thickness did not
play a big role like it did for the meringte, and they could be
used without any lining. The front end of these skis is only
slightly tapered.
Waterborne Means of Transportation
Waterborne means of transportation were used primarily by
sedentary Evens who lived along the sea coast and large rivers.
They often bought a boat from the neighboring peoples. They could
get them from the neighboring peoples.
The Evens used three types of boats: dug-out, framed, and
planked.
A dugout canoe was indispensable in taiga. It was used to set
and check fishing nets and to hunt water birds. It was also used
for hunting wild reindeer by driving them into the water. The canoe
was fast and easy to maneuver, and could pass through shallow
rivers and streams and overcome rifts.
In the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, several
groups of Evens also used framed birch bark boats characteristic of
the taiga culture of the Tungusic peoples – the Evenks, Nanai,
Ulch, and the Negidal. Birch bark boats were made in areas rich
with birch trees.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, aside from dug-out
canoes and birch bark boats, the Evens began to use plank boats
that were widespread in the northern zone of Yakutia. The plank
boat had a flat bottom and was made from three or four planks.
Flat-bottom boats belonged only to those Evens who led a sedentary
life and regularly engaged in fishing in the summer.
The Evens vs the Environment and Climate Change
… For thousands of years My people has travelled across the
lands, Across the times, and their fate, Along with others, has
entered the twenty first century,
Retaining its customs, And thus retaining itself.
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The ancient unwritten code of laws The Evens honor and breathe,
Just as their ancestor did, Now their descendants do, For this is
the air of their life…
At times even the mighty mountain, That has born the weight of
the skies from times long past, Gets tired of withstanding the
elements And begins to crumble, And disappear under the cover of
the thunderclouds, As if it wasn’t there at all.
I wonder if my people Has hope for the future or not? The
distant centuries whence my people came Are now hidden by the mists
of time. The oncoming century will pass by like a comet, And what
will become of the Evens then? Will their ancient language
disappear, Will their tales be forgotten, Will the sound of their
incantations, Legends, and song, and children’s laughter fade
away?
Andrei Krivoshapkin, National Writer of Yakutia
The Evens have a special intimate relationship with nature. This
is how it has been for centuries. Their respect is inherited from
generation to generation, transforming it into permanent
traditional knowledge.
From ancient times the Evens have developed a keen understanding
and appreciation of their everyday dependence on nature. This is
how their enduring idea of preserving the taiga, the water in the
rivers and ponds, the mountains, and the sacred places was born.
They taught it to their children and instilled in them a worshipful
feeling before Mother Nature. They learned to adapt to any climate
changes. The Evens would hide from strong winds deep in the taiga
forests. In winter they would hunt fur animals and the elk/moose
following the taiga trails. In the steep mountains they would sneak
up to the bighorns uyamkan. They never exterminated the furbearers
and the hoofed animals, but instead hunted only what
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they needed for that season. This is how it has been since the
old times, because for them the taiga was an everlasting
provider.
I remember clearly how my mother told me: “Son, we are all alive
and well as long as our mother taiga is alive. It’s our salvation,
and our home. Always be careful with fire. You’ll also become a
grown man someday. Teach your children right, so that they will
guard the taiga. A fire in the taiga can ruin us. The reindeer die,
and we die without them. The animals may leave our taiga”. My whole
life I have always remembered my mother’s instruction.
At present there are a lot of forest fires, in many cases caused
by man. City-dwellers are far removed from the taiga and they don’t
cherish it; they start fires wherever they like it without abiding
by any safety rules.
Modern Evens are very prudent with fire. Reindeer herders and
hunters start a fire only in the most secure places, where there is
not a lot of vegetation, no dry branches nearby, and, more
importantly, close to a water source. This traditional knowledge is
ingrained in the heart and soul of every Even, and saves them from
danger.
I spent my childhood around reindeer. My mother was a reindeer
herder for the collective farm herd. There were three children in
the family: my older sister, me – the second child, and our little
brother. We traveled often. I would ask my mother, “Why do we move
so often?” She would respond, “The reindeer need it. We have to
provide them with fresh mountain pastures and untrammeled reindeer
moss. As long as the reindeer are healthy and well-fed, we can also
stay warm and content”.
Every time we moved to a new campsite, we would get new
experiences: green meadows, thick stands of willow, low hills all
around, and beyond them, at a distance, a range of mountains.
Mother would quickly undo the pack loads and reindeer saddles.
After a while she’d begin assembling the ilumu (a conic-shaped,
tent dwelling of the Evens). The poles that make up its framework
are called iruka. During any kind of travelling, in summer and in
winter, Evens would take the iruka with them. From much use, the
poles are long and smooth as if they had been polished. When you
have them on hand assembling the dwelling goes by fast, and there’s
no need to cut new trees. It is simple and wise: the people are
comfortable, and the forest remains untouched.
I remember this as if it were yesterday. Mother carefully
chooses a place for the fire. She is worried that a reindeer might
accidentally step on burning coals, that sparks from the fire
flakes might just land on clothes or the ilumu cover during a
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wind, and most importantly, that the campfire might cause a fire
in the forest. Our mother always made sure to account for
everything in advance.
As children we were not passive observers, but, while busy with
our own duties (I gathered firewood, and my sister got water), we’d
follow mother’s actions. We would remember to take to heart our
mother’s lessons and remember them for the rest of our lives, and
then pass them on to our own children.
Finally, she’d choose the place for the fire. Mother would set
up a hearth, bring stones from the river and put them around the
fire place. This was so that the flame wouldn’t spread to the grass
or reindeer moss. It’s a simple but sure measure against forest
fires in taiga. After the long awaited tea we helped mother to
assemble the ilumu. A light suede could serve as a cover, but
usually we just used canvas tent material. In passing, mother would
say: “Make sure to make the knots tighter. Otherwise the wind will
come and take away the cover”. Then we would reinforce the tent
with extra poles outside.
The taiga is like home for so many people. Someone who has no
knowledge of it may think that there’s so much freedom there you
can do just as you like. Of course, this is not so. The inhabitants
of taiga, one might say, are “registered” there by nature itself,
and the person who calls the taiga his or her home is inculcated
with such qualities as generosity and compassion. I will give some
examples.
Once, my grandfather, who spent his whole life in taiga, took me
with him to hunt the bighorns uyamkan. We always had trouble with
food, and I really wanted him to shoot one of the uyamkans. For a
long time we rode on reindeer around the mountains, often stopping
to carefully survey the surrounding area. We did not find anything.
The day was coming to a close. The sun that was so bright and
golden just moments ago slowly descended behind the mountain,
getting redder and redder every second. It was as if it too was
vexed by our misfortune. My grandfather suggested that we turn back
home, saying that both we and our reindeer need rest. I agreed, but
timidly expressed my desire to continue riding in the mountains. I
didn’t tell my grandfather that the mountains captivated me. I felt
confident there, like I was all grown up and strong, even though I
was about eight years old at the time. Grandfather smiled with his
eyes. In one place grandfather nimbly jumped off the reindeer and
reached for his Berdan rifle. My heart started pounding, blood
flowed to my head from excitement, and I felt hot. Grandfather
nodded towards a cliff that rose to the left of us. I turned around
and right away saw an uyamkan: it was a female laying peacefully
with her back turned to us. In
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my mind our success was certain. We led the reindeer to a thick
little forest, tied them there and began to sneak towards the
animal. Grandfather moved soundlessly, and I followed him, afraid
to breath too loud. Grandfather didn’t move directly towards the
animal, but slowly began to move up the hillside. I understood
later on that he decided to get to a spot above the uyamkan in
order to have a good view.
Finally we decided to look out carefully. The uyamkan did not
notice us and was still calm. Grandfather loaded his Berdan rifle.
With his right hand he waved for me not to come out. I obeyed,
crawled back and kept still waiting for the sound of the shot. To
my surprise the shot did not follow: grandfather lowered his rifle
and continued to watch the uyamkan. “Grandfather, why aren’t you
shooting?” – I asked bewildered. “Look for yourself”, my
grandfather said turni