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HQ Qvarfordt Et Al (2007) Forsmark Site Investigation - Hydrochemical Monitoring of (...) Surface Waters
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8/9/2019 HQ Qvarfordt Et Al (2007) Forsmark Site Investigation - Hydrochemical Monitoring of (...) Surface Waters
The site investigations in Forsmark were completed in June 2007 and a monitoring phasecommenced, which among others includes regular hydrochemical sampling and analyses.The present report documents the hydrochemical monitoring of near surface groundwaters,surface waters and precipitation in Forsmark during the sampling period August 2007 toDecember 2007.
Near surface groundwaters were sampled and analysed twice during the reported time periodfrom a total of ten shallow soil monitoring wells and three wells equipped with BAT filter tips.Seven of the objects belong to the GBIZ programme (Geosphere Biosphere Interface Zone),which is a special program designed to investigate the properties of this potentially importantzone. Sampling from the three private wells included in the hydrochemical monitoring
programme was conducted at one occasion in October 2007.
Sampling of surface waters (streams, lakes and a shallow sea bay) was performed once permonth from eleven regular sampling locations together with an extra sampling object (the outletof Lake Biotestsjön). The latter was sampled for tritium analyses in order to check eventualtritium contamination from the nuclear power plant.
Each precipitation sample was collected during a period of two months, resulting in threesamples during the reported second half of 2007. Besides sampling at the Forsmark site, a lastsample from a reference site (Sjötorp) was collected for tritium analyses during July–August.Sjötorp is located in the middle of Sweden far from any nuclear power plant and this samplingwas conducted to allow comparison with Forsmark data and check possible effects from the
adjacent nuclear power plant on the tritium content in the Forsmark samples.The results from the near surface groundwater and surface water monitoring includes fieldmeasurements of ORP (Oxidising-Reducing Potential), pH, dissolved oxygen, electricalconductivity, and water temperature, as well as chemical analyses of major constituents, nutrientsalts, carbon species, trace metals and isotopes. For surface waters the field measurements alsoinclude salinity, depth, barometric pressure, turbidity, chlorophyll, light penetration and PAR(Photosynthetic Active Radiation). Reported precipitation data include pH, electrical conductivity,major constituents, aluminium and isotopes.
Generally, the new data confirm the knowledge and conclusions presented in previous reportsfrom earlier investigation periods. Surface waters in lakes and streams in the Forsmark areaare well buffered with high alkalinity, high pH and high calcium concentrations. Furthermore,surface waters affected by brackish sea water show high sodium chloride concentrations.
No observations of elevated tritium content in samples collected close to the cooling wateroutlet from the nuclear power plant (Lake Biotestsjön) were found during the reported time
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Den egentliga platsundersökningen i Forsmark avslutades i juni 2007 och övergick i enmoniteringsfas som inkluderar bland annat regelbunden hydrokemisk provtagning och analys.Föreliggande rapport dokumenterar hydrokemisk övervakning av ytnära grundvatten, ytvattenoch nederbörd i Forsmarksområdet under provtagningsperioden augusti 2007 till december 2007.
Den rapporterade tidsperioden omfattar två provtagningstillfällen för ytnära grundvatten i
totalt tio jordborrhål samt tre BAT – rör. Sju av objekten tillhör GBIZ-programmet (GeosphereBiosphere Interface Zone), vilket är ett speciellt program för att undersöka denna potentielltviktiga zon. Provtagning av privata brunnar som också är inkluderat i det ordinarie moniterings-
programmet skedde vid ett tillfälle i oktober 2007.
Provtagning av ytvatten utfördes en gång per månad från elva ordinarie provpunkter(bäckar, sjöar och en grund havsvik) samt från en extra provpunkt (utloppet av Biotestsjön).Provtagningen från den extra provpunkten skedde för att kontrollera eventuell kontamineringav tritium från kärnkraftverket.
Nederbörd samlades upp under två månader och sammanförs till ett prov, vilket resulterade i tre prov under den rapporterade andra halvan av 2007. Förutom provtagningen i Forsmarksområdethar ett sista prov tagits ut vid en referenspunkt (Sjötorp) under juli till augusti. Sjötorpligger mitt i Sverige och långt från något kärnkraftverk och provet togs för jämförelse medForsmarksdata för att undersöka eventuell påverkan från näraliggande kärnkraftreaktorer påtritiumhalterna i Forsmarksproverna.
De erhållna resultaten från ytnära grundvatten och ytvatten omfattar fältmätningar av ORP(Oxidising-Reducing Potential), pH, löst syre, elektrisk konduktivitet och vattentemperatursamt kemiska analyser av huvudkomponenter, närsalter, kolföreningar, spårelement och iso-toper. För ytvatten mäts även salinitet, djup, barometertryck, turbiditet, klorofyll, siktdjup ochPAR (Photosynthetic Active Radiation). Rapporterade nederbördsdata omfattar pH, elektriskkonduktivitet, huvudkomponenter, aluminium och isotoper.
De nya data som erhållits under perioden augusti till december 2007 bekräftar i huvudsak deerfarenheter och slutsatser som presenterats i föregående rapporter från tidigare undersöknings-
perioder. Ytvatten i sjöar och bäckar i Forsmarksområdet är väl buffrade med hög alkalinitet,högt pH och höga kalciumkoncentrationer. Vissa ytvatten har påverkats av bräckt havsvattenoch visar höga salthalter. Inga förhöjda tritiumhalter har observerats nära kylvatten-utsläppetfrån kärnkraftverket (Biotestsjön) under denna provtagningsperiod. Förhöjda tritiumhalter harobserverats vid några tillfällen som rapporterats tidigare.
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2.4 Performance 132.4.1 Sampling programme 132.4.2 Sample handling and analyses 172.4.3 Data handling 172.4.4 Nonconformities 17
2.5 Results 182.5.1 Field measurements 182.5.2 Water analyses 20
2.6 Summary and discussion 25
3 Surface waters 273.1 Objectives and scope 273.2 Sampling locations and sampling scheme 283.3 Equipment 29
3.3.1 Sampling equipment 293.3.2 Multiparameter sondes 303.3.3 General field equipment 31
3.4 Performance 323.4.1 Presampling preparations 323.4.2 Water sampling 323.4.3 Field measurements 343.4.4 Sample treatment and chemical analyses 343.4.5 Data handling/post processing 34
3.4.6 Nonconformities 363.5 Results 37
3.5.1 General 373.5.2 Water analyses 383.5.3 Field measurements 403.5.4 Water composition 40
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The investigation phase of the site investigations in Forsmark was finished in June 2007 /1/and a much less extensive monitoring phase commenced. This document reports the perform-ance and results from sampling and analyses of near surface groundwater, surface watersand precipitation within the hydrochemical monitoring programme /2/ during the periodJuly–December 2007. The report treats the three water categories in separate chapters withcorresponding Appendix numbers. Earlier investigation periods are presented in /3/, /4/ and/5/ (shallow groundwater), /6/, /7/, /8/, /9/ and /10/ (surface waters) as well as /11/ and /12/(precipitation).
The sampling objects for near surface groundwaters include shallow soil monitoring wells,wells/pipes equipped with BAT-filter tips (special sampling system described in Section 2.3.3)and private wells. Besides the regular sampling locations, the report includes also samplinglocations belonging to the GBIZ programme (Geosphere Biosphere Interface Zone). The differ-ent sampling objects are presented in Table 2-1 and a map showing their location is displayed in
Figure 2-1. The surface water sampling includes lake waters, stream waters and one sea waterlocation (shallow bay) in the Forsmark area. The sampling locations are presented in Figure 3-1.Precipitation was collected at the sampler location PFM002564. The position of the samplers isshown in Figure 4-1.
The controlling documents for the activity are listed in Table 1-1. Both activity plans andmethod descriptions are SKB’s internal controlling documents. Original data from the reportedactivitities are stored in the primary database Sicada. Data are traceable in Sicada by the activity
plan numbers (AP PF 400-07-040, AP PF 400-07-044 and AP PF 400-07-039). Only data in
databases are accepted for further interpretation and modelling. The data presented in this reportare regarded as copies of the original data. Data in the database may be revised, if needed.However, such revision of the database will not necessarily result in a revision of this report,although the normal procedureis that major data revisions entail also a revision of the P-report.Minor revisions are normally presented as supplements, available at www.skb.se.
Table 1-1. Controlling documents for performance of the activity.
Ac tivi ty plans Number Vers ion
Hydrokemiskt övervakningsprogram för ytnära grundvatten(jordrör) augusti 2007 till december 2007.
AP PF 400-07-040 1.0
Undersökningar i Forsmarksområdet: Långtidsövervakning avytvatten. Augusti–december 2007.
AP PF 400-07-044 1.0
Hydrokemiskt övervakningsprogram för nederbörd. AP PF 400-07-039 1.0
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Near surface groundwaters were investigated in order to increase the understanding of processesthat occur at the interface between the geosphere and the near surface ecosystem. Furthermore,sampling and analyses of groundwaters from shallow monitoring wells may be used to identifydischarge areas.
The completed two years long extensive sampling campaign in order to characterise nearsurface groundwaters in different types of environments within the candidate area /3/ was fol-lowed by a reduced monitoring programme which started in July 2005. The site investigation ofthe candidate area was concluded in June 2007, but the monitoring programme continues /2/ inorder to monitor the water composition and obtain long time series of data. During the reported
period, objects belonging to both the monitoring programme and the GBIZ programme weresampled twice, once in August and once in October. Ten monitoring wells (stand pipes) andthree pipes equipped with BAT-filter tips were sampled, all in the prioritised north-western
part of the candidate area. Furthermore, three private wells were monitored in order to checkthe drinking water quality (sampled once a year).
The sampling of private wells is mainly performed in order to obtain initial information on thedrinking water quality and to monitor eventual changes in the water composition at least until thelocation of the repository for spent nuclear fuel is decided. The private well data are of limiteduse for the chemical modelling as they are more or less affected by human activities. However,some additive information on the salinity distribution in the candidate area may be gained.
The activity included water sampling for chemical analysis as well as direct measure-mentsin the field of parameters such as ORP (Oxidising Reducing Potential), pH, dissolved oxygen,electrical conductivity and water temperature. The analytical protocol included major constitu-ents, nutrient salts, silica, carbon species as well as isotopes and trace metals, see Tables 2-2and 2-3.
2.2 Sampl ing objectsThe monitoring programme for near surface groundwater includes five stand pipes and oneBAT-pipe. Besides these regular objects, five additional stand-pipes and two BAT-filter tips
belonging to the GBIZ programme were sampled. The GBIZ programme includes seven BAT-filter tips, but only two could be sampled (see Section 2.4.4. Nonconformities). The wells/pipesare of the following types:
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For pipe types 1) to 3), the positions of the filter/screen part, and for type 4) the position ofthe BAT-filter tip, correspond to the upper and lower section limits (Secup and Seclow) in theSicada database. The section limits refer to the top of the stand pipe (Top Of Casing or TOC).
The sampled monitoring wells and their stand pipe types are listed in Table 2-1. The locations ofthe different sampling objects, including the three regularly sampled private wells, are displayedin Figure 2-1. Total depths and filter/screen depths, as well as coordinates for the different stand
pipes, are given in Appendix 2 together with outlines of the different pipe types.
Table 2-1. List of sampling objects, type of sampling and type of object.
Idcode Comments on sampled object Typea
SFM0001 Stand pipe connected to drill site A
SFM0023 Stand pipe in sediment below water surface (steel pipe) C
SFM0032 Double-pipe for chemistry B
SFM0037 Double-pipe for chemistry B
SFM0049 Double-pipe for chemistry B
SFM0051 BAT-system, drill site 1 D
SFM0081c Stand pipe in sediment below water surface (steel pipe) C
SFM0083 c BAT-system D
SFM0084 c Stand pipe in till below fen (steel pipe) C
SFM0086b BAT-system D
SFM0087 c Stand pipe in sand below fen C
SFM0089 b BAT-system D
SFM0091 c Stand pipe in till below fen (steel pipe) C
SFM0093 b BAT-system DSFM0095 c Stand pipe for chemistry B
SFM0097 b BAT-system D
SFM0100 b BAT-system D
SFM0102 c BAT-system D
PFM000001 Drinking water well
PFM000009 Drinking water well
PFM006382 Drinking water well
a Code used to distinguish between different types of soil monitoring wells/stand pipes included in the monitoringprogramme, see Table 5-1and Appendix 2.b Included in the GBIZ promme but not sampled, see Section 2.4.4. Non-conformities.c Included in GBIZ programme.
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2.3.1 Sampling equipmentGroundwater samples from the shallow soil monitoring stand pipes were collected using fouronline pumping setups, each one consisting of a submersible electrical pump (12 V, Awimex)connected to a 10–20 m long polyamide-tube (Tecalan) of 8 mm diameter. The inner metal partof the pumps was coated with Teflon. Manually operated electrical regulators (powered by 12 V,7 Ah cells) were used to adjust the water flow to a maximum of 1 litre/minute. Disposable filters
Figure 2-1. Location of sampling objects in the monitoring programme for near surface groundwaters,
including different types of soil monitoring wells and private wells. Not all objects were sampled due to
low water yield, cf. Table 2-1.
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The sampling scheme for the sampling programme is given in Table 2-2. The bottles filled
and analysis performed according to the different SKB chemical classes (class 3 and class 5,respectively) are summarised in Table 2-3. Omitted sampling objects and the reasons fordeviation from the sampling scheme are given in Table 2-4.
Wire
Container housing
Evacuated samplecontainer (vial)
Flexible disc of rubber
Flexible disc of rubber
Double ended needle
Extension pipe
Filter
Filter tip
Figure 2-3. Outline of BAT-sampler system and the BAT-filter tip.
Table 2-2. Sampling scheme August 2007–December 2007.
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Prior to the sampling campaign, sample bottles were cleaned, labelled and packed in insulated boxes/bags according to established routines (SKB MD 452.001, see Table 1-1). Acid additions
were made in advance in the bottles intended for trace metal analyses. The different pumpingsetups were washed and rinsed with deionised water before use and all parts of equipmentwere kept well protected in plastic bags or in tight containers. The disposable filters (Millipore,0.4 μm, Ø = 22 mm) were rinsed with deionised water and placed in plastic bags to preventcontamination. Calibration of the sonde was performed according to the measurement systemdescription SKB MD 910.003.
Table 2-4. List of collected samples during the period August 2007 to December 2007
(X = coll ected sample).
Id code Name or location Week/Year 32/07 41/07
Sum (X)
Sonde
YSI 600 QS X X 2
Soil wells
SFM 0001 Drill site 1 X X 2
SFM 0023 Bolundsfjärden X X 2
SFM 0032 SV-Bolundsfjärden X X 2SFM 0037 N-Bolundsfjärden X X 2
SFM 0049 Bostadsområdet X X 2
SFM 0081 Bolundsfjärden X X 2
SFM 0084 Puttan X X 2
SFM 0087 Puttan X X 2
SFM 0091 – X X 2
SFM 0095 – X X 2
BAT pipes
SFM0051 Drill site 1 X X 2
SFM0083 Bolundsfjärden X X 2
SFM0102 – X X 2
Private wells
PFM 000001 F3:3 X 1
PFM 000009 F3:34 X 1
PFM 006382 F3:38.Tixelfjärden X 1
Sum (X) 13 16 29
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• Exchange of water volume in pipe and tubes: The water volume was exchanged three tofive times (depending on the exchange/recovery time) prior to the actual sampling.
• Sampling: All sample bottles, except the ones with added acid, were rinsed three times with pumped water. Disposable filters were used for filtration of water portions for trace metals,Fe(+II) and DOC/DIC. The filters were fitted directly on the outlet tube from the pump.Each filter was rinsed with sample water (approx. 30 mL) before the sample portion/filtratewas collected. The bottles containing acid were the last ones to be filled in order to preventacid contamination in the other sample portions. Disposable plastic gloves were used duringthe sampling. The samples were transported back from the field in insulated bags.
• Field measurement: A flow-through cell was connected to the pumping setup and measure-
ments were performed with the sonde (YSI 600 QS). The results were recorded when theelectrodes and sensors in the flow-through cell showed stable values (minimum 10 minutes).A judgement of the plausibility of the values was made in the field and accepted values werenoted in the field protocol.
2.4.1.4 Sampling perfo rmance using BAT-system
Sampling of the BAT-filter tip pipes followed the sampling scheme for the regular shallow soil
pipes with a few days delay. The approximate time to fill one 500 mL container was 15 minutes,5 minutes and approximately 3–4 hours for SFM0051, SFM0102 and SFM0083, respectively.
A total of four sample containers were filled from each BAT-pipe in order to obtain enoughwater for the analyses. In order to exchange the water volume in the BAT-pipes before sampling,the first sample container filled was not used for the analyses. The use of the sample volumesand the analyses performed are listed in Table 2-5 (SFM0051) and Table 2-6 (SFM0083 andSFM0102).
Table 2-5. Sample con tainers and analyses, SFM0051.
Sample
container no.
Analyses and deter minat ions Total volume
1 Chloride, bromide,fluoride andsulphate by IC.(200 mL + 50 mL)
Alkalinity titr, pH and EC.(150 mL)
δ2H, δ18O(100 mL)
500 mL
2 Tritium(500 mL)
Approx. 500 mL
3 Fe (+II), (Fe(tot)(200 mL)
Major constituents, traceelements, 10B/11B by ICPAES/MS(125 mL)
5 mL of HCl wasadded to thecontainer prior tosampling.
325 mL
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Measurements/analyses of pH(lab), electrical conductivity(lab) and alkalinity as well as spectropho-
tometric analyses of total iron and ferrous iron (Fe+II) were conducted immediately at the site inthe mobile field laboratory. An overview of sample treatment and analytical routines for majorconstituents, minor anions, trace metals and isotopes is given in Appendix 1. The routines areapplicable independent of sampling method or type of sampling object.
2.4.3 Data handl ing
The following routines for quality control and data management are generally applied for
hydrogeochemical analysis data, independent of sampling method or sampling object.Several components are determined by more than one method and/or laboratory. Moreover,control analyses by an independent laboratory are performed as a standard procedure oneach fifth or tenth collected sample.
All analytical results were stored in the Sicada database. The applied hierarchy path“Hydrochemistry/Hydrochemical investigation/Analyses/Water in the database” containstwo types of tables, raw data tables and primary data tables (final data tables).
Data on basic water analyses are inserted into raw data tables for further evaluation. Theevaluation results in a final reduced data set for each sample. These data sets are compiledin a primary data table named “water_composition”. The evaluation is based on:
• Comparison of the results from different laboratories and/or methods. The analyses arerepeated if a large disparity is noted (generally more than 10%).
• Calculation of charge balance errors. Relative errors within ± 5% are considered acceptable(in surface waters ± 10%).
∑ ∑∑ ∑
+
−×=
)()(
)()(100(%).
sequivalent anionsequivalent cation
sequivalent anionssequivalent cationerror rel
• General expert judgement of plausibility based on earlier results and experiences.
All results for “surface water supplements” and special analyses of trace metals and isotopes
are inserted directly into primary data tables. In those cases where the analyses are repeated
or performed by more than one laboratory, a “best choice” notation will indicate those resultswhich are considered most reliable.
An overview of the data management is given in Figure 2-4.
2.4.4 Nonconformities
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Shallow groundwater analysis includes the surface water supplements/options NH4 _N, NO2 _N,
NO3 _N+NO2 _N, NO3 _N, tot-N, tot-P, PO4 _P, TOC, DOC and DIC. The analytical data arecompiled in Appendix 2. The DIC values should be used with care and bicarbonate values(by alkalinity titration) are considered more reliable.
The concentrations of the different nitrogen, phosphorous and carbon compounds are expectedto show seasonal variation depending on decomposition processes and varying redox conditions.However, this variation is more pronounced in surface waters than in the present shallowgroundwaters. Figures 2-13 a to 2-13 e show the variations of total nitrogen, ammonium and
phosphate in the sampled groundwaters from the five soil-pipes included in the long term moni-
toring programme. The figures show high concentrations of total nitrogen in the stand pipesSFM0032 and SFM0037 in October 2007 compared to previous measurements. It is difficultto explain these high concentrations, which are the highest ever recorded for these two pipes,
but the continued monitoring will yield more information.
2.5.2.3 Drinking water quality (private wells)
Data on drinking water quality parameters/components for the investigated private wells are presented in Appendix 2.
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The analyses of trace and rare earth elements include Al, As, Sc, Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Hg, Ni, Zn, Pb,
V, U, Th , Rb, Y, Zr, Mo, In, Sb, Cs, Ba, La, Hf, Tl, Ce, Pr, Nd, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm,Yb and Lu. The trace element data are compiled in Appendix 2.
These elements are generally present at low concentrations in the groundwater and the risk forcontamination is high. Especially data on common metals such as Al, Cr, Cu, Co, Ni and Znmust be used with caution. Generally, the borehole data conform well but outliers exist.
2.5.2.5 Isotopes
Isotope determinations include the stable isotopes δD, δ18
O and10
B/11
B as well as the radioactiveisotope 3H (TU). The isotope data are compiled in Appendix 2.
2.6 Summary and discussion
The chemical investigation routines for near surface groundwaters are well established aftermore than four years of field work, reporting and data administration and this year of the long-
term monitoring programme has passed without any major nonconformities or surprises.
The statements/findings regarding the character of the near surface groundwaters remainunchanged. However, three out of 25 samples showed relative charge balance errors exceeding± 5% (sample nos. 12833, 12530 and 12872). Furthermore, some sulphate concentrations aresomewhat less certain as the ICP-results seem to be affected by high contents of sulphide andcan not be used to verify the IC analyses.
The high concentrations of total nitrogen observed in the stand pipes SFM0032 and SFM0037
in October 2007 compared to previous measurements are difficult to explain but the continuedmonitoring will yield more information.
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Sampling for chemical analysis as well as direct measurements of physical and chemical parameters such as ORP (Oxidising-Reducing Potential), pH, dissolved oxygen, electricalconductivity, salinity, measurement depth, barometric pressure, turbidity, chlorophyll, light
penetration, PAR (Photosynthetic Active Radiation) and water temperature were conducted atfive occasions during the reported time period. The extent of the sampling varied at differentoccasions. Analyses of major constituents and surface water supplements (nutrient salts, chlo-rophyll etc) were conducted frequently (once a month) while extended analyses including alsoisotopes and trace elements were performed once per season, i.e. in August and October. Somespecial isotopes (δ37Cl, δ13C, 14C (pmC), 87Sr/86Sr, δ34S, U- and Th-isotopes as well as Ra- andRn-isotopes) were determined only once, in August.
3.2 Sampling locations and sampling scheme
The monitoring programme includes four lakes, one shallow sea bay location and four streams.Furthermore, a location close to the outlet of cooling water from the nuclear power plant issampled in order to investigate eventual tritium contamination.
The sampling locations are presented in Figure 3-1. Table 3-1 lists the location id-codes,
coordinates and names together with clarifying comments. The sampling scheme for the period August 2007–December 2007 is given in Table 3-2.
Table 3-1. Sampling locations (Id-code, coordi nates, name and comments ).
Sampling locations Coordinates
(RT90 RHB70)
Name Comments
Lakes
PFM000074 16 29 854, 66 99 393 Labboträsket
PFM000097* 16 31 814, 66 99 868 Norra bassängen
PFM000107 16 32 065, 66 99 031 Bolundsfjärden
PFM000117 16 31 946, 66 97 118 Eckarfjärden
Shallow sea bays and deep sea location
PFM000062 16 31 921, 67 00 605 SV Forslingens grund
PFM000082 16 32 528, 67 01 336 Alternative to
PFM00062PFM102269 16 31 405, 67 04 412 Cooling water outlet, Lake
BiotestsjönCheck of tritiumcontamination
Streams
PFM000066 16 29 343, 66 99 064 Öster Gunnarsboträsket
PFM000068 16 31 641 66 98 735 Kungsträsket
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Water samples were collected using an online pumping setup consisting of an electrical peristaltic pump system, PPS (ASF Thomas SR 10/100, powered by 12 VDC, 7 Ah cells), connected to4–8 m long teflon-tubes (FEP 140) of 5 mm inner diameter. A manually operated regulator(ELFA, DCM 24-40 pwm) was used to adjust the water flow to a maximum of 1.3–2.9 litres/minute (depending on tube length, tube diameter and pumping level). The sampling equipmentis presented in Figure 3-2.
Table 3-2. Surface water sampli ng scheme from August 2007 to December 2007.
Year Month Week Programme type*
2007 August 32 E+
2007 September 36 M
2007 October 41 E
2007 November 45 M
2007 December 49 M
* M = main programme (SKB class 3 including surface water supplements), E = extended programme(SKB class 5 including surface water supplements), E+ = extended programme with special isotopes
(δ37
Cl, δ13
C,14
C (pmC),87
Sr/86
Sr, δ34
S, U- and Th-isotopes as well as Ra- and Rn-isotopes).
Figure 3-2.
Schematic presentation of the peristaltic pump system (PPS).
Outlet water sample
Peristaltic pump
Teflontube
Pumptube offlexible
siliconInlet for waterfrom
sampli ngpoint
Bottle for water
sample portion
H2O
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Field measurements were performed using two multiparameter sondes (YSI 6600 EDS and
YSI 600 QS). A terminal (YSI 650 MDS) is connected to each sonde through a cable for loggingdata (Figure 3-3). Calibration of the sondes was carried out according to the measurementsystem description SKB MD 910.003 (SKB internal controlling document, see Table 1-1).Table 3-3 describes the parameters measured by the two sondes.
PAR -SENSORYSI
6600
Terminal650-MDS
YSI 600QS
Field cableset 1: 15 m.set 2: 30 m
Table 3-3. Parameters measured by t he two dif ferent YSI sondes.
• Ruttner samplers were used as back-up if the portable pump system should fail.
• The exact locations of the sampling location positions were found using a GPS(Garmin 172C) with an average accuracy of +/– 0.5–1.0 m.
• Water depth was measured using an echo sounder (Plastimo, Echotest, LCD digital sounder)with an accuracy of +/– 0.05 m.
• Water transparency was estimated using a Secchi disc and aqua scope.
• Disposable filters (Millipore, 0.4 μm, ∅ = 22 mm) were used together with 60 mL syringesto filter specific sample portions of the sampled water in the field.
• Stopwatch (GUL), a water-filled plastic bottle (50 mL) and measuring-tape (Hultafors) wereused for flow/runoff estimates in stream waters.
• Digital cameras (Nikon Coolpix 5000 and Olympus 400 mju) were used for documentationof stream waters.
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Prior to sampling, the sample bottles were cleaned (according to the routines for respectiveSKB class), labelled and packed in insulated boxes/bags. Acid additions were made in advance in bottles intended for trace metal analyses; these were placed in separate plastic bags to avoid con-tamination. The peristaltic pump system (PPS), including the Teflon tubes, was washed usingacid (0.5 M HCl) and rinsed with deionised water before use. The equipment was kept well
protected in plastic bags or in tight containers. The disposable filters (Millipore) were rinsedwith MilliQ-water (50 mL) and placed in plastic bags to prevent contamination. Calibration ofthe sondes was performed according to the measurement system description SKB MD 910.003.
3.4.2 Water sampl ing
Water samples were collected using a peristaltic pump system, PPS, and Ruttner samplers wereused as backup if the PPS-system should fail. Lake and sea water samples were collected closeto the surface (at 0.5 m depth). In case of ice coverage during winter, water was also collectedfrom approximately 0.5 m above the lake or sea bottom, in order to sample water both aboveand below stratification in the lake. Stream water samples were collected at approximately0.1 m depth. The PPS-system and sample bottles were rinsed initially with water from the sam-
pling locations prior to filling, except for bottles with acid additions. To avoid contamination,the field crew was obliged to wear rubber gloves and great care was taken not to contaminate
bottles or equipment. Bottles and samples containing added acid were handled and storedseparately to avoid contaminating other sample portions.
Each sample consists of several sample portions labelled with the same sample number. The preparation of the sample portions in the field differs depending on their use. Details on col-lected sample portions, components to be analysed and sample preparations are summarisedin Table 3-4.
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The multiparameter sondes were used for measurements of pH, water temperature, barometric pressure, ORP, PAR, turbidity, electrical conductivity, salinity, dissolved oxygen and chloro-
phyll. Light penetration was measured in lakes and at sea locations with a secchi disc accordingto the Swedish standard BIN SR 111. Photo documentation of stream waters was performed tofacilitate evaluation of the investigation data. Photos were taken of each marked out (using awooden stake) stream water sampling location.
In stream waters measurements were performed using a YSI 6600 EDS sonde if the water levelwas high enough, otherwise the smaller YSI 600 QS sonde was used. Chlorophyll, PAR andturbidity data were not reported for streams.
At lake and sea localities the multiple sonde (YSI 6600 EDS) was employed to measure a profile at each sampling point. Measurements were conducted at every metre from the surfaceto the bottom, see Table 3-5. In addition, PAR was logged just below the surface and during theice season above the ice, in the air. PAR measurements were performed at discrete depths andas continuous PAR-profile loggings. PAR-profiles were obtained by setting the sonde mode to‘continuous logging’. The sonde was then submerged from surface to bottom and hoisted upagain. The produced PAR-data were used for regression analyses of PAR versus depth.
A simple “floating bottle” method /14/ was used to measure water flow/runoff in the streams as
a complement to the regular method using discharge weirs and gauges. The cross-section meanarea of the stream was estimated, forming a rectangle, see Figure 3-6. The time for the bottle(close to neutral in weight in water) to float the distance (L) from point A to B was measured witha stopwatch. This procedure was repeated three times in each stream. The average water velocity(m/s) multiplied with the average area (m2) resulted in a rough water runoff estimate (m3/s).
3.4.4 Sample treatment and chemical analyses
An overview of sample treatment and analytical methods is given in Appendix 1. The routinesare applicable independently of sampling method or type of sampling object.
3.4.5 Data handling /post processing
Two field protocols (activity log and sampling protocol) contain meta data (id-code, date, time,sample no., field crew etc), a few measured data and weather observations as well as commentson field conditions which may influence the analytical results. The field protocols supply basic
information for creating activities and activity comments in the SKB Sicada database. In addi-tion, the few measured parameters and weather conditions, noted on the sampling protocol,are stored as data tables in Sicada.
Table 3-5. Logging depths at sampling locations in lakes and shallow sea bays.
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Furthermore, eventual deviations from the sampling programme or from the normal routines arealso documented in special reports/comment files. The comment files are stored in the Sicadafile archive, see Table 2-4.
3.4.5.1 Chemical analytical data
The routines for quality control and data management described earlier in Section 2.4.3 aregenerally applied for hydrochemical analysis data, independently of sampling method or type
of sampling object.
3.4.5.2 Field measurement data
The logged data from sonde measurements are exported digitally from the YSI Terminal650 MDS to the specified Sicada data table The original raw data file calibration file and
Figure 3-6. Schematic presentation for estimating water runoff in natural stream waters
(see text for explanation).
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The only nonconformities that occurred during the reported sampling period involve omittedsampling locations due to, for example, problems with ice or dry conditions. The reasons fordeviations from the programme are compiled in Tables 3-7 and 3-8.
Table 3-7.
Collected samples and conducted measurements.
week/year 32/07 36/07 41/07 45/07 49/07 Sum (X)
Sond
YSI 6600 X X X X X 5
YSI 600 QS
Sea Name
PFM000062 SV-Forslingen X X X X X 5
PFM000082 Alt PFM000062 0
PFM102269 Utloppet Biotesten X* X* X* X* X* 5
Stream
PFM000066 Ö-Gunnarsbo E E E X X 2
PFM000068 Kungsträsket X E X X X 4
PFM000069 Bolundsskogen E E X X X 3
PFM000070 N-Eckarfjärden E E E X X 2
Lakes
PFM000074 Labboträsket X X X X C 4
PFM000097 Norra bassängen B B B N C 0
PFM00107 Bolundsfjärden X X X X C 4
PFM00117 Eckarfjärden X X X X C 4
Table 3-6. File types stored in the Sicada file archive.
Type of file Example of file name No. per sampling session
Raw data file L580438.dat 1 or 2*
Comments Kommentarer V38.xls 1
Calibration data file 000113CF.txt 1 or 2*
Calibration protocol Stora sonden V38år04.xls 1 or 2*
Photography PFM66.jpg 1–4
Light data file PAR-profiler V38_04.xls 1
* Depending on the number of measuring sondes used.
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The surface water investigation period from August 2007 to December 2007 includes recordsof 33 water analyses (i.e. number of analysed samples) and records of 63 field measurements.
Furthermore, the accompanying field documentation is quite extensive. The data are compiledin the attached Appendices and stored in the Sicada database where they are traceable by theactivity plan number.
Fresh waters in the Forsmark area are well buffered with high alkalinity, high pH and highcalcium concentrations. In addition, waters affected or recently affected by brackish sea water
Table 3-8. Comments on measurements/water sampling.
week/year 32/07 36/07 41/07 45/07 49/07
Sonde
YSI 6600
YSI 600 QS
Sea Name
PFM000062 SV-Forslingen J
PFM000082 Alt PFM62
PFM102269 Utloppet Biotesten
Stream
PFM000066 Ö-Gunnarsbo H
PFM000068 Kungsträsket H, Z H H
PFM000069 Bolundsskogen H
PFM000070 N-Eckarfjärden H H
Lakes
PFM000074 Labboträsket J
PFM000097 Norra bassängen QPFM00107 Bolundsfjärden J
PFM00117 Eckarfjärden J
Explanations to codes/abbreviations:
H: Stagnant water or nearly stagnant water – no flow estimation, flow approx 0 m3/s.
J: Incorrect PAR-values in one or several depths (mainly caused by waves, clouds, vegetation or darkness).
Q: Risk for incorrect sonde values for PAR, Turbidity and Chlorophyll, due to plants and/or particles in the water.
Z: Samples for oxygen analyses (2 Winkler bottles) were collected, due to measured low oxygen concentration.
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The basic water analyses include the major constituents Na, K, Ca, Mg, Sr, S, SO42–
, Cl –
, Siand HCO3 – as well as the minor constituents Fe, Li, Mn, Br, F – , I and HS – . Furthermore, batch
measurements of pH and electrical conductivity are included. The basic water analysis dataare compiled together with field measurements of pH and water temperature in Appendix 3.
The charge balance errors give an indication of the quality and uncertainty of the analyses ofmajor constituents. None of the 33 samples/datasets show errors exceeding ± 10% and in fourcases the errors exceed ± 5%.
To provide a rough check of the data, the electrical conductivity values are plotted versus thecorresponding chloride concentrations in Figure 3-7. As shown, the near surface groundwaterdata generally agree well with a regression line.
Sulphate by ion chromatography and sulphate calculated from total sulphur by ICP are com- pared in Figure 3-8. As shown, within the analytical error all the sulphur is present as sulphate.
As established earlier /8/, bromide determinations by ion chromatography may be difficultat high chloride concentrations. Selected bromide values (in most cases ICP results) for eachsample are plotted versus the corresponding chloride concentrations in Figure 3-9 as a consist-ency check. The points do not differ too much from the linear trend and the data are thereforeconsidered acceptable.
3.5.2.2 Surface water supplements
The surface water supplements include NH4– N, NO2– N, NO3– N+NO2– N, NO3– N, tot-N, tot-P,PO4– P, TOC, DOC, DIC and sometimes at a few sampling occasions also dissolved oxygen.The analytical data are compiled in Appendix 3, Table A3-4. The DIC values should be used
with care and bicarbonate values (by alkalinity titration) are considered more reliable.
R2 = 0.9948
600
800
1000
1200
1400
E C ( m S / m )
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It has been suggested that the adjacent nuclear power plant may have influenced the natural con-tent of tritium and 14C isotopes /8/. Some relation between the concentrations of these isotopes
and distance from the nuclear power reactors was observed during March 2004–June 2005.In order to better understand the tritium data, repeated tritium determinations from close tothe outlet of reactor cooling water commenced in July 2005. One very high tritium value wasobserved in July 2005 /9/ and three of the samples collected during July 2006–June 2007 alsorevealed enhanced tritium concentration (16.5, 40.12 and 17.5 TU) /10/. These circumstancesindicate that contamination from the nuclear power plant does occur at times. During the
present sampling period (August 2007–December 2007), the tritium concentrations measuredin samples from the outlet of cooling water were comparable to concentrations from the regularsampling locations.
3.5.2.5 Trace metals
The analyses of trace elements include Al, As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Co, Hg, Ni, Zn, Pb, V, Mo, and Ba.The trace element data are compiled in Appendix 3, Table A3-4. These elements are generally
present at low concentrations in the surface waters and the risk for contamination is high.Especially data on common metals like Al, Cr, Cu, Co, Ni and Zn must be used with caution.Generally, the distribution of data is location specific but outliers do exist; significantly large
deviating concentrations for a sampling location are rejected in the Sicada database.
3.5.3 Field measurements
The field measurement data including redox potential, pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conduc-tivity, salinity, measurement depth, barometric pressure, turbidity, chlorophyll, light penetration,PAR (Photosynthetic Active Radiation) and water temperature are compiled in Appendix 3,Table A3-1. The PAR-profile logs are presented as diagrams including regression constants in
Appendix 3, Table A3-2. Three sets of data are of lower quality; 1) water flow rate estimations by the float method, 2) sonde measurements (YSI 6600 EDS) of chlorophyll, and 3) turbiditymeasurements also by the sonde.
• The water flow rate estimations by the float method /12/ are of low accuracy compared tomeasurements using discharge weirs and gauges. They were performed in order to allowcomparison between early data obtained when there was no other available method andnew data from installed measurement stations (Appendix 3, Table A3-3).
• The chlorophyll measurements have been problematic, possibly due to the fact that humic
substances and chlorophyll have similar fluorescence in the wavelength used by the sonde.Since the inland waters show high concentrations of humic substances and the sondeinterprets humus as chlorophyll, the amount of chlorophyll tends to be overestimated.
• The turbidity measurements performed in the sea and in lakes often display negative values.This may be due to bad probe sensitivity in clear waters (turbidity weak waters) or calibra-i bl
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The nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus, are often the limiting factors for the primary produc-tion. Primary producers such as plants and phytoplankton use nitrogen and phosporus in aratio of about 16 mol nitrogen to 1 mol phosphorous (also know as the Redfield ratio) or 7:1 interms of mass. A ratio deviating from 16 (or 7) indicates that the primary production is limited
by either nitrogen or phosphorus. When nitrogen is present in excess the ratio will be higherthan 16, indicating that lack of phosphorus is limiting the growth. On the contrary, lower ratiosindicate nitrogen limitations, which may favour growth of blue green algae able to use nitrogenfrom the air. In fresh water, phosphorus is usually the limiting nutrient, whereas in the oceans itis usually nitrogen. Figure 3-12 shows the relationship between nitrogen and phosphorous in thesurface water of the investigated streams, lakes and coastal bays in the Forsmark area. The lakes
and streams are phosporus limited with high concentrations of nitrogen. The coastal bay in theBaltic Sea (PFM000062) is also phosphorous limited although the ratio is much lower.
3.6 Summary and discussion
The chemical investigation routines for surface waters are well established after more than fiveyears of field work, reporting and data administration and this period of the long-term surface
water monitoring programme has passed without any major nonconformities or surprises.Sampling performed close to the outlet of cooling water from the power plant for tritiumanalyses did not reveal any enhanced values during the reported time period. The deviationfrom the Redfield ratio (7:1) indicated that the primary production in all the waters was limited
by the phosphorus concentration.
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
N_ t o
t ( u g / L )
PFM000062
PFM000066
PFM000068
PFM000069
PFM000070
PFM000074
PFM000107
PFM000117
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Information on the chemical composition of precipitation and its variation in Forsmark is usefulin the following context:
• to improve the understanding of groundwater formation and other hydogeological conditionsat the site,
• as boundary conditions conditions for chemical modelling purposes,
• possible use as reference water in mixing calculations.
Sampling and analysis of precipitation are mainly performed according to the SKB class 3 /1/.However, aluminium and iron are also included in the analytical protocol.
Besides the regular sampling point at the Forsmark area, Figure 4-1, a reference sampling point for tritium samples was introduced in August 2006. This point, PFM102271, is located in
Sjötorp close to Lake Vänern and it was selected due to the long distance to any nuclear power plant. It was observed that the tritium content in precipitation and surface waters close to thenuclear power plants at Oskarshamn and Forsmark varied more than expected and a possiblereason was occasional conta-mination from the nuclear power plants. Therefore, samplesfrom an inland position were needed for comparison. To complete a one year cycle of tritiumsampling at the reference point, one sample from PFM102271 was collected in July–August.
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Figure 4-4. Precipitation sampler used at the reference point in Sjötorp.
4.3 Performance4.3.1 Sampling
Sampling of precipitation within the Forsmark area was carried out according to activity planAP PF 400-07-039 following the method described in SKB MD 423.003 (Provtagning ochanalys av nederbörd), see Table 1-1, both, SKB internal controlling documents.
4.3.1.1 Sampling during summer
During summer the risk for biased isotope analyses due to evaporation was larger. Thereforecollection of precipitation water was conducted more frequently and the necks of the sampler
bottles were narrow compared to the bottles for winter use. The sampler bottles were removedfrom their stands every week and the contents were pooled together with water from previousweeks and stored in a refrigerator. The collected precipitation from a two months period wasthen portioned into smaller bottles for distribution to the different analytical laboratories, seeFigure 4-5, for a schematic outline of the sampling procedure. The bottle belonging to the equip-ment employed in Sjötorp was used together with a thin inside plastic bag, which was replaced
after each sample collection.
4.3.1.2 Sampling during winter
During winter time the samplers were fetched from the field every second week and placedi d i d l h l O h i h d h f h
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The handling of hydrochemical data follow the same routine for quality control and datamanagement data independently of sampling method or type of sampling object. For
description of data handling see Section 2.4.3.
4.3.4 Nonconformities
By mistake, one aluminum analysis was omitted since, by mistake, it was not ordered fromthe consulted laboratory.
4.4 Results
4.4.1 Basic water analyses
The basic water analyses include the major components Na, K, Ca, Mg, S, SO42–, Cl – , Si
and HCO3 – and as well as the minor constituents Li, Mn, Sr and Br – . Furthermore, aluminium
analyses and measurements of pH and electric conductivity (EC) were conducted. The basicwater analysis data are compiled in Appendix 4, Table A4-1.
Calculations of the relative charge balance error may give an indication of the quality anduncertainty of the major constituents data also for precipitation. Normally, for surface waters,a relative charge balance error within ± 10% is considered acceptable. However, the concentra-tions in precipitation samples are much lower and close to or below the reporting limit formany constituents. Therefore, analytical errors have a large impact on the charge balance,and the precipitation samples often exceed this limit, see Figure 4-6.
4.4.2 Isotoper analysisThe isotope determinations include the stable isotopes δD and , δ18O as well as the radioactiveisotope 3H (Tritiuim). The isotope data are compiled in Appendix 4, Table A4-2. Sampling forisotope determinations may be biased by evaporation during summer time. The diagram forδ18O (deviation from Standard Mean Ocean Water) versus δD (dev. SMOW) in Figure 4-7,corresponds well with the “Global meteoric water line” which is based on precipitation datafrom around the world /16/.
12945
0
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Figure 4-7. δ18O plotted versus δ D and compared with the “global meteoric water line”.
PFM002564 = sampling location at the Forsmark site.
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
-20 -15 -10 -5 0
δD [‰ VSMOW]
δ 1 8 O [ ‰ V
S M O W ]
PFM002564
Global meteoric waterline
14.0
16.0
18.0
20.0
The tritium content in precipitation from Forsmark, July 2005 to December 2007, is displayedin Figure 4-8 together with the contents in the few samples from Sjötorp. As seen, the valuesfollow more or less the same trend.
4.5 Summary and discussion
The sampling and analysis routines for precipitation have developed and improved with time
and are by now well established after several years of sampling, reporting and data administra-tion. The change to the new type of sampler setups (since April 2007) and thereby the use of amore robust and handy equipment has facilitated the sampling. The results from the samplingand analyses performed during the reported time period do not reveal any significant changesfrom previous years. The tritium contents in the precipitation in Forsmark and in Sjötorp werereasonably similar and followed more or less the same trends during the time period in question.
S
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The results from the sampling and analyses of near surface groundwater, surface waters and precipitation performed during the reported time period do not reveal any significant changesfrom previous years. A few observations worth mentioning are listed below.
• Some monitoring wells in soil show erroneously high concentrations of total sulphur.This is probably due to enhanced sulphide concentrations (not analysed) which interferewith the ICP AES analyses of sulphur.
• The sampling in Lake Biotestsjön, close to the cooling water outlet from the nuclear power plant, did not reveal any enhanced tritium contents during the reported time period. Hightritium contents have been reported a few times before, see in /9/ and /10/.
• The tritium contents in the precipitation in Forsmark and in Sjötorp were reasonably similarand followed more or less the same trend during the reported time period. Therefore, fromthe time series in question, it is not possible to observe any significant tritium contaminationfrom the nuclear power plant in Forsmark.
6 R f
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/1/ SKB, 2001. Site investigations. Investigation methods and general execution programme.SKB TR-01-29, Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/2/ SKB, 2007. Programme for long-term observations of geosphere and biosphere aftercompleted site investigations. SKB R-07-34, Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB
/3/ Nilsson A-C, Borgiel M, 2005. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling and analyses ofnear surface groundwaters. Results from sampling of shallow soil monitoring wells,BAT pipes, a natural spring and private wells, May 2003–April 2005. SKB P-05-071,Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/4/ Nilsson A-C, Borgiel M, 2005. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling and analyses ofnear surface groundwaters. Results from sampling of shallow soil monitoring wells,BAT pipes, a natural spring and private wells, July 2005–April 2006. SKB P-06-304,Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/5/ Nilsson A-C, Borgiel M, 2005. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling and analyses ofnear surface groundwaters. Results from sampling of shallow soil monitoring wells,BAT pipes, a natural spring and private wells, July 2006–April 2007. SKB P-07-124,Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/6/ Nilsson A-C, Karlsson S, Borgiel M, 2003. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling andanalyses of surface waters. Results from sampling in the Forsmark area, March 2002 toMarch 2003. SKB P-03-27, Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/7/ Nilsson A-C, Borgiel M, 2004. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling and analyses ofsurface waters. Results from sampling in the Forsmark area, March 2003 to March 2004.SKB P-04-146, Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/8/ Nilsson A-C, Borgiel M, 2005. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling and analyses ofsurface waters. Results from sampling in the Forsmark area, March 2004 to June 2005.SKB P-05-274, Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/9/ Nilsson A-C, Borgiel M, 2007. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling and analyses ofsurface waters. Results from sampling in the Forsmark area, July 2005 to June 2006.SKB P-07-095, Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/10/ Nilsson A-C, Borgiel M, 2008. Forsmark site investigation. Sampling and analyses ofsurface waters. Results from sampling in the Forsmark area, July 2006 to June 2007.
/15/ Sonesten L 2004 Evaluation of surface water chemistry data from the Forsmark area
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/15/ Sonesten L, 2004. Evaluation of surface water chemistry data from the Forsmark area.March 2002–March 2004. SKB R-05-41, Svensk Kärnbränslehantering AB.
/16/ Craig H, 1961. Isotopic variations in meteoric waters. Science 133, pp. 1702-1703.
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Yes (within 4 h) Filtering, thefilters are frozenimmediately
SpectrophotometryFluorometry
Short transportation time
Oxygen Dissolved O2 Winkler, glass 2×ca 120 No Mn (II) reagentIodide reagent
Spectrophotometry SISSS-EN 25813
Within 3 days
Archive samplesfor supplementaryradio nuclides
Plastic 5,000 No 50 mL HNO3 – Storage in freezecontainer
* Suprapur acid is used for conservation of samples.** Minimum number. The number of archive samples can vary depending on the number of similar samples collected at the same occasion.
*** The sample is transported in frozen condition to the laboratory. It is possible that the silicate concentration can change due to polymerisation for this reason.
Abbreviations and definitions:
IC Ion chromatographISE Ion selective electrodeICP-AES Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrometry
ICP-MS Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass SpectrometryINAA Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis
MS Mass SpectrometryTIMS Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometer
LSC Liquid Scintillation Counting
(A)MS (Accelerator) Mass Spectrometry
GC Gas ChromatographyLSS Liquid Scintillation Spectroscopy
Table A1-2. Reporting limits and measurement uncertainties (updated 2008)
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8. Per mille deviation16 from SMOW (Standard Mean Oceanic Water).
9. TU=Tritium Units, where one TU corresponds to a tritium/hydrogen ratio of 10 –18 (1 Bq/L Tritium = 8.45 TU).
10. Per mille deviation16 from SMOC (Standard Mean Oceanic Chloride).
11. Per mille deviation16 from PDB (the standard PeeDee Belemnite).
12. The following relation is valid between pmC (percent modern carbon) and Carbon-14 age:pmC = 100 ×e((1,950–y–1.03t)/8,274)
where y = the year of the C-14 measurement and t = C-14 age.
13. Per mille deviation16 from CDT (the standard Canyon Diablo Troilite).
14. Isotope ratio without unit.
15. The following expressions are applicable to convert activity to concentration, for uranium–238 and thorium–232: 1 ppm U = 12.4 Bq/kg238U, 1 ppm Th = 3.93 Bq/kg232Th.
16. Isotopes are often reported as per mill deviation from a standard. The deviation is calculated as:δyI = 1,000×(Ksample –Kstandard)/Kstandard, where K= the isotope ratio and yI =2H, 18O, 37Cl, 13C or 34S etc.
17. SKB estimation from duplicate analyses by the contracted laboratory
Appendix 2
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