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Basic ChemistryBasic Chemistry

• Atoms in a neutral Atoms in a neutral state have an equal state have an equal number of protons number of protons and electrons.and electrons.

• Atoms “fill up” their energy Atoms “fill up” their energy levels from the lowest levels from the lowest to the highest. Electrons to the highest. Electrons rarely “skip” levels.rarely “skip” levels.

Basic ChemistryBasic Chemistry

The 1The 1stst Energy level can only Energy level can only hold 2 electrons.hold 2 electrons.

The 2The 2ndnd (& all higher) energy (& all higher) energy levels can hold 8 electrons.levels can hold 8 electrons.

Atoms seek to have a “full” Atoms seek to have a “full” outermost energy level. All outermost energy level. All chemical reactions happen to chemical reactions happen to accomplish this.accomplish this.

Organic compounds contain carbon Organic compounds contain carbon atoms that are covalently bonded atoms that are covalently bonded to other elements—typically to other elements—typically hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and other carbon atoms.other carbon atoms.

Organic Molecules Organic Molecules include:include:

•carbohydrates, carbohydrates, •lipids, lipids, •ProteinsProteins•nucleic acids.nucleic acids.

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

Made of carbon, hydrogen, and Made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in the proportion oxygen atoms in the proportion of 1:2:1. of 1:2:1.

key source of energy,key source of energy,

found in most foods — especially found in most foods — especially fruits, vegetables, and grainsfruits, vegetables, and grains

The building blocks of The building blocks of carbohydrates are single sugars, carbohydrates are single sugars, called called monosaccharidesmonosaccharides (mahn oh (mahn oh SAK uh reyedz).SAK uh reyedz).

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

Monosaccharide: one sugar Monosaccharide: one sugar unitunit

Examples:Examples: glucose (glucose (C6H12O6)

deoxyribosedeoxyribose

riboseribose

FructoseFructose

GalactoseGalactose

glucoseglucose

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

Disaccharide: two sugar unitDisaccharide: two sugar unit

Examples:Examples: – Sucrose (glucose+fructose)Sucrose (glucose+fructose)– Lactose (glucose+galactose)Lactose (glucose+galactose)– Maltose (glucose+glucose)Maltose (glucose+glucose)

glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose

CarbohydratesCarbohydrates

Polysaccharide: many sugar unitsPolysaccharide: many sugar units

Examples:Examples:

starch (bread, potatoes)starch (bread, potatoes)

glycogen (beef muscle)glycogen (beef muscle)

cellulose (lettuce, corn)cellulose (lettuce, corn)

glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose

glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose

glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose

glucoseglucoseglucoseglucose

cellulosecellulose

LipidsLipids

Lipids (LIHP ihdz) Lipids (LIHP ihdz) are are nonpolar molecules that are nonpolar molecules that are not soluble in water.not soluble in water.

include fats, phospholipids, include fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.steroids, and waxes.

Phospholipids make up Phospholipids make up the lipid bilayer of cell the lipid bilayer of cell membranes.membranes.

LipidsLipids

Fats are lipids that store Fats are lipids that store energy.energy.

lipids include some light-lipids include some light-absorbing compounds called absorbing compounds called pigments, pigments, such as the plant such as the plant pigment chlorophyll.pigment chlorophyll.

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LipidsLipidsFatty AcidsFatty Acids

There are two kinds of fatty acidsfatty acids you may see these on food labels:

1.1. Saturated fatty acids:Saturated fatty acids: no double no double bonds (bad)bonds (bad)

2.2. Unsaturated fatty acids:Unsaturated fatty acids: double double bonds (good)bonds (good)

O

C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

=

saturatedsaturated

O

C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH=CH-CH2 -CH

2 -CH2 -CH

2 -CH3

=

unsaturated

ProteinsProteins

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A Protein A Protein (PROH teen) (PROH teen) is a is a large molecule formed by large molecule formed by linked smaller molecules linked smaller molecules called amino acidscalled amino acids.

Other proteins are found in Other proteins are found in skin, ligaments, tendons, and skin, ligaments, tendons, and bones. Your hair and muscles bones. Your hair and muscles contain structural proteins and contain structural proteins and so do the fibers of a blood clot. so do the fibers of a blood clot. Other proteins called antibodies Other proteins called antibodies help your body defend against help your body defend against infection.infection.

ProteinsProteins

The membrane of cells is The membrane of cells is embedded with proteins embedded with proteins that serve a that serve a variety of variety of functionsfunctions

ProteinsProteins

In our cells, In our cells, proteins are proteins are produced by produced by ribosomesribosomes..

Ribosomes are composed Ribosomes are composed of of rRNArRNA and can be found and can be found as free ribosomes as free ribosomes suspended in the suspended in the cytoplasmcytoplasm or attached to or attached to the the rough endoplasmic rough endoplasmic reticulumreticulum

EnzymesEnzymes

An enzyme is:An enzyme is: A protein that acts as a A protein that acts as a catalyst to changes the rate of catalyst to changes the rate of a chemical reaction;a chemical reaction;

Not permanently changed in Not permanently changed in the process and therefore the process and therefore reusable;reusable;

End in – aseEnd in – aseSucraseSucraseLactaseLactaseMaltaseMaltase

EnzymesEnzymes

Enzymes are very Enzymes are very specific and act like a specific and act like a “lock & key” to “lock & key” to facilitate reactions facilitate reactions within a cell.within a cell.

Enzymes provide a way to Enzymes provide a way to speed up life’s essential speed up life’s essential functions without raising functions without raising the temperature of the the temperature of the organisms bodyorganisms body

EnzymesEnzymes

Enzymes act to bring Enzymes act to bring substrates together or substrates together or break them apartbreak them apart

EnzymesEnzymes

Enzymes are effected by things Enzymes are effected by things such as temperature, such as temperature, concentration and pH.concentration and pH.

• High temperaturesHigh temperatures are the most dangerous reactions & denaturedenature enzymes (Most like normal Body (Most like normal Body temperaturestemperatures)

• Most enzymes like near neutral pH (6 to 8)

EnzymesEnzymes

Enzymes are effected by things Enzymes are effected by things such as temperature, such as temperature, concentration and pH.concentration and pH.

• High temperaturesHigh temperatures are the most dangerous reactions & denaturedenature enzymes (Most like normal Body (Most like normal Body temperaturestemperatures)

• Most enzymes like near neutral pH (6 to 8)

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

A nucleic acid is a long A nucleic acid is a long chain of smaller molecules chain of smaller molecules called nucleotides.called nucleotides.

A Nucleotide has three parts:

• sugar, • base, • phosphate group,

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

DNADNA or or deoxyribonucleic aciddeoxyribonucleic acid, , consists of two strands of consists of two strands of nucleotides that spiral around nucleotides that spiral around each other, each other,

ChromosomesChromosomes contain long contain long strands of DNA, which stores strands of DNA, which stores hereditary information.hereditary information.

DNADNA

DNADNA is found in the is found in the nucleolusnucleolus, a round or oval , a round or oval body in the body in the nucleusnucleus of a of a eukaryotic celleukaryotic cell; ;

DNADNA

The (cell) nucleus is The (cell) nucleus is the largest, most prominent the largest, most prominent organelle in eukaryotic cells;

a round or oval body that is a round or oval body that is surrounded by the nuclear surrounded by the nuclear envelope;envelope;

contains the genetic contains the genetic information necessary for information necessary for control of cell structure and control of cell structure and function. function.

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

RNARNA or or Ribonucleic acidRibonucleic acid, , consists of a single strand consists of a single strand of nucleotides.of nucleotides.

RNA contains the RNA contains the instructions for the instructions for the creation of proteinscreation of proteins

RNARNA

RNA takes the DNA RNA takes the DNA information and leaves information and leaves the nucleus thru the nucleus thru nuclear nuclear porespores. .

Nuclear pores are largeNuclear pores are large protein protein complexes that cross complexes that cross thethe nuclear envelopenuclear envelope, , which is which is the doublethe double membrane membrane surrounding thesurrounding the eukaryotic eukaryotic cell nucleus. cell nucleus.

RNARNA

Once the RNA Once the RNA leaves the nucleus leaves the nucleus it travels thru the it travels thru the cytoplasmcytoplasm.. a fluid located inside the cell a fluid located inside the cell

membrane and outside the cell membrane and outside the cell nucleus.nucleus.

contains dissolved nutrients contains dissolved nutrients

helps materials move around helps materials move around the cell the cell

Nucleic AcidsNucleic Acids

ATPATP or or Adenosine Adenosine TriphosphateTriphosphate, ,

Considered by Considered by biologists to be the biologists to be the energy currency of energy currency of life.life. ATP is the high-energy ATP is the high-energy molecule that stores molecule that stores

the energy we need to the energy we need to do just about do just about

everything we do. everything we do.

• http://www.hk-phy.org/articles/laser/laser_e.html

• http://www.3dscience.com/3D_Models/Biology/DNA/DNA.php

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• http://www.mcgraw-hill.com

• http://www.ccrnp.ncifcrf.gov/~toms/patent/dnasequencing

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