Human use and conservation planning in Alpine areas of Northwestern Yunnan, China

HUMAN USE AND CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

OF NORTHWESTERN YUNNAN, CHINA

MARK T. BUNTAINE1,*, RENEE B. MULLEN2, and JAMES P. LASSOIE3

1Sustainable Development and Conservation Biology Graduate Program, University of Maryland, College

Park, MD 20742, USA2The Nature Conservancy, Owyhee Plaza, 1109 Main Street, Suite 333, Boise, ID 83702, USA

3Department of Natural Resources, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY

14853, USA

(*author for correspondence, e-mail: [email protected]; fax: +1-301-314-9358; tel.: +1-240-247-7066)

(Received 2 August 2005; accepted 9 January 2006)

Abstract. Alpine areas in northwestern Yunnan, China possess globally significant levels of biodiversity

and are important locally for livelihood activities such as livestock grazing and medicinal plant collection.

Because local land use has important impacts on alpine conditions and communities have significant

capacity to manage alpine resources, we emphasized local collaboration during the initial stages of con-

servation planning. Our collaboration with local communities investigated how livelihood strategies affect

the condition of alpine resources in northwestern Yunnan and how future conservation efforts can be

compatible with local livelihoods. We sampled three livestock herding sites, each within a different alpine

sub-region, using open-ended interviews and maximum variation sampling. According to interviewees,

livestock grazing within the alpine zone currently does not appear to be negatively impacting the avail-

ability of forage. Medicinal plant collection, however, is showing unsustainable trends. Tourism is as yet a

nascent industry, but is seen as having great potential by those interviewed. It is clear that with increases in

population, access to regional markets, and tourism, northwestern Yunnan’s rich alpine resources will

require careful management. In addition to the data collected, we found that the methodology used may be

widely applicable to organizations with limited resources that wish to engage local communities during the

formative stages of regional-level conservation planning.

Key words: alpine, community resource management, conservation planning, herding, livelihood change,

maximum variation sampling, medicinal plants, northwestern Yunnan, rural development, tourism.

1. Introduction

The northwestern portion of Yunnan Province, belonging to the Hengduan

Mountains in southwestern China, is a world-renowned temperate biodiversity

hotspot (Myers et al., 2000). Although northwestern Yunnan is primarily known for

its forest ecosystems, approximately 12% of the geographic area is occupied by the

alpine zone – areas above treeline and directly below permanent snow and ice

(YGRPPT, 2002). Surprisingly, these areas sustain the highest plant species diversity

Readers should send their comments on this paper to [email protected] within 3 months of pub-

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Environment, Development and Sustainability (2006) � Springer 2006

DOI 10.1007/s10668-006-9025-8

levels within the region (Salick et al., 2004). In addition, they have been utilized by

humans for thousands of years, providing important ecosystem services such as

livestock grazing, collection of medicinal plants and fungi, and water storage

(YGRPPT, 2002; Xu and Wilkes, 2004). Such uses appear to have been sustained for

millennia. However, some alpine systems in northwestern Yunnan are now begin-

ning to show signs of fragmentation and degradation as exogenous forces such as

economic development produce a transition from subsistence to market economies,

and mass tourism increases (Li, 2002; Xu and Wilkes, 2004).

This study was designed to gain a clearer understanding of the relationships be-

tween the local communities of northwestern Yunnan and the alpine areas on which

they depend for their livelihoods and cultures. Specifically, we gathered user

knowledge on temporal changes in alpine system integrity and alpine-specific species

viability, availability and changes in alpine system resources, the spiritual signifi-

cance of alpine areas, the perceived threats to these areas and their use, and the

potential for future conservation partnerships. We fully recognize the complex

linkages among human communities, culture, and the biophysical environment

(Endter-Wada et al., 1998). As a result, we believe that effective conservation

strategies in such as region must be based upon a clear understanding of how local

communities use and manage their natural resources.

In the fall of 2003, The Nature Conservancy China Program (see: http://

www.nature.org/wherewework/asiapacific/china/) initiated The Alpine Ecosystems

Conservation Project, with the overall goal of: ‘‘collaboratively developing a com-

prehensive understanding of the alpine zone of northwest Yunnan and options for

sustainable use that conserve biodiversity, while maintaining cultural integrity and

ecological services’’ (R. Mullen, unpublished). The study presented herein represents

an effort to engage local communities at the formative stages of this project (Hobbs,

1996) and is part of a larger effort that includes empirical botanical research and

remote sensing of alpine conditions (R. Sherman et al., in review; J. Ma and

B. Baker, in preparation). Our methodology allowed us to initiate collaborative

conservation efforts and identify conservation priorities at both the local and re-

gional scale by understanding the relationship between local resource use and eco-

logical conditions. We know of no other efforts to collect primary data quantifying

human uses and perceptions of northwestern Yunnan’s alpine environment, nor are

we aware of any attempts to fully integrate socioeconomic, ecological, and climate

change data in the identification of priorities and strategies for alpine ecosystem

conservation. Furthermore, we believe that the methodology developed and used in

this study may be widely applicable to conservation planners needing to efficiently

identify key regional trends in similar, widely dispersed, ecosystems.

2. Study area

Northwestern Yunnan is located in the Hengduan Mountains, part of the eastern

Himalayan range (Figure 1). The region is well known for its high levels of

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

biodiversity owing to the steep topographic gradients resulting from the descents of

the Mekong, Yangtze, Salween, and Irrawaddy Rivers from the Tibetan plateau,

which cut deep, parallel gorges in the mountainous landscape. The area is also

Figure 1. Northwestern Yunnan alpine areas and study sites.

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

characterized by a summer monsoon climate with cool, dry winters, and by diverse

microclimates due to the extreme topographic variation (YGRPPT, 2002).

Northwestern Yunnan features large, often contiguous patches of alpine lands

occurring between elevations of approximately 4000 and 5000 m, their exact extent

being dependent largely on elevation and microclimatic conditions. These alpine

ecosystems are composed of three primary vegetation subtypes: alpine meadow,

alpine scree, and cold shrub/scrub (mostly Rhododendron-dominated communities)

(YGRPPT, 2002). Many endemic and useful species are found within alpine areas

(Salick et al., 2004; Salick and Amend, 2005; Sherman et al., in review).

The study area also is culturally diverse; approximately 3 million people, com-

prising 10 ethnic groups, populate the region. Local communities still rely heavily on

natural resources for their livelihoods (Xu and Wilkes, 2004), and their cultural

traditions and practices have evolved over millennia to produce uniquely compli-

cated forms of land and natural resource management (Pei and Luo, 2002). Spe-

cifically, the region is predominantly occupied by Tibetan people, who are known to

influence alpine biodiversity through their herding practices and the collection of

medicinal plants (Guo, 2003; Xu and Wilkes, 2004).

3. Methodology

Our methodology was designed to engage local communities at formative planning

stages and understand regional trends in alpine resource conditions and use. The

methodology discussed below can identify basic conservation priorities at both a

regional and local scale with limited resources. However, it is limited in its ability to

capture highly detailed, site-scale community dynamics and organizational strate-

gies. Our methodology can lay the foundation for more detailed community

engagement in later project phases.

We selected three study sites corresponding to plot locations used for a concurrent

stratified, randomized survey of plant biodiversity across the alpine areas of

northwestern Yunnan designed to generate empirical botanical data (Sherman et al.,

in review). The three sites, Cizhong, Bamei, and Birong, are named for the admin-

istrative villages that use them and are similar in terms of access to major roads. The

Birong site is located within Shangri-la county, Geza township; The Cizhong site in

Deqin county, Foshan township; and the Bamei site in Deqin county, Yanmen

township (Figure 1). Although all the sites are located within Diqing prefecture, they

are separated by riparian systems at lower elevations and occupy distinct ecological

sub-regions of northwestern Yunnan (B. Baker, The Nature Conservancy, and

R. Sherman, Cornell University, personal communication).

Seventeen interview sessions of 51 people (31 males, 20 females) living in herder

camps at the 3 study sites were conducted during the summer of 2004 (May–July).

We chose to conduct interviews on location, when alpine pastures were being used

for grazing and medicinal plant collection, to ensure we gathered information from

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

users with primary knowledge of alpine systems. Our methodology can be broken

down into the following steps, which are discussed in order below:

1. Develop expert-reviewed questions that inform conservation planning

2. Seek local review of questions and make appropriate revisions

3. Identify a sample with the full range of variation

4. Make introductions and create conditions for candid interviews

5. Conduct open-ended interviews across the demographic range

6. Summarize conclusions from interviews

7. Present conclusions to local people for final review

In order to understand important human–alpine linkages, we developed a set of

expert-reviewed questions on natural resource use applicable to comprehensive and

participatory conservation planning in northwestern Yunnan (Moseley et al., 2004).

A subsequent local review of the interview questions prior to field research resulted

in several important additions and revisions. We carried out interviews in a semi-

structured format while living in herder camps. The questions focused on topics with

implications for both conservation and local economic development, such as herd-

ing, medicinal plants, tourism, wildlife, income, spirituality, desires for the future,

and perceived environmental change (Appendix 1). Where applicable, interviewees

provided a household perspective to the questions asked. Through these interviews

we were able to collect data on local community use of and relationship to alpine

ecosystems, and the potential for building future partnership in conservation efforts.

We employed a ‘‘maximum variation sampling’’ methodology, which documents

the range of variation in a social system and more importantly the common patterns

that emerge from within this variability (Salant and Dillman, 1994; Creswell, 1998).

Our three study sites, being located in distinct sub-regions, allowed us to identify the

range of regional variation and important common trends across northwestern

Yunnan. Because of the underlying ecological and cultural differences between our

study sites, similar observations could be identified as regional trends without

extensive data sets that are impossible for most conservation organizations to obtain.

At the site-scale, interviewees were selected to span, as evenly as possible, the entire

demographic range present. This allowed us to identify both common concerns and

the scope of human–alpine relations across important variables such as income and

gender. We found maximum variation sampling to be appropriate for this explo-

ration stage of conservation planning because it allowed us to observe regional and

local trends in resource use, as well as the cultural and economic factors driving such

use.

Two to three days were spent getting to know and interviewing alpine users within

each of several herding camps associated with our three study sites (i.e., villages).

Introductions and interviewee selections were carried out by a local facilitator

familiar with the culture, local Tibetan dialect, and customs of the study sites, and

trained in our sampling methodology. The local facilitator played a central role in

nourishing the social conditions necessary for candid, informative interviews, which

provided a sense of community ownership over the process.

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

Semi-structured interviews permitted unprompted responses and changes in

interview direction at the discretion of both the interviewer and interviewee

(Schensul et al., 1999). This approach has been successful in other studies where the

scope of knowledge was not easily anticipated at early project stages (Hobbs, 1996;

Huntington, 1998). Group interviews were sought when possible, and many times

individual interviews became group interviews as interest within the community

grew. We allowed camp members to resolve disagreements when they arose during a

group interview, and consensus was often reached after open discussion. This

allowed us to rely on the knowledge of the camp members to verify the accuracy of

responses, rather than our own subjective judgments (Huntington, 1998).

Responses to questions were translated from Tibetan to Mandarin Chinese by the

local facilitator and recorded in English by the senior author, who speaks Mandarin

Chinese. When the interviews were completed, we presented summarized conclusions

about alpine resource use to a group of alpine users comprised of both the original

interviewees and others who had not participated in the process earlier. Conclusions

were adjusted accordingly. Thus, knowledgeable local individuals have reviewed the

results and conclusions reported in this paper. A final written report, in Mandarin

Chinese, was left with literate camp members, if present.

4. Herding

Livestock grazing is practiced in the alpine areas across northwestern Yunnan during

the summer season, the actual months depending on the timing of late-spring snow

melts and the arrival of cold temperatures in early-autumn (Figure 2). According to

herders and our own observations, the Cizhong area sees significantly higher

snowfalls each winter compared to either Bamei or Birong, which both lie within

precipitation shadows of high mountains to their west. Thus, the Cizhong area has

the shortest alpine grazing season of the three study sites.

Males have primary responsibility for herding activities throughout the study area.

Of the 20 females who participated in interviews, only 2 reported playing a primary

Figure 2. Grazing season length for the three case study sites.

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

role in herding activities. However, the precise breakdown of roles in each family

unit was not clear from our interviews. Of 21 male herders interviewed, 15 were

residing alone in alpine areas, which is common during the herding season. Herders

live in alpine and sub-alpine herding camps during the summer months to tend to

their herds and process dairy products.

The breeds of livestock in the study area consisted of yellow ox (Bos taurus

domesticus), yak (Bos grunniens or Poephagus grunniens), and their F1 crosses, called

pianniu. According to the herders, yellow ox are limited by colder alpine tempera-

tures and must descend into the valleys for a much longer period each year than

yaks, which are highly adapted to upper elevations. Yaks were reported to be limited

by the warmer temperatures characteristic of villages located in the valleys; thus,

herders from lower elevation villages, such as Cizhong, do not generally raise yaks.

The hybrid pianniu were reported to exhibit higher survival rates at the full range of

elevations from lower elevation villages to alpine areas, have higher milk yields, and

were thus preferred at all sites. Only small numbers of pure-breed animals were

maintained, although Bamei interviewees expressed an interest in increasing the

number of pure-breed yaks due to their stronger defensive abilities against wolf

predation.

The vast majority of animals were raised for dairy products, namely butter and

cheese. Herders reported that milk production increased by as much as 2.5 times

when livestock grazed in alpine areas in comparison with lower elevation areas.

Across the study area it was stated that about half of the dairy products produced at

each location was consumed within the household, and the other half was sold, with

slight variations reported among households. Our interviews showed that the

majority of products intended for sale were sold at regional towns with markets,

which required 1 day of travel from the villages. Such trips were made one or two

times per year per household across the study area. For some households, this was

the only source of cash income, while others had more diversified livelihood strat-

egies (discussed below). More than half of individual and group interviews indicated

that herding accounted for more than 50% of total household incomes, particularly

in Cizhong and Bamei.

At each site we also investigated changing practices, perceived alpine environ-

mental change, community management, and anticipated and desired futures.

Remarkably, we found that, with one exception, there were no reports of changing

herding practices during the last 10–20 years. The exception was a man from Bamei

who no longer ventured to the highest herding camp due to his advancing age.

Another man from Bamei, who had been herding for 50 years, reported that the only

changes he had observed were the creation and dissolution of communes decades

before. Hence, the timing and location of alpine herding has reportedly remained the

same for many years, and is primarily limited by seasonal environmental conditions.

Herders reported that only the lifestyle had improved with the adoption of new

products, such as rubber rain boots and hand-cranked butter processing machines.

Although it has been demonstrated in Yunnan and worldwide that high levels of

livestock grazing can degrade alpine pastures (Richard and Hoffman, 2004; Xu and

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

Wilkes, 2004), such problems were not currently present at our study sites. The

herders we interviewed reported neither a general decrease in alpine fodder levels,

nor an increase in inedible plant species, both well-known indicators of grazing land

degradation (Mohamed-Saleem and Wuldo, 2002; Erschbamer et al., 2003). Many

herders did indicate that fodder quality in areas directly surrounding camps, where

livestock are kept during the night, is becoming degraded. There were no reports

from herders of significant alpine degradation due to traditional herding practices

and we detected no major concerns about the health of alpine pastures among

herders at our three study sites. In support, Sherman et al. (in review) have found no

evidence of severe degradation in a separate plant diversity survey of corresponding

areas. Tibetan people have herded livestock in these areas and produced dairy

products for millennia, indicating that their traditional practices have been relatively

sustainable. In fact, it has been demonstrated elsewhere that moderate grazing can

increase alpine species diversity and aid in soil retention (Korner, 2000).

There were striking differences between generations regarding expectations and

desires for the future in the majority of our interviews. Most young herders (age

<35) stated that the herding lifestyle was too difficult and hoped to pursue other

livelihood activities in the future, such as tourism and/or construction. Older herders

(age >50) tended to regard the traditional herding lifestyle as secure and stated that

they were discouraged by the younger generation’s desire to pursue other livelihood

strategies. Some even stated that the biggest challenge to their household over the

next decade would be the loss of traditional knowledge between generations. We

believe that if young people succeed in entering either the tourism or general labor

sector, the change would not only impact Tibetan culture and knowledge about

herding, but also could have much wider impacts resulting from the increase in

activities such as road building and mass tourism into alpine areas.

In some areas, people with access to cash can afford to buy additional livestock

and pay others to do their herding. This was the case in Cizhong, where interviewees

reported that the livestock they owned made up less than half of the herd in their

care. We believe that an increase in herd sizes could lead to localized degradation of

alpine pastures.

Strengthening local management of alpine pastures was generally seen as unnec-

essary, though the possibility was brought up by a small number of interviewees. All

respondents told us that alpine pastures had been partitioned among nearby villages

before they had begun to herd, and that these traditional divisions were well rec-

ognized and highly respected by all community members. In Cizhong, a strong need

for strengthened management was reported, but this was only for sub-alpine pas-

tures, which were receiving increased pressure. Interviewees suggested the need for

annual herder meetings to decide the arrival and departure dates for the various

camps utilized over the course of the grazing season. This conclusion was among

those written and left with the local review group.

Two issues apparently affecting these alpine lands are climate change and the

national-level fire ban. It is thought that these factors are working in tandem to

foster shrub encroachment, which decreases the amount of alpine meadowlands

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

available for livestock grazing (Baker and Moseley, in review). An interviewee at

both Birong and Bamei reported that scrub encroachment has become a problem

after the national fire ban. Shrub encroachment into arctic and alpine meadows is

currently being observed worldwide (Sturm et al., 2004; Baker and Moseley, in

review) and if left to continue, could cause grazing to be concentrated in fewer and

smaller areas.

We have confirmed that in northwestern Yunnan, Tibetan people are highly

dependent on rangeland resources. Livestock grazing not only sustains life through

the production of cheese and butter, but also helps to define Tibetan culture

(Yunzhen, 2005). Alpine areas, while only grazed during the summer months

(3–7 months/year), figure largely in this tradition. In regards to rangeland resources,

it is clear that continued monitoring of climate effects, changing land use patterns,

and resultant impacts will be necessary and we recommend that more sites across the

region be evaluated.

5. Medicinal plant and fungus collection

Collectors of medicinal plants and fungi in our study were between the ages of 13

and 65 years. The majority of full-time collectors interviewed were female (17 of 26),

as men had greater responsibility for herding at many of the sites and would only

collect for short periods of time each day, if at all, when animals were grazing and

did not require attention. Two alpine medicinal plants were collected commercially

at the Birong and Bamei sites: caterpillar fungus (Cordyceps sinensis) and Beimu

(Fritillaria cirrhosa). There was no commercial plant collection at the Cizhong site,

as the short growing season in the alpine areas precluded the development of

commercially valuable medicinal plants. At all three sites, other medicinal plants

were collected opportunistically for household use, but at the time of our study there

were no commercial markets for these plants (Table I).

Approximately 64% (7 of 11) of our interviews dealing exclusively with collection

indicated that commercially collected plants are sold at the regional market town

nearest to each respective site. The other 36% reported sale locally to intermediary

dealers who were reported to be responsible for initiating commercial medicinal

collections at all sites. Collectors indicated that prices for medicinal plants were

higher in regional markets, but factored in travel time and costs when deciding where

to sell.

Commercial collection was reported to represent a substantial source of household

income for many of the individuals interviewed. This was particularly true at the

Bamei site, where a group interview with 14 collectors revealed that income from

medicinal collections accounted for 60% or more of many household incomes.

Several interviewees whose households were not involved in herding indicated that

the collection of medicinal plants represented their only source of disposable income.

Individuals in Birong collected a similar amount of alpine medicinal plants, however

this accounted for a lower percentage of their total household incomes due to

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

collection of the lucrative Matsutake mushroom (Tricholoma matsutake), a symbiont

of oak trees not found in alpine habitats.

At all the sites where commercial collection was practiced, it was reported that,

because of a rise in the price of these products over the last decade, more people were

now engaged in collection. At both the Birong and Bamei sites, interviewees indi-

cated that more households are participating in collection than ever before and more

members of each household are taking part in the activity. It was stated repeatedly

that commercial medicinal plants were more difficult to locate than they were

10 years ago because of this increased pressure. Another commercial medicinal

plant, Huhuanlian (Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora), was reported to have gone locally

extinct in Cizhong 20 years ago after a period of intense commercial collection. By

contrast, there was no report at any of the three sites of a non-commercial medicinal

plant becoming more difficult to locate.

No significant local management of this resource was reported across the study

region. The highest collection pressure was reported to come from collectors who use

the alpine areas within their village’s jurisdiction, with each household within a

village using alpine areas as an open-access resource. Interviewees indicated that

collection intensity was as high as possible, both in terms of the number of people

involved and the seasonal timing of collections. At the Bamei site, fees were imposed

(US$1.21) to prevent outsiders from collecting on the community’s alpine areas, and

it was reported that this helped maintain a lower collection pressure. This was the

only example of local management reported at our sites, yet it does not address the

largest source of pressure on medicinal resources. In fact, no interviewees reported a

willingness to curtail the intensity of their collection activities in the face of the

TABLE I. Alpine medicinals used at the three study sites.

Common name Scientific name Family Uses

Fungi and Lichens

Catepillar

fungus

Cordyceps sinensis Clavicipitaceae Eye, aphrodisiac, reduces blood

pressure, immune booster,

tonic, ‘‘warming’’

Snow Tea Thamnolia vermicularis Icmadophilaceae Inflammation, fever, clean brain, eye

Plants

Beimu Fritillaria cirrhosa Liliaceae ‘‘Women’s disease’’, cough, appendix

Zhimu Fritillaria delavayi Liliaceae Cough, lungs, ‘‘women’s problems’’,

inflammation, fracture

Dahuang Rheum officinale Polygonaceae Purgative

Jinbuhuan Scutellaria baicalensis Lamiaceae Inflammation, flu

Longdan Gentiana regescens Gentianaceae Inflammation, liver, fever,

cold, headache

Qingjiao Gentiana crassicaulis Gentianaceae Inflammation, liver, fever,

cold, headache

Snow Lotus Saussurea eriocephala Asteraceae Stomach, muscles, lung, vomit,

blood disease, ‘‘women’s disease’’,

inflammation, rheumatism, tension,

epilepsy, skin disease

Huhuanlian Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Scrophulariaceae Fever

(J. Salick, personal communication).

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

decreased abundance of commercially valuable species. Many of the interviewees

stated that the collection of medicinal plants was so important to their livelihood

that they were simply unable to reduce collection intensity. Alpine areas in this

regard are becoming a classic example of an open-access, common-property resource

and the associated difficulties (Dolsak and Ostrom, 2003).

Previous studies have demonstrated that increased difficulty in finding certain

medicinal plants can be an indicator of over-collection and in fact, some species

within the region do seem to be in decline (Xu and Wilkes, 2004; Salick and Amend,

2005). The reported extirpation of Huhuanlian illustrates a possible scenario for

caterpillar fungus and Beimu if collecting is not managed at both the local and

regional levels. Such an outcome would be a loss of a vital source of income for local

communities and the demise of an important element of regional biodiversity. Be-

cause of the open-access approach to alpine medicinal plant collection, local com-

munities in our study area run the risk of eventually losing this resource. In order to

understand this more clearly, it will be necessary to investigate the total quantities of

medicinal products collected and sold in local and regional markets, the attributes of

habitat importance to the persistence of these species, sustainable harvest levels, and

a mechanism for local and regional regulation of collection and markets (Robbins,

2000; Jodha, 2001; Olsen and Larsen, 2003; Salick and Amend, 2005).

6. Tourism

Over the last decade, tourism in Yunnan Province has been increasing at a faster rate

than any other province in China (Xu and Kruse, 2003). Alpine tourism, based on

trekking and climbing, is already well developed in many parts of northwestern

Yunnan. This trend is expected to accelerate in the coming decade, possibly having

significant impacts on both local livelihoods and alpine resources.

There was no experience with tourism at the Bamei site. However, interviewees at

the Birong and Cizhong sites were all supportive of tourism development and many

had specific ideas about how this development might occur: improvement of

transportation infrastructure, construction of guesthouses, mountain guiding ser-

vices, and the diversification of local food items. Younger respondents (age <25)

were often more enthusiastic about tourism and viewed it as a way to earn a

significant income with a less demanding lifestyle than herding or collecting. Older

respondents, although supportive of tourist development in principle, often pro-

moted a more moderate approach that would not cause the loss of traditional

knowledge viewed as vital to steady livelihoods. This moderate approach was stated

most strongly by an older interviewee in Cizhong (age 64), where there is less

experience with tourism than in Birong. Many of the herders that stated a desire to

change livelihood strategies noted that the hard lifestyle required for herding was

central to their desire. In addition to tourism, many also mentioned the possibility

of laboring on infrastructure projects and driving as potential future livelihood

activities.

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

At the Birong site, tourism planning was the issue of highest concern in most

interviews, particularly the development of infrastructure. The gorge below the local

alpine areas attracts an increasing number of visitors each year and community

members expect tourism to become a larger part of local livelihoods in the future.

Most interviewees indicated that they rent horses to tourists on a rotating basis

agreed upon by the community. Several guides stated that adventure tourists are

beginning to ask for guiding services into alpine areas. If the community and/or

other relevant regional institutions or organizations do not manage this develop-

ment, alpine areas could become highly impacted, as has happened elsewhere

(Godde et al., 2000; Stevens, 2003). Although the impacts of road construction and

other tourism infrastructure development are relatively immediate and quite obvi-

ous, it also has been shown that seemingly low levels of continuous trampling in

alpine areas can have irreversible effects on vegetation composition and coverage

(Ives, 1974).

Interviews in Cizhong also revealed that adventure tourists are passing through

the area’s alpine areas on their way over the nearest mountain pass (Sila), and that

the community is responding positively to the development of this type of tourism.

Specific suggestions were made by alpine herders to establish local guiding services,

which were seen within a larger tourist development context that included the

construction of guesthouses and improvement of hospitality services. Cizhong village

already is a modest tourist destination due to its historic Catholic Church and wine-

making tradition. While tourist development here has only reached very early stages

and impacts are not yet apparent, we believe community mobilization for manage-

ment could stem any problems that might arise later.

Indeed, local participation in and control of tourism planning have been recog-

nized broadly as prerequisites for equitable benefit sharing and positive livelihood

development (Cochrane, 2000; Reid, 2003; Sofield, 2003). While there are many

challenges facing this approach, both in general (Richards and Hall, 2000) as well as

in Yunnan (Reijenga, 2003), community involvement will be essential both for

effective resource conservation and positive economic and social outcomes. Unfor-

tunately, Hillman (2003) shows that in many parts of Yunnan, local communities

have already been marginalized because participation was not formalized.

7. Conservation planning

The results from this study suggest the need to facilitate both local and regional

management of alpine ecosystems in northwestern Yunnan. We did not find local

concern with over-grazing at our study sites, though there are indications that this

may be a problem elsewhere (Xu and Wilkes, 2004; Yunzhen, 2005). Land man-

agement is a dynamic process and our results do not preclude increased grazing

pressures at our sites during the next decade. However, before local communities will

have an incentive to actively manage alpine grazing lands or any other natural

resource, some amount of damage must be present (Barrett et al., 2002). Hence,

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

continued monitoring of trends in alpine grazing and resulting impacts will be

necessary and more sites across the region should be evaluated.

Our results did, however, indicate a clear, region-wide deterioration of important

alpine medicinal species due to over-collection. Hence, conservation strategies that

can combat this trend and ensure uninterrupted local resource use and biodiversity

protection should be developed.

Successful conservation efforts should be two-pronged and endeavor to empower

local communities to manage common-property resources and to regulate regional

medicinal markets in response to prevailing economic trends (Robbins, 2000). At the

local level, communities in northwestern Yunnan should be empowered to manage

common-property resources both through the strengthening of traditional man-

agement institutions and the establishment of new associations to regulate medicinal

plant collecting at the local level. Collector associations, owing to their greater

bargaining power and visibility, would have a greater capacity to ensure transparent

markets and fair prices than individual collectors.

Baland and Platteau (1996) highlight three prerequisites for establishing organized

local management: (1) users perceive the benefits of collective action, (2) users are

informed about the state of the resource in question, and (3) users understand the

impact of extraction on the stock of the resource. Our interviews suggest that the

latter two prerequisites are generally met across the study region, but that individuals

do not yet perceive the benefits of collective action. Hence, there will be a need for

experimentation at the local level in terms of education and community mobilization

in this regard. In addition, different forms of community management must be

appraised critically and each will likely require a site-specific approach (Agrawal and

Gibson, 2001).

The cultural and social setting of northwestern Yunnan suggests that community

management of common-property resources can be highly successful (Dolsak and

Ostrom, 2003). In general, there were a small number of collectors per area at our

study sites, all of whom had strong ties to a specific village. Collection areas were

traditionally partitioned among villages and there was a high respect for established

boundaries. Resource use in one area did not appear to affect neighboring areas,

limiting the scope of negative externalities. In addition, it is increasingly recognized

that commercial resource use is causing the degradation of alpine medicinal plants.

Hence, we recommend that several pilot sites be established to formally explore the

possibilities of local management of alpine medicinal plants and better understand

community dynamics.

Community management and empowerment is also highly applicable to herding

and tourism (Banks et al., 2003; Sofield, 2003). Traditional community institutions

can provide the basis for adaptation to exogenous economic development. Alpine

pasture areas are common-property resources and the principles of management

discussed above apply. As local communities are the main sources of knowledge

about site-level alpine conditions and the most viable social structures to enforce

management decisions, their full involvement will be central to any conservation

efforts. Likewise for tourism planning, local communities that are empowered to

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

participate and control development are much more likely to ensure equitable benefit

sharing and conservation of important resources than outside businesses concerned

primarily with short-term profits. Hence, we recommend significant local community

involvement in any conservation activity at the site-level.

At a regional level, markets for alpine medicinal plants require regulations that

prevent harvesting at levels in excess of production, or the decline of valuable

medicinal stocks will continue. Other studies of alpine medicinal and useful plants

show that sustainable harvests must be supported by clear institutional and gov-

ernment regulations (Karki, 2000; Robbins, 2000; Larsen, 2002; He, 2003). Demand

for medicinal products is driven by prevailing market forces and alpine users will

always have incentives to over-exploit for short-term gain without transparent

markets and opportunities for participation. Only through regional participation by

relevant governmental bodies, collectors, and traders could the most effective and

enforceable harvest-limiting mechanisms be identified. Possibilities include distrib-

uting permits to community collector associations for harvesting within a prede-

termined sustainable yield limit. Hence, regulation would depend on a dynamic and

accurate knowledge of the state of alpine medicinal resources, requiring the con-

tinued monitoring by both community members and natural scientists (Robbins

2000; Larsen, 2002). Although regional regulation should be explored, the dispersed

nature of the resources in question and the lack of significant institutional devel-

opment in the region pose significant challenges.

We identified several other issues of local importance that may prove vital for

developing site-specific alpine conservation programs. These are highlighted below

to show the usefulness of our methodology not only for eliciting regional trends, but

also for identifying local uniqueness. Clear understanding of distinct local issues is

particularly important for the promotion of site-scale management solutions

(Agrawal and Gibson, 2001).

In Birong, tourism planning was the issue of highest concern to local communities.

The Birong Gorge attracts an increasing number of visitors each year and com-

munity members expect alpine tourism to become a larger part of local livelihoods in

the future. If this development is not managed by the community and/or a relevant

regional institution, alpine areas could become highly impacted.

In Cizhong, the deterioration of sub-alpine pastures was the top concern of many

herders. They felt that local management was needed and suggested specific ways to

make this possible. Alpine users from Cizhong also were interested in increasing

tourism to the area because of several unique cultural and biophysical assets.

In Bamei, herders were overwhelmingly concerned with the recent proliferation of

wolves in response to new conservation policies. The protection of wolves and the

resulting increase in predation have caused some herders to lose up to one half of

their herd in a single year. Understandably, local communities quickly react with

apprehension to any suggestions of additional conservation actions. While we were

unable to assess the full implications of wolf predation, it appears that this is

becoming an issue in several locations (Yunzhen, 2005). This issue should be

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

prioritized for future research and must be addressed successfully if conservation

projects are pursued with villages facing this problem.

8. Conclusions

Using a methodology based on maximum variation sampling across a region we

were able to identify important conservation issues at both regional and local levels.

Regionally, the growing negative impacts of increased medicinal plant collection

appear to be the most important conservation and livelihood issue. Sustainable

harvest research for all commercial species and management at both the local and

regional levels will be important if this trend is to be reversed. Conservation experts

have cited alpine grazing as a critical threat to alpine ecosystems (YGRPPT, 2002;

Moseley et al., 2004). However, we did not find grazing to be impacting our sites

enough to warrant local concern, although we believe this issue deserves further

investigation. Local issues, such as wolf predation and increasing tourism were also

identified and will be further explored to determine whether these issues are having a

greater impact on alpine areas than this study reflected. Regional issues will clearly

be important factors for development and implementation of any broad scale con-

servation strategies.

These data reflect only the views of herders and medicinal plant collectors from

alpine camps who directly use the resources in question. Indeed, interviewees were

selected because of their primary knowledge of alpine systems. Hence, they might be

expected to be less candid about any degradation of alpine resources, since such

recognition could pose a risk to these critical livelihood strategies. However, through

our local facilitator, we were very careful to ensure interviewees that the data were

for the beneficial use by their community and for developing a long-term collabo-

ration with them. We are continuing to get acquainted with and interview people in

the villages that use these alpine areas. All interview data will be integrated with a

larger data set arising from our ecological, climate-change, and monitoring work

across the alpine ecosystems of northwestern Yunnan (R. Mullen, unpublished). It is

our aim to use the entire study to form the basis for working with additional partners

to collaboratively develop regional conservation strategies, and to determine priority

issues and locations that warrant more concentrated study.

The trends identified in this paper require confirmation before specific land-use

policies can be responsibly formulated. However, we have shown that conservation

organizations with limited budgets, staff, and time can engage communities to begin

identifying regional trends and local issues that will inform conservation planning at

its earliest stages. The methodology used in this study is especially well suited to large

areas with limited existing land-use data and heterogeneous landscapes. We are

confident that it could be used to collect livelihood and land-use data for organi-

zations facing similar constraints elsewhere.

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

Acknowledgements

The Nature Conservancy China Program was instrumental in supporting and

facilitating this work, both financially and otherwise. We are especially grateful to

Mr. Ma Jian for creating a GIS map of our study area and local facilitators for

their language and cultural expertise. Dr. Jan Salick provided traditional use data

for the medicinal plants and fungi found at our study sites. Drs. David Inouye,

Ruth E. Sherman and two anonymous reviewers made helpful comments on ear-

lier versions of this manuscript. Most importantly, we would like to thank the

alpine users of northwestern Yunnan for their incredible hospitality, knowledge,

and visions of a sustainable and prosperous future.

Appendix 1. Interview Questionnaire

1. How many people are in your household?

2. Grazing

(a) Which members of the household are engaged in alpine grazing? Gender?

Age?

(b) What is the size of your herd today? Five years ago? Every year how many

new livestock are born? What kind do you want to keep?

(c) When during the year do you graze alpine areas?

(d) What areas do you use for grazing? (possibly use maps)

(e) What types of animals are grazed?

(f) How many animals were sold at the market last year and what was the

price of each?

(g) During what times of the year do you collect milk?

(h) How much and what is the value of the products sold at market during

one year?

(i) Where is the market and how often do you go? How long is the travel time?

Do you sell locally?

(j) How important is grazing alpine areas for maintaining your livelihood?

(k) Are you satisfied with pursuing your livelihood through grazing? Why or

why not?

(l) In the past ten years, have there been any changes in grazing practices?

(m) Do you believe the quality of alpine grazing lands has improved, deterio-

rated, or stayed the same during the past ten years? Why?

(n) What will grazing be like in ten years for your village?

(o) Does your village make collective decisions about the management of graz-

ing practices, including partitioning alpine areas among different villages

and conflicts that arise from such partitioning? Please explain.

(p) Are there other institutions that influence grazing in this area?

(q) How effective is this management in meeting the needs of your household?

3. Alpine Plants

M. T. BUNTAINE ET AL.

(a) Which members of the family are engaged in alpine plant collection?

Gender? Age?

(b) What are the most important species collected?

(c) During what times of the year do you go to the alpine for these plants?

(d) Where to you go to collect it?

(e) In the past ten years, have there been any changes in collection practices,

including amount collected? Why?

(f) Do you believe the abundance of these plants has increased, decreased, or

stayed the same during the past ten years? Why?

(g) In the past year, what was the total approximate income earned from these

plants?

(h) Where is the market and how often do you go? How long is the travel

time? Or are these plants sold locally?

(i) How much of alpine plant collection is for household use?

(j) Does your village make collective decisions about managing plant collec-

tion? Please explain.

(k) Are there other institutions that influence plant collection?

(l) How effective is this management in meeting the needs of your household?

(m) Are you satisfied with pursuing livelihood through plant collection? Why

or why not?

4. Tourism (if participating in tourism)

(a) In what type of tourism do you participate? Please explain.

(b) Which members of the family are engaged in tourism? Gender? Age?

(c) During what times of the year do you participate in tourism?

(d) How much income in the past year has this household earned from tour-

ism?

(e) In what areas does tourism take place? (use map)

(f) Do you believe that tourism has caused or will cause changes in alpine

areas?

(g) How does the village make decisions about tourism, if at all? Please

explain.

(h) Are you satisfied with pursuing your livelihood through tourism?

(i) What impact do you hope tourism will have on the life of your household?

How?

5. Tourism (if NOT participating in tourism)

(a) Would you welcome the development of tourism in this village or the

alpine areas associated with this village? Why or why not?

(b) If yes, what would you envision for tourism in this village?

(c) To your knowledge, has this village been approached by those seeking to

develop tourism?

6. Wildlife

(a) What wild animals are present in alpine areas today?

(b) How has the abundance of wild animals changed in your lifetime and why?

(c) How does wildlife affect herders and villagers?

CONSERVATION PLANNING IN ALPINE AREAS

7. Income

(a) What is the approximate total income your household earns in one year?

(b) How much income did your household earn from grazing activities in al-

pine areas during the last year?

(c) How much income did your household earn from selling alpine plants dur-

ing the last year?

(d) How much income did your household earn in tourism last year?

(e) What are other major sources of income for your household, including

non-alpine activities?

(f) What portion of alpine products are used within your household instead of

sold?

8. Beliefs

(a) Do you believe that the surrounding alpine areas are sacred in any way?

(b) What is the traditional culture associated with sacred areas?

(c) What alpine resources are located in these sacred sites?

(d) If yes, how does that belief affect the way you use alpine resources?

9. Desires for the future

(a) What do you hope life will be like in ten years for your household (and

children)?

(b) What is the greatest asset you possess to achieve that desired future?

(c) What do you believe is the greatest obstacle to achieving your desired fu-

ture?

10. Environmental Change

(a) Do you believe the condition of alpine areas has deteriorating, improved,

or stayed the same in the past ten years? Why?

(b) How important is additional protection of alpine areas?

(c) If important, what steps can be taken to ensure alpine protection?

11. Is there anything else about alpine areas you believe is important that has not

been mentioned?

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