HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN ASSESSMENT Workshop 2 KEDIMA 13th March 2013

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HOW TO IMPROVE YOUR PERFORMANCE IN ASSESSMENTWorkshop 2KEDIMA13th March 2013

Yiola Papadopoulou ParaskevaidesSpecial Teaching StaffLanguage [email protected]

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CONTENTS

PART A -Taking notes in classroom lectures

PART B – Good Essay Writing (The Social Science Essay)

PART C – Group Project Organization

PART D – Writing Lab Reports and Scientific Papers

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Taking lecture notes There are many reasons for taking lecture notes.

A. Making yourself take notes forces you to listen carefully and test your understanding of the material.

B. When you are reviewing, notes provide a gauge to what is important in the text.

C. Personal notes are usually easier to remember than the text.

D. The writing down of important points helps you to remember then even before you have studied the material formally.

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Taking lecture notesInstructors usually give clues to what is important to take

down. Some of the more common clues are:

A. Material written on the blackboard. B. Repetition C. Emphasis 1. Emphasis can be judged by tone of voice and gesture. 2. Emphasis can be judged by the amount of time the

instructor spends on points and the number of examples he or she uses.

D. Word signals (e.g. "There are two points of view on . . . " "The third reason is . . . " " In conclusion . . . ")

E. Summaries given at the end of class. F. Reviews given at the beginning of class.

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Taking lecture notesEach student should develop his or her own method of taking notes, but most

students find the following suggestions helpful: A. Make your notes brief. 1. Never use a sentence where you can use a phrase. Never use a phrase

where you can use a word. 2. Use abbreviations and symbols, but be consistent. B. Put most notes in your own words. However, the following should be

noted exactly: 1. Formulas 2. Definitions 3. Specific facts C. Use outline form and/or a numbering system. Indention helps you

distinguish major from minor points. D. If you miss a statement, write key words, skip a few spaces, and get the

information later. E. Don't try to use every space on the page. Leave room for coordinating

your notes with the text after the lecture. (You may want to list key terms in the margin or make a summary of the contents of the page.)

F. Date your notes. Perhaps number the pages.

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Saving time on note takingHints for saving time: Rewriting takes double the time: once to take the original

notes and a second to rewrite them. The advice is simple: DO IT RIGHT THE FIRST TIME! Taking notes in shorthand: Though shorthand is a valuable tool for a secretary, it is

almost worthless for a student doing academic work. Notes in shorthand cannot be studied in that form. They must first be transcribed. The act of transcribing notes takes an inordinate amount of time and energy but does not significantly contribute to their mastery.

It is far better to have taken the notes originally in regular writing and then spend the time after that in direct study and recitation of the notes.

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Saving time on note taking Do not record the lesson on a cassette tape or any other

tape. This statement can be better understood when seen in the light of a person who has taken his/her notes in regular writing. Immediately after taking the notes this person can study them in five minutes before the next class as s/he walks toward the next building, as s/he drinks his/her coffee, or whatever.

Furthermore, this student, in looking over his/her notes, may decide that the notes contain only four worthwhile ideas which s/he can highlight, relegating the rest of the lecture to obscurity. Whereas the lecture on tape has to be listened to in its entirety including the worthwhile points as well as the "garbage," handwritten notes may be studied selectively. A student who takes the easy way out - recording the lecture on tape as he or she sits back doing nothing - will box him or herself into inflexibility.

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Note making Learning to make notes effectively will help you to improve

your study and work habits and to remember important information. Often, students are deceived into thinking that because they understand everything that is said in class they will therefore remember it. This is dead wrong! Write it down.

As you make notes, you will develop skill in selecting important material and in discarding unimportant material. The secret to developing this skill is practice. Check your results constantly. Strive to improve. Notes enable you to retain important facts and data and to develop an accurate means of arranging necessary information.

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Note makingHere are some hints on note making.

1. Don't write down everything that you read or hear. Be alert and attentive to the main points. Concentrate on the "meat" of the subject and forget the trimmings.

2. Notes should consist of key words or very short sentences. If a speaker gets sidetracked it is often possible to go back and add further information.

3. Take accurate notes. You should usually use your own words, but try not to change the meaning. If you quote directly from an author, quote correctly.

4. Think a minute about your material before you start making notes. Don't take notes just to be taking notes! Take notes that will be of real value to you when you look over them at a later date.

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Note making5. Have a uniform system of punctuation and abbreviation that will make

sense to you. Use a skeleton outline and show importance by indenting. Leave lots of white space for later additions.

6. Omit descriptions and full explanations. Keep your notes short and to the point. Condense your material so you can grasp it rapidly.

7. Don't worry about missing a point.

8. Don't keep notes on oddly shaped pieces of paper. Keep notes in order and in one place.

9. Shortly after making your notes, go back and rework (not redo) your notes by adding extra points and spelling out unclear items. Remember, we forget rapidly. Budget time for this vital step just as you do for the class itself.

10. Review your notes regularly. This is the only way to achieve lasting memory.

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Good essay writingThe social science essay

A basic social science essay has the following: a title, an introduction, a main section, a conclusion, and a list of references.

Essays in the social sciences are distinguished by their emphasis on the use of evidence to evaluate arguments and the use of theory to build accounts of the social world.

There are three golden rules of essay writing:1.write your answer in your own words2. answer the question that is asked3. think about structure and social scientific skills as well as

content

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Good essay writingMatching the answer to the question Advocacy questions ask you to outline and illustrate a

particular issue, topic or argument. Evaluation questions ask you to explore arguments for and

against competing positions and to evaluate their relative strengths and weaknesses.

Compare and contrast questions ask you to identify and explore points of comparison and contrast between competing positions.

These basic structures should be adapted in the light of the question and the material under discussion.

As you develop ‘intermediate’ and ‘advanced’ skills you will be expected to show greater confidence and ability in deploying essay structuring skills. Your essay structures will need to demonstrate a developing complexity and comprehensiveness, giving due weight to relevant aspects of the argument.

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Good essay writingStates of writing from preparation to final version:

Make use of sources of guidance. Essay writing has six principal stages:1. reading and understanding the question,2. identifying the relevant material,3. making an essay plan,4. writing a first draft,5. reviewing the first draft, maybe writing a second draft,6. writing a final version Realistic time management is central to effective essay

writing.

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Good essay writingWriting introductions Introductions tell the reader what your essay is about. You may

write it first to give you an idea of what you are doing, or you may find that you can write a better introduction when you have completed the main bulk of your essay.

There is more than one way to write an introduction. The approach adopted here treats the introduction as an ‘abstract’ or synopsis of key points.

‘Full’ introductions: identify the subject of the essay; signpost the shape of the argument; highlight the major debates that lie ‘behind’ the question; signpost the content of the argument; (where necessary) define terms; (sometimes) establish a position or look ahead to the conclusion.

A basic short introduction should tell the reader what the essay is about by: identifying the subject of the essay; highlighting the major debates that lie ‘behind’ the question, and identifying the essay’s key argument(s) or theme(s).

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Good essay writing An introduction written to ‘introductory’ standards should be

proficient at identifying the subject of the essay and signposting the shape of the argument.

An introduction written to an ‘intermediate standard should move towards highlighting the major debates raised by the essay question signposting the content of the argument, (if necessary) defining terms effectively, and (if appropriate) establishing a position.

An introduction written to an ‘advanced’ standard should show greater sophistication in bringing out the major debates raised by the question, signposting the content of the argument, (if necessary) defining terms, and (f appropriate) establishing a position.

Introductions should normally be between 5 and 10 per cent of the total length of the essay.

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Good essay writingTASK Below there are two examples of introduction. Read them,

discuss with the person sitting next to you and say which is one is a strong introduction and which one is a weak.

Topic: ‘School is a significant site in which sex/gender is produced’. Discuss

Introduction 1 This essay looks at the arguments for and against the idea

that school is a significant site in which gender is produced. The first section shows where this idea comes from and contrasts it to the deterministic account. The second section gives evidence in favour of the theory of Social Constructionism.

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Good essay writing Introduction 2 This essay critically explores the claim that school is a

significant site in which sex/gender is produced. The claim derives from a broadly social constructionist position, namely one that views sex/gender as being the product of social meanings and practices rather than something biologically given. The essay begins by outlining the social constructionist critique of the biological account of sex/gender. It then reviews recent research on gender and schooling to explore the extent to which the social meanings and practices that make up life in school may be seen as producing relational forms of masculinity and femininity. In exploring these issues, the essay endorses a broadly social constructionist standpoint on gender and schooling, although it also seeks to highlight a number of potential limitation to this position, particularly as these relate to the literature’s account of the body and social agency.

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Good essay writing Introduction 2 is the strongest because it identifies the

subject of the essay, indicates the debate lying ‘behind’ the question, signposts its content and establishes the author’s position.

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Good essay writingWriting the main section The argument in the main section of an essay needs to have

‘logical progression’. We construct logically progressing arguments in everyday life. Logical progression involves: outlining a particular point of view;

giving reasons why this point of view might be correct; and providing theoretical and empirical evidence to support these claims.

As you progress to more advanced undergraduate courses you will increasingly be required to select relevant material from a range of sources and relate this back to the individual essay question.

Arguments should be supported with appropriate illustrations and evidence. Try to select a range of the most significant examples – some are richer and more far-reaching than others. Examples should relate back to the essay question and engage with the argument that you are making.

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Good essay writing For some courses you will need to use maps, diagrams, or

numerical data. These should be used as evidence to support your argument, but remember, they are not ‘hard facts’.

Social science essays often ask you to explore theoretical arguments and use these as evidence as well as concrete examples. As you develop your essay writing skills you will need to show increasing confidence in exploring the strengths and weaknesses of competing theories.

Some theories are stronger and more convincing than others; theories cannot necessarily be lumped together to make a ‘super theory’ – they often contradict each other. In handling theories, social scientists need to be ‘critical’, that is, they need to display an awareness of a theory’s weaknesses and its strengths. However, one sign of increasing intellectual maturity is the ability to write from ‘within’ a perspective.

Being ‘self-reflexive’ means acknowledging your own particular biases, for example, by indicating that you are arguing from a specific point of view.

21Good essay writing Quotations and references to key texts are used: as a source of

evidence; to provide the reader with a ‘map’ of the most important works in an area; and to give the work ‘authority’.

Quotations should be introduced.

Longer quotations should be written in a separate paragraph indented at the left-hand (and sometimes right-hand) margins. Shorter quotations can be written in the main text in single inverted commas. Any changes should be indicated.

Quotation and key texts highlighted in an essay should be supported by a reference.

As your skills develop, and certainly at intermediate standard, you should be able to select appropriate quotations and cite key texts in support of your argument.

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Good essay writingWriting the main section - Summary One way to think of your notional reader is as someone studying the social

sciences at an equivalent level in another university. She or he will understand basic social scientific concepts but won’t necessarily be familiar with the area addressed in your essay. By the end of advanced undergraduate courses you should aim to write for an ‘expert’ audience.

The aim of good essay writing is to convey complex ideas in as clear a form as possible.

Paragraphs contain a topic and a series of statements explaining what is relevant about the topic. Together these make up its ‘main idea’. A 1500-word essay will have five or six key points plus an introduction and conclusion.

You can give your essay a strong sense of direction by: introducing and summarizing main sections; recapping and signposting your argument; where useful, referring back to the question.

Using link words and sentences ensures that your essay ‘flows’ smoothly.

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Good essay writingWriting Conclusions The primary job of a conclusion is to provide a final condensed

version of your essay’s core argument and thereby to summarize the key debates raised by the question, or provide an overview of ‘current knowledge’ on a given topic.

Longer conclusions should: recap the subject of the essay in some form; recap the key stages in the argument/summarize the key debates raised by the question; provide a final condensed version of the argument that restates the essay’s position on the question; (if necessary) identify absences in the argument that could be explored in future work.

An essay written to an ‘introductory’ standard might be expected to provide a conclusion that demonstrates an ability to summarize the content of the essay clearly and concisely. More advanced essays should move towards conclusions that emphasize sophisticated condensed versions of the core argument, and a sophisticated understanding of the key debates raised by the question.

The conclusion should take up roughly 10 per cent of an essay.

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Good essay writingReferencing To write a reference using the Harvard system you should give an abbreviated

reference in the text and full details in a list of references at the end of the text. Abbreviated references in the text are written: author’s surname, publication date,

and page number(s) if applicable. Example: ‘The word “race” has been, and still is, associated with ideas of inferiority,

superiority, hierarchy and persecution’ (Clarke, 2003, p.38).Or Clarke (2003, p.38) argues that, as a term, ‘race’ is associated with ideas of

inferiority, superiority, hierarchy and persecution’.

Full references at the end of the text are listed alphabetically by author/originator. Example: Clarke, S. (2003) Social Theory, Psychoanalysis and Racism, Houndmills,

Palgrave Macmillan. Begin with the author’s surname and initial(s) Give the date of publication Give the title of work Give details of the place of publication and the publisher

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Good essay writing Book – When more than one authorExample: Harywood, C. and Mac an Ghaill, M. (2003) Men and Masculinities: Theory,

Research and Social Practice, Buckingham, Open University Press.

Edited collection:Example: Steinberg, D.L. and Johnson, R. (eds) (2004) Blairism and the War of

Persuasion: Labour’s Passive Revolution, London, Lawrence and Wishart.

Electronic sources http://www.worldbank.org/ (accessed 10th March 2013)

References for different publications by the same author in the same year are distinguished using ‘a’, ‘b’, etc, convention.

Full references at the end of the text for a single author book are written: author’s surname and initials, publication date, title (italicized or underlined), place of publication and publisher. Electronic references follow similar principles as those for printed texts but must also include the date of access.

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Good essay writing References to chapters in edited collections, to journal and

newspaper articles, and to various other sources are given in slightly different ways.

Note down your reference details at the time you are finding your material.

Referencing is a basic academic skill and it is almost certain that you will be expected to use references accurately on undergraduate courses.

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Good essay writingPlagiarism

Plagiarism means copying someone else’s work and claiming it as your own. Plagiarized essays will normally attract a fail grade. Deliberate plagiarism, which constitutes cheating, may result in disciplinary action.

Plagiarism is often unintentional. To avoid this make sure that you write essay notes in your own words and always put quotations in quotation marks or indent the text; reread your essays, looking for sudden changes in style or tone; and seek help if you do not understand particular points to ensure that, when writing, you can reproduce them in your own words.

Writing to a word limit is an important academic skill: it teaches you to condense complex material into its component parts, and to select and communicate core arguments.

Personal experience can be a useful source of evidence and some courses require you to use it. However, be careful to relate it to the course and the essay question and to substantiate your claims.

Essays are expected to be readable and to use conventions of spelling, grammar and punctuation correctly.

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Group Project Organization Many college classes will have group projects of some sort. This can be

almost anything, from conducting a research study to creating a documentary, and can often count as a large part of the grade in a course. It is important for the person chosen to lead this the group to have the organizational and leadership skills to get the job done.

Encourage Respect for Ideas One of the most important aspects of leading a group class project is

making it clear to all involved that everyone at the table has a voice in the project. While there will always be one or two individuals who are more active than others, the leader has to keep these more outspoken members of the team from totally drowning out the others. One reason for doing this is that it is only fair, and the other is that the quiet guy off in the corner may be a genius your group needs to hear.Conflict Management

When conflicts occur over either the direction of the project or small details (as they inevitably will), it is the job of the leader of the group to keep this from become personal or disruptive. At the same time, conflict can often be used to generate good ideas. The key is finding the right balance so as to keep things humming along.

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Group Project Organization Delegation As the leader, avoid the trap of carry the biggest part of the load.

Make sure you delegate tasks to each member of the team to distribute the workload fairly. This does not mean shifting the workload to anyone who is handy. You should instead work to the strengths of the group, using their collective skills and knowledge to best advantage.

Time Management Another vital skill for a leader of a group project is time

management. Since school projects usually have a deadline, you have to make sure that all parts of the project are proceeding at a pace that will meet that deadline. To do this, you have to keep lines of communications open so you will know if someone is falling behind. If they are, you will either have to find a way to motivate them to greater effort, help them resolve the difficulty slowing them or assign someone else to help them.

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Group Project Organization Group projects Learning and working in groups involves shared and/or learned values,

resources, and ways of doing things. Effective groups learn to succeed by combining these factors. Your group, and each individual within it, will only be as effective as they are willing to respect differences within the group.

Summary of the entire process:At the first meeting, all participants:1. introduce themselves with what they bring to the project, their interests,

qualifications, and even preferences in projects.2. determine a convener and/or clerk who will keep participants on task

This is determined by your first group process, and should consider who would like to volunteer, experience and expertise with the task, and even a desire to learn about group tasks

3. Determine the strategy of how often to meet in person or through technology, where the group will meet, communicating including email and (cell) phone information, and how to distribute minutes and updates

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Group Project Organization 4.Summarize objectives: 

Strategy: each member independently writes down one or two main objectives of the project, then the group compares these, extracts key words and phrases, then prioritizes results. If agreement cannot be reached, refer the matter to the teacher.Group members should realize that this a procedural situation, and not a matter for controversy or heated argument.

5. Determine process to achieve the objectivesWhat is the timeline? What are the deliverables and when are they needed?Do you need sub-groups? project planning tools (Gantt, Critical Path, PERT)?What applications do you need (word processing, spread sheets, cameras, imaging software (Photoshop), presentation software (PowerPoint), Website, etc.

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Group Project Organization Process stages:1. Research discovery: library, Internet, professional associations,

experts, etc.2. Research analysis: often in the process, difficulties appear:

consolidation and identifying key concepts and issuesmid-stream check-in, planning for gaps, requests for assistance, etc.

3. Product development:Development of a thesis statement, individual sections

4. Write/compile document or presentationOpening | body | closing statement/argument

5. Bibliography6. Review and evaluation

Product | process | participation7. Project summary8. Rehearsal for presentation9. Presentation10. Celebration

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Group Project Organization Interaction within the group 

is based upon mutual respect and encouragement. Often creativity is vague. 

Ideas are important to the success of the project, not personalities.A group's strength lies in its ability to develop ideas individuals bring.

Conflict can be an extension of creativity.The group should be aware of this eventuality. Resolution of conflict balances the end goals with mutual respect. In other words, a group project is a cooperative, rather than a competitive, learning experience.

The two major objectives of a group project are: What is learned: factual material as well as the process What is produced: written paper, presentation, and/or media

project

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Group Project Organization Role of instructors/teachers/professors: Outcomes depend on the clarity of the objective(s) given by

teachers. The group's challenge is to interpret these objectives, and then determine how to meet them.

Group work is only as effective as teachers or instructors manage and guide the process.Group projects are not informal collaborative groups.Students must be aware of, and should be prepared for, this group process.Cooperative group projects should be structured so that no individual can coast on the efforts of his/her teammates

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Group Project Organization Scoring: Rewards ideally should be intrinsic to the process,

with group members deriving their reward from their contributionsto the group and project

External reinforcement (grades, etc) for individuals can be based upon improvement, as opposed to comparative, scoring. Traditional, comparative scoring works to the detriment of teams with low-achieving members. Evaluation based upon improvement rewards the group for an individual's progress. Peer, comparative evaluations can have a negative effect on teams: low scoring members are considered "undesirable" and drags upon performance

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Group Project Organization High achievers versus low achievers? We assume high achievers mentor or teach low achievers.

In the process of teaching others, we can learn more about the topic. As we tutor, even simple questions from the tutee make us look at our subject matter freshly. As we explain, we gain a deeper understanding of the topic. Low achievers then tutor or teach high achievers!

High achievers profit in cooperative learning in other ways: leadership skills, self-esteem gains, conflict resolution skills, and role-taking abilities which become part of the leaning process, and betterment of the student.

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Writing Scientific Reports So why are you writing this research report? The practical

answer is “Because the teacher assigned it,” but that’s classroom thinking. Generally speaking, people investigating some scientific hypothesis have a responsibility to the rest of the scientific world to report their findings, particularly if these findings add to or contradict previous ideas. As you can probably imagine, people reading such reports have two primary goals:

They want to gather the information presented. They want to know that the findings are legitimate. Your job as a writer, then, is to fulfill these two goals.

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Writing Scientific Reports What lab reports and scientific papers do: Persuade others

to accept or reject hypotheses by presenting data and interpretations

Detail data, procedures, and outcomesfor future researchers

Become part of the accepted body of scientific knowledgewhen published unless later disproved

Provide an archival recordfor reference and document a current situation for future comparison

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Writing Scientific Reports Format:The typical lab report includes: title, abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, references literature cited

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Writing Scientific ReportsTitle: Reflect the factual content with less than ten words in a

straightforward manner Use keywords researchers and search engines on the Internet will

recognize

Abstract: Summarize in a concise paragraph the purpose of the report, 

data presented, and major conclusions in about 100 - 200 words.

Introduction: Define the subject of the report: "Why was this study performed?" Provide background information and relevant studies: "What

knowledge already exists about this subject?" Outline scientific purpose(s) and/or objective(s): "What are the

specific hypotheses and the experimental design for investigation?"

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Writing Scientific ReportsMaterials and methods: List materials used, how were they used, and where and

when was the work done (especially important in field studies)

Describe special pieces of equipment and the general theory of the analyses or assays used

Provide enough detail for the reader to understand the experiment without overwhelming him/her. When procedures from a lab book or another report are followed exactly, simply cite the work and note that details can be found there.

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Writing Scientific ReportsResults Concentrate on general trends and differences and not on

trivial details. Summarize the data from the experiments without discussing

their implications Organize data into tables, figures, graphs, photographs, etc.

Data in a table should not be duplicated in a graph or figure Title all figures and tables; include a legend explaining

symbols, abbreviations, or special methods Number figures and tables separately

and refer to them in the text by their number, i.e. Figure 1 shows that the activity.... The activity decreases after five minutes (fig. 1)

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Writing Scientific ReportsDiscussion Interpret the data; do not restate the results Relate results to existing theory and knowledge Explain the logic that allows you to accept or reject your

original hypotheses Speculate as necessary but identify it as such Include suggestions for improving your techniques or design,

or clarify areas of doubt for further research

References & literature cited Cite only references in your paper and not a general

bibliography on the topic Alphabetize by last name of the author Follow the recommended format for citations

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Writing Scientific ReportsGeneral style Strive for logic and precision and avoid ambiguity, especially with

pronouns and sequences Keep your writing impersonal; avoid the use of the first person (i.e. I or

we) Use the past tense and be consistent within the report

note: "data" is plural and "datum" is singular; species is singular and plural

Italicize all scientific names (genus and species) Use the metric system of measurement and abbreviate measurements

without periods (i.e. cm kg) spell out all numbers beginning sentences or less than 10 (i.e. "two explanations of six factors").

Write numbers as numerals when greater than ten (i.e. 156) or associated with measurements (i.e. 6 mm or 2 g)

Have a neutral person review and critique your report before submission

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The end… Questions? Comments?

Please e-mail me should you need more information on the topics presented today.

[email protected]

THANK YOU!!!