Nov 10, 2014
DECISION MAKING
We make different kinds of decisions everyday
§ How?
MAKING DECISION
§ What kinds of information you search for support? § Where do you search from? § How does the information present to you?
Design to support the decision making
From M.R. Endsley, designing for situation awareness, 2003
Situation
awareness
Distributed cognition
Information processing
WHAT IS SITUATION AWARENESS?
Being aware of • what is happening around you • what information is important for a particular
goal • what that information means to you now and in
the future • individual elements of SA can vary greatly from
one domain to another
THREE SEPARATE LEVELS OF SA
Level 1 –perception of the elements in the environment.
Level 2 – comprehension of the current
situation. Level 3 –projection of future status.
LEVEL 1 SA: PERCEPTION OF ELEMENTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
• Human perception of information
• Reliability of information
• Confidence in information (based on the sensor, organization, or individual providing it)
LEVEL 2 SA: COMPREHENSION OF THE CURRENT SITUATION
• integrating many pieces of data to form information
• the meaning perceived relevant to goals and objectives.
• prioritizing information’s importance towards the goals.
LEVEL 3 SA: PROJECTION OF FUTURE STATUS
Possible to predict the future (at least in the short term) § good understanding of the situation (Level 2 SA) § the functioning and dynamics of the system § good understanding of the domain (a highly developed
mental model)
§ can be quite demanding mentally. A failure inLevel 3 SA from Level 2 SA may be due to § insufficient mental resources § insufficient knowledge of the domain.
TIME, IMPORTANT PART IN SA
• how much time is available until some event occurs or some action must be taken
• the temporal dynamics of various elements • perception of time
Approximately 19% of SA errors in aviation involve problems with Level 2 SA (Jones & Endsley, 1996). In these cases people are able to see or hear the necessary data (Level 1 SA), but are not able to correctly understand the meaning of that information.
Model of situaiton awareness in dynamic decision making
Mechanisms and processes involved in SA (from Endsley, 2000)
NEUROSCIENCE AND HUMAN COGNITION
HUMAN COGNITION
Neuropsychology is the science of study the relationship between brain function and behavior
Cognitive psychology deals with how people perceive,
learn, remember, and thinking about information Engineering psychology is to specify the capacities and
limitations of the human cognition for the purpose of guiding a better design
NEUROSCIENCE
Cell body Nucleus
Dendrites
Axon End foot
THREE ASSUMPTIONS
• There are many relatively independent modules in the cognitive system. Each module can function to some extent in isolation from the rest of the processing system.
• There are certain reasons between how the physical brain is organized with that of the mind.
• Investigation of cognition in brain-damaged patient can tell us much about cognitive processes in normal individuals.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
central (CNS): § The CNS is comprised of the brain and spinal cord § the CNS receives input from the senses, processes this information
in the context of past experience and inherent proclivities and initiates actions upon the external world
peripheral (PNS). § somatic and autonomic. § the autonomic system is divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic. § The PNS provides the sensory input and carries out the actions
initiated by the CNS.
METHODOLOGIES
• Electroencephalogram (EEG) • Event-related potential (ERP) • Magnetonencephalogram (MEG) • Positron emission tomography (PET) • Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
THE SENSORS ON HUMAN BODY
On the head • Vision • Hearing • Balance • Taste • Smell
On the skin: • Head-cold • Pain • Touch-Pressure
On muscles: • Muscle and tendon receptors
On joints: • Changes in joint position • Speed of movement • Position of the joint • Pain sensation
RECEPTORS • are specialized part of cells • different in each sensory system • perceive different kind of energy. • act as a filter. • They are designed to respond only to a narrow band of energy
within the relevant energy spectrum. • receptive fields of individual receptors are overlapping • It can detect locations • Detection of stimulus is often determined by receptor density and
overlap • rapidly adapting receptors: they react quickly to the changes of
the stimulated energy • slow adapting receptors: provide the information as the
stimulated energy is still there
SENSORY SYSTEM
• Each sensory system requires three to four neurons, connected in sequence, to get information from the receptor cells to the cortex. There are changes in the code from level to level and it is not a straight through, or point-to-point correspondence
§ A motor respond can be produced § The message can be modified § Systems can interact with one another
PERCEPTION
• Perception is a process of receiving the outside world information by the receptors and transfers the information to the brain
• The only message the brain receives is the discharge passed along the neurons in the various sensory pathways
• Everything we know comes to us through our senses.
• Our sense sometimes can deceive us, so we must have some innate knowledge about the world to be able to distinguish between real and imaginary sensations
SENSORY MODALITY
• Cortex is fundamentally an organ of sensory perception and related processes
• The recognition is happened in cortex
MULTIMODAL CORTEX
• some areas in the cortex were identified that had functions in more than one modality, for example the vision and touch are in the same area.
• presumably function to combine characteristics of stimuli across different modalities
• there is probably more than one process that requires multimodal information, although it is not know exactly what this processes might be
CORTICAL CONNECTION
• There is no a single area in the cortex that could represent entire perceptual or mental states.
• All cortical areas have internal connections that connect units with similar properties.
• There is a re-entry of the connection, which means that when a given area A sends information to area B, area B reciprocates and sends a return message to area A.
DISTRIBUTED HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM
Primary sensory cortex
Level 2
Level 2
Level 3
Level 3
Level 3
Level 3
Level 4
Level 4
Level 4
Level 4
Level 4
LEARNING AND MEMORY
• Learning is a process that results in a relatively permanent change in behavior.
• Memory is the ability to recall or recognize previous experience;
• certain neural structures and circuits are associated with different types of learning and memory
• every part of nervous system is able to learn
LEARNING THEORY • a learning theory contains five components
§ Experiences: § Schemata: § Habits: § Reinforcement: § Interference:
MEMORY
• Short-term memory: memory for things that are retained only for a short period of time.
• Long-term memory: memory for things that are remembered for a long period of time.
• Working memory: refers to events that can happen on a trial
THE MECHANISM OF MEMORY
There is no specific brain location that holds one specific type of memory
Hebb’s (Hebb 1949) cell assembly theory has been almost the
only theory from neuron level to explain the mechanism of the memory
INFORMATION PROCESSING
Long-Term Memory
Response Execution
Response Activation
Feedback
Attention and emotion
Out
put
Environment
Sensory Store:
visual
auditory haptic
movement
Perception Working memory
Recognition Reasoning Problem solving Decision making
PERFORMANCE LIMITATIONS
Performance problems related to processing limitations in any of the stages:
§ Data-limited § Input degraded (e.g. visual stimulus briefly flashed)
§ Resource-limited § system not powerful enough (e.g. working memory)
§ Structurally limited § system cannot perform simultaneous operations § e.g. limbs, but also perceptual focus
ATTENTION
Auditory divided attention Focus auditory attention Cross-modality attention
ATTENTION
Selective attention § Visual sampling § Pursuit – eye follows a target moving at a constant speed
across the visual field § Saccadic – jumped view § Location § Supervisory § Target search
§ Optimality of selective attention § Select the relevant stimuli to attend at the appropriate times
ATTENTION
• Paralle processing and divided attention § Several items within the view field might be processed together
• Focus attention
BOTTLENECK THEORIES
Sensory register
Selective filter
Perceptual processes
Short-term memory
Input Broadbent’s Filter theory
Sensory register
Attenuation control
Perceptual processes
Short-term memory
Input Teeisman’s Attenuation theory Limited
capacity Sensory register
Perceptual processes
Selective filter
Short-term memory
Input Deutsch & Deutsch Late filter model
MODALITY COMPATIBILITY
• Reaction time depends in part on compatibility between stimulus and response modality
§ If stimulus visual, then quicker pointing response § If stimulus aural, then quicker voice response § Tasks using verbal working memory served best by auditory inputs and vocal outputs § Spatial tasks best served by visual inputs and vocal outputs
DISPLAY MODALITY AND WORKING MEMORY CODE
speech!
print!Analog!pictures!visual!
auditory!
verbal! spatial!
Display format code!
Mod
ality
!
Sound!Loclization!And pitch!
verbal! Spatial!
Working memory!
MULTPLE RESOURCES THEORY
• Any two tasks demand separate rather than common resources on any of the three dimensions, three phenomena will occur
§ Time-sharing will be more efficient § Changes in the difficulty of one task will be less likely to influence performance of the other § The resources are not interchangable.
MULTPLE RESOURCES THEORY
Processing stage (working memory and cognition)
Perception Responding
Spatial Verbal
Sens
ory
mod
ality
Vis
ual
Aud
itory
HICK-HYMAN LAW
More complex decisions or choices require longer to initiate
RT=a+bHs
THEORY BEHIND DISTRIBUTED COGNITION
• The traditional view of cognition limits it the individual processes within a mind
§ This limits us to think of only a user level and how he/she will interact with a system
§ This model is insufficient to really examine today’s complex systems because they do not take into account interaction between individuals
THEORY BEHIND DISTRIBUTED COGNITION
• When systems become larger and more complex, an individual will no longer have complete control over it, rather, it requires multiple individuals to collaborate in order to accomplish a goal
• Distributed Cognition tries to extend the concept of what is cognitive beyond the individual
THEORY BEHIND DISTRIBUTED COGNITION
T R A D I T I O N A L
§ Boundaries: § an individual.
§ Range of mechanisms § Manipulation of
symbols within an individual,
D I ST R I B U T E D
§ Boundaries: § cognitive processes
§ Range of mechanisms § a broader class of
cognitive events
§ Cognitive processes may be distributed across the members of a group
§ Cognitive processes may involve coordination between internal and external (material or environment) structure
§ Processes may be distributed through time in such a way that the products of earlier events can transform the nature of later events
THEORY BEHIND DISTRIBUTED COGNITION
A DISTRIBUTED COGNITION APPROACH|
• Socially Distributed Cognition • Distributed cognition encompasses the group
members • their interactions with other people, with their
environments • Cognitive processes involve information transmission
and transformations, • Social organization may itself be viewed as a form of
cognitive architecture
SOCIALLY DISTRIBUTED COGNITION
EMBODIED COGNITION
• what helps the body and mind to function? • Tools and work materials become part of the
system itself
• A tool can be integrated in the way people think, see, and control activities and part of the distributed system of cognitive control
CULTURE AND COGNITION
• People live in complex cultural environments • Culture emerges out of the activity of human
• their historical contexts, • mental, • material and • social structures interact
• Culture in the form of history of material artifacts and social practices, shapes cognitive processes, particularly cognitive processes that are distributed over agents, artifacts and environments
CULTURE AND COGNITION
• Cognitive sciences traditionally view culture as a body of content on which the cognitive processes of individual persons operate
• From distributed cognition’s perspective, culture shapes the cognitive processes of systems that transcends individuals
CULTURE AND COGNITION
• The connection between culture and cognition is in that culture, • learning, • problem solving • Reasoning
• Culture is a process that accumulates partial solutions to frequently encountered problems
CULTURE AND COGNITION
• Culture allows us to learn from our ancestor’s experiences
• Culture may limited our way of thinking!
CLASSICAL COGNITIVE SCIENCE
• Thinking about thinking § Mental processes § Individual human agent § How information is represented
§ Transformed § Combined § Propagated
• Nature of knowledge
DISTRIBUTED COGNITION
• Unit of analysis • Processes within system • Representations
§ External § Internal
COGNITIVE SYSTEMS
• Organizations • Role of material media • Physical processes
§ Human actors § Material media § Interactions
• Explicit nature of environment
CONTEXT IN COCKPIT
• Representations inside cockpit system • External to pilots • Procedure = behavioral properties • Constraint-based
TASK: MEMORY TASK
Remembrance of speeds § For subsequent use § For proper & safe § Initial descent § Approach to land § Instrument landing
ARTIFACTS: WING SHAPE
ARTIFACTS: SPEED CARD & FUEL
ARTIFACTS: ASI & SPEED BUGS
ACTORS: PILOT ROLES
Two pilots/stations § Complete dual-flight instrumentations § Pilot Flying (PF) § Pilot Not Flying (PNF)
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Prepare landing data (20 - 30 min. out) § Determine gross weight (Fuel Qty) § Find correct speed card (2000 lb. incr) § Post speed card § Set speed bugs on both ASIs
Descent - slow plane & configure wings Final approach to land - Vref
[Cross-checks & verbal communication]
COGNITIVE DESCRIPTION-EXTERNAL
• How are speeds represented? • How are representations
§ Transformed, § Processed, § Coordinated?
• How does the system’s memory work?
ADDITIONAL REPRESENTATIONS
• Memory of each pilot § Individual considered as part of system
§ Media in the cockpit § Task environment forms memory § Internal representations
EXTERNAL REPRESENTATIONS
• Speed bugs § Resource for later processes § Durable working memory
• Coordinated representations § Verbal § Speed card/fuel qty § Configurations
• “System memory”
COGNITIVE DESCRIPTION-INTERNAL
• Cognitive tasks of pilots • Task specification
§ Not procedural recount § Provide constraints on useable § Representations § Processes
• Interpretation not recall § Function in system memory
NOTION OF MEMORY
Traditionally a psychological function A series of tasks in a functional system § Recognition & recall § Pattern matching § Cross-modal transformations Distributed § Among human agents § Between human agents § Transformed external representations
COCKPIT AS COGNITIVE SYSTEM
• Unit of analysis • Transforms & propagates information • Use of representations • Notion of memory task • Redundant & robust