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Development in Infancy

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• Psychoanalytic Perspectives– Freud

• Oral Stage – derive satisfaction from the mouth• Symbiotic relationship between mother and child

– Erikson• Trust versus Mistrust

– Helping the infant get its needs met consistently– Social relationships go beyond feeding

Theories


• Ethological Perspectives– John Bowlby

• The ability to make strong emotional bonds is innate.

• These bonds have survival value.

• Bonds are maintained by instinctive behaviors that

create and sustain proximity.

Theories


• Ethological Perspectives– John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth

• Attachment– An attachment is an affectional bond in which a person’s

sense of security is bound up in the relationship.– The child can use the “mother” as a “safe base.”

• Ethologists believe the first 2 years constitute a sensitive period for attachment in human infants.

Theories


• Synchrony– The opportunity for parent and infant to develop a

mutual, interlocking pattern of attachment behaviors

– Takes practice over time to develop until each participant follows the other

– Highly synchronous 6 – 8-month-old infants• Have larger vocabularies at age 2• Have higher intelligence scores at age 3

The Parent’s Attachment to the Infant


• Mother’s bond with the infant

– Mothers end up doing more routine caregiving than fathers.

– Talk to and smile at the baby more



• Father’s bond with the infant– Fathers have the same repertoire as mothers.

• Touch, talk to, and cuddle just like Mom

– After first few weeks, fathers begin to spend more time playing with baby.

• More physical roughhousing

– Affectional bond rather than attachment, according to Ainsworth



• Establishing Attachment – Bowlby suggests there are 3 phases

• Nonfocused orienting and signaling (0 – 2 months)– Uses an innate set of behavior patterns to signal needs– Proximity promoting behaviors

• Focus on one or more figures (3 – 6 months)– Smiles more at people who regularly care for her– Still uses proximity promoting behaviors with many

• Secure base behavior (6 – 7 months)– Proximity seeking behaviors– Most important person used as a safe base for explorations

The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents


• Attachment Behaviors– Separation Anxiety

• Infants cry and protest when separated from mother.

– Social Referencing• Use cues from facial expressions of Mom or Dad

– Helps to figure out novel situations– Helps to learn to regulate emotions

The Infant’s Attachment to the Parents


• Internal models– Child’s confidence concerning availability of

the attachment figure– Child’s expectation of rebuff or affection– Child’s sense of assurance in the safe base

• Internal models become elaborated from the time a child is 1 year until the age of 4 or 5.

Variations in Attachment Quality


• Mary Ainsworth– The Strange Situation

• Series of eight episodes played in a laboratory• Children between 12 and 18 months

– Secure attachment– Insecure/avoidant attachment– Insecure/ambivalent attachment– Insecure/disorganized attachment

Secure and Insecure Attachments


• Origins of Secure and Insecure Attachments– Emotional Availability

• Caregiver who is able and willing to form an emotional attachment

– Contingent Responsiveness• Caregivers who are sensitive to the child’s cues and

respond appropriately

– Both are essential to formation of a secure attachment



• Insecure/avoidant attachment– Mother rejects or regularly withdraws from the infant– Mother is overly intrusive or overly stimulating

• Insecure/ambivalent attachment– Primary caregiver is inconsistently or unreliably

available to the child

• Insecure/disorganized attachment– Likely when the child has been abused, and when a

parent has an unresolved childhood trauma



• Factors influencing secure attachment – Marital Status

• Higher educational background• Higher socio-economic status• Older parents

– Psychiatric Illness• Depressed mothers interact less.

Caregiver Characteristics and Attachment


• What kind of attachment do you have with your parents? Has it changed since you were a child or does it reflect the type of attachment you had when you were younger?

• What factors will influence your choice of child care if the mother is working? What would be best for your child?

Questions to Ponder


• Securely attached – More sociable– More positive in relationships with friends– Less clinging and dependent on teachers– Less aggressive– More emotionally mature

– Continues into adolescence• More likely to be leaders• Have higher self-esteem

Long Term Consequences of Attachment Quality


• Securely attached – Increased sociability throughout early,

middle, and late adulthood

– Affects their parenting behaviors

– Demonstrates that the attachment relationship becomes the foundation for future social relationships

Long Term Consequences of Attachment Quality


Cross-Cultural Research on Attachment

Table 6.2


• Dimensions of Temperament

– Thomas and Chess• Easy child – 40%• Difficult child – 10%• Slow-to-warm-up child – 15%

Personality, Temperament, and Self-Concept


• Origins and stability of temperament– Heredity

• Identical twins are more alike in temperament than fraternal twins.

• Adult personality studies support innate temperament.

– Neurological processes• Underlying physiological processes – Kagan

– Shyness

» Differing thresholds for arousal

» Dopamine and serotonin problems

» Frontal lobe asymmetry



• Origins and stability of temperament– Environment

• Sandra Scarr– Niche-Picking

» People of all ages choose their experiences that reflect their temperaments.

• May affect how a child interprets a given experience

• Tendency of parents to respond differently to each child depending on temperament

– Secure attachments tend to modify heredity effects.



• Long-Term Stability– Growing evidence of consistency in temperament over long

periods of time

• Temperament and Development– Emotionally negative infants are less likely to get the parental

support that encourages cognitive development.

– Difficult babies and slow-to-warm-up babies are less responsive to parents.

• Goodness of Fit– Temperament that matches the environment promotes

cognitive development



• The subjective self– Awareness by the child that he is separate from

others and endures over time

– Appears by 8–12 months at the same time as object permanence.

• The objective self– The toddler comes to understand that she is an

object in the world.

Self-Concept


Figure 6.1


• Rouge Test

• Children at 21 months show self-recognition in the mirror.– This is the same age that children name

themselves, use “I,” “me,” and “mine.”

Studying Self-Awareness


• The emotional self– Babies learn to identify changes in

emotional expression.• Starts at 2 – 3 months

– Perception of other’s emotions helps guide the child’s actions.

Self-Concept


• Child-care arrangements

–12% By a parent, at home or at work

–32% Family daycare in another’s home

–33% By a relative, in a relative’s or child’s home

–39% Center care

Effects of Nonparental Care

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006Figure 6.2


• Effects on cognitive development

– High-quality day care has beneficial effects, especially for children from poor families.

– Middle-class children who entered daycare in the first year of life had smaller vocabularies.



• Effects on social development

– Infant daycare has negative effects on attachment if started under one year.

– Parents whose behaviors are associated with insecure attachment have children who are negatively affected by early day care.

– Belsky associates early day care with greater risks for social problems in school-age children.


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This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:• any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;• preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or part, of any images;• any rental, lease, or lending of the program.

Http:// Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 6 Prenatal Development And Birth Social and Personality Development in Infancy This multimedia.

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