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3. PAST APPROACHES AND LESSONS FOR HUMAN CAPACITY DEVELOPMENTThis section provides comment on historical approaches to capacity development, and on successesand failures in attempts to build capacity
6. Although our focus is on fisheries, we have not restricted
our thinking to this sector, as much valuable experience can be gained from looking outside the sector.
3.1 Historic approachesGiven our previous categorization of capacity development needs into the three key pillars/groupings
of capacity development as shown in Figure 2-1 on page 11, the following review also describes
historical approaches based on this categorization. The review draws from an extensive literature
review together with telephone interviews with key players, both within FAO and in other agencies. Afull list of persons contacted is included in Appendix C (numbered to cross-reference personal
communications noted below) and a summary of some of the main HCD initiatives reviewed is also
provided in Appendix D (cross-referenced to the appropriate section in the Appendix).
Within fisheries
Fisheries science, research and development: a primary objective of FAO and donor-funded fisheries
technical assistance (TA) projects, as well as of developing countries themselves, has been the
development of a science-based approach to fisheries management (7, 18, 25). This has traditionallyfocused upon standard fisheries science such as stock assessment and population dynamics, as well as
on technological development of catching and post-harvest methodologies. The needs were usually
defined during project preparation by donor representatives, usually consultants, often with only
limited or informal participation from the client institution (18, 20, 25). The clients themselves were
usually Government research institutions (20), with training focusing on mid-ranking scientists (20,
25). The training itself was usually delivered by short or long-term specialists attached to the
institution and was often reinforced by sending key host country individuals to post-graduate level
courses overseas in developed countries (typically Masters level) or to complete a doctorate (20).Training was therefore fairly long-term (i.e. one year plus) and related to technical capacity
development. In addition a number of developing countries e.g. Indonesia, China, and countries in the
South Pacific, have instigated university programmes aimed at developing marine science capabilities
(Soegiarto and Stel 1998, South and Veitayaki 1998).
Fisheries sector management: as with fisheries science, the historical approach to HCD in the area of
sector management has been very much project-based, with most larger fisheries projects over the
1980s and 1990s containing some element of institutional strengthening. Again this has been largely
donor-driven, focusing upon the institutional capacity of recipient Governments to develop andimplement sectoral policy. In many cases management training has been provided as an add-on to
more traditional technical assistance, to address management weaknesses that the donor considers
might threaten the success of the main programme (18, 20). Traditional clients have sometimes
resisted such assistance, possibly indicating insufficient donor-client engagement in agreeing the needs
for the reform. Again, training has traditionally been conducted by international specialist assistance
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Societal Skills and knowledge: as already mentioned, donor attention prior to the early 90s was very
much focused on technical skills and knowledge and improving mid-level management in the public
sector. However over the 1980s there tended to be a broadening in skill areas, especially into cross-cutting issues such as gender mainstreaming, environmental impact assessment (EIA) and
environmental awareness (25). There was increasing awareness of the need for stakeholders to engage
in fisheries management, both in terms of participating in decision-making as well as enabling their
ability to respond to changing circumstances. The main capacity-building focus was on community
mobilization and empowerment of fishing communities, largely through NGO intermediaries (27).
Outside fisheries
Integrated coastal area management: over the last decade, integrated coastal area management (ICAM)has become an important component of multi-sectoral planning and co-ordination in coastal areas,
integrating coastal fisheries and aquaculture with other coastal users such as tourism, urban and
industrial development, marine transportation and, increasingly, maritime biodiversity conservation.
Although ICAM courses are often driven by the need for a multi-sectoral commitment to natural
resource management, they also echo a need to respond to better physical planning in a potentially
high conflict geographic zone. For instance in the UK, the Royal Institution for Chartered Surveyors
(RICS) have been an important driver in formulating ICAM capacity-building needs (24). This
discipline provides some interesting lessons for the ecosystems approach to fisheries, as both havebeen recently introduced and require a considerable widening of skills and knowledge and
strengthening of capacity.
Dedicated ICAM courses, as apposed to technical courses with a multi-disciplinary leaning have only
really appeared over the past decade (Balgos 1998). The skill sets involved are relatively novel,
involving a combination of physical planning, institutional and conflict management, law and policy
development. In additional, some technical skills are also required, such as geographical information
system (GIS) development and use. Course designs have responded to perceived market needs,
although real needs assessments against practical ICAM capability limitations are rarely conducted(24). Training recipients are mainly senior to middle-level management from Ministries, but also
researchers from academic institutions involved in coastal management, municipal agricultural
officers, development workers from NGOs and project staff from foreign funded projects (Balgos
1998). It has often been difficult to identify appropriate individuals for ICAM training due to the lack
of permanent positions available (often ICAM is donor-driven with staff drawn from single sectors for
only the project duration), although it is recognized that awareness-building amongst different coastal
sectoral players is key to promoting a culture of integrated management. The majority of courses are at
Masters level (1-2 years), although a regional capacity for training, especially in Asia, has given rise toincreasing numbers of bespoke ICAM short courses and workshops (1-2 weeks). At present there are
very few undergraduate courses in the ICAM disciplines (24).
Agriculture and forestry: historical experience of HCD in the agriculture and forestry sectors appears
similar to fisheries (see previous section) in that it has been largely donor-driven, with training needs
being identified quickly at the project formulation stage rather than through more detailed and formal
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3.2 Successes and failures in capacity development3.2.1 What is success, and who defines it?How successful have these previous approaches to capacity development been? This immediately
raises three important questions. Firstly, what aspects of capacity development can be measured?
Secondly, who defines success or failure? And thirdly, what is capacity development for?
Capacity development as a theme now pervades the work of most donors, yet it is difficult to find
good examples of indicators that have been used to assess capacity development initiatives that extend
beyond measures of inputs e.g. number of staff trained, or outputs e.g. number of smallholders visited
made by extension staff (Morgan, 1997). In part this is because at one level capacity development may
involve improvements to administrative procedures or organization skills of individuals. But, it mayalso involve changes in the pattern of societal politics, the growth of social capital, or improvements in
the enabling environment as described in Figure 1-1. At this level, capacity development almost
becomes synonymous with development itself. Some of the results of capacity development such as
attitude change, organizational behaviour and the ability to develop and adopt new ideas are not easy
to measure. Because capacity development must be considered in terms of systems and an overall
development context, capacity constraints often stem not from a single cause but from a more
profound pattern or structure in the enabling environment (Morgan, 1997). This means that while
capacity in individuals may be enhanced and measured as having been so, the potential of theseindividuals to utilize such new capacity may be limited by other factors within the broader system. So
input or output indicators may not be reliable as measures of overall success. Furthermore, the link
between cause and effect are often unclear because of complex relationships operating in uncertain
and rapidly changing environments, and it is frequently difficult to follow clear results chains or to
have great certainty that indicators explain complex systems.
Morgan argues for a more integrated and balanced approach to capacity development and its
measurement through indicators of process (i.e. the efforts to induce improved capacity), product
(i.e. the actual new capacities or abilities produced), performance (i.e. the substantive developmentoutcomes and impact that result), and permanence (i.e. its sustainability).
Historically the measurement of success in capacity development projects has largely been conducted
by, and for, donors. This has resulted because of the need for donors to demonstrate value for money,
and because officials in developing countries are often more concerned with conducting their day-to-
day line functions under numerous constraints in their external environment, than with strengthening
internal abilities. This has led to a focus on performance and product aspects of projects in both
design and monitoring, with less attention on process issues such as effective ways to achieve
development of staff skills and knowledge, levels of decentralization, aspects of the enablingenvironment and so on. In addition, while sustainability is often considered in some token form in
project evaluation, the timing of evaluation missions on immediate completion of project activities,
does not allow for adequate time to have elapsed so that a true level of sustainability can be assessed7.
Furthermore, even if a wide range of stakeholders are involved in an assessment of success,
interpretation of success is likely to be very different based on the differing viewpoints of such
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Success in social terms may be realized if capacity is developed so that the cultural values are
maintained, communities remain sustainable, social benefits are equitably distributed, and so on. In
economic terms, success may be realized if the fishery is managed to maximize the economic benefitsfrom the resource, and the levels of resource rent being generated. Finally, there may be a more
general developmental objective, whereby fisheries are managed with the intention of maximising
benefits to overall development levels in a country as a whole (Bennett, 2003). Fulfilling different
objectives will require different aspects of capacity development, and if the objective of an initiative is
to development capacity for better fisheries management, the view about its success will depend
greatly on different perspectives of success generated by different objectives. But more than this,
capacity development is valuable in its own right, over and above the changes in performance
(whether economic, biological, social or developmental) that it may bring about. As Morgan pointsout, policies, goods and services may change and become obsolete, but living capacity can mutate
and survive (Morgan, 1999). As such, capacity development is therefore both a means to an end, but
also and end to itself and assessing success requires a balanced approach between these views
(Lavergne and Saxby, 2001).
3.2.2 Evidence of successes and key lessonsAs part of the preparation of this paper, we reviewed nine evaluation reports completed in the last ten
years. The reports were provided by the FAO PBEE Service and covered projects in different sectors
(e.g. forestry, horticulture/agriculture, eco-development, fisheries), in India, Bhutan, Gambia, SriLanka, Sudan, Kenya, and Eritrea, but all focused specifically on strengthening of institutions or
capacity for management. The review highlighted a mixture of success and that initiatives are rarely
either judged as completely successful or unsuccessful, and that successful capacity in individuals,
institutions or sectors involves some or all of the following:
ability to adapt behaviour and attitudes based on learning; desire and ability to establish new relationships with other projects, groups or
organizations;
the ability of institutions to recruit and maintain staff to conduct necessary functions basedon their core capabilities, and to have sufficient facilities to undertake functions;
the ability to be taken seriously by other actors, and to have a degree of political cloutwhich enables them to effect change within the overall societal context;
the ability to plan and strategize, to set objectives, and implement solutions; the ability to disseminate knowledge, information, and capacity skills.
In the early 1990s the UNDP published the results of a review of the effectiveness of technical
cooperation (Berg and UNDP, 1993). Most of the reviews from 30 countries in Africa reached similar
conclusions: that technical cooperation had proven effective in getting the job done, but less effective
at developing local institutions or strengthening local capacities; and that it was expensive, donor-
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Table 3-1: Lessons from capacity development initiatives
Country Key lessons and initiatives
Philippines Lack of sustainability due to weak ownership and too donor driven. Projects now working at
individual, organizational and societal levels.
Ethiopia Government recently developed a 5-year national capacity development strategy to
accompany the implementation of the countrys PRSP, and has developed a Ministry forCapacity Development. Development of the PRSP used as a vehicle to enhance civicparticipation and a re-building of relationships between government and civil society,although some concerns expressed about too strong donor role in preparation of the PRSP.
Jamaica Lessons about the need for demand driven approaches have resulted in a nationally drivenprogramme to promote sustainable development through activities to strengthen capacity atthree levels the enabling environment, strengthening organizations, and building skills adopting a long-term and flexible approach.
Viet Nam Government capacities in aid management have not proven sufficient to deal with donor
programmes in the past and have affected the quality of programme design andimplementation. Efforts are now underway to enhance democratic principles at the grassrootslevel, to improve transparency of government, and to strengthen project management skills.
Bolivia National ownership of initiatives is derived from consensus that is built up among different
stakeholders, and capacity is itself needed for this. Donors need to facilitate assistance, ratherthan deliver it. Leadership skills of key individuals are fundamental.
Kazakhstan External aid in capacity development has played a key role in the first stages of development.Project success depends on shared ownership and key political will/support, which can easily
be eroded if donor involvement is too heavy-handed.
Central Asian
Region
Developing NGO capacities has been crucial in assisting them in taking up service delivery
functions as a partner of government, as well as in promoting and managing localpartnerships.
Lebanon There have been relatively few positive reform experiences particularly with respect to the
public sector in the country, largely because efforts are improving public sector performancehave focused on improving infrastructure and technology while investments in humanresources development and policy management have generally been neglected. The publicsector has become increasingly politicized, with capable individuals leaving for otheractivities. There have been too many repetitive consultant reports with not enough focus on
implementation. Rapid turnover of staff, and isolation of project implementation units withininstitutions as part of project-based approaches, has meant that there is little institutionalmemory of previous initiatives and this has encouraged a donor-driven agenda.
Ghana While there is a general shift to sector-wide programme approaches, projects can continue to
play an important role in testing innovative practices, and by providing a framework for one-to-one learning between technical assistants and local professionals. Flexible approaches arecrucial, and there is a need to combine programme based approaches with project approaches.
Sector-wide approaches have merits but their application assumes that there is transparent andaccountable government, that checks and balances on government performance are in place,and that the policy of government necessarily reflects the will of the people.
One such project is a sub-programme of the DFID-financed Improving support for
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Table 3-2: Summary of key lessons learned from previous initiatives
1. The process of human capacity development itself can add value to overall capability, aswell as result in the improved performance of the individuals, groups and organizations.
2. Initiatives should take account of, and be tailored to, existing levels of core capacities andinvolve a two-way process of knowledge transfer and acquisition.
3. Human capacity development initiatives need to identify the individuals andorganizations that will champion the process and can adopt and lead human capacity
development.
Capacityassessment
4. There is a need for better integration of human capacity development initiatives withnational planning processes, and especially between policy, management and research.
Needs
analysis 5. Capacity development initiatives should establish an adequate level of participation in
their needs assessment, design, implementation and monitoring.
6. Initiatives should provide adaptive, flexible and suitable learning pathways, taking intoaccount the individuals work environment, lifestyle and aspirations.
Delivery
7. Incentives and mechanisms should be provided to support recipients of human capacitydevelopment.
8. Human capacity development is a long-term process that requires continued supportthrough national initiatives and partnerships.
9. Efforts should be made to retain capacity investment within the fisheries sector.
S
ustainability
10. Those delivering human capacity development initiatives should themselves have thenecessary knowledge, skills and abilities to provide human capacity development.
11. Approaches to capacity development should take greater cognizance of the overallsocietal context and the political influence of supported institutions and sectors.
12. Approaches should ensure an adequate focus on the social, economic and environmentalcontext in which technical solutions are being implemented.
13. Initiatives should capture and enable attitudinal changes and skills that are likely to resultin a collective sense of purpose and progress.
14. Initiatives should recognize the need for an enabling environment that provides theincentive to promote the use and further development of the enhanced capacity.Enablingenvironment
15. One size does not fit all - planning of human capacity development should take intoaccount the realities of the overall environment under which capacity enhancement will
take place.
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Lesson 3: Human capacity development initiatives need to identify the individuals and
organizations that will champion the process and can adopt and lead human capacity
development. Success of capacity development initiatives may depend to a large extent on theavailability of just one or two key individuals who are sufficiently motivated. But it should also be
noted that all the necessary skills and knowledge for successful capacity development can not exist in
one person (UNDP, 2003; FAO, 1998; Nchinda, 2002; Jodice et al., 2003).
Lesson 4: There is a need for better integration of human capacity development initiatives with
national planning processes, and especially between policy, management and research. This
applies to integration of initiatives with overall governmental planning, with other initiatives and
projects, and at the local, regional and international levels through the use of partnerships. Approaches
relying solely on a project-based approach, without support for capacity development at thesector/planning level may have limited success. Support must also be provided for better links
between a) research and policy makers in developing countries, b) between researchers in developed
and developing countries, and c) peoples in developing countries. There has often been a failure of
researchers to provide information in a form that is useful to policy makers, and an indifference to
their work by staff in Ministries. Strengthening of research links between developed and developing
countries can also be beneficial and favoured to both groups so that developing countries are better
informed of recent international developments, and developed country researchers are provided with
opportunities for conducting research in interesting settings from which they can publish. Greatercooperation between developing countries is also important with respect to sharing of tacit knowledge
among peoples who have encountered similar development challenges and circumstances. (Nchinda,
2002; Jansky et al., 2003; Bolger, 2000; Chakalall et al., 1998; Okemwa, 1998; Snoussi and Awosika,
1998; UNDP, 2003; Montero, 2002; FAO, 2000; Morgan, 1997; UNDP, 1996; UNDP, 1995;
Hondandale and Cooper, 1989; South and Veitayaki, 1998; Akiwumi and Melvasalo, 1998).
Needs analysis
Lesson 5: Capacity development initiatives should establish an adequate level of participation intheir needs assessment, design, implementation and monitoring. One of the main lessons learned
over the past decade is the benefit of a formal needs analysis process in setting training objectives and
subsequent curriculum development. There is a need for a broad-spectrum, strategic approach to
assessing capacity-building needs at relevant sectoral and geographical scales (20, 24). Making this
participatory would ensure greater success in projects, and wider ownership of projects itself
considered a crucial factor in success. On a practical level, it would help for example to ensure that the
length of a training course suits an individuals needs and is acceptable to institutions that may have to
release staff for such training. It would also help to ensure that sufficient staff are available fortraining, and that clients have the opportunity of providing input into the definition of course contents.
However, greater participation by recipients in project design, itself often requires capacity
development, and there is still an important role for widely-experienced specialists from both in-
country and overseas in training needs analysis (TNA) to provide an external perspective (17, 18, 19,
20, 25, 27). PRSPs provide an opportunity to examine the extent to which capacity development
principles especially in terms of participation are being implemented Whilst PRSPs are intended to
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Lesson 7: Incentives and mechanisms should be provided to support recipients of human
capacity development. Formal training processes are frequently disruptive and may take recipients
away from their livelihoods and families. It is important therefore to ensure that sufficient support isprovided to ensure that capacity development opportunities are not hindered by prolonged income loss
or reduction in quality of life.
Lesson 8: Human capacity development is a long-term process that requires continued support
through national initiatives and partnerships.Ittherefore requires long-term support and linking of
short-term and long-term strategies (UNDP, 2003; FAO, 2000; Bolger, 2000; Stel, 1998; UNDP,
1996; Nchinda, 2002; Crawfordet al., 1993).
Lesson 9: Efforts should be made to retain capacity investment within the fisheries sector.
Whilst it is appreciated that the impacts of capacity development should not necessarily be contained
within the fisheries sector, where possible efforts should be made to retain a sufficient skills and
knowledge base within the sector.
Lesson 10: Those delivering human capacity development initiatives should themselves have the
necessary knowledge, skills and abilities to provide human capacity development. This requires
donors, NGOs, and government departments assisting others to develop, to themselves undergo
change, acquire new skills and knowledge, and adopt new approaches. This will ensure that capacity
development is not stuck at the conceptual level, and can be successfully delivered to those in need . Enabling environment
Lesson 11: Approaches to capacity development should take greater cognizance of the overall
societal context and the political influence of supported institutions and sectors. Initiatives must
recognize that capacity constraints are likely to stem from more than a single cause and will
possibly/probably be strongly influenced by factors outside the realm of project activities. High-level
political support for capacity development is likely to be essential if efforts are to prove successful
(UNDP, 2003; Allison, 2003; IDDRA, 2003; UNDP, 1996; Morgan, 1997; FAO, 1996; Bossert, 1990;
Soegiarto and Stel, 1998; Snoussi and Awosika, 1998).
Lesson 12: Approaches should ensure an adequate focus on the social, economic and
environmental context in which technical solutions are being implemented. i.e. are more systems-
based approach, as these factors may have at least as much importance as technical issues themselves
in project success (Young, 1998; UNDP, 1996; UNDP, 1995; UNDP, 1996).
Lesson 13: Initiatives should capture and enable attitudinal changes and skills that are likely to
result in a collective sense of purpose and progress. Certain initiatives can put forward new ideas
and values which create of a new flow of legitimacy, information and expectations that in turn result ina collective sense of purpose and progress (Morgan, 1997; FAO, 1996).
Lesson 14: Initiatives should recognize the need for an enabling environment that provides the
incentive to promote the use and further development of the enhanced capacity. Capacity being
developed in individuals must be rewarded in some way, whether it is through increases in
salary/income job responsibility career progression or promotion This requires good management
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Finally, Bianchi (FAO/FIRM, pers. comm.) argues that whilst there have been many examples of
successful capacity development programmes that have brought both individuals and institutions
forward, a key important issue is that ofsustainability of capacity development efforts. Experiencesshow that capacity can be developed at the individual/institutional level, but often this is not
sustainable because:
Individuals use their new capacity to move away from institutions to higher or morelucrative positions (and not always within the same sector).
There is often no mechanism (e.g. local university courses or on-the-job traininginitiatives) for replenishing trained personnel that move out (particularly in the case
the development project that provided training means).
The enabling environment is basically the societal situation that does not depend oncapacity development only, but on the overall socio-economic situation in the country.
Well functioning institutions can only develop in well functioning societies. However
appropriate and efficient the capacity development is, sustainability will only take
place in an appropriate societal context. Unfortunately such context does not exist in
many developing countries.
Institutions in developing countries have often been the target of capacitydevelopment projects by various bilateral and multilateral agencies, both in fisheryscience and management. The lack of a coherent framework for priority issues and
solutions often creates confusion.
4. CURRENT APPROACHES TO HUMAN CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT AND AREVIEW OF DELIVERY MECHANISMS
In addition to a review of literature and interviews which generated the findings above, we have also
interviewed a wide range of donors to establish up-to-date information on current approaches to
capacity development initiatives, to assess how the lessons learned as described earlier are impactingon current initiatives.
This section is divided into three parts. Firstly, we present an overview of the current direction of
capacity development in the fisheries and other sectors with personal communication referenced by
number to Appendix C (Persons consulted) and Appendix D (Review of HCD Approaches). Secondly
we discuss an assessment of training needs assessment and curriculum development as already
identified, the ability to successfully target training needs has proved an essential element in
successful capacity development. In the third section we review a wide range of different mechanisms,
all in use to varying degrees, and highlight some especially interesting examples in the text.
4.1 Overview4.1.1 Fisherie sectorsFisheries sciences, research and development: the adoption of the ecosystem approach to fisheries
h h d h i f h i l kill i b f i l i h
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recognition that this needs to operate within an improved framework of good sectoral management and
better understanding of livelihoods and poverty issues that fisheries are managed for people, not for
the fish. This in turn has led to more emphasis on sector planning, policy issues, poverty assessments,and the use of the SLA to enable a greater understanding of the many factors affecting peoples
livelihoods. There is also greater recognition in theory, and in practice, of the importance of the need
to involve and consider the impacts of other sectors on fisheries. This is all representative of a more
holistic approach being taken.
Whilst the SLA has been targeted at traditional public sector clients, it has tended to focus on niche
groups responsible for artisanal fisheries development rather than mainstream fisheries planning and
administration. The reluctance of some fisheries administrations to integrate the sustainable livelihood
approach SLA into their sector management responsibilities has meant that a number of donors haveincreasingly concentrated human capacity development initiatives on proven non governmental
organizations (NGOs), especially through short, in-country training of trainers courses (24, 25).
With the advent of the SLA, capacity development of societal actors has necessarily gained
considerable donor support. Operating largely outside the traditional public-sector client base, this has
focused upon community groups and their champions such as NGOs. Many capacity development
initiatives are implemented through locally-based NGOs, who are able to rapidly build trust with
fishers and mobilize recipient groups. As a result, the NGOs are usually the primary human capacity
development recipients in both direct skill development (i.e. stakeholder identification andconsultation, relationship building and empowerment) as well as a conduit through training of trainers.
As mentioned above, these are usually applied through workshops (3-5 days) as well as in-country
training.
In aquaculture too there is now a recognized need to move away from capacity development based
purely on biology and technical issues, to cover subjects such as (i) social and economic aspects, (ii)
communication skills, (iv) human resource and business management, (v) issues concerning
environmental sustainability and (vi) development planning, policy and regulations (De Silva, 2000).
Societal skills and knowledge: Good governance and policy development (see Box 2) in particular
have emerged as key concepts (19, 25), driven by globalization, emerging international agreements,
greater cooperation8, emerging technologies and the recognition that in most cases, present systems of
fisheries governance have failed to ensure resource conservation and economic efficiency (Swan,
2000).
Box 2: Governance in fisheries
Governance is often incorrectly equated with management. In fact, the term is intended to makepeople stop and think about non governmental roles in fora where the word management is too often
taken to refer to purely governmental action (Adams, 1996). Governance relates to government, civil
society and the private sector. Under most of the definitions recently put forward, good governance is
used to describe a particular philosophy of management that is not purely top-down, but which
emphasizes the word community and, like all good management approaches, makes extensive use of
di l d t l t b f t ki ti Fi h i i d fi d ti i
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Rural power structures can have a strong influence on the success of fisheries development initiatives
in coastal and inland artisanal areas as entrenched interests may overcome the common good.Approaches to address this at community level, such as the World Bank and DFID Fourth Fisheries
Project in Bangladesh or the Integrated Lake Management (ILM) project in Uganda have focused on
local empowerment by enabling stakeholders to take responsibility for the development, monitoring
and enforcement of fishing rules through co-management. Many initiatives are now beginning to focus
conflict resolution as a key issue.
However, while there is certainly greater awareness now of the need for individual fisheries managers
(in the broader sense of fisheries managers) to possess the skills and knowledge listed in the third
pillar/grouping in Figure 2-1 on page 11, so far there has been little actual implementation and
delivery of capacity development in these areas. The challenge will be to train managers who
recognize the value of different areas of expertise and who possess the necessary professional skills to
lead a team towards a management solution. A recent workshop assessed the skills and knowledge
required by future fisheries managers and considered that leadership, followed closely by
communication, conflict solving, critical thinking and problem solving were the five primary
requirements. ( see Figure 4-1 and Box 3).
Figure 4-1: Skill requirements for twenty-first century fisheries managers
Source: Jodice, L. et al., 2003. Based on a pre-workshop survey where participants were asked to
identify three to five skills essential to the modern fisheries manager
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Box 3: Training managers for the twenty-first century fisheries initiative
The inaugural Training Managers for twenty-first Century Fisheries international workshop was heldDecember 5-7 2001 in Queenstown, New Zealand and brought together 63 recognized leaders from government,
industry, academic and non governmental organization (NGO) leaders from Oceania, North America andEurope.
The conference was motivated by the need to build human capital to manage complex twenty-first century
fisheries. Participants discussed the challenges for fishery management and defined the training, education, andprofessional working environments necessary to produce twenty-first century fishery managers who are problemsolvers, leaders, and innovators. Participants generated a wide range of ideas from which they formed acollective vision and strategies for improving the education of fishery managers.
Potential strategies
The workshop discussions were based around six sector work groups who developed recommendations about
improving fishery management education. Work is continuing to address these strategies:
1. Develop creative partnerships2. Use the management process as a leaning experience3. Broaden and strengthen the fishery management career path4. Conduct GAP analysis of curriculum needs5. Development of an international fishery management education and training website6. Design industry scholarships for fisheries managers7. Develop a library of fishery management case studies8. Organize a network of training providers and users
Barriers and strategies for overcoming barriers
A number of barriers to achieving the above strategies were discussed these were not considered
insurmountable provide a committed effort by national and international organizations.
Institutional inertia within (e.g., work overload) and between sectors Lack of understanding of importance by stakeholders Financial support Leadership Time and practicality Accessibility (local, global, time) Difficulty in determining appropriate service providers for training Cultural issues and diversity Institutional framework and terms of reference
Agreed strategy development plan over the next 12-18 months: Establish an international steering committee. Steering committee meets at IIFET to discuss next steps in implementing actions. Develop initial terms of reference and funding possibilities Develop case study concept Complete website to coordinate activities and act as clearinghouse for programmes
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4.1.2 Other sectorsOver the past two decades capacity development efforts have had to address an increasingly
complexity of issues including embedding gender equality, environmental awareness and othersocietal skills in development. Like ICAM above, these tend to respond to a number of cross-cutting
needs and have therefore required a strong pan-sectoral or even non-sectoral approach, often at odds
with previous mainstream HCD methodologies. FAO has been at the forefront of developing these
new approaches, initially as a unilateral requirement from co-funders but increasingly at the request of
recipient countries. For instance the FAO Socio-economic and Gender Analysis programme (SEAGA)
promotes a gender sensitive approach to sustainable development at three levels - macro
(programmes and policies), intermediate (institutions) and field (communities, households and
individuals), focusing on policy makers, development planners and field workers respectively (seeBox 4 below). The SEAGA programme works with a number of FAO divisions but, significantly, not
yet fisheries (22).
Box 4: FAO Socio-economic and Gender Analysis Programme (SEAGA)
Aims
To increase awareness of and sensitivity towards gender issues, as well as to strengthen the capacity of
development specialists to incorporate socio-economic and gender analysis into development planning.
Goal
To incorporate socio-economic and gender considerations into development projects programmes and
policies in order to ensure that all development efforts address the needs and priorities of both men andwomen.
Approach
SEAGA emphasizes the socio-cultural, economic, demographic, political, institutional and
environmental factors that affect the outcome of development initiatives and the linkages betweenthem from a gender perspective. SEAGA examines the linkages among these factors at three levels -
macro (programmes and policies), intermediate (institutions) and field (communities, households andindividuals).
The programme:
Has developed a set of handbooks (Field/Intermediate/Macro Level) and guides and it continuesto revise and update these publications based on feedback and experiences from its users;
develops guides that incorporate socio-economic and gender analysis into a specificsector/technical field;
disseminates its publications to development specialists. organizes workshops in "Socio-economic and Gender Analysis" and "Training of Trainers"
worldwide;
collaborates with other projects and programmes within FAO and with other external
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Recent developments in forestry, at least within FAO, suggest that the previous provision of capacity
development assistance at local level was not as effective as hoped, due to the failure of such efforts to
get to grips with the overall political and enabling environment which was hampering developmentefforts. FAO is thus now beginning to re-concentrate on initiatives at a higher level to effect change in
capacity at the sector and enabling environment level (3). At the international level, there has been an
initiative to build a solid institutional framework and guidelines for forest-sector-based development
under the auspices of the United Nations Forum on Forests, the Intergovernmental Panel on Forest and
the Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IPF/IFF). The IPF/IFF proposals urge countries to include
capacity development as an objective of their national forest programmes. Allied to this, are current
initiatives to establish the necessary linkages between forest policy, research and education, such as
the project Training and Research Capacities for Forestry Policy Development in Countries with
Economies in Transition, jointly run by the United Nations University (UNU), the European Forest
Institute (EFI) and the SILVA Network (Jansky et al., 2003).
Table 4-1 overleaf provides a summary of other current approaches to capacity development
researched through personal interviews (listed in Appendix C) and the literature review (summarized
in Appendix D.
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Table 4-1: Summary of current approaches to human capacity development
Donor /
organizationDelivery mechanisms now favoured Focus of HCD efforts Comment on changes / trends
Asia-PacificEconomicCooperationProgram
E-learning Cross-cutting issues based around (i) capacitydevelopment, (ii) education and (iii) socialprotection.
Developing interoperability of e-learningsystems in Asia
Trade liberalization through cooperation Increased mobility of skilled workers
Centre for Disease
Control andPrevention
Short-courses developed in partnershipwith target institutions
Internet-based information databases forinformed decision-making
Decision-makers and their advisers Training of trainers
Development of Internet-based decision-support tools
Development of training partnershipsConserve AfricaFoundation
Internet-based secretariat, providing apartnership list and information database.
Advocacy programme for capacity developmentwith a focus in nature resource management andconservation
Internet-based to reduce overheads andproved an e-literate forum
Resource and skill base for partnerships.FAO
Development of materials in Rome withInternet-enabled distance learningfacilitated via regional offices
Short, interactive workshops with clearproblem-solving aims
Twinning and attachments for professionals
Awareness building and enabling co-management
Integration of natural resource sectors with widersociety
Building indigenous training capacity throughtraining of trainers
Governance and administration at societal level
Focus on indigenous training capacity andsupport through distance learning andshort, intensive workshops / seminars
Centralized development of capacitydevelopment tools with regionalcustomization and delivery, facilitated byinternet-enabled distance learning
Indo-PacificConservationAlliance
Embedding trainers with NGO partners Building NGO management and administrationcapacities
NGO policy and strategy development NGO capacity-building for natural
resource management.
UN Division forSustainable
Development
Voluntary, non-negotiated partnerships Cross-cutting issues e.g. poverty alleviation,sustainable development, institutional capacitydevelopment, gender equality & education
Focus on youth empowerment andenhanced decision-making
Partnership development
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4.1.3 Training needs assessment and curriculum developmentCurriculum development is central to the teaching and learning process, and includes all the planning
and guiding of learning by a training or teaching organization, whether it is carried out in groups orindividually, inside or outside a classroom, in an institutional setting or in a village or field. (Rogers
and Taylor, 1998). The Develop a Curriculum (DACUM) approach, developed by Ohio State
University, is an innovative approach aimed at allowing corporate entities to determine the main tasks
and accompanying skill requirements for a particular job or cluster of related jobs (see Box 5). It relies
upon a short, intensive session, facilitated by a DACUM specialist to identify the tasks competencies
involved, followed by a process to determine the specific skills, knowledge and abilities required as
such it is similar to the process described by Harte in Section 2.1.
Box 5: The Develop a Curriculum (DACUM) approach
Outline
The DACUM process identifies approximately 8 to 20 duty areas and 50 to 200 competencies that
outline what a successful worker in a particular job or cluster of related jobs must be able to do. The
occupation profile chart that results from DACUM analysis details the major job functions and the
competencies involved in the occupation or job being studied.
The DACUM analysis is used to:
Create descriptions for new or emerging occupational areas Update existing job descriptions Identify new technology competencies Update existing academic programmes
The process:
A carefully chosen group of 8 to 12 workers from the relevant occupational area form the DACUMcommittee. Committee members are recruited directly from business, industry or the professions. The
committee works under the guidance of a qualified facilitation team for approximately 2 days.
During the instructional development phase that follows the DACUM process, the competencies
undergo a task analysis to determine the specific skills, knowledge and abilities the worker needs to
perform each task. The information resulting from the task analysis is then incorporated into learning
outcome statements, learning activities, instructional materials and detailed assessment criteria.
Experience of applying the DACUM approach to public sector support to fisheries is limited, but has
been used in Viet Nam (Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology, undated), Gaza9
and Canada. In the latter case the Newfoundland Aquaculture Industry Association (NAIA) conducted
a Standardized Occupational Analysis for Aquaculture in order to develop and deliver programmes
and courses which meet the human resource development needs of all sectors in the Newfoundland
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Another new approach, which may include the DACUM process, is that of Participatory Curriculum
Development (PCD). The PCD approach aims at developing a curriculum from the interchanges ofexperience and information between the various stakeholders in an education and training programme.
Building on lessons learnt from field-based practice, a critical element of PCD is the identification of
stakeholders, who may include educationalists, researchers, policy makers, extension workers, fishers
and aquaculturists. Rather than belonging to a small select group of experts, PCD involves a wide
range of stakeholders in a meaningful way, drawing upon their experience and insights in a structured
approach to curriculum planning, implementation and evaluation (Taylor, 2000). They may help
identify needs for training, set aims and learning objectives, contribute to the development of the
subject matter to be taught, and participate in delivery and evaluation of the curriculum.The recently completed Fisheries Training and Extension Project (Phase II) project in Bangladesh
adopted the SLA approach to assist the Department of Fisheries in increasing aquaculture production
by poor farmers. A key activity of the project is supporting and developing Human Resources
Management (HRM) and the ability of the Department to plan and manage training (Brown, 2001).
This included adoption of systematic TNA methodologies for both staff and beneficiaries. An
important TNA tool was the development of a database containing skills, training and career records
and information on all Department of Fisheries officers which allowed for a screening of all proposed
candidates to ensure that their basic skills, aptitude and career requirements matched trainingopportunities.
In the Asian Pacific region, a regional expert consultation examined the needs for capacity
development for aquaculture education (De Silva, Sim and Phillips, 2000).
The development of curricula, training materials and other tools to support aquaculture education was
considered to require:
Developing databases cataloguing existing curricula and training materials for AE in the Asia-Pacific region, with the scope for timely update;
Preparation of modules based on existing curricula and training materials for disseminationthrough a regional Aquaculture Education Program;
Translation of relevant materials as appropriate; Improving existing vocational curricula; and Developing separate training streams for extension officers particularly to fulfil the need for
training in extension skills as dedicated vocational stream. Such an approach would underpin aspecial recognition of the need to support more effective extension within aquaculture.
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Table 4-2: The ten stages in participatory curriculum development (PCD)
Activity description Aim of activity
1. PCD awareness-raising workshop forkey stakeholders
Identify main reasons for, and purpose of, curriculum development, and key areasfor curriculum change.
Identify expected constraining and enabling factors inside and outside theinstitution.
Introduce concept of PCD. Carry out initial stakeholder analysis and identify specific potential stakeholders and
their likely role in the process.
Discuss potential for application in institution. Outline main steps for action.
2. Follow-upworkshop with widergroup of stakeholders
(identified in step 1)
Validate main reasons for, and purpose of, curriculum development and key areasfor curriculum change.
Discuss expected constraining and enabling factors inside and outside the institution. Introduce concept of PCD; validate list of stakeholders in the PCD process and
identify their roles.
Discuss potential for application in institution. Identify organizational issues which need to be addressed for curriculum change to
go ahead.
Develop first version of a monitoring and evaluation system for PCD. Validate and revise main steps for action.
3. Training needsassessment
Plan and carry out Training Needs Assessment (TNA), consolidate results, obtainfeedback on results.
Identify range of Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes (KSA) required.4. Development of
curriculumframeworks within
the wider fisheriescurriculum
Review the existing curriculum based on results of TNA.
Development of curriculum aims, main learning objectives, main topics, maincontent areas.
Provide overview of the methods to be used and resources required. Gather and review existing learning materials.
5. Develop detailedcurricula
Based on curriculum frameworks: develop specific learning objectives, develop/write detailed content, identify and prepare/adapt learning materials, identify learning methods, develop assessment/evaluation instruments.
6. Learner-centred
teaching methodstraining (ToT)
Develop capacity of trainers to plan and apply new, learner-centred teachingmethods.
7 Learning materials D l it f t i t d l d l t d t i l f
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4.2 Delivery mechanismsAs already hinted at in the preceding text, there are a wide variety of different delivery mechanisms
that can be used to assist capacity development, and which have been adopted. These are exploredfurther and summarized in the text below, along with a summary table/schematic with the key
attributes of different forms of delivery mechanisms. The Boxes and Figures in this section also
provide some interesting examples of current/practical application of different mechanisms.
An evolution of delivery mechanisms has been facilitated, which increasingly allows recipients to:
use flexible tools to enhance capacity; increase networking and possibilities for information exchange and mutual learning; identify and consequentially solve problems; develop information processing skills, rather than rote learning; learn from real world practical experiences, rather than just based on theoretical learning.
Different types of delivery mechanisms can usefully be divided into those that rely on face-to-face
contact, and those that can be delivered remotely. While it is certainly true that developments in the
internet and electronic communications have given rise to new and exciting forms of delivery
mechanisms for capacity development using remote mechanisms, it would be wrong to ignore all other
traditional face-to-face mechanisms as outdated and irrelevant. The use of remote mechanisms ofcapacity development are likely to require greater levels of motivation by recipients to respond to
opportunities and to engage in the capacity development process, although may enable better access to
greater numbers of people at better value for money.
The following text highlights that all delivery mechanisms may have a role to play in particular
instances depending on the capacity development requirements, and that the selection of an
appropriate mechanism(s) must be carefully based on case-specific needs.
4.2.1 Face to face mechanismsClassroom-based training/education. This represents perhaps the most one-way delivery mechanism
with experts imparting knowledge, information etc to recipients. Programmes may be either long- or
short-term e.g. lectures, diploma courses, undergraduate courses, PhDs, and may be delivered in-
country or overseas. Criticism has been based on:
the over-reliance on such training and the insufficient complementary use of alternativemechanisms;
the fact that course content is seldom user-defined;
the focus of such courses on (often outdated) technical issues and facts, and not on wideraspects of capacity development as discussed in this paper;
removing staff from job functions, especially for long periods of training, can disrupt thefunctioning of institutions.
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What is important however is to carefully match the skills and knowledge required in any country for
successful management, with the numbers of staff available and their current capabilities. It may be
necessary to provide more long-term classroom training with an emphasis on sector and overall
societal skills and knowledge listed in Figure 2-1, along with new science and research skills required
given recent developments such as an ecosystems approach to fisheries, rather than just the traditional
technical science and research skills. It may also be necessary to complement such training with other
delivery mechanisms. Of great importance is the need to place strong emphasis on how the
training/education is structured and delivered, as well as how participatory course contents are, so that
courses are more relevant and useful for the recipients.
Recent discussion in the US on reform of natural resource management education (Rassam and Eisler,
2001) has focused strongly on syllabus change, but how courses are taught can also add many of thedesired skills and knowledge to fisheries curricula without adding courses (Berkson, 2002). The use of
cooperative learning, writing across the curriculum, discussion groups, and other approaches should
increase the ability of students to deal with interpersonal interactions, problem solving, and other
societal skills (Allison and McBride, 2003). A key lesson appears to be that while training should be
flexible and participatory, it must still be carefully planned and not improvised.
Box 6: The SUFER project
An ongoing DFID project on Support for University Fisheries Education and Research (SUFER) has
been working in Bangladesh to evaluate teaching practice, course content and student capabilities, aswell as to develop clear indicators to evaluate teaching quality and student performance. The project isalso assisting with off-campus practical training for students to complement classroom-basedapproaches. Allison (2003) outlines clear progress over the last three years in:
-The development of course and programme outlines that incorporate clear statements of rationaleand course aims, content and expected learning outcomes.
-The widespread use of locally-relevant examples in teaching-The revitalization of field and practical work, including opportunities for independent work, and for
contact between students, aquatic resource users and potential employers in government, NGO andprivate sector
-The incorporation of social science elements of fisheries, aquaculture and environmentalmanagement in relevant courses
-The widespread use of means of obtaining student feedback on teaching quality- Improved efficiency in the delivery of material by use of overhead projectors, lecture handouts and
other teaching aids
- Increased use of participatory teaching methods, including seminar and group work- Improved design of field and practical work, and improved provisioning of that work through
refurbishment of facilities.-An awareness of the skills required of graduates by their employers through increased contactsbetween teachers and employers
-An increased awareness of poverty relevant technical issues among teachers this seems to have
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Seminars, conferences or workshops. This group of delivery mechanisms are more two-way and
participatory than the classroom-based training discussed above. As such they may often be more
effective in helping to develop capacity related to attitudinal change, as well as in imparting
information. They may also be especially effective in establishing networks and communication
between different development actors and practitioners, fishers etc, itself an important factor in
capacity development. Sometimes the lack of any immediate impact and the failure of such initiatives
to necessarily follow-up with implementation is a cause of criticism in terms of value for money.
These mechanisms may be conducted overseas or locally-run, but by definition are usually short-term
in nature lasting not more than a couple of days. They are usually supported by academic institutions
(in the case of seminars and conferences), NGOs (in the case of workshops) or donors (who support all
three forms)
Research programmes. The completion of research programmes should and can play a vital role in
capacity development. Sector planning and development must be based on good scientific
understanding and evidence, which can be provided by such programmes. What is necessary, but what
is unfortunately often lacking, is a good linkage between research and management/planning
institutions, and between research institutions in developed and developing countries. Also important
is to ensure that research is tailored to meeting the development needs of local populations. Allison
and McBride (2003) report that in Bangladesh less than 10 percent of published research work by
fisheries faculty in five participating universities is concerned with research on issues faced by rural
fish farmers. Research programmes are usually long term in nature lasting between 6 months and 3
years, may be lab- or field-based, and usually conducted by academic institutions or state-funded
specialist research institutions. There are few, if any, private-sector research institutions in the fishery
sector being able to support themselves by selling the results of their research. Research is generally
therefore an activity that must be strongly supported by the State or by donors.
Exchange programmes. Exchange programmes may involve actual job-swaps, or individuals being
provided with an opportunity to observe someone elses activities and job context. Such programmes
may be used simply to facilitate information/knowledge exchange, whereby individuals with differentcapabilities and skills can share these with others. However, they may also be especially effective in
enhancing societal skills and knowledge, and in bringing about awareness of different cultural values
and attitudinal change. As a result they can be useful for conflict resolution when applied in a practical
job-based setting and can assist in increasing understanding and empathy between
individuals/institutions previously opposed to each others viewpoints or who may be operating from
different perspectives. Examples might include a fishers representative spending time in a fisheries
management authority to gain a better understanding of the need for fisheries regulations and controls,
with government officials being exposed to a business operation and the commercial pressures of
running fishing vessels. They are generally fairly short-term in nature, but may last up to a year or
more in the case of swaps of academic posts. Given increasing emphasis on conflict management as an
important issue in fisheries, it might be expected that the use of exchange programmes be more widely
adopted in the future.
Demonstration trials. The principal of this mechanism is usually to get the private sector to adopt
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or office-based. It usually attempts to develop capacity by providing one short-term input, or a series
of more than one short-term inputs spread over a period of time. On-the-job training is generally
provided through donors for project-based initiatives or programme efforts with donor staff assisting
counterparts, or by NGOs, volunteer programmes, or government extension workers. Such training
may be supported/complemented by short-term classroom-based training, but conducted in a practical
setting that has relevance to the recipients.
Mentoring may be an especially useful form of on-the-job training, as it enables assistance to be
provided to deal with specific problems, or just to provide overall advice about career paths.
Mentoring as a practice has been used extensively in private sector businesses for some time and may
involve one-to-one relationships with an experienced figure guiding and assisting a more junior
person, or groups of people mutually supporting each other with advice. They may take the form of amentor and a mentee within the same organization, or of from different institutions. Such initiatives
are generally found to be very productive if carefully structured and planned, and have the strong
advantage that they generally just involve the giving of time, rather than the commitment of large
financial resources. Mentoring can be delivered face-to-face or remotely.
Box 7: Mentoring
What is mentoring? According to Homer, when the King of Ithaca was leaving to fight in the TrojanWar, he asked a good friend to oversee his household, and to look after and counsel his young sonTelemachus. When the king returned ten years later, he found his son had become a skilful andperceptive man. The credit, the king concluded, belonged to the relationship his friend had developedwith his son, and this started the Greek custom of pairing young males with older men so the youngerman could learn from the skills and wisdom of the older man. The friends name was Mentor so therelationship became known as mentoring. Today, mentoring takes many forms and is used for many
different reasons. We can see it in the relationship between master and apprentice, or in relationshipsbetween groups. Equally, we can see mentoring in the relationship between a successful entrepreneurand his/her protg. Common to all these relationships is: a partnership between two people, wherethe mentor(who possesses a greater amount of skills, knowledge or experience) works collaborativelywith a mentee (who is looking to enhance his or her knowledge, skills and experience) in a mutuallybeneficial process. While there is, by definition, a certain inequality in the mentoring relationship,
there is also a necessary equality. Both the mentor and the mentee bring different but valid perspectivesto the process, both gain from the relationship, and both parties are equally accountable for success.
Source: Mentoring for Business. http://www.e-mentoring.com/
4.2.2 Remo e me hanismst cBudget support. General programme-based support can be provided for sector capacity development
through budgetary support, and can be especially effective if institutions face severe budgetary
constraints which inhibit capacity development. Provision of finance can at the most basic level enable
institutions to function more effectively and to have a greater impact. However, as noted above
(UNDP 2003) h h i th t th i t t d t bl t th t
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Case study information can also be of great benefit, and it is thought likely that both small-scale
fishers and consultants have considerable experience that could be written up, or which is lost in
consultancy reports. Given the pressure on academics to publish papers, interesting information tends
to originate more from this sector, rather than from consultants who are often under pressure to move
on to other fee-paying work. Likewise, small-scale fishers are occupied with the business of making
money from fishing, and often have little incentive to prepare case study information that could be of
great interest. Furthermore, requirements for particular styles/formats required by respectable
fisheries journals often preclude small-scale fishers from being able to present case study material (and
provide a considerable disincentive for consultants). Nevertheless, it appears a shame that the
experiences of such groups are not more widely drawn upon, and more thought could perhaps be given
to how it could be. Ideas might include a forum for case studies and subsequent dissemination,
prepared in a less formal/polished fashion, perhaps with a simple form with sections covering keyareas of interest and lessons learned from the particular case study. This could be Internet-based with
the use of categorization / key words to allow searches according to geography, sector, issues etc.
Manuals/training material. The use of training manuals, while relatively costly and time-consuming
to prepare, then provides a cost effective method of capacity development, as individuals (depending
on their current capacity and the level at which the manual is targeted) may be able to use such
material with little or no further supervision. Manuals may cover all topics and provide information on
specialist technical areas such as HACCP, or more management and process-related advice on how to
develop and prepare fisheries sector management plans (see http://www.idrc.ca/cbnrm/documents/
CBNRM_Toolkit/manuals4.htm for an interesting list of selected training manuals on accessing and
building on indigenous knowledge for fisheries management). FAO has also recently been developing
a manual on participatory planning for improving artisanal fisheries landing sites. It is interesting in
that it takes the approach of the new role of a fisheries officer, namely as a facilitator for
development processes, rather than someone who just collects data and provides expertise. The
ongoing FAO Sustainable Development Department project on conflict management (see Figure 4-2)
has already prepared conflict management manuals. These recent activities highlight the importance of
the need to update and/or prepare new manuals and training material to reflect current developmentthinking. The static nature of the material once prepared can easily lead to their use for many years
longer than is ideal.
Radio. Radio has been used extensively in fisheries and other natural resource sectors as an effective
method of extension to impart knowledge and to change attitudes. It is especially useful in terms of
access to the poor in developing countries given that most people, even if not wealthy enough to have
access to televisions or the internet, usually have access to, and listen to, radio. Local or national radio
stations may be used as may specially established community radio stations. Communication
strategies have generally moved from top-down to more grass-roots approaches using tools such as
PRA. The problem for communication is that it is often left out of budgets and usually used as a crisis
management tool, rather than programmed into projects at the outset.
Mentoring. Mentoring may be delivered remotely as well as face to face. Discussion on this
mechanism is presented above under on-the-job training. As far as we are aware, mentoring in the
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difficult because of distance, practical or cost implications. However the motivation and supervision
of distance-learning students is variable and have a profound influence on the outcome of the training.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT). ICT is generally a remote capacitydevelopment mechanism, but may also be delivered face to face. It cannot act as a panacea for all
development problems, but by dramatically improving communication and the exchange of
information, it can create powerful social and economic networks, which in turn provide the basis for
major advances in development. By enabling these new networks to collect and share local knowledge
and information, ICT can provide new and more efficient methods of production, bring previously
unattainable markets within the reach of local producers, improve the delivery of government services,
and increase access to basic social goods and services (International Institute for Communication and
Development, IICD, 2002).The development of ICT requires development practitioners to think creatively about its uses for
capacity development, as well as the practical requirements. For example, a community may have just
one PC, but this PC may be able to be used by, and to serve many people in the community. But
practical requirements are as important as exciting opportunities. One needs good bandwidth for on-
line web-based distance learning and many small-scale coastal fishing communities wont have it,
although they may have access to a PC. This means that the use of CD-ROM-based training may be
especially appropriate in such cases see Box 8 for an interesting example of CD-ROM training. It
also requires initiatives to involve/encourage those with the ability to use ICT to access those whocant for example, most NGOs are likely to have access to internet-based information, and can then
act as a conduit for passing information to those in the field who may not have access.
The internet may facilitate distance-based learning (see above), as well as networking and information
exchange based on email-contact, list-server mailing/e-bulletins (e.g. fishfolk), search functions and
storage of documents/information, and discussion boards. The ability to establish servers with large
information storage capacity offers exciting potential.
Whilst most institutions have developed an Internet presence, greater potential certainly exists for use
of the internet as a training and capacity-building tool. FAO have been one of the more innovative
organizations and have developed proven approaches for internet-based distance learning, where a
number of generic tools are developed centrally in Rome and then made available to regional offices
for adoption to local circumstances. This has proved versatile, cost-effective (22) and allows material
to be developed in a number of different languages. FAO also supports distance learning initiatives
though short (
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Box 8: The FAO Information Management Resource Kit
The Information Management Resource Kit is a partnership-based e-learning initiative based oninternet technologies being developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationsand partner agencies and institutions with the goal of strengthening information management andexchange in agencies, institutions and networks world-wide, allowing them to work together moreeffectively. The Resource Kit is being developed with the common goal of mobilizing and buildingupon existing resources to create a comprehensive suite of distance learning resources for informationmanagement and exchange. Different modules, to be available on CD-ROM and downloadable from
the internet, offer a series of lessons on topics such as electronic document management, and introducebasic concepts and describe specific workflows and topics. Lessons are delivered using an interactive,
self-paced learning environment. In the Electronic Document Management module for example, thetotal curriculum consists of 27 lessons, of approximately 30 minutes duration each, grouped into sixunits, for a total of 13.5 hours of self-paced instruction. Other modules are to include Investing inInformation, Building Electronic Communities and Networks, Management of Statistical Data, and
Management of Spatial Data. Each lesson achieves a specific set of learning objectives, usinginteractive step-by-step instruction and exercizes, which help reinforce what is being taught. Each
lesson includes a list of relevant resources and additional reading. Learners can consult a glossaryspecific to the Module, and search within the course materials for specific terms. A series of non-proprietary software applications and methodological guides are also provided.
Users can create a tailored course to meet their specific learning needs by developing their ownpersonal learning path (PLP). Lessons can be combined to form a curriculum which covers only theareas and topics in which users have specific interests or need training, often saving significant studytime. PLPs can be set up when users begin the course, or at any time during it. The Resource Kit will
be supplemented by an Internet-based On-line Community, providing a virtual discussion forum forcontributors and learners to exchange views and request help from each other. The On-line Community
will provide collaborative workspaces in which to initiate language and/or topic specific discussions,upload and download documents, and to point to other Web resources.
Source: FAO WAICENT
In a workshop organized by the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia-Pacific (De Silva et al.,
2000), the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) provided a paper on their experience of the use of their
Intranet in aquaculture education. This shows that whilst some students (and staff) have problems
adapting to an electronic interface, it has provided an important new medium to teaching which has an
increasing appeal to new generations of computer-literate and Internet-aware students (see Box 9
overleaf).FAOs Fisheries Department and SIFAR, (Support unit for International Fisheries and Aquatic
Research), in cooperation with the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) Secretariat and the European
Commission (EC), are undertaking a feasibility study for an initiative aimed at supporting the
development of fisheries policy and of fostering improved institutional capacity for fisheries
management. The initiative is entitled A programme for Strengthening Fisheries Management in
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beyond one-way information and service delivery, towards a two-way or many to many system that
facilitates the exchange of information, knowledge and experience. In this regard, it is envisaged that
the ACP Fish II programme will need to adopt a neutral yet responsive and facilitatory role, rather
than becoming an expert gatekeeper. An important goal will be to create communities of practice
around key themes.
Box 9: Experience of intranet use in aquaculture education
Potential pedagogical help from the internet and intranet
1. Use of html format to provide student with class notes2. Provide students with mathematical simulation methods for independent practises of analytical
techniques.3. Simulating the classroom environment by providing lecture notes with audio or video
instructions.
4. Internet conferencing: real time delivery.Perceived advantages
Academic administration:
To use as an electronic library (text/ graphics/ photos/ videos) Instructors are encouraged to prepare written lecture materials Help to audit the curriculum: public auditing or by a selected audience) Can add a bulletin providing students information on materials and processesStudents:
Lecture notes + slides + video clips readily available to use at any time. Language help for ESL students Outside classroom interaction with instructors.Instructors:
Easy to interact with students outside contact hours Easy to update teaching materials. Peer review opportunitiesDisadvantages
Extremely time consuming (initially) for preparing materials Relatively high cost Copyright issues for using published materials (if wider circulation is desired) Psychological barriers to working with an electronic interface
Adapted from De Silva, Sim and Phillips (2000).
SIFAR is itself also creating an open knowledge marketplace on the Net specifically to serve the needs
of the global fisheries research and development community. Called the OneFish Community
Directory, this open directory portal brings together, under one virtual roof, a broad cross-section of
stakeholders interested in raising the profile of research in fisheries and aquatic resources and
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The response has increasingly been the formation of partnerships that allow a holistic approach to
capacity development, supported by a mixture of delivery mechanisms (see below) and different
service providers. This has resulted in recognition of the need for more partnerships in academia, in
donors, and in the NGO community. The United Nations University (UNU) is a good example (see
Appendix D), where a network of proven specialist institutes provide practical and applied
postgraduate courses within a wide-ranging framework covering governance, natural sciences and
development. FAO too depends on a network gender-analysis mainstreaming is facilitated through
over 120 institutions worldwide.
The University of Western Cape (www.uwc.ac.za/ics/) provides another practical example and has
established a knowledge environment for web-based learning (KEWL), which is an open source
learning management system. Involved in establishing distance learning course are the following:
DFID Regional Fisheries Information Systems Project (RFIS) International Ocean Institute in Southern Africa, and the Benguela Environment Fisheries Interaction and Training (BENEFIT) programme.
For aquaculture in Asia, De Silva, Sim and Phillips (2000),suggest the development of a Regional
Collaborative Aquaculture Education Programme, based around the formation of a regional
Aquaculture Educational Consortium. This network would engage the leading academic and training
institutions in Asia and Oceania to engage in institutional capacity-building and the delivery ofaquaculture education through improved collaborative activities and synergies, strengthen the channels
of communication, improve human resources and capacity, evaluate aquaculture education needs of
the region regularly; maintaining and updating databases of available resources.
In summary, a key aspect of the need for more partnerships is that there is a requirement not just for
donors to talk more with other donors, for NGOs to talk to each more, etc, although this is certainly
important, but equally importantly for capacity to be delivered through partnerships between different
groups of service providers e.g. between Government and NGOs, between donors and research
institutions etc.
4.2.4 Mixed use of mechanismsFor individuals to manage the process towards capacity development as described in Figure 1-2, it
may be especially effective, and indeed necessary, for different types of delivery mechanisms to be
used together. For example, the acquisition of knowledge and understanding may be best provided by
face-to-face training, academic programmes or the remote use of manuals. This can then be followed
up by accompanying field-based activities, workshops, or on-the-job training/mentoring providing
skills and knowledge and support to changes in attitude and experiential learning. The use of radioprovides another example with radio now being linked innovatively with the internet, for example by
stimulating discussion and radio station operators then using a PC and the internet to access web-based
material to find and publicize answers to questions posed by listeners which are of special interest to
their daily lives. Although not without its critics12
, the Training and Visit model for example, is a
World Bank approach in which a continuously trained village extension worker regularly visits
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Box 10: TRAIN-X
What is the TRAIN-X Network?
The TRAIN-X Network is a UNDP sponsored co-operative network of UN Agency Human ResourceDevelopment Programmes using the TRAIN-X methodology. The Programme Coordinator in each Agencymanages a system for the preparation and sharing of high quality course packages treating specialized fields ofimportance for national, regional and global development. All TRAIN-X Programmes use a common coursedevelopment methodology. Together, TRAIN-X programmes help almost 200 national and regional trainingcentres in 62 countries to provide improved training to thousands of people annually. In the current period of
financial constraints, purposeful collaboration between UN Agencies, sectors and countries through the TRAIN-X Network and its programmes represents a viable means for upgrading and developing the UN Systemscapacity development effort. TRAIN-X is a generic symbol representing the acronyms of the member
programmes.
What is the TRAIN-X Approach?
The TRAIN-X approach, used by each partner agency for its TRAIN-X programme, has the following major
elements:
1. a common training development methodology
2. co-ordinated development of training material to maximize resources and avoid duplication
3. a co-operative network for the exchange of material and instructors among training centres
4. a series of courses and meetings for the training of trainers, including human resources development/trainingmanagers, course developers and instructors
5. use of modern training techniques including open learning and computer assisted and multi-media learning
6. use of training information systems for the management of large co-operative networks
This TRAIN-X approach has the following distinct advantages:
Money is concentrated on building national capacity which is technically and financially sustainable
Training packages are developed locally to defined pedagogical standards
Training is matched closely to a specific job to provide more effective training in the shortest time
Each package is made available to many countries
Receiving countries acquire skills and knowledge to make minor adaptations for their own environment
Central support concentrates on quality control and training of course developers & trainers
Support activity is quickly decentralized to regional centres
Source: http://www.undp.org/seed/trainx/overview.htm
An ongoing FAO Sustainable Development Department Livelihood Support Programme on conflict
management, largely implemented by FAO forestry and fisheries staff, provides a