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How to use Antiepileptic drugs properly
Dr.Yotin Chinvarun M.D., Ph.D.
Comprehensive Epilepsy and Sleep disorders Program
Pramongkutklao hospital
Introduction
• Modern treatment of seizures started in 1850 with the
introduction of bromides, based on the theory that epilepsy was
caused by an excessive sex drive
• In 1910, phenobarbital, which used to induce sleep, was found
to have anti-seizure activity and became the drug of choice for
many years.
• A number of medications similar to phenobarbital were
developed, including primidone
2
Introduction
• Houston Merrit and Tracy Putnam introduced animal models for
screening multiple compounds for antiepileptic activity, published
in Journal of the American Medical Association in 1938
• In 1940, phenytoin (PHT) was found to be an effective drug
for Rx epilepsy, and since then it has become a major 1st AED Rx
partial and secondarily generalized seizures
• In 1968, carbamazepine (CBZ) was approved, initially for
treatment of trigeminal neuralgia; later, in 1974, approved for
partial seizures
• Ethosuximide has been used since 1958 as a first-choice drug
for the treatment of absence seizures without generalized
tonic-clonic seizures. Valproate was licensed in Europe in 1960 and
in the United States in 1978
3
Introduction
• Until 1990s, newer AEDs with good efficacy, fewer toxic
effects, better tolerability, and no need for blood level
monitoring were developed
• The new AEDs have been approved in the United States as
add-on therapy only, with the exception of topiramate and
oxcarbazepine; lamotrigine is approved for conversion to
monotherapy
4
AEDs
1st generation AEDs • Phenytoin • Carbamazepine • Valproate
• Phenobarbital • Clobazam
2nd generation AEDs • Felbamate 1993 • Lamotrigine 1994 •
Topiramate 1996 • Tiagabine 1997 • Levitiracetam 1999 •
Oxcarbamazepine 2000 • Zonisamide 2000 • Pregabalin 2004
3nd generation AEDs
• Brivaracetam • Eslicarbazepine • Fluorofelbamate •
Ganaxolone • Huperzine • JZP-4 • Lacosamide • Licarzepine •
Losigamone • NS1209
• !"#$%&'(")• !*+(%,'-")•
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7
Target of seizure control Rx epilepsy is achieving balance
between factors influence excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
and those influence inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
8
Antiepileptic drugs grouped according to their major mechanism
of action. Some AEDs work by acting on a combination of channels
and/or some unknown mechanism of action.
Sodium Channel Blockers
9
Some antiepileptic drugs stabilize the inactive configuration of
the sodium (Na+) channel, preventing high-frequency neuronal
firing.
Phenytoin
• Introduced in the treatment of epilepsy in 1938
• Advantage • Partial onset seizure • 2 GTCS • Parenteral
form and single dose daily
• Disadvantage • Adverse reactions, dose-related; ataxia,
nystagmus, slurred
speech, and dizziness. High-dose phenytoin can cause peripheral
neuropathy, cerebellar atrophy, chronic side effect cognitive
impairment, gum hypertrophy, course faces, acnes etc
• Significant drug interaction
Fosphenytoin
• Parenteral form of phenytoin
• Advantage • Better tolerated and safety than PHT • Infusion
tolerance of fosphenytoin at 150 mg PE/min
compared with PHT at 50 mg/min
• Disadvantage • Cardiovascular depression and hypotension may
occur but to
a lesser extent than with PHT • Severe burning, itching, and/or
paresthesia, mainly in
groin area, have been associated with rapid infusion • Hepatic
or hemopoietic adverse reactions, like those
seen with PHT, also may occur
Carbamazepine
• Advantages • Partial onset seizure • 2 GTCS
• Disadvantages • Common side effect; dizziness, ataxia, •
Severe drug eruptions are rare • Significant drug interaction •
Asymptomatic elevation of liver enzymes observed
commonly during the course of therapy in 5-10% of patients
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Oxcarbazepine
• Advantage • Close structure similarly to Carbamazepine but
better
tolerated, Fewer drug interaction • Partial onset seizure • 2
GTCS
• Disadvantage • Hyponatremia in 2.5% More commonly in older
patients • Somnolence, headache, dizziness, rash, weight gain,
GI
disturbances, and alopecia most commonly ADR • 25% cross
–sensitivity with carbamazepine • But may aggravate myoclonic or
absence seizures
Lamotrigine
Advantages • Broad spectrum of efficacy, favourable
pharmacokinetics, Favourable
cognitive profile, fewer interactions • Partial seizure,
Idiopathic generalized epilepsy alternative or adjunct
to valproate, Symptomatic generalized epilepsy, Lennox Gastaut
Syndrome
• Combination therapy with valproate enhances antiepileptic
effect • Very slow titration is important for better
tolerability
Disadvantages • Rash, especially with valproate (sometime
severe) • Slow titration • Interaction with carbamazepine
Zonisamide
• Advantage • Good bioavailability, does not have the cosmetic
and
pharmacokinetic problems • Partial seizure • 2 GTCS • Long
half life, can be used once daily • Alternative valproate for
myoclonic seizure and absence
• Disadvantage • Significant drug interaction, increased by
approximately
30-40%, when given concomitantly with enzyme-inducing AEDs
• Sedation, fatigue, dizziness, ataxia, confusion, cognitive
impairment, including word finding difficulty, weight
loss/anorexia, Depression & psychosis has also been reported,
renal stone
GABA Receptor Agonists
16
The GABA-A receptor mediates chloride (Cl-) influx, leading to
hyperpolarization of the cell and inhibition. Antiepileptic drugs
may act to enhance Cl- influx or decrease GABA metabolism
GABA drugs and their known sites of action
17
Clobazam
• Advantage • Added on partial seizure • Rescue therapy for
aura or SPS • No significant clinical drug interactions
• Disadvantage • Less effective • Sedative side effect like
benzodiazepine
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Clonazepam
• Advantage • Drug of choice for myoclonic seizures •
Adjunctive therapy in generalized convulsions and,
lesser extent, in partial epilepsies • Very effective in the
emergency Rx status epilepticus
• Disadvantage • Sedative side effect • Psychiatric
withdrawal also may occur, manifested as
insomnia, anxiety, psychosis, and tremor • Children and infants
may have hypersalivation.
Occasionally, tonic seizures may be exacerbated
Phenobarbital
Had been used since 1912 • Advantages
• Partial onset seizure • 2 GTCS • Effective in refractory
seizure • Parenteral form and single dose daily • For treatment
of status epilepticus • Low cost
• Disadvantages • Sedation and hypnosis • Cognitive
impairment • Significant drug interaction
Primidone
• Advantages • Partial onset seizure • 2 GTCS • Very low
dose is recommended
• Disadvantages • Intense sedation, dizziness, and nausea
GABA Reuptake Inhibitors
22
Tiagabine
Advantages • Known mode of action, toxicity mild, No enzyme
induction • Added on partial onset seizure limited to adjunctive
therapy in
refractory partial epilepsy
Disadvantages • Could aggravate status epilepticus if given in
absence epilepsy or in
partial epilepsies with generalized spike wave • CNS side
effect, Dizziness • Inducible metabolism • Short half life; tds
dosing • Unknown teratogenicity • Not available
GABA Transaminase Inhibitor
24
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Vigabatrin
Advantages • Known mode of action, Favourable pharmacokinetics,
Easy to use, Few
interactions, No enzyme induction • Added on Partial seizures
• Currently rarely used • Useful in infantile spasms particularly
in patients with tuberous sclerosis
Disadvantages • Sedation • Psychiatric effects • Seizure
worsening in some • Irriversibel visual field constriction •
Unknown teratogenicity
AEDs With a Potential GABA Mechanism of Action
26
Gabapentin
Advantages • Easy to use, well tolerated, no enzyme induction,
no
pharmacokinetic drug interactions • When to use it
– Partial seizures – Early add-on – Useful in the elderly
Disadvantages • Variable absorption • Wide dosage range • tds
dosing, saturation effect • Moderate efficacy at lower dosage •
Unknown teratogenicity
Pregabalin
• Advantage • Highly predictable and linear pharmacokinetics,
• Since does not bind to plasma proteins and undergoes
negligible
metabolism, thereby no drug interactions expected, • No visual
problem been reported • More potent than gabapentin with better
bioavailability • Added on for partial onset seizure or 2 GTCS •
Anxiolytic and analgesic properties could be useful in treating
patients with comorbidities
• Disadvantage • Administration with food or GBP reduced Cmax
• Most common side effects: dizziness, drowsiness and weight
gain
Valproate
• Advantage • Idiopathic generalized epilepsy • Myoclonic
epilepsy • Partial seizure • Parenteral form
• Disadvantage • Teratogenicity • Side effect; weight gain,
tremor, transient hair loss,
Endocrine and metabolic dysfunctions
Glutamate Blockers
30
Schematic representation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)
receptor
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Felbamate
• Advantage • Highly effective in severe resistance epilepsy
• Partial-onset seizures with or without secondarily
generalized seizures (adult-monotherapy) • Partial and
generalized seizures associated with Lennox-
Gastaut syndrome (children-adjunctive therapy)
• Disadvantage • Serious side effect: Aplastic anemia, hepatic
failure • Significant drug interaction • Not available
Topiramate • Advantages
• Broad spectrum of efficacy, Favourable pharmacokinetics, Few
interactions, No enzyme induction
• Partial seizures mono/ added on therapy • Symptomatic
generalized epilepsy • Effective in drug-resistant generalized
epilepsies as adjunctive
therapy, including juvenile myoclonic epilepsy, absence and
generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
• Disadvantages • Weight loss, hypoesthesia • Cognitive
impairment • Glaucoma, ? cataract • Very slow titration, rapidly
titration caused language difficulty • Unknown teratogenicity
AEDs With Other Mechanisms of Action
33
Levetiracetam
• Advantage • No drug interaction, well tolerate and highly
effective • Partial seizure, alternative for idiopathic
generalized
epilepsy • Very useful in patients with hepatic or renal
insufficiency
and patients on concomitant medications • IV preparation is
available, but Efficacy in status
epilepticus has not been established
• Disadvantage • Side effects: somnolence, asthenia,
infection, dizziness,
headache, depression, UTI
Problems faced by physicians in clinical practice
• Heterogeneity of epilepsy
• Patient characteristics (children, women of childbearing
potential, elderly)
• Medical expertise and available healthcare facilities
• Cost of treatment
• Subjective perception of treatment benefit
• Seizure type • Epilepsy syndrome • Pharmacokinetic profile
• Interactions/other medical conditions • Efficacy • Expected
adverse effects • Cost
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Early Syndromic Classification
0
20
40
60
Patie
nts
%
* Manford M et al. Arch Neurol 49:801, 1992 ; 75% !15 yrs **
Berg AT et al. Epilepsia 41:1269, 2000
50%
13%
37%
0
20
40
60
59%
29%
12%
Adults (n=508)* Children (n=613)**
AEDs and seizure type
• Studies indicate at the time of diagnosis, classification of
partial or generalized seizures can be made in half of the
cases
• With addition of EEG, 19% remain unclassified
• If diagnosis cannot be made, it is wise to choose a
broad-spectrum antiepileptic drug
AEDs and seizure type
• Some AEDs considered "narrow spectrum", which means they more
effective at controlling seizures associated with certain syndromes
than others. For example, – Carbamazepine, Phenytoin,
Oxcarbazepine, gabapentin and
pregabalin
• Appropriate for partial epilepsy
• May exacerbate some generalized seizures types such as
myoclonus and absence
• Board-Spectrum Agents
• Valproate • Felbamate • Lamotrigine • Topiramate •
Zonisamide • Levetiracetam • Rufinamide*
Narrow-Spectrum Agents
Partial onset seizures Phenytoin Carbamazepine Oxcarbazepine
Gabapentin Pregabalin Tiagabine Lacosamide*
Absence Ethosuximide
41
• Partial onset seizures phenytoin* gabapentin
carbamazepine* phenobarbital
valproate primidone
lamotrigine felbamate**
topiramate
tiagabine * considered by many as drugs of choice **associated
with aplastic anemia and hepatic failure
42
• Generalized onset seizures Absence: valproate* = ethosuximide
Myoclonic: valproate, clonazepam Tonic-clonic: valproate =
phenytoin
Seizures in Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome: valproate, lamotrigine,
felbamate**
* the risk of valproate-induced hepatic failure must be
carefully weighed in young children ** associated with aplastic
anemia and hepatic failure
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(Broad Spectrum AEDs)
PHT, PB CBZ, OXC GBP, VGB, PGB
VPA, LTG, TPM, ZNS, LEV, (FBM)
Drug Partial Secondary generalized
I° Tonic-clonic Absence Myoclonic
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Drug Partial 2 GTCS I° GTCS Absence Myoclonic
46
• Simplifies treatment, reduces adverse effects
• Conversion to monotherapy from polytherapy – Eliminate
sedative drugs first – Withdraw antiepileptic drugs slowly
over
several months
47
• Drugs that induce metabolism of other drugs: carbamazepine,
phenytoin, phenobarbital
• Drugs that inhibit metabolism of other drugs: valproate,
felbamate
• Drugs that are highly protein bound: valproate, phenytoin
• Other drugs may alter metabolism or protein binding of
antiepileptic drugs
Monotherapy for Partial Seizures
Best evidence and FDA indication: Carbamazepine, Oxcarbazepine,
Phenytoin, Topiramate
Similar efficacy, likely better tolerated:
Lamotrigine, Gabapentin, Levetiracetam
Also shown to be effective:
Valproate, Phenobarbital, Felbamate, Lacosamide
Limited data but commonly used:
Zonisamide, Pregabalin
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• Monotherapy for Generalized-Onset Tonic-Clonic Seizures
• Best evidence and FDA Indication: • Valproate,
Topiramate
• Also shown to be effective:
• Zonisamide, Levetiracetam
• Phenytoin, Carbamazepine (may exacerbate absence and
myoclonic sz )
• Lamotrigine (may exacerbate myoclonic sz of symptomatic
generalized epilepsies
•
Absence seizures
• Best evidence: – Ethosuximide (limited spectrum, absence
only) – Valproate
• Also shown to be effective:
– Lamotrigine
• May be considered as second-line:
– Zonisamide, Levetiracetam, Topiramate, Felbamate,
Clonazepam
Myoclonic Seizures
Best evidence:
– Valproate – Levetiracetam (FDA indication as adjunctive tx)
– Clonazepam (FDA indication)
Possibly effective: – Zonisamide, Topiramate
Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
• Best evidence/FDA indication*: – Topiramate, Felbamate,
Clonazepam, Lamotrigine,
Rufinamide – * FDA approval is for adjunctive treatment for all
except clonazepam
• Also effective: – Valproate
• Some evidence of efficacy: – Zonisamide, Levetiracetam
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* in children of SMEI
Reasons to add vs. switch
• Add
– Pt tolerating 1st AED – No anticipated drug
interactions – Pt risk averse or
consequences of seizure exacerbation are high
– 1st AED appropriate, provided partial control
• Switch
– Pt not tolerating 1st AED – 1st AED has disadvantages –
Drug interactions epected – Pregnancy anticipated – Seizure
exacerbation not
likely
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Substitution or add-on
! When patient with epilepsy does not become seizure-free on
first AED, to try one or more other drugs in monotherapy before
switching to polytherapy (Shorvon, 2000)
! However, doubt unfavourable reputation of polytherapy
(Deckers, 2002)
Substitution or add-on
! One should not assume that all combinations have same
effectiveness (effectiveness being an outcome measure that
encompasses both efficacy and tolerability)
! In recent review of animal and clinical studies evaluating
combinations of AEDs, it appeared likely that certain combinations
offer better effectiveness than others (Deckers et al., 2000)
Alternative Monotherapy studies Drugs Author Clinical seizure
Population Results ADR
PHT to CBZ Hakkarainen Adult onset seizure 26 patients not
seizure free on PHT, crossed over to CBZ
9 seizure-free (35%) No information
CBZ to PHT Hakkarainen Adult onset seizure 24 patients not
seizure free on CBZ, crossed over to PHT
8 seizure-free (33%) No information
CBZ, PHT, PB or PRM
Schmidt Partial seizure or GTCS 59 patients refractory to
monotherapy with 1-4 drugs, were given another 1-4 drugs
7/59 seizure-free (12%), 19% had seizure reduction >75%
ADR disappeared in 27%
CBZ to VGB Tanganelli Partial seizure (2GTCS) 11 patients
uncontrolled by CBZ, crossed over to VGB
5/11 seizure-free (45%), 5/14 seizure reduced >75%
Toxicity Higher than monotherapy
VGB to CBZ Tanganelli CPS (2GTCS) 14 patients not seizure-free
on VGB, crossed over to CBZ
6/14 patient seizure-free (16%)
1 patient with CBZ had rash
VPA to CBZ Walker CPS (2GTCS) Patients not seizure-free on VPA
were crossed over to CBZ
4/25 patient seizure-free (16%), 12% had >50% seizure
reduction
No information
Combination therapy studies Drugs Author Clinical seizure
Population Results ADR
PHT/CBZ Hakkarainen Adult onset seizure 33 patients uncontrolled
by either drugs, given combination
5/33 seizure-free with combination (15%)
No ADR
CBZ/VPA Walker CPS (2 GTCS) 17 patients uncontrolled by either
drugs, given combination
6/17 seizure-free (15%), 6/17 seizure reduced >50% (35%)
No new additive toxicity
CBZ/VGB Murri Partial seizure (2GTCS) 40 patients not controlled
by maximal CBZ monotherapy
7 seizure-free (18%) 5 withdraw due to toxicity
CBZ/VGB Tanganelli Partial seizure (2GTCS) 14 patients
uncontrolled by either drug alone
5/14 seizure-free (36%), 5/14 seizure reduced >75%
Toxicity Higher than monotherapy
VPA/LTG Kanner Partial seizure 27 patients uncontrolled by
either drug alone
26% seizure-free, 59% had >50% seizure reduction
No information
Substitution or add-on
! The average percentage seizure-free rates of alternative
monotherapy and add-on therapy were similar
! The success rate did vary considerably between individual
substitution studies and between individual add-on studies
! This suggest that it is important which substitution or
add-on drug is chosen
Substitution or add-on
! Combination therapy achieved 25% seizure freedom in those
patients that failed on both drugs in monotherapy
! Patients who become seizure-free on a combination of AEDs may
develop seizures again when the first AED is withdrawn (Deckers,
2002). These examples suggest combination therapy may be more
efficacious than monotherapy
! Two reasons may be given for this: ! Infra-additive toxicity
of the combination which allows for higher drug
loads to be prescribed during polytherapy, thus achieving better
efficacy
! Pharmacodynamic synergism which may be accomplished by
combining drugs complementary mechanisms of action.
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Substitution or add-on
! In an observational study by Kwan and Brodie
" 26% of 42 patients treated with second-line combination
therapy became seizure-free compared to 17% of 35 patients treated
with alternative monotherapy (Kwan et al., 2001)
" Failure due to adverse effects 12 and 26%, respectively (no
statistical significance)
Substitution or add-on
! Shorvon (2000) suggested the following strategy when a
patient does not become seizure-free
" On a first AED despite a maximal dose: alternative
monotherapy should be introduced incrementally at suitable dose
intervals and the first drug then withdrawn in decremental
steps
" The second drug should titrated first to a low maintenance
dose and then, if seizures persist, dosage increased to maximal
" If seizures continue, re-assessed diagnosis, ? progressive
lesion or ? non-compliance
" If continuing seizures, other first-line drugs should be
tried in monotherapy
Substitution or add-on
! Add-on therapy also has disadvantages
" When add-on treatment proves to be efficacious, cannot
exclude the possibility that the add-on drug have efficacious when
given as alternative monotherapy
" Cannot discern effects of individual drugs on efficacy or
toxicity in a polytherapy
" Therefore, one does not know whether first-line drug can be
withdrawn
" Pose problems with patients, they may not be willing to
withdraw first drug and risk losing their seizure freedom
Substitution or add-on
! Whether aims at substitution or at add-on therapy after a
first drug has failed, usually titrate the second drug to some
level in the presence of the first drug
! Therefore, most pragmatic solution may be to evaluate
effectiveness of combination at this stage, and in case of success,
to gradually withdraw the first drug
! This would be preferred option especially when first drug did
reduce seizure frequency to some degree
Substitution or add-on
! When combination not efficacious, replace the drug that least
efficacious
! When alternative monotherapy is not as efficacious as the
combination, the first-line drug should be reintroduced
! When alternative monotherapy is efficacious but associated
with considerable adverse effects, low-dose polytherapy should be
considered
Choice of drug
! Effectiveness may differ between different combinations
" LTG forms a particularly effective combination with VPA !
Whether due to pharmacodynamic interaction, a pharmacokinetic
interaction or both unclear
! LTG may combine less favourably with CBZ
! To consider such results when choosing an add-on drug
! However, due to several new AEDs, great need of more studies
studying specific combination
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Useful AED Combinations Pharmacokinetics
Problem: very little evidence in humans
# probably synergism VPA + LTG VPA + ESM (in absences)
# no synergism VPA + CBZ
# increased toxicity + Barbiturates +
Benzodiazepines VPA + TPM ?
LEV + TPM ?
Useful AED Combinations Pharmacodynamics
Improving efficacy was exhibited by a combination of 0XC and
CBZ
Combinations of AEDs showing different and multiple mechanisms
of action are more likely to result in synergy than drugs sharing
similar mechanism (Czuczwar, 2000)
OXC may have some other mechanisms than blocking of Na+
channel
Choice of drug
An addition of OXC , a sodium channel blocker, to patients
currently used TPM which processes multiple mechanisms of action
was the most effective combination
More patients become seizure free with the add-on combination
included a sodium channel blocker and a drug with multiple mode
of
action than with other combinations (Kwan and Brodie, 2000,
Chinvarun et al, 2003)
Choice of drug
Substitution or add-on
! It is uncertain whether two drugs effective in combination
should also be used for substitution therapy " For example, LTG a
good choice as second-line monotherapy for
partial epilepsy when VPA fails as the first-line drug, given
that these drugs form a highly effective combination?
" LTG a less preferable choice as second-line monotherapy for
partial epilepsy when CBZ fails
" Need further studies
! Combination of PHT and PB regarded as one of the more
effective combinations than the combinations of PHT plus CBZ and of
PB plus CBZ (Cereghino et al. ,1975)
Substitution or add-on
! Another participant remarked that combination of two new AEDs
much more expensive
! Urgent need for systematic studies on the effectiveness of
combinations of AEDs
! A combination is more effective than its individual
components, the drug load concept gives some insight into the
nature of this interaction
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Substitution or add-on
! When drug load of the combination is higher than that of the
individual drugs, the higher effectiveness may be due to "
infra-additive toxicity " supra-additive efficacy (i.e.
synergy)
! However, polytherapy may carry unforeseen risks
" For example, preliminary data from the UK pregnancy registry
suggests that the combination of VPA and LTG associated with an
unexpectedly higher risk for major congenital malformations than in
patients using either VPA or LTG alone (Barrett and Richens,
2003)
E0#.@($@5F-&('$-45?'4%&"#.-!%)
Deckers, Epilepsia 2000;41:1364-74; Czuczwar, Epilepsy Res
2002;52:15-23, Luzsczki , Epilepsia 47:10-20, 2006; Jonker,
Epilepsia 2007;48:412-434; Kaminski, Epilepsia 2009 (in press)
AEDs Combined Outcome
Na+ blocker + Na+ blocker "# Additive efficacy or antagonism
Na+ blocker + AED with multiple actions "#Variable and
unpredictable
AED with multiple actions +
AED with multiple actions "#
Gabapentin + Any other AED "#
Levetiracetam + Other AEDs "#
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H-4!.'-I5J-0'&.(@($#5-$65&"#(.5,'0/($-&('$)K7L5.#9!'$6#.5.-)
• Problem: very little evidence in humans
probably synergism VPA + LTG VPA + ESM (in absences)
VPA + TPM ?, LEV + TPM ?
no synergism VPA + CBZ
increased toxicity + Barbiturates + Benzodiazepines
F-&('$-45?'4%&"#.-!%G5?"-.0','6%$-0(,)
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Adverse Effects of AEDs
• Dose-related • Idiosyncratic • Teratogenic
• Often dose-related: – Dizziness – Fatigue – Ataxia –
Diplopia – Irritability
levetiracetam – Word-finding difficulty
topiramate – Weight loss/anorexia
topiramate, zonisamide, felbamate – Weight gain
valproate carbamazepine, gabapentin, pregabalin
• Typically idiosyncratic: – Renal stones
topiramate, zonisamide – Hyponatremia
carbamazepine, oxcarbazepine – Aplastic anemia
felbamate, zonisamide, valproate, carbamazepine –
Agranulocytosis
carabamazepine – Hepatic Failure
valproate, felbamate, lamotrigine, phenobarbital – Anhydrosis,
heat stroke
topiramate – Acute closed-angle glaucoma
topiramate
• Stevens-Johnson Syndrome (SJS) and • Toxic Epidermal
Necrolysis (TENS) severe life threatening allergic reaction
blisters and erosions of the skin, particularly palms/soles and
mucous
membranes fever and malaise rare: severe risk roughly
1-10/10,000 for many AEDs
rapid titration of lamotrigine especially in combination with
valproate increases risk
• Drugs rarely associated with rash Valproate Gabapentin
Pregabalin Levetiracetam Topiramate
• !!= rash rate significantly greater than average of all other
AEDs (p
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• FDA alert 12/2007 • Risk of “dangerous or even fatal skin
reactions” (SJS and TEN) are • more common in those with
HLA-B*1502
• This allele is almost exclusively found in Asians – In
10-15% of population in China, Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia, the Phillipines, and Taiwan – 2-4% in India –
gabapentin/pregabalin,
carbamazepine
• Recent FDA alert (1/2008): Meta-analysis of 199
placebo-controlled add-on tx trials – (44,000 patients)
Suicidality with adjunct AEDs than adjunct placebo:
0.43% vs 0.22% Extra 2.1 patients per 1000 more patients will
have suicidality 4 suicides with AEDs vs 0 with placebo “generally
consistent across the 11 AEDs”
• Data analysis is controversial and overall difference is very
small
• Further investigation is needed
• Clinicians should be aware of potential risk and screen for
• depression/suicidality
www.fda.gov 88
A guide not a goal • Limited data • Broad generalizations •
Individual differences • Useful in:
– Providing initial target in patients with infrequent
seizures
– Understanding unexpected seizures or side effects, especially
with polypharmacy
– Verifying compliance
89
• Progressive pathology? • Avoidable precipitant? • If on
AED
– Problem with compliance or absorption? – Increase dose? –
Change medication?
• If not on AED
– Start AED?
90
Discontinuing AEDs
• Seizure freedom for ! 2 years implies overall >60% chance
of successful withdrawal
• Favorable factors – Control achieved easily on one drug at
low dose – No previous unsuccessful attempts at withdrawal –
Normal neurologic status and EEG? – Primarily generalized seizures
only? – “Benign” syndrome
• Consider relative risks/benefits (e.g., driving,
pregnancy)
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• Adequate sleep
• Avoidance of alcohol, stimulants, etc.
• Stress reduction — specific techniques
• Adequate diet
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• Most pregnancies in epileptic mothers produce normal
children
• Fetal anomalies (up to 10% of pregnancies) are multifactorial
– Drug effects – Consequences of the mother’s underlying diseases
– Consequence of maternal seizures during pregnancy
• All antiepileptic drugs carry teratogenic risks
Most available data on risk of AEDs comes from pregnancy
registries.
Main outcome variable of most registries are major congenital
malformations (MCM)
MCM = malformation that affects physiologic function or requires
surgery
Neural tube defects Cardiac defects Genitourinary defects Oral
clefts
MCMs are more common with AED exposure MCM risk in general
population 1.6-2.1% MCM risk with AED monotherapy 4.5% (OR 2.6) MCM
risk with Polytherapy 8.6% (OR 5.1)
• Valproate consistently associated with poorer outcomes MCM
rate with valproate monotherapy 6.2-13.2%
across 5 registries Most studies show dose- related increase in
risk with
doses > 1000mg/day Polytherapy regimens including valproate
also
substantially increased risk of MCM Valproate associated with
lower IQs in exposed
children
• Phenobarbital probably also poses higher risk of MCM •
compared with other monotherapy regimens.
• MCM rate similar among other studied AEDs in monotherapy, but
not enough data to show significant difference between them
Levetiracetam Early data promising (0% in monotherapy, 2.7% in
polytx)
Carbamazepine (2.2-3.9%) Substantial data available, relatively
good track record
Lamotrigine (1.4-4.4%) Increased risk (5.4%) with doses >
400/day
Gabapentin (0-3.2%) Topiramate (0-4.8%) Phenytoin (3.2-6.7%)
Zonisamide, Pregabalin
No substantial data on monotherapy
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• Effects on pregnancy on epilepsy – Risk of increased
seizures (low if compliance maintained,
doses adjusted upward to maintain free levels) – Risk of
seizures during delivery (impaired absorption, sleep
deprivation, exhaustion) • Effects of epilepsy on pregnancy
– Genetic factors in some cases – Risks of convulsive seizures
– Risks of AEDs
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• Risk of fetal malformation is increased twofold to
threefold
• Prenatal diagnosis should be discussed
• Seizures may be deleterious to the fetus
• Adequate folate should be ensured (at least 1 mg/day)
• Monotherapy should be used if possible, with the lowest
effective dose
• Breastfeeding should be encouraged unless clear risk
posed
• Probably safe: – Carbamazepine – Phenytoin – Valproate –
Lamotrigine
• “Use with caution” in lactating women: – Primidone –
Phenobarbital – Ethosuximide –