How to Mainstream Climate Change Adaptation and … · Adaptation and Mitigation into Agriculture Policies. ... FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED ... In order for climate

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Resources for policy making

How to Mainstream Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation into

Agriculture Policies

About the FAO Policy Learning Programme

This programme aims at equipping high level officials from developing countries withcutting-edge knowledge and strengthening their capacity to base their decisions onsound consideration and analysis of policies and strategies both at home and in thecontext of strategic international developments.

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By

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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

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Louis Bockel, Policy OfficerPolicy Assistance Support Service, Policy and Programme Development Support Division

How to Mainstream Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation into Agriculture Policies

About EASYPol

The EASYPol home page is available at: www.fao.org/easypol

This presentation belongs to a set of modules which are part of the EASYPol Resource package: FAO Policy Learning Programme : Specific policy issues: Climate change impacts on agriculture and food security

EASYPol is a multilingual repository of freely downloadable resources for policy making in agriculture, rural development and food security. The resources are the results of research and field work by policy experts at FAO. The site is maintained by FAO’s Policy Assistance Support Service, Policy and Programme Development Support Division, FAO.

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Introduction

In order for climate change adaptation to be sustainable and applicable on a wide scale, it must be incorporated, integrated or “mainstreamed” into the policy apparatus of governments. Most climate change adaptation measures relate closely to, or directly overlap with, existing strategies, policies and programmes (e.g. agricultural development, food security, livelihood maintenance, resources management, risk management).

A similar situation exists with climate change mitigation. There is an increasing demand to reduce net greenhouse gas emissions, even among developing countries who have historically not contributed to emissions and climate change. This translates into pressures and incentives to promote policies in order to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases from crop and livestock operations, to capture carbon in land use practices

Within policy assistance for climate change adaptation and mitigation, the role of FAO includes assisting countries to identify potential options and to mainstream climate change responses in food and agricultural policies and programmes.

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To support national policy making in agriculture, rural development and food security in light of climate change to:

illustrate the scope of climate change in present and future agriculture policies and programmes

help policy makers incorporate climate change adaptation in agricultural policies relating to production, livelihoods and water use, land and capital resources

help policy makers take advantage of the potential for climate change mitigation within the sector

Objectives

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A presentation in two parts

Part One

1. Introduction and concepts 2. Agriculture climate Mitigation potential3. The International Policy Background (Kyoto Protocol,

UNFCCC)

Part Two1. presentation of Climate adaptation and mitigation policy

options 2. From mainstreaming to field implementation

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Part one: Introduction and concepts of adaptation, resilience and mitigation

Concepts of mainstreaming and resilience

Mainstreaming: In order for climate change adaptation and mitigation to be sustainable and applicable on a wide scale, it must be incorporated, integrated or “mainstreamed” into the policy apparatus of governments.

In the climate change context, mainstreaming refers to the incorporation of climate change considerations into established or on-going development programs, policies or management strategies, rather than developing adaptation and mitigation initiatives separately. See also climate proofingor climate resilient development.

Resilience: the capacity of a complex system to absorb shocks while still maintaining function, and to reorganize following a disturbance (from dynamic of ecological systems )

Click here to see more info

Adaptation Concept

• Climate Change Adaptation : spontaneous or organised processes by which human beings and society adjust to changes in climate by making changes in production systems and social and economic organisation in order to reduce vulnerability to changing climatic conditions

• Adaptation in agriculture refers to actions (on-going or new) intended to– improve the resilience of agriculture, – enhance its capacity to deal with conditions

associated with climate change, and hence – reduce the vulnerability of agriculture to changing

climate

Climate Change Mitigation

• Climate Change Mitigation refers to organised processes whereby society seeks to reduce emissions of Carbon and other greenhouse gases and increase the sequestration of atmospheric Carbon through absorption by carbon sinks

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Mitigation in agriculture

Many of the technical options are readily available and could be deployed immediately by:

reducing emissions of carbon dioxide through reduction in the rate of deforestation and forest degradation, adoption of improved cropland management practices;reducing emissions of methane and nitrous oxide through improved animal production, improved management of livestock waste, more efficient management of irrigation water on rice paddies, and sequestering carbon through conservation farming practices, improved forest management practices, afforestation and reforestation, agroforestry, restoration of degraded land.

Synergy between climate adaptation and mitigation in agriculture

Agriculture AdaptationTargets

Agriculture MitigationTargets

enriched carbon soilscropping systems resilient to drought and water stress

rehabilitated land in watersheds

reduce flood recurrence and improve resilience

to natural disasters

diversify rural income and strengthen HH economic

resilience

Increase protection against disaster (Disaster risk

management, insurance)

Reforested areasimproved pasture

management

reduced deforestation and slash and burn pract.

new croppingtechnics

environmentcontrol/ maintenance

labour-intensivepublic works

land use management

reduced CH4 emissions

self help groups(saving, stores)

adequ. irrigation

double-target actions

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A triple win for carbon

Value to farmer : C sequestration improves agriculture performances (yield increase, input saving, water saving) and incomes

Value to community: C sequestration increases cropping systems and watershed climate shocks resilience (adaptation)

Value to society: Large mitigation potential of agriculture arises from C sequestration (local and global carbon value)

source: IPCC Fourth Assessment Report, Working Group III, 2007


Increase Soil Carbon

Improved Soil Structure

Better Water Use

Reduced Salination

Soil Fertility

Biodiversity

Healthy Profit

Less Erosion

The Widely Cumulative Benefits of Soil Carbon

Healthy ecology Soil Carbon

Credits

Healthy Farm Families

Stronger Rural Communities

source: Australian famers carbon group

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Part two:Agriculture Climate mitigation potential

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Global GHG emissions by sector in 2004.

AFOLULULUCF= ~31%

IPCC-4AR-WG3, 2008

The LULUCF sector is a key sector of Climate Change concerns presenting a dual aspect.

Responsible for ~ 1/3 of total GHG emissions

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LULUCF (AFOLU)22% of CO255% of CH480% of N2O

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Decrease sourcesIncrease sinks

Stabilising or reducing the amount of atmospheric carbon can be achieved in essentially two ways:

by reducing the rate of emission,or by increasing the rate of absorption.

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Atmosphere760

Atmosphere

+4.1 0.1

Net terrestrial sink

-1.3

Canadell et al. 2007. PNAS

7.6 0.4Fossil fuelIndustriesCement

CO2 fluxes for the years 2000-2006(GtC/year or Pg/year) -2.2 0.5

2.81.5

+


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Net terrestrial sink

~1

Soils = 1500-2000(0-1m)

Vegetation=600

Atmosphere=760

Stocks in Gt C or Pg C

Stock: Soil an important compartmentRespiration

~120

Soil

Photosynthesis~120

CO2 fluxes for terrestrial Ecosystems(GtC/year or Pg/year)

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Global warming potential

CO2 CH4 N2O

1 23 296

1 kg CH4 = 23 kg CO2eq1 kg N2O = 296 kg CO2eq

CO2 Equivalente

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The LULUCF sector is a key sector of Climate Change concerns presenting a dual aspect.

Responsible for ~ 1/3 of total GHG emissionsBut with an important mitigation potential

About 89 per cent of this potential can beachieved by soil C sequestration throughcropland management, grazing landmanagement, restoration of organic soils anddegraded lands, bioenergy and watermanagement.

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Resources for policy makingSoil Carbon fixing as a quick winner with immediate impact

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The International Policy Background(Kyoto Protocol, UNFCCC)


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Global anthropogenic emissions of CO2 (Mt per year)

1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000

0

25 000

10 200

6 000

24 000


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191 states and 1 organization are Party to this convention

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

“The ultimate objective of this Convention […] is to achieve […] stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere

at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.”

Objectif (Article 2)

“Such a level should be achieved within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure

that food production is not threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.


Annex I (35 countries)

« Non Annex I »




Quantitative restrictions(Quantified emission limitation or reduction commitment)

on emissions of greenhouse gases in Annex I countries

The GHG = Annex A The quotas = Annex B


Clean Developpement Mechanism (CDM)Mécanisme pour un Développement Propre (MDP)

The Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

Flexibility Mechanisms

How can a country meet its reduction obligations?


« Annex B »

« non Annex I »

world:4,22 tons

CO2-eqper capita

Emissions per capita (tons CO2-eq /capita /year)

Presentation of Climate adaptation and mitigation policy

options

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Climate-adaptation oriented policy options

Policy options have been organized into five policy panels :1. Policies to encourage adapted crop

development and farming practices2. Policies on irrigation and water resource

management 3. Crop and income loss risk management

policies4. Disaster risk management policies (flood,

drought...)

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Channels Policies to encourage adapted crop development and farming practises

Public services and external / project support

Diversify crop types and varieties, including crop substitution, Develop new crop varieties, including hybrids, to increase the tolerance and suitability

Support Policies

Promote seed banks so as to help farmers diversify crops and crop varietiesresearch and development of new crop varieties that are more resistantStrengthen capacity of the Department of Agriculture to provide seeds of a diverse mixture of crops Develop agricultural extension schemesSet tax and other incentive policies to increase diversification of crops and crop varieties

Policies to encourage adapted crop development and farming practises


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Irrigation and water resource management

Channels Irrigation and water ressource management Public

services and external/ project support

Modernization and service orientation of irrigation system management to allow for changing cropping systems and the adaptation of farmers’ practises Develop water management innovations, including irrigation, to address increasing frequency of droughts.Improve infrastructure for small-scale water capture, storage and useReuse wastewater for agricultural purposes.

Support policies

Develop and implement policies and programs to influence farm-level land and water resource use and management practices in light of changing climate conditions.Develop schemes to reduce distribution losses of irrigation water by maintaining canals Improve demand management and water allocation to encourage efficiency of use (best timing and dose of irrigation)Encourage improved irrigation methods like drip and sprinkler irrigationUndertake research to develop crop varieties requiring little water


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Crop and income loss risk management policies

Channels Crop and income loss risk management policies


Diversify source of household income strengthen self help groupsEstablish weather/meteorological stationsDevelop private insurance to reduce climate-

related risksParticipate in income stabilization programs

Support Policies Mobilize adequate community based risk managements tools to face crop failures and soaring food prices (grain banks, tontines, self help groups)Modify crop insurance programs Develop innovative risk financing instruments

and insurance schemes to spread residual risks


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Disaster risk management policies (flood, drought...)

Channels Disaster risk management policies (flood, drought...)


Develop early warning systems infrastructure investments to protect against asset loss;protecting equipped areas from flood damage and maintaining drainage outlets

Support Policies to strengthen the meteorological department, Incentive policies to encourage better drought management programsPolicies to alter cropping patterns to suit droughtplanting more water-efficient and/or drought tolerant crop varieties,


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Climate-mitigation dominant policy options

1. Conservation agriculture2. Reduction of methane from rice paddies 3. Watershed and land management 4. Livestock management

Climate-mitigation-oriented policy options have been organized into four policy panels

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Conservation agriculture

Channels Conservation agriculture

Support policies

Encourage crop rotations, preferably with perennial crops (free planting material)Promote rotations or inter-cropping with leguminous cropsDevelop schemes to encourage conservation practices such as zero tillage, furrow diking Put in place programs to scale up cover cropping with leguminous (Subsidise catch or cover crops)


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Channels

Public services and external/project support

Use modern cultivation techniques that allow periodic draining fields

Promote off-season application of rice crop waste and discourage straw burningImplement a water-saving technology called alternate wetting and drying (AWD), developed by IRRI

Support policies Methane reduction from irrigated rice should be made eligible for offsets and other mitigation funding opportunitiesModify water-management strategies coupled with efficient application of fertilizer

Reduce methane from rice paddies


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Channels Watershed and land management policies


Promote reforesting of hillside degraded areasDevelop local watershed / land use planning through municipality and community participatory planning

Support Policies

Develop schemes to improve watershed resilience building at community level Mobilize municipality- driven semi permanent labour intensive public works (socio-environment safety nets)Monitor carbon-fixing impact generated to allow Carbon funding to support such actions

Watershed management policies


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Channels Livestock management

Support Policies Schemes to improve pasture qualityResearch and development to improve productivity through breeding and heifer managementSchemes to include additives that reduce methane formationPrograms to prevent degradation of pasturesPrograms to encourage adjustments in intensity and timing of grazing to increase carbon sequestration in pasture lands

Livestock management


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From mainstreaming to field implementation

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Direct implementation

Possible rapid implementation through technical services, local communities and NGO

There are now several examples of climate change adaptation being adopted in agricultural communities and regions (adaptation to drought, flooding, risk hazards)

Direct implementation through formulation of projects/ programmes

design and formulation of projects and programmes is an opportunity for experts within the government, donors and international organisations. Appropriate Ex-Ante Appraisal Tools to measure impact of investments on Climate Mitigation (Ex Act)

Direct implementation promoted through public policies and wide-scale public support.

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Experience indicates that “climate proofing” a policy is likely to require some stimulus, resources and expertise from agencies or organizations from outside the country.

National governments in developing countries invariably have such wide-ranging demands and constraints on agricultural policy development and implementation that mainstreaming climate change rarely becomes a priority.

Stimulus and support for adaptation and mitigation can come from the UN system and from international development institutions

Role of donors and funding

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Conclusion

Key features for integrating climate change adaptation and mitigation into agricultural development initiatives are that they fit within the development priorities and processes of the country and that they are accepted, supported and promoted by a wide spectrum of stakeholders, including government, civil society organisations, ...This integration process should be profiled to fit with the choices of the Government in question as well as with the degree of partner mobilisation using the following paths separately or jointly: (i) begin with policymaking as a driver; (ii) Promote local entry points to test and multiply pilot experiences which will help design adequate policies; (iii) encourage or facilitate donor initiatives to propose innovative projects; (iv) simultaneously promote mainstreaming at all levels with synergic effects of self-led dynamic of local initiatives vis-à-vis public policies. An additional mechanism to scale up the integration process is to ensure that newly formulated and on going projects are promoting technical adaptation and mitigation options and tools down to farmers and beneficiary levels

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Further readings

Bockel L, Smit B, 2009, Climate Change and Agriculture Policies, FAO, Easypol draft of policy guidelines,

Bernoux M, Bockel L, Branca G, 2009, The EX-ante Appraisal Carbon-balance Tool (EX-ACT), FAO, brief presentation

Bockel L Thoreux M, Sayagh S, 2009, Resilience of Rural Communities to Climatic Accidents: A Need to Scale Up Socio-Environmental Safety Nets (Madagascar, Haiti). Easypol Policy Brief

Bockel L, Rao K, 2009, Risk Management as a Pillar in Agriculture and Food Security Policies -India Case Study. Policy Brief

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End notes

Slide 7: Concepts of mainstreaming and resilience The principle guiding FAO work with respect to activities related to

climate change is the “no-regret” approach. It emphasizes measures that should be taken regardless - even in the absence of climate change - because they improve the efficiency of present agriculture practices as well as in forestry and fishery. At thesame time, they put farmers, the foresters or the fisherfolk in a better position to adapt to or mitigate the effects of climatechange. [return to slide 7]

Slide 12: A triple win for carbonValue to farmer: for soil quality enhancement“Climate mitigation through carbon offsets and carbon trading can increase income in rural areas in developing countries, directly improving livelihoods while enhancing adaptive capacity”. (Gary Yohe, et al, 2007, p.1). A large proportion of the mitigationpotential of agriculture (excluding bioenergy) arises from soil C sequestration, which has strong synergies with sustainable agriculture and generally reduces vulnerability to climate change.

Agricultural practices collectively can make a significant contribution at low cost • By increasing soil carbon sinks, • By reducing GHG emissions, • By contributing biomass feedstocks for energy use

Value to society: for ecosystem services• Reduction in erosion and sedimentation of water bodies.• Improvement in water quality.• Biodegradation of pollutants.• Mitigation of climate change [return to slide 12]

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Slide 18: Biomasse humaine = 6 milliards * 40 kg = 0.24 Pg * teneur en C = <<1Pg [return to slide 18]

Slide 23: 9 May 1992. Adoption of the convention during a UN General Assembly in New York4 June 1992: Convention opened for signature at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro: Brazil is the first country to sign21 March 1994: Entry into force : 90 days after the ratification by 50th country [return to slide 23]

Slide 24 : Global anthropogenic emissions of CO2 (Mt per year)+ 1750, at the start of the industrial revolution: 10 million tons a year+ 1850, a century later: 200 million tons+ 1950, a century later : 6000+ 2000, un demi-siècle plus tard: 24 000A very worrying situationWhen was the first time that the problem was takin into consideration? [return to slide 24]

Slide 27 and 30: The 35 countries that are more responsible are included in Annex 1 of the Convention. These countries include developed countries in the north, Australia and New Zealand[return to slide 27 - slide 30]

Slide 34: crop management, involving existing crops types and varieties, the development of new varieties or replacing crops (which is then reflected in changes in the spatial location of crops) in order to rely on crop types and varieties that are better suited to a changed climate.Biodiversity increases resilience to changing environmental conditions and stresses. Genetically-diverse populations and species-rich ecosystems have a greater potential to adapt to climate change. FAO promotes the use of indigenous and locally-adapted plants as well as the selection and multiplication of crop varieties and autochthonous races adapted for or resistant to adverseconditions.At the national level this is translated into programs to develop new crops or varieties in research programs (e.g. to be more heat tolerant or drought resistant), to maintain genetic resources and to develop crop management practices, all to be disseminated to farmers via outreach programmes.These become agricultural adaptations when crop types and varieties are actually changed (reflected in changed crop location or patterns). At the local level, this involves farmers’ decision making, reflecting personal risk perceptions and trade offs and resulting in particular crop choices. [return to slide 34]

End notes

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Slide 35: Local level adaptations are the strategies and decisions farmers make with respect to water management, including use or irrigation (if available and affordable), small-scale capture and storage. National governments can affect water management through policies relating to water rights, regulations, pricing, controls and allocation. Sometimes authority is transferred to lower levels of government Looking ahead to 2030, irrigated areas will come under increasing pressure to raise the productivity of water, both to buffer the more volatile rain-fed production (and maintain national production) and to respond to declining levels of this vital renewable resource. This risk will need to be managed by progressively adjusting the operation of large-scale irrigation and drainage systems to ensure higher cropping intensities and reduce the gaps between actual and potential yields.The inter-annual storage of excess rainfall and the use of resource-efficient irrigation remain the only guaranteed means of maintaining cropping intensities. Water resource management responses for river basins and aquifers, which are often trans-boundary, will be forced to become more agile and adaptive (including near-real-time management), as variability in river flows and aquifer recharge becomes apparent (IDWG CC, 2007).Competing sector demands for water will increase pressure on the agriculture sector to justify the allocations it receives. Reconciling these competing demands will require agriculture to engage with other productive users and use transparent means of negotiating allocations [1] FAO IDWG CC, Adaptation to climate change in agriculture, forestry and fisheries: Perspective, framework and priorities, Intyer departmental working group on Climate Change, 2007. [return to slide 35]

Slide 36: Highly linked with climate change adaptation, risk management strategies and programmes are common in many sectors in many countries. Broadly, they seek to reduce losses from hazards where there are uncertainties about the occurrence of events and about outcomes of exposure to events. In agriculture, the objective of risk management is to protect assets, livelihoods and food supplies against the effects of the increased frequency and severity of extreme weather and climate conditions and events. Typical components of national risk management policies and programmes include:monitoring and forecasting of hazardous events, including weather climate information reliable and timely early warning systemsinvestments in infrastructure to minimize exposure insurance and other risk financing instruments emergency response capacitylivelihood investments to enhance resiliency in outcomes.It could involve changes in the mix of income-generating activities which may include crops, livestock, land and water management so that rural households are less vulnerable to variations in climatic conditions. Most adaptations can be considered as forms of “risk management” in that their purpose is to reduce the likelihood of losses associated with climate change. In this category we focus on risk management strategies related to losses in production, income,livelihoods or structures as a result of local weather conditions. [return to slide 36]

End notes

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Slide 39: Conservation agriculture and organic agriculture that combine zero or low tillage and permanent soil cover are promising adaptation options promoted by FAO for their ability to increase soil organic carbon, reduce the use of mineral fertilizers and reduce on-farm energy costs.Production risks can be spread and buffered by a broad range of land management practices and technologies. Enhancing residual soil moisture through land conservation techniques is a significant help at the margin of dry periods, while buffer strips, mulching and zero-tillage mitigate soil erosion risk in areas with increasing rainfall intensity.Conservation agriculture is an option for adaptation as well as for mitigation because the increase in soil organic matter reduces vulnerability to both excessive rainfall and drought. The impact is not immediate; soil under zero-tillage tends to increase the soil organic matter content by approximately 0.1 to 0.2 percent per year, corresponding to the formation of 1 cm of new soil over a ten-year period (Crovetto, 1999). However, not only does organic matter facilitate soil structuring, and hence the infiltration and storage of water in the soil, but it also directly absorbs up to 150 cubic meters of water per hectare for each percent of soil organic matter. In addition, under conservation agriculture, no soil moisture is lost through tillage and seedbed preparation. [return to slide 39]

Slide 37: Disaster risk management involves the establishment and maintenance of institutions and mechanisms to avoid, prepare for, and/or recover from losses associated with extreme weather events. At the national level this would include promotion of insurance schemes, disaster prediction and preparedness, and recovery programs.At the local level, disaster risk management involves early warning systems, preparedness, and response strategies. Financialrisk management at the local level includes local insurance programs (involving communities, private sector NGOs, perhaps within a national scheme). A key element for climate change adaptation in agriculture is the actual use of insurance by farmers

and the effectiveness of such insurance in dealing with extremes and recurring hazards [return to slide 37]

End notes

© FAO 2009


Slide 40: Rice is grown on more than 140 million hectares worldwide and is the most heavily consumed staple food on earth. Ninety percent of the world’s rice is produced and consumed in Asia, and 90 percent of rice land is—at least temporarily—flooded (IFPRI 2009).[1] Emitting between 50 and 100 million tonnes of methane a year, rice agriculture is a big source of atmospheric methane, possibly the biggest of man-made methane sources. The warm, waterlogged soil of rice paddies provides ideal conditions for methanogenesis, and though some of the methane produced is usually oxidized by methanotrophs in the shallow overlying water, the vast majority is released into the atmosphere. On average, the rice paddy soil is only fully waterlogged for about 4 months each year. Through a more integrated approach to rice paddy irrigation and fertilizer application substantial reductions remain possible. Many rice varieties can be grown under much drier conditions than those traditionally employed, with big reductions on methane emissions without any loss in yields. Additionally, there is the great potential for improved varieties of rice, able to produce a much larger crop per area of rice paddy and so allow for a smaller total area of rice paddies, without a cut in rice production. Finally, the addition of compounds such as ammonium sulphate, which favor the activity of other microbial groups over that of the methanogens, has proved successful under some conditions. [1] Wassmann et Al, Agriculture and Climate Change: An Agenda for Negotiation in Copenhagen Reducing Methane Emissions from Irrigated Rice, IFPRI, 2009, http://www.ifpri.org/2020/focus/focus16/focus16_03.pdf[return to slide 40]

End notes

Slide 41: Whether or not they arrive with tropical cyclones or hurricanes, floods generally follow heavy rains and generally affect a country’s low geographical areas (basins, low-levels, etc.). Highlighting and protecting watersheds is generally the most suitable tool for managing flood risk. Indeed, the value of a watershed stems from its capacity to absorb and clean water, recycle excess nutrients and maintain the soil’s stability in order to prevent flooding. Rebuilding degraded watershedareas presents a high potential for climate mitigation through carbon fixing as a result of reforestation and improved land use management Growing interest in the potential for social protection to reduce livelihood risks and allow farmers to take higher risk investments to escape poverty have led to a resurgence of interest in different forms of agricultural insurance. “Social protection initiatives are as much at risk from climate change as other development approaches. They are unlikely to succeed in reducing poverty if they do not consider both the short and long-term shocks and stresses associated with climate change. Adaptive social protection involves examining opportunities that approaches to social protection provide for adaptation and for developing climate-resilient social protection programmes [return to slide 41]

http://www.ifpri.org/2020/focus/focus16/focus16_03.pdf�

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Slide 42: Mitigation of GHG emissions in the livestock sector can be achieved through various activities, including (i) different animal feeding management, (ii) manure management (collection, storage, spreading, etc.), and (iii) management of feed crop production.Feeding management links with: •the selection of faster growing breeds (improved livestock efficiency to convert energy from feed into production), and reducing losses through waste products;•increasing feed efficiency by improving the digestibility of feed intake for all livestock practices: these are potential ways to reduce GHG emissions and maximize production •improved feeding composition – the composition of feed has affects the enteric fermentation and emission of CH4 from the rumen or the hindgut (Dourmad, et al., 2008)•Improved waste management creates the opportunity for the design of different mechanisms such as covered storage facilities, which is also important. The amount of GHG emissions from manure (CH4, N2O, and CH4 from liquid manure) will depend on the temperature and duration of storage. Therefore, long-term storage in high temperatures will result in higher GHG emissions. In

the case of ruminants, pasture grazing is an efficient way to reduce CH4 emission from manure, because no storage is necessary

[return to slide 42]

End notes

How to Mainstream Climate Change Adaptation and … · Adaptation and Mitigation into Agriculture Policies. ... FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED ... In order for climate

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