1 Human Development Indicators and Spatial Development and Planning: Opportunities and Challenges Maida Fetahagić Maida Fetahagić is Deputy Director in the Development Planning Institute of the Sarajevo Canton, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a Ph.D. candidate in the University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Science, Department of Spatial/Regional Planning Abstract Connections and relations between human development concept and spatial development and planning are explored and application of human development indicators in creating spatial plans are considered in this paper. Universal use of human development indicators implies their application in preparing and creating spatial plans as well. Beside the standard human development indicators that have been used so far, Spatial Development Index is presented for the needs of spatial planning. Contribution of this paper is reflected in the methodology of spatial development index that can be applied at the level of municipalities, cantons, regions or any other territorial spatial units for preparation of spatial development plans. Experiences of Bosnia and Herzegovina in national human development reports are a special part of this paper. The need for spatial planning at the level of the BiH state was underlined, as an instrument for arrangement of unique space of the state of BiH. Consideration of the EU context of spatial planning imposes a new role of spatial planning in BiH: this is also an instrument for successful integration into international and interregional trends. Key words: human development indicators, spatial development and planning, disparities in development, Spatial Development Index, accessibility, European Union, Bosnia and Herzegovina. Introduction remarks In the first decade of this century, in the period of financial and economic crisis, social issues and poverty and significant climate changes, the International Community continuously appeals for measuring the progress of well-being and quality of life at global level. 1 By introducing human development concept, the UN has also developed measuring indicators of human development. Human Development Index (HDI) is the fundamental indicator, combining indicators of health and education with GDP in a special way. This is a contribution to quantification of the entire socio-economic aspect of the progress, Human development indicators have provided the possibility of innovative thinking about the progress in society, by introducing a simple, but powerful idea that development is much 1 OECD organized several world’s forums on statistics, knowledge and policies (Palermo 2004, Istanbul 2007 and Bussan 2009). European Commission, along with other partners, organized the conference entitled ―Beyond GDP‖ in 2007, as well as in 2009, entitled ―GDP and beyond: Measuring progress in a changing world‖. Within the global project ―Measuring progress of society‖, a special commission was established. According to its report, the time has come for significance of measuring economic performances to be replaced by measuring human well-being. Commission consisting of Joseph Stiglitz (The President) Amartya Sen (advisor) and Jean Paul Fitoussi. Report is available at http://www.stiglitz-sen-fitoussi.fr/en/index.htm
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1
Human Development Indicators and Spatial Development and Planning: Opportunities
and Challenges
Maida Fetahagić
Maida Fetahagić is Deputy Director in the Development Planning Institute of the Sarajevo Canton,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a Ph.D. candidate in the University of Sarajevo, Faculty of Science,
Department of Spatial/Regional Planning
Abstract
Connections and relations between human development concept and spatial
development and planning are explored and application of human development indicators in
creating spatial plans are considered in this paper.
Universal use of human development indicators implies their application in preparing
and creating spatial plans as well. Beside the standard human development indicators that
have been used so far, Spatial Development Index is presented for the needs of spatial
planning. Contribution of this paper is reflected in the methodology of spatial development
index that can be applied at the level of municipalities, cantons, regions or any other territorial
spatial units for preparation of spatial development plans.
Experiences of Bosnia and Herzegovina in national human development reports are a
special part of this paper. The need for spatial planning at the level of the BiH state was
underlined, as an instrument for arrangement of unique space of the state of BiH.
Consideration of the EU context of spatial planning imposes a new role of spatial planning in
BiH: this is also an instrument for successful integration into international and interregional
trends.
Key words: human development indicators, spatial development and planning, disparities in
development, Spatial Development Index, accessibility, European Union, Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Introduction remarks
In the first decade of this century, in the period of financial and economic crisis, social
issues and poverty and significant climate changes, the International Community continuously
appeals for measuring the progress of well-being and quality of life at global level.1
By introducing human development concept, the UN has also developed measuring
indicators of human development. Human Development Index (HDI) is the fundamental
indicator, combining indicators of health and education with GDP in a special way. This is a
contribution to quantification of the entire socio-economic aspect of the progress, Human
development indicators have provided the possibility of innovative thinking about the
progress in society, by introducing a simple, but powerful idea that development is much
1 OECD organized several world’s forums on statistics, knowledge and policies (Palermo 2004, Istanbul 2007
and Bussan 2009). European Commission, along with other partners, organized the conference entitled ―Beyond
GDP‖ in 2007, as well as in 2009, entitled ―GDP and beyond: Measuring progress in a changing world‖. Within
the global project ―Measuring progress of society‖, a special commission was established. According to its
report, the time has come for significance of measuring economic performances to be replaced by measuring
human well-being. Commission consisting of Joseph Stiglitz (The President) Amartya Sen (advisor) and Jean
Paul Fitoussi. Report is available at http://www.stiglitz-sen-fitoussi.fr/en/index.htm
opportunity in the nation today, while others are experiencing levels of well-being that
characterized the nation decades ago.7 (Burd-Sharps,S. and Lewis, K.,2011, p.7).
Disaggregated HDI have been used for analyses in many countries, including Brazil,
China, Colombia, Egypt, Greece, Germany, India, Malaysia, Mexico, Turkey, Ukraine, USA,
South Africa, Peru, Bulgaria, etc.
2.3. Specific human development indicators
In order to address specific priorities and issues of the areas and in order to better
respond to development level of the areas, basic HDI components expressed at global level of
human development can be modified or replaced by other significant components specific for
the research area. Each country should choose the HDI components that refer to their
priorities.
Many national reports, starting from specific context of the country, developed new
indices, such as the Human Government Index (HDR South Asia 1999), Health Index (HDR
China 2002), Expanded Human Development Index (Argentina 2002), Service Deprivation
Index (HDR South Africa 2003), Cantonal Security Index, Insecurity Perception Index and
Individual Freedom Index (HDR Costa Rica, 2005) etc.
Extensive research was performed for the needs of creating the Peru Human
Development Report 2009 ―A State Density that Serves the People‖.
The two volumes of the Report explore a vision of the Peru from two angles. The first
volume analyses the concept of the State as basic service provider in the entirety of the
Peruvian territory. To achieve this, the expert team developed a State Density Index (SDI –
IDE in Spanish) composed by the following variables: identity cards/birth certificates,
physicians per habitants, secondary school assistance rate, households with potable water and
sanitation installations, and access to electricity in the housing.
The second volume explores the concept of the State based on the geographical
criterion defined by the natural territory and determined by available resources and their
relation to human development. In this way, the analysis addresses specific problems and
existing and latent vulnerabilities in the perspective of climate change and food insecurity.
From this perspective, the report draws a particular attention to the theme of the country’s
hydrological resources, which constitute the natural framework to facilitate communication
and sustainable development.8
Taking into account the specific situation in BiH, the EU context of social exclusion
and the concept and measurement of human development in ―Human Development Report
2007 – Social Inclusion in Bosnia and Herzegovina‖, the methodology for calculation of
social exclusion index was developed for the first time. The General Social Exclusion Index
(HSEI), The Extreme Social Exclusion Index (HSEI-1) and The Long-term Social Exclusion
Index (HSEI-2) were evaluated.
HSEI suggests that 50.32% of BiH population is socially excluded BiH; HSEI-1
signifies that 21,85% of BiH's population is extremely socially excluded from the most basic
7 • Asian American women in California can expect to live up to 88.6 years, over eighteen years longer than
African American men.
• A stunning $58,000 gap in median personal earnings separate the top earners in the Santa Clara–Cupertino,
Saratoga, Los Gatos area (about $73,000) from the lowest earners in the LA–East Adams–Exposition Park area
(about $15,000)—a gap double the median personal earnings for the country as a whole. • While only about seven in one hundred white adults in California never completed high school, this figure
rises to forty-five in one hundred Latino adults in the Los Angeles metro area. (Ibid, at p.7) 8 The Report is available on:
Krupalija and Miodrag Zivanovic. The Report is available on the webpage: www.undp.ba. 10 These are: Living Standard Measurement Survey in B&H, 2001; Survey - Living in B&H – series of panel
surveys in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004; Households Expenditures Survey in 2004 and 2007, Labor Force Survey -
8
surveys are the basis for numerous studies and analyses of various aspects of life and work in
B&H.
Results of the regional Human Development Report BiH
Human development index was calculated for the selected regions and municipalities
separately in this Report, on the basis of the data collected from municipalities.11
Summary of
the indicators obtained is presented in the Table 5. and they refer to significant disparity both
between the regions and the municipalities.
Table 5. Ranking the regions according to HDP, GDP/pc and HPI, 2001
Reg
ion
Municipalities HDI HDI
rank
GDP/pc
PPP $
GDP/pc
rank
HPI
%
HPI
rank
1 Sanksi Most, Ključ 0.672 6 1,960 3 23.9 2
2 Bosanski Novi, Prijedor 0.692 5 1,783 5 22.4 3
3 Travnik, Vitez 0.730 1 2,733 2 21.9 4
4 Zenica, Tešanj 0.709 3 1,910 4 19.1 6
5 Široki Brijeg, Ljubuški,
Posušje 0.721 2 2,803 1 28.6 1
6 Trebinje, Gacko 0.697 4 1,667 6 20.2 5
Source: The Author, based on BiH NHDR 2002: Regional Human Development Report
Ranking the regions according to human development is different than ranking
according to the basic indicator of economic development GDP/pc. Region 5 (Siroki Brijeg,
Ljubuski, Posusje) takes the first position according to GDP/pc; it is also the poorest region,
where about 28.6% of the population is poor in terms of human development. This suggests
that high economic growth, measured by GDP/pc, was not accompanied by human
development and the development model in this region is unsustainable.
4. Opportunities and challenges of the use of human development indicators in spatial
planning
Understanding the human development concept and human development indicators in the
context of spatial development and planning leads to possible directions of consideration:
- The first direction refers to theoretical contribution to understanding of spatial aspect
as dimension of human development;
- The second direction refers to the use of human development indicators in preparing
and creating spatial plans;
- The third direction is a special challenge: introducing a new indicator: spatial planning
index.
4.1. Spatial planning in the context of human development
2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, carried out by the Agency for Statistics of B&H, Federal Office of Statistics and
Republika Srpska Institute of Statistics. 11 The areas that determined the following regions were set for the research: Region 1 – Sanski Most and Kljuc
municipalities; Region 2 – Bosanski Novi and Prijedor municipalities; Region 3 – Travnik and Vitez
municipalities; Region 4 – Zenica and Tesanj municipalities; Region 5 – Siroki Brijeg, Posusje and Ljubuski
municipalities; Region 6 – Trebinje and Gacko municipalities.
9
Spatial planning is a very complex process; it goes into all aspects of life and work and
requires a multidisciplinary approach, as well as a team developing a spatial plan. Spatial
planning serves for determination of the best ways for the use of economic potentials and
arrangement of functional spatial structures. Spatial plan recognizes and determines the areas
with special potentials or limitations and inequalities in development of areas. Without
specific spatial-economic policy, developmental gap between favorable and unfavorable
settlements will become deeper, which is unfavorable for the overall economic, social and
spatial development.
On the basis of spatial plans, public investments are allocated in certain areas, to
contribute to development or to remove stagnations in development. Spatial plans supported
by economic studies are used as a basis for decisions, made by developmental policy-makers,
on the areas that the country especially needs to support and to certain extent. Therefore,
spatial plan, which includes a strategic economic plan as well, is not only an instrument for
structuring spatial development of certain area, but also an instrument for acquiring the funds
and setting directions for investment flows.
Contemporary approaches to spatial planning suggest that the ultimate objective of
spatial plan is to ―creation of richness in diversity of spatial offer, for a contemporary
individual to realize as many opportunities, i.e. freedoms of choices, as possible‖ (Neidhart,
V. 1997, p 14). Holistic approach to spatial planning is a process of creative intervention in
entirety of the living environment. On the other hand, ―The objective of human development
is to create an enabling environment for people to enjoy long, healthy and creative lives‖
(Hag, Ul M. 2004, p. 17).
The main orientation of spatial planning and development is to rely on the concept of
human development, which puts people into focus, along with all their capabilities. In this
sense, spatial plan should support the constant process of expansion of the choices and
capabilities for people to achieve certain level of wellbeing.
Space is understood as a dimension of human development – people are a part of the
space and all activities happen in the space: people need all possibilities available, in the
function of development of their capabilities. Space should not be an obstacle to development
of basic dimensions of human development.
Spatial planning in the context of human development is interpreted as a possibility to
approach to the access place where three essential choices are realized: income, education and
health. These are also the fundamental human rights: to work, to education and healthcare.
4.2. Application of human development indicators in preparing and creating spatial
plans
Understanding the relation between spatial planning and human development leads to
the application of human development indicators, as a valuable tool for preparing and creating
spatial plans and spatial development. Presenting the human development indicators on the
maps is a good step towards spatial expression of the data obtained, especially presenting the
data in GIS (Geographic Information System) format. GIS data are very practical because of
the possibility to continuously use and edit the data in the future as well.
Maps with the human development indices marked at the level of municipalities refer
to spatial disparities in development in the country and to one of the fundamental objectives
of spatial development: reducing the disparities and gaps in development of certain areas.
Indicators presented on the maps thus became the fundamental input for the needs of
preparing and creating spatial plans. (see Map 1. and Map 2.)
10
Source: NHDR Bulgaria 2002, p. 27. Source: NHDR Serbia 2008, p.211.
Spatial dimension of human development indicators was especially studied in the
paper ―The Spatial Dimension of Human Development Index in Indonesia―12
. This paper
explained the spatial pattern on HDI achievement at sub-national level in Indonesia, and
estimated the determinants of HDI using spatial econometrics method.
Spatial Development Index
Spatial Development Index - SDI implies basic dimensions of human development
from spatial aspect: access of the place13
where income is earned, place where health care is
provided and the place where education is acquired. Spatial development in the context of
human development can thus be interpreted as accessibility of workplace, education and
healthcare as well, which implies, among others, the traffic and social infrastructure
developed.
The issue of accessibility of workplace, education and health care also implies the
possibility to realize the fundamental human rights: the right to work, to education and health
care.
The issue of the right to work is not explicitly determined by the laws in BiH, but BiH
Constitution foresees that BiH should provide the highest level of internationally recognized
rights and fundamental freedoms. The issue of the right to work is referred to in the Article 1
of the European Social Charter.
The issue of accessibility of workplace depends on a number of factors: functional-
organizational spatial structure, location requirements of economic structure of the area,
spatial capacities of locations, development of infrastructure, etc.
12 Rinaldi, R. and Nurwita,E. (2010): The Spatial Dimension of Human Development Index in Indonesia,
Center for Economics and Development Studies, Department of Economics, Padjadjaran University Jalan
Cimandiri no. 6, Bandung, Indonesia. 13 Place in the context of spatial planning means: location, point.
Map 1. Level of HDI by districts and municipalities
in Bulgaria
Map 2. HDI by districts in Serbia
11
In terms of the access to workplace in the context of understanding SDI, it is crucial
for people to have a choice and possibilities to choose a job that is the most adequate to their
qualifications and capabilities. People often choose a less paid job if the work place is nearby
– looking for less expenditures and less time, which have a significant influence on the quality
of life (not only in economic sense). However, if they do not have a choice, they accept a job
at a more distant place, so we cannot talk about human development in this case.
The existing legal regulations in BiH foresee the equality of approach and equal
possibilities when it comes to health care and education as well. The Article 10 of FBiH Law
on Health Care reads that ―Health care is provided to the citizens in accordance with the
principles of universality, continuity, accessibility and totality of the approach to primary, as
well as specialized approach to specialist consultative and hospital health care‖. The Article 4
of the Framework Law on Primary and Secondary Education in BiH reads that ―Every child
has equal right to the approach and equal possibilities to participate in adequate education,
without discrimination on any basis. Equal approach and equal possibilities imply providing
equal conditions and opportunities for everyone, for the beginning and continuation of further
education‖.
Methodology of SDI calculations
Possible steps in SDI calculations with selected variables of spatial dimensions are
presented in the Figure 1.
Selecting the measurement of accessibility
It is clear that accessibility can be expressed and measured in several ways: in physical
units (km or m), time, expenditures caused by movement, type of transport means – public or
private transport, etc. In SDI calculations, accessibility and distance of spatial dimensions,
given the features of spatial plan, are measured in meters (physical distance) and the time
needed to pass certain distance (time distance14
).
General approach to calculation of spatial dimension sub-index and accessibility index
To calculate SDI, as well as other human development indicators, it is necessary to
calculate the index for each dimension. Dimensions are combined into the index on the basis
of the minimum and maximum value determined for a given variable. Features of each
dimension are determined as 0 to 1 values, applying the following formula:
Id = ( Xi – Xmin ) / ( Xmax – Xmin )
where: Id is dimension index
Xi is real value of the variable
Xmin and Xmax are threshold limits set for the variable, with Xmin ≤Xi≤ Xmax
In the process of calculation of sub-index, formula (1) is applied on each variable.
14 Time distance does not involve the way, a transport mean (by foot, bicycle, car or public transport) to arrive to
certain destination.
12
Figure 1. Scheme of the structure of Spatial Development Index (variables, sub-indices and indices)
Human
development
dimensions
Living standard Health Education
Spatial
dimensions Workplace
Place where health care is
provided
Place where education is
acquired
Variables
Distance between the place
of residence and workplace
Distance between the place of
residence and place of primary
and tertiary healthcare
Distance between the place
of residence and place of
primary and secondary
education
Physical
distance
Time
distance
Physical
distance
Time
distance
Physical
distance
Time
distance
Spatial
dimension sub-
index
Distance sub-
index
Time sub-
index
Distance sub-
index
Time sub-
index
Distance
sub-index
Time sub-
index
Accessability
index
Workplace Accessability
Index
Healthcare Accessability
Index
Education Accessability
Index
Spatial Development Index
Setting the minimum and maximum values of variables (goalposts for SDI)
Selection of the minimum and maximum values of the indicator is a result of
experience in preparing and creating spatial plans, as well as the value assumptions for
application of the simulation model of calculation.15
Spatial standards in methodology of creating spatial plans are mostly normative,
referring to the number of employed persons per ha covered by the economic facilities
constructed, number of health workers in relation to the size of population, number of schools
in relation to the size of population, school capacity by the number of students, etc.
Certain standards of urban planning are recommended, which are expressed in
―service radius‖ in health care, social care and education (Tosković, D. 2006, p 187). This
mostly implies the extent to which the population and space are covered by certain services.
For example, the Spatial Plan of The Sarajevo Canton 2003 – 2023, in projections of spatial
development and spatial systems, foresees the following for primary education: ―Network of
elementary schools will equally cover the entire territory of the Canton, in order to meet the
needs of the population and equalize the size of the gravitational area of schools by the
number of inhabitants and territorial coverage.... for the planned number of students,
249,146km2 of useful space should be provided, with the improved standard of 5.5m
2 per a
student…‖ (Spatial Plan of The Sarajevo Canton 2003-2023, p 30).
Some spatial plans include internal simple principles in accessability of certain places.
Such as example, ―Spatial Planning in Denmark‖ reads: „Large office workplace exceeding
15 The planned research at the level of FBiH, i.e. cantons within the Federation, will provide new inputs for
setting the goalposts of spatial variables.
13
1500 m2 of floor space will generally have to be located within 600 meters by foot from the
closest station―16
.
Table 6. Minimum and maximum values for availability variables
N
o.
Spatial dimensions
Physical dimension in
meters
Time dimension in
minutes
min. max. min. max.
1.
Distance between the place of residence and
workplace 100 30,000 5 60
2.
Distance between
the place residence and place of
healthcare
Primary care17
(ambulance, family doctor) 100 10,000 5 30
Tertiary care18
(hospitals, clinical center) 100 60,000 5 120
3.
Distance between
the place of
residence and place
of education
Primary education
(elementary school) 100 10,000 5 30
Secondary education
(secondary school) 100 20,000 5 60
So, neither the spatial standards nor the laws in the fields of health care and education
explicitly determine physical accessibility of basic dimensions of human development.
Therefore, the SDI calculation is also an attempt of standardization of availability of certain
services, to certain extent, in order to improve the people’s living and working conditions.
Steps in SDI calculations
I Calculation of spatial dimension index and sub-index
The following determinants were provided for the calculation:
- In combination of physical dimension and time dimension, physical availability is
more significant;
- In combination of sub-index of primary and sub-index of tertiary health care, primary
health care is more significant;
- In combination of sub-index of primary and sub-index of secondary education,
primary education is more significant.
1. Calculation of Workplace Accessibility Index (Iaw)
Iaw = 2/3 Iwf + 1/3 Iwt (1) where:
sub-index of physical distance from work is Iwf = ( Xiwf – Xminwf) / (Xmaxwf – Xminwf)
Iwf = ( Xiwf – 100) / (30,000– 100)
sub-index of time distance from work is Iwt = ( Xiwt – Xminwt) / (Xmaxwt – Xminwt) Iwf = ( Xiwt – 5) / (60– 5),
and Xirwf is the real physical distance value, Xiwt the real time distance value.
16 Danish Ministry of the Environment (2007): Spatial Planning in Denmark, p.15 17 Primary health care involves: services of family doctor of medicine (hereinafter referred to as: family doctor),
general medical services, school medicine, sanitary-epidemiological protection, dentist care, urgent medical care,
labor medicine, health protection of workers, protection of women and children, diagnostic and pharmaceutical
services. 18 Tertiary health care implies hospital health services that involve a number of measures, activities and
procedures undertaken with the purpose of diagnostic, treatment and medical rehabilitation of patients in
adequate stationary health institutes.
14
2. Calculation of Healthcare Accessibility Index ( Iah)
European Spatial Planning Observation Network – ESPON was established as well; it
provides the data, knowledge, trends, territorial structures and perspectives that enable
comparing of the regions and cities and understanding of European territorial diversity.20
The
ESPON projects have produced a great number of indicators (core, key and routing
indicators) covering their specific thematic aspect.21
Of course, besides a number of documents related to spatial arrangement and territorial
cohesion, the EU has adopted a number of strategic developmental documents as well, such as
the Lisbon Strategy, which set the objectives for the EU development based on knowledge, or
Europe 2020 – smart, inclusive and sustainable growth.
European Charter on Regional/Spatial Planning defines spatial planning as a
geographic expression of economic, social, cultural and ecological policies in society. At the
same time, this represents a scientific discipline, administrative technique and policy
developed as an interdisciplinary and understandable approach, directed towards equal
regional development and physical organization of space, in accordance with the overall
strategy.
The document ―Key Instruments for Development and Effective Governance with
Special References to Countries in Transition‖ underlines that ―Spatial planning is a key
instrument for establishing long-term, sustainable frameworks for social, territorial and
economic development both within and between countries. Its primary role is to enhance the
integration between sectors such as housing, transport, energy and industry, and to improve
national and local systems of urban and rural development, also taking into account
environmental considerations.‖22
ESDP approaches to spatial development as a whole; sustainable spatial development
involves economic, social and environmental aspects. ―The European Spatial Development
Perspective is based on the EU aim of achieving a balanced and sustainable development, in
particular by strengthening economic and social cohesion8.‖23
(See figure 3) The fundamental
goal is reflected in the triangle of objectives that connect the three objectives of spatial
development: economic and social cohesion; conservation of natural resources and cultural
heritage; and more balanced competitiveness of the European territory.
Figure 3 Triangle of Objectives: a Balanced and Sustainable Spatial Development
20 ESPON has promoted a number of programs and reports, including: ESPON 2013 Program that supports the developmental policy in relation to cohesion policy of the EU, Synthesis Report 2010: New facts on smart,
sustainable and inclusive territories, as well as the first ESPON scientific report: Scientific dialogue on cities,
rural areas and the increasing energy prices. 21
See the details on: http://www.espon.eu/main/Menu_Projects/Menu_ESPON2006Projects/Menu_ScientificBriefingNetworking/indi
cators.html 22 Spatial Planning – Key Instruments for Development and Effective Governance with Special References to
Countries in Transition, EC UN for Europe, New York and Geneva, 2008, p. vii 23 ESDP, 1999 p. 9
Very high human development 0,878 80,3 11,3 15,9 37.225 0,902
High human development 0,717 72,6 8,3 13,8 12.286 0,749
Medium human development 0,592 69,3 6,3 11,0 5.134 0,634
Low human development 0,393 56,0 4,1 8,2 1.490 0,445
1 Norway 0,938 81,0 12,6 17,3 58.810 0,954
169 Zimbabwe 0,140 47,0 7,2 9,2 176 0,472
World - average 0,624 69,3 7,4 12,3 10.631 0,663
Source: HDR 2010
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