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How textbook design may influence learning with geography textbooks
Yvonne Behnke
Nordidactica
- Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education
2016:1
Nordidactica – Journal of Humanities and Social Science Education
Nordidactica 2016:1
ISSN 2000-9879
The online version of this paper can be found at: www.kau.se/nordidactica
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NORDIDACTICA – JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCE EDUCATION
ISSN 2000-9879
2016:1 38-62
38
How textbook design may influence learning with geography textbooks
Yvonne Behnke
Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Germany
Abstract: This paper investigates how textbook design may influence students’
visual attention to graphics, photos and text in current geography textbooks.
Eye tracking, a visual method of data collection and analysis, was utilised to
precisely monitor students’ eye movements while observing geography textbook
spreads. In an exploratory study utilising random sampling, the eye movements
of 20 students (secondary school students 15–17 years of age and university
students 20–24 years of age) were recorded. The research entities were double-
page spreads of current German geography textbooks covering an identical
topic, taken from five separate textbooks. A two-stage test was developed. Each
participant was given the task of first looking at the entire textbook spread to
determine what was being explained on the pages. In the second stage,
participants solved one of the tasks from the exercise section. Overall, each
participant studied five different textbook spreads and completed five set tasks.
After the eye tracking study, each participant completed a questionnaire. The
results may verify textbook design as one crucial factor for successful
knowledge acquisition from textbooks. Based on the eye tracking
documentation, learning-related challenges posed by images and complex
image-text structures in textbooks are elucidated and related to educational
psychology insights and findings from visual communication and textbook
analysis.
KEYWORDS: GEOGRAPHY TEXTBOOKS, TEXTBOOK DESIGN, IMAGE-TEXT RESEARCH, GRAPHICS,
PHOTOGRAPHS, EYE TRACKING
About the Author: Yvonne Behnke is a graduate designer of visual
communication and a doctoral student of geography education at the Humboldt
Universität zu Berlin. The main emphasis of her professional work and her scientific
research is educational media. Her research focus lies in the visual aspects of
educational media (print and digital), such as textbook design, image-text
relationships, visuals (graphics, photos), textbook analysis and eye tracking as a visual
analysis method.
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Introduction
The collation and presentation of information in society today is becoming
increasingly visual and spatial in nature (Lowrie et al. 2011). Information presented in
textbooks, including geography textbooks, reflects the knowledge of a society (Bardy
Bölsterli 2014). Consequently, how clearly, aesthetically and coherently information
is visualised has become a crucial factor for successful knowledge acquisition from
current geography textbooks. Nevertheless, visuals have traditionally possessed an
important role in geography instruction, as “the creation and interpretation of visual
images has always been important to geography and is what makes geography unique”
(Thornes 2004, p.793).
In recent years, an increase in the number of visuals utilised in geography
textbooks has been apparent (Janko & Knecht 2014). An analysis of contemporary
geography textbooks reveals that they contain complex image-text structures and
varied forms of visualisations (e.g., photos, infographics, maps, and satellite images).
Hence, the challenge for learners is to identify and select the content-relevant
information from the variety of depicted materials, then to organise that information
into a coherent representation and finally to integrate this representation into existing
knowledge (de Koning et al. 2010; Schnotz et al. 2014).
Notwithstanding the widespread use of visuals in geography textbooks, little is
known about learners’ attention paid to visuals contained in geography textbooks.
Within this context, Morgan (2014, p.75) stated that the design features of textbooks
are perhaps the least considered or understood aspects of textbooks. Although Janko
and Peskova (2013) analysed types of visuals utilised in geography textbooks, and
Janko and Knecht (2014) developed a research instrument for sorting visuals in
geography textbooks and assessing their instructional qualities, the need to conduct
further research is also emphasised. Likewise, in the field of textbook research, to date
only a few general recommendations have been made with regard to the learning-
fostering design of visuals in geography textbooks (Fuchs et al. 2014). This
recommendations mainly refers to well-known rules from Gestalt theory, such as
figure/ground, proximity, similarity, and continuity (see LaSpina 1998), which has
been supplemented by recommendations from multimedia learning (e.g., Cognitive
Theory of Multimedia Learning, Mayer 2005), such as the signal principle,
multimedia principle, and coherence principle.
Nevertheless, well-designed textbooks have the potential to make learning more
fun, lasting, and meaningful, and may actively engage learners’ cognition in many
ways (e.g., visual processing, analytical thinking, posing questions, testing hypothesis,
and verbal reasoning) (Morgan 2014). Therefore, the instructional design of image-
text combinations and the design of visualisations utilised in textbooks could be
crucial factors that may influence their educational effectiveness (Janko & Peskova
2013; Peeck 1993).
Furthermore, assumptions from pedagogical psychology, such as the emotional
design hypothesis, suggest a relationship between learners’ positive emotions (e.g.,
designs preferred by learners) and the effective cognitive processing of information
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(e.g., from textbooks) (Mayer & Estrella 2014). Moreover, studies have reported that
positive emotional design may reduce the perceived difficulty of learning tasks, may
increase motivation, satisfaction, and perception towards learning materials and may
foster content comprehension (Park et al. 2015; Plass et al. 2010; Um et al. 2012).
In contrast, numerous studies in image-text research have revealed that students
have some difficulty in interlinking complex image-text relations and processing
information from visuals in textbooks (Hochpöchler et al. 2012; Mason et al. 2015;
Schnotz et al. 2014). Hence, the aforementioned aspects indicate the importance of
further research regarding the design and utilisation of visuals in geography textbooks.
This paper thus investigates how the design components of current geography
textbooks may influence students’ attention processes by examining the following
questions: With what visual intensity do students utilise visuals in geography
textbooks while completing a task? How does textbook design influence students’
visual attention to depicted graphics and photos? To answer these questions,
interdisciplinary observation methods were applied to connect aspects of geography
education and visual communication with aspects of text-image research and textbook
research.
Theoretical Background
Current research investigates cognitive, affective and behavioural effects of
learning with media with the aim of integrating emotion, motivation, and affective
variables into existing models of learning with multimedia, such as Mayer’s (2005)
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) (Park et al. 2014). Against this
background, Moreno’s (2006) Cognitive affective theory of learning with media
(CATLM) expands Mayer’s CTML by including emotional and motivational factors
such as self-regulatory skills and learner preferences. Within this context, recent
studies have revealed that cognitive processing and learning results in multimedia
learning can be affected by constructs such as “situational interest”, “positive
emotions”, or “confusion” (Leutner 2014).
These constructs may also affect learners’ visual attention (e.g., to depicted
textbook elements). Visual attention is the first step in visual perception processes,
even before sensory registration and cognitive processing of a visual stimulus (Geise
2011). Therefore, learners’ attention to specific textbook content should be the first
step in knowledge acquisition from textbook elements, followed by conscious
perception and information processing. Visual attention is the selective process that
controls students’ awareness of the depicted textbook content and induces which
details of the depicted materials students become conscious of (Pettersson 1995).
According to Pettersson (1999), attention may be controlled automatically, guided by
instructions or determined by the specific demands of a particular task. However,
visual perception is extremely selective, and learners can focus their visual attention
only on a small area of the depicted elements in a textbook spread at once (de Koning
et al. 2009). Consequently, the aim of instructional design in the context of a
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geography textbook should be to guide students’ attention visually through the
depicted materials to support knowledge acquisition. Besides attention, content
comprehension is important for knowledge acquisition from textbooks because the
ability to extract the main ideas and concepts from depicted textbook elements is one
crucial factor in constructing coherent representations (de Koning et al. 2010).
Nevertheless, visual attention plays an important role in acquiring knowledge from
textbooks, as it is an important prerequisite for content comprehension.
Eye movements reflect human thought processes (and also visual attention
processes) and thus, they offer a “window to the mind” (Holsanova 2014). Eye
tracking as a non-reactive reception concomitant method allows the recording of
participants’ eye movements while observing a stimulus, thereby gaining insight into
the process of media reception (Duchowski 2007; Geise 2011; Holmqvist et al. 2010).
With this method, eye movements such as saccades and fixations can be recorded
and analysed. Saccades are rapid eye movements from one area of interest to another,
while the visual perceptiveness is severely limited. During a fixation, the gaze
stabilises over one area of interest, which enables the visual perception and cognitive
processing of visual information (Duchowski 2007; Joos et al. 2003). The fixation
duration may vary according to the task parameters (Rakoczi 2012). During the first
stage of visual perception, eye movements are primarily driven by a visual match;
thereafter, they are affected by conceptual matches (de Groot et al. 2015). Hence, a
fixation duration from about 330 milliseconds shall be assumed for the conscious
perception and cognitive processing of images (Joos et al. 2003; Geise 2011).
Two theoretical assumptions underlie the eye tracking methodology. The
immediacy assumption suggests that visual information will be processed immediately
when the information is encountered, and the eye-mind assumption states that
processing visual information is closely linked to the focus of visual attention (Just &
Carpenter 1980). Even though the absoluteness of the eye-mind assumption has been
discussed for some time (i.a., Hyönä 2010), there is widespread agreement on a
relationship between visual perception, visual attention and cognitive processing of
information (Hochpöchler et al. 2012; Holsanova 2014; van Gog & Scheiter 2010).
However, eye movement patterns are highly individual and may vary according to
task parameters (Rakoczi 2012). Moreover, eye tracking only depicts which areas are
observed with what intensity, but not the results or why several areas are not observed
(Rakoczi 2012; Voßkühler 2010). Therefore, it is necessary to triangulate eye tracking
with additional evaluation methods (e.g., written evaluation, questionnaire, textbook
analysis) and to interpret eye tracking data in relation to findings from other research
fields (e.g., pedagogical psychology, information design).
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Method and Random Sampling
Participants
In an exploratory random sample, eye movement data from 20 students (eight from
secondary school, 15–17 years old; twelve university students 20–24 years of age;
total M=19.3; SD=2.78; three male) were analysed. The university students were
enrolled at Potsdam University, Germany in psychology, linguistics, biology or
French language. Geography students were excluded from the study because the study
did not rely on expert knowledge. The secondary school students came from different
schools in the federal state of Brandenburg, Germany (grade nine to thirteen). 22
students participated in the experiment for either payment (10 euro) or course credit.
Recorded data from two participants had to be excluded from the analysis because of
missing data. Thus, data from 20 participants were analysed.
Materials
Participants’ eye movements were recorded by an EyeLink® 1000 (desktop
mount) with a 1000-Hz sampling rate. The stimuli were comprised of five double-
page spreads of German geography textbooks (2012–2013) from different German
federal states covering an identical topic (the nutrition cycle in tropical rainforest).
Taken from five separate textbooks (see Figure 1).
FIGURE 1
Objects of research (A-E)
For each selected textbook spread, the content was presented utilising similar
elements: text, graphics, and photos. However, they differed with regard to their
layout and their visual and textual content presentation. Furthermore, to ensure the
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comparability of the textbook spreads with regard to the participants’ visual attention
paid to the depicted textbook elements (graphics, photos, text), the topic “nutrient
cycle in tropical rainforest” was selected on the grounds of the following criteria: (1)
the topic is covered in the curricula for secondary schools of all German federal states,
(2) the topic is developed through similar tasks, and (3) the topic had already been
taught in the geography lessons of the participants. In Brandenburg, the topic “nutrient
cycle in tropical rainforest” is covered in the curriculum for grade nine (the
participants attended at least grade nine). Due to the German federal education system,
this topic is covered in different grade levels (between six and nine) in several federal
states. Therefore, the selected textbook spreads had been derived from textbooks of
grade 9/10 (Berlin, Berlin/Brandenburg), grade 7/8 (Lower Saxony, Saarland) and
grade 5/6 (Hessen). However, the selected grade 5/6 textbook spread from Hessen was
printed identically in the grade 7/8 Edition for North Rhine-Westphalia (adopting
textbook spreads with identical topics from editions of different federal states is a
common practise of schoolbook publishers in Germany).
Procedure
A two-stage test with randomised test sequences was developed. Each participant
observed five different textbook spreads on a screen in full colour and in random
order. In the first stage, participants were given the task of observing the entire
textbook spread to determine the issue explained on the textbook spread; meanwhile,
participants’ eye movements were recorded. No time limitations were imposed during
any of the test stages. During the second stage, the same spread appeared a second
time and the participants completed one task from the exercise section while the
participants’ eye movements were recorded a second time.
Based on the selected test tasks of spreads A–E, areas of interest (AOI) were
defined. AOIs allow separate data recordings of each marked element (e.g. dwell
duration, first entry, fixation count, order of observed AOI). In this study, AOIs are all
textbook elements (graphics, photos, text) that contain information to solve the set
task and all textbook materials that refer to the set task.
Eye tracking recordings demonstrate which areas of a textbook spread were
observed with what intensity, but not with which result a task was completed.
Therefore, after completing the task on the screen, the participants were asked to write
down the task solution in keywords on an evaluation sheet. This evaluation sheet was
collected directly after notation, thus no notes to previously observed textbook spreads
remained with the participants. Overall, each participant observed five different
textbook spreads (A–E) in two test stages, and completed five set tasks.
After completing the eye tracking examination, each participant completed a
questionnaire. The questionnaire aimed to analyse participants’ preferences with
regard to textbook design, and will be further specified in the results section.
The eye tracking data were aligned with the questionnaire, the written task
evaluation and a textbook analysis of spreads A–E. Hereafter, the research results
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were affiliated with educational psychology insights and insights derived from visual
communication and textbook analysis.
Results
To analyse how the external characteristics (image-text ratio, image size) and
image content of the depicted visuals influenced the participants’ attention while
observing textbook spreads, the image-text ratio and image content of spreads A–E
were determined by textbook analysis methods. Within this paper, data will be
presented with a focus on the participants’ visual attention to the graphics, photos and
text elements of the textbook spreads.
Eye Tracking Data
The eye-tracking test provided static visualisations (heat maps, gaze plots and
trains of vision as PDF-files), dynamic visualisations (gaze replays as MP4-files) and
numerical datasets (dwell duration, AOI). The static and dynamic data visualisations
are graphical representations of the recorded eye tracking data. They allow researchers
to visually retrace participants’ eye movements while observing the textbook spreads.
Furthermore, visualisations provide a first impression of the intensity with which
certain areas of the textbook spread were observed and which textbook elements were
not, or were only superficially, observed. (see Figure 5 and Figure 8).
A fixation duration of about 330 milliseconds is assumed for conscious visual
perception and conscious cognitive processing of visual impressions (Geise 2011;
Joos et al. 2003). Therefore, Table 1 depicts the number of counted fixations from 300
milliseconds on spreads A–E added over all 20 participants for each page element
(photos, graphics, and text) and reveals how frequently the participants fixated on
certain points on the page while solving the task.
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TABLE 1
Fixation count, stage 2: number of fixations
A B C D E
Text 479 567 366 573 593
Headline 4 19 8 0 8
Captions 26 42 17 8 23
Task 213 351 106 184 175
Additional textboxes 48 – – 0 14
Photo 1 1 1 1 3 1
Photo 2 0 25* – – 2
Photo 3 4 7 – – 4
Photo 4 2 1 – – –
Photo 5 10 – – – –
Photo 6 6 – – – –
Graphic 1 398 64* 19 34 182*
Graphic 2 – 67* 111* 94* 18
Graphic 3 – 15 12 – 1 *= This graphic/photo was mentioned in the task. – = No further resources (photos/graphics, links) were depicted.
Table 1 reveals participants’ visual focus on the text elements of spreads A–E
because most fixations were counted on text elements (text, task) for each of the five
textbook spreads.
Figure 2 represents the mean dwell duration (in seconds) of all 20 participants on
spreads A–E in both stage 1 (content comprehension) and stage 2 (task). Fixations
from 100 milliseconds were counted.
FIGURE 2
Mean dwell duration in seconds averaged over all 20 participants
101,4
122,1
106,4
119,5
100,1
67,5 68,2
46,9
63,4 66,5
A B C D E
content comprehension (stage 1) task (stage 2)
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Comparing the values of Figure 2 (mean dwell duration in stage 2) with the values
of Table 2 (mean dwell duration in AOI in stage 2) reveals the fixation time
participants spent on relevant elements for solving the task in relation to the mean
dwell duration on the whole textbook spread.
Table 2 depicts the mean dwell duration of all participants on the AOIs. All
materials from textbook spreads A–E that included information to solve the set task
and textbook materials to which the set tasks referred were marked as an AOI.
Fixations from 100 milliseconds were recorded.
TABLE 2
Mean dwell duration of all 20 participants on AOIs while solving the task (in seconds)
A B C D E
Task 4.84 6.97 3.16 4.74 3.23
Text 17.32 14.23 17.73 18.11 19.98
Headline 0.21 0.70 0.34 0.08 0.94
Graphic 1 11.66 3.44 6.64 4.43 9.01
Caption graphic 1 1.21 0.76 1.11 0.36 0.48
Photo – 0.57 – – –
Caption photo – 0.23 – – –
Graphic 2 – 3.39 – – –
Caption graphic 2 – 0.77 – – –
Total 35.24 31.06 28.98 27.72 33.64 – = No further resources (photos/graphics, links) were depicted.
Table 2 demonstrates that longest fixation time was counted in the text sections of
spread A–E while solving the set task. Therefore, Table 2 also reveals participants’
marked focus on the text elements of the tested textbook spreads while solving the set
tasks.
Figure 3 demonstrates the order in which participants observed the textbook
elements containing relevant information for completing the task (AOIs) in stage 2.
Therefore, fixations from 100 milliseconds were counted. The diagram depicts on
which elements participants fixated from the first to the fifth fixation, added over all
20 participants as well as over spreads A–E. Fixations, which, amongst others, might
indicate searching processes, might also be included in the measurement.
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FIGURE 3
Order of observed AOIs in spreads A–E while completing the task
The diagram demonstrates that a majority of participants first fixated on the task
(as expected), followed by fixating on the text, and then on the graphics. However,
Figure 3 only provides data about the order of fixated textbook elements, but not about
the fixation duration. Furthermore, Figure 3 depicts solely the first five fixations,
which are typically followed by a number of further fixations.
Written Evaluation
By means of a questionnaire, participants assessed the visual quality of the
examined textbook spreads A–E (see Table 4). The questionnaire aimed to analyse
possible preferences with regard to the design of the analysed textbook spreads.
Therefore, participants allocated ranks ranging from one (best) to five (worst) for each
of the five textbook spreads in five categories: design, comprehensibility, graphics,
text, and orientation. Thus, the lowest number of points represents the best rating.
Consequently, the best overall value per category is 100 points = mark 1.0 (20
participants; five categories, each ranked with one).
TABLE 3
Evaluation questionnaire
Design Graphics Text Comprehensibility Orientation Total
A 72 73 63 69 72 349
B 62 63 59 66 66 316
C 60 47 48 47 49 251
D 68 77 76 67 65 353
E 38 40 54 51 48 231
As indicated by the questionnaire evaluation (Table 3), spread E obtained the best
overall score of 231 (mark 2.31), spread D (353 points, mark 3.53) achieved the worst
score, and spread A (349 points, mark 3.49) received the second worst score. A
0
10
20
30
40
1. fixation 2. fixation 3. fixation 4. fixation 5. fixation
Nu
mb
er
of
fixa
tio
ns
Order of fixated textbook elements
Task
Text
Headline
Graphics
Captions
Photo
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preference for the textbook design of spread E might be apparent from the distance to
rank 2 (spread C, 251 points, mark 2.51), as well as from the rating for the categories
design (39 points, first rank) and graphic (first rank, 40 points). However, none of the
analysed textbook spreads A–E obtained a very good rating (1.0–1.5).
The written task was evaluated according to a points system. According to this
system, the maximum possible value was four per task. Therefore, the maximum
possible value per test spread was 80 (20 participants; maximum four points). Figure 4
depicts the sum of all points reached by the participants per test spread.
FIGURE 4
Written task evaluation
A comparison of the written task evaluation (Figure 4) and the evaluation of the
questionnaire revealed similarities between the participants’ ranking of textbook
design (Table 4) and the written task evaluation (Figure 4). For example, it is apparent
that spread E in the written task evaluation also obtained the best results (60 points) by
a clear margin of 12 points to rank 2 (spread C, 48 points). Furthermore, spread D (41
points) and spread A (42 points) obtained equally low scores in the written task
evaluation and the questionnaire evaluation. However, a notable exception is the poor
written task outcome of spread B, which obtained 35 points, the worst result in the
written task evaluation.
In the following, the collected data from spread E (best result; Figure 5) and spread
B (worst result; Figure 8) will be analysed and compared with each other.
Discussion
The data analysis will focus on possible relationships between participants’
preferred textbook design and attention to visuals. The gaze plot (participant 21;
42 35
48
41
60
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
A B C D E
Po
ints
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Figure 5) illustrates an exemplary visual pattern of how the participants observed
spread E during completing the task. On average, the participants paid the most
attention to the task and certain areas on the text section and some attention to graphic
M3. Highlighted with a red line, Figure 5 depicts the to task three related graphic M3).
FIGURE 5
Gaze plot for spread E while completing the task (Participant 21)
As demonstrated in Figure 5, the set task for spread E contains one link to an
infographic (M3, closed nutrient cycle). Infographic M3 is, relative to its size (100 ×
85 mm), highly detailed, but the included text is limited to keywords and the graphic
content is limited to one topic (closed nutrient cycle). However, one crucial element of
infographic M3 (i.e., arrows that depict the function of the nutrient cycle) is
transparent and superimposed over the highly detailed graphic and therefore is
difficult to identify. With regard to this, studies from image-text research indicate that
information processing from graphic visualisations could be fostered if the salient
elements of graphics provide relevant information (Boucheix et al. 2013; Lowe &
Boucheix 2010). Furthermore, the textbook analysis revealed several content
duplications. For example, the caption of M3 is nearly identical to the sub-headline on
page 111. Moreover, information contained in graphic M3 is also provided in the text.
Regarding this issue, Mayer (2009) states in his CTML that presenting duplicated
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information does not automatically result in a higher learning effect. In contrary, it
might cause the redundancy effect.
The analysis of the numerical data revealed a mean dwell duration of 66.5 seconds
on spread E while completing the task (see Figure 2). In this, the participants dwelled
an average of 33.64 seconds (Table 2) on AOIs, which is 50.59% of the total trial
duration. Of these 33.64 seconds of dwell duration, the participants spent 19.98
seconds on the text section and 9.01 seconds on graphic M3 (Table 2). As shown in
the pie chart below (Figure 6), amongst all depicted visuals in spread E, graphic M3
obtained the most visual attention. This may indicate that visual and textual linking
between tasks and task-related textbook elements might yield higher attention to
related visuals. However, most fixations, as well as the longest dwell duration, were
measured on the text elements of spread E.
FIGURE 6
Spread E: Distribution of fixations (in percent) while completing the task
Text section 58.08%
Headline 0.78%
Captions 2.25%
Tasks 17.14%
Additional Textboxes
1.37%
Photo M1 0.10%
Photo M2 0.20%
Photo M5 0.39%
Graphic M3 17.83%
Graphic M4 1.76%
Graphic M6 0.10%
Total Text
Total Graphicis 19.69%
Total Photos 0.69%
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FIGURE 7
Spread E: Order of observed AOIs while solving the task; all 20 participants added
Figure 7 depicts the order of observed AOIs while completing the task. The
diagram demonstrates that a majority of participants first fixated on the task (as
expected). This was followed by an identical number of participants fixating on the
task and on the graphic. However, Figure 7 depicts solely the first five fixations,
which are typically followed by a number of further fixations. Therefore, the high
number of fixations on the headline in Figure 7 may contradict the percentage
distribution of fixations (Figure 6), but it might be an indicator of short attention spans
with respect to the headline. Notwithstanding the participants’ good rating for the
graphics in spread E (first rank, 40 points, Table 3) and the best result in the written
task evaluation (Figure 4), the participants’ main focus of attention (number of
fixations, Table 1; fixation duration, Table 4; gaze plot for spread E, Figure 5) was
measured on the text elements of spread E.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
1. fixation 2. fixation 3. fixation 4. fixation 5. fixation
Nu
mb
r o
f fi
xati
on
s al
toge
hte
r
Order of fixated textbook elements
Text
Task
Graphic
Caption
Headline
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FIGURE 8 Gaze plot for spread B while completing the task (Participant 9)
The gaze plot (Participant 9; Figure 8) depicts an exemplary visual pattern of the
participants’ eye movements and observed textbook areas on spread B while
completing the task. Additionally, Figure 8 illustrates the task-related materials,
highlighted with a red line. As demonstrated in Figure 8, the set task for spread B
(task 3) refers to three visuals and to the text section (graphic 68.2, graphic 69.1, photo
68.2). This also contrasts to the task in spread E, which solely refers to one graphic
(M3), and to the tasks in spreads A, C and D, which also refer to one visual.
Graphic 68.2 represents an infographic consisting of two graphics (the nutrient
cycle in tropical rainforests before deforestation and tropical rainforests after
deforestation [Figure 8]). This representation form is known as a paired graphic
(Boucheix et al. 2013). The purpose of paired graphics is to compare the graphics to
each other to identify similarities and differences. The left-hand side of infographic
68.2 depicts the closed nutrient cycle in tropical rainforests, and the right-hand side
demonstrates the disturbed nutrient cycle. Thus, graphic 68.2 also represents an
infographic describing a processing function (the nutrient cycle in tropical rainforests).
In addition, the caption of 68.2 also implies that the graphic depicts two different
aspects: “the short-circuit nutrition cycle in tropical rainforests and the consequences
of rainforest deforestation”. Therefore, the learner has to determine the
interrelationship between the two aspects. Consequently, to solve task 3 utilising
graphic 68.2, the learner must first analyse and decode both graphics to understand the
processing function of the “nutrient cycle”, identify similarities and differences
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between the graphics, analyse the interrelationship between the nutrient cycle and
rainforest deforestation, and align the result with the task to determine which
information is relevant for solving the task (Bétrancourt et al. 2012). However, several
studies from image-text research have revealed that information processing from
graphic visualisations is a highly complex process that represents a cognitive
challenge to students (Boucheix et al. 2013; Vries & Lowe 2010). Consequently,
depicting too many different aspects of one topic in one graphic may hinder
information processing.
We turn now to the second graphic with reference to task 3: infographic 69.1. This
graphic depicts “changes effected by the exploitation of the tropical rainforest”
(caption). The most salient elements are two white arrows on the top edge of the
graphic, marked with the capital letters A and B and the keywords “high” and “low”.
Although task 3 refers to graphic 69.1, the meaning of the white arrows remains
uncertain because they refer only to task 1 in the exercise section. Therefore, to utilise
graphic 69.1 in task 3, task 1 must first be completed. However, task 3 contains no
reference to task 1. Because the tasks in the textbook will not always be completed by
each learner one after the other, the reference to graphic 69.1 and the graphic content
might induce challenges in information processing, particularly as the salient graphic
elements (arrows) do not correspond to relevant information for completing task 3
(Boucheix et al. 2013; de Koning et al. 2010). Furthermore, graphic 68.2 includes all
relevant information for completing task 3. Therefore, the reference to graphic 69.1 in
task 3 is redundant and might lead to the redundancy effect (Mayer 2009).
Photo 68.3. (soil surface in secondary forest) represents the third reference in task
3. The depicted photo is poorly contrasted and predominantly in brown tones.
Moreover, the picture does not provide a reference to enable the observer to specify
the size ratio of the image content. Because of the described external characteristics,
photo 68.3 is neither a salient element in textbook spread D, nor does it represent an
attractive image motif. Furthermore, task 3 lacks instructions regarding which aspects
of photo 68.3 should be analysed to complete the task. This could be a crucial factor,
as photos represent holistic information and might be interpreted in many different
ways. Therefore, it is necessary to provide clear instructions on how to analyse the
photo to identify the information relevant for completing a task (Pettersson 2015).
The analysis of eye tracking data revealed a mean dwell duration of 68.2 seconds
on spread B while completing the task (Figure 2). Here, the participants dwelled an
average of 31.06 seconds on the AOIs (Table 2), which is 46.22% of the total trial
duration. This result is surprising, as 68.2 seconds is the longest measured total dwell
duration amongst spreads A–E, but the dwell duration on the AOIs of spread B is
lower compared to that of spread E (50.59%), although the task refers to three
different visuals. Consequently, the data evaluation of the AOIs (Table 2)
demonstrates that increasing the number of referred materials is not automatically
accompanied by increased dwell duration on AOIs (cf. Figure 9 and Figure 6). Rather,
the dwell duration on the referred visuals in spread B was shorter compared to that of
spread E (spread B: total of graphic 68.2 + graphic 69.1 + photo 68.3 = 7.4 s, in
contrast to graphic M3 in spread E = 9.01s). This might lead to the conclusion that the
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task-referred visuals were more superficially observed in spread B than in spread E.
Furthermore, a significantly longer dwell duration in the task of spread B was
measured compared to spreads A, C, D and E (Table 2). One possible explanation for
the participants’ lack of visual attention to the three task-referred visuals might be
cognitive overload (Chandler & Sweller 1991; Plass et al. 2010). Cognitive overload
occurs when the learning material is too complex (e.g., too many different resources)
or the learners’ previous knowledge is too limited. In such a case, many learners do
not utilise all the depicted materials; rather, they select the representations perceived
to be most promising and/or easiest to process (Oestermeier & Eitel 2014). As shown
in the pie chart below (Figure 9), most fixations were measured on text elements in
spread B.
FIGURE 9
Spread B: Distribution of fixations (in %) while completing the task
Text section 48,92%
Headline 1.64% Caption 3.62%
Task 30.28%
Photo 68.1, 0.09%
Photo 68.3 2.16%
Photo 69.3A 0.60%
Photo 69.3B 0,09%
Graphic 68.2 5.52%
Graphic 69.1 5,78%
Graphic 69.2 1.29%
Total Text 84.47%
Total Graphics 12.60%
Total Photos 2.93%
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FIGURE 10
Spread B: Order of observed AOIs while solving the task
Figure 10 depicts the order of observed AOIs. As in spread E, in spread B, the
participants primarily fixated on the task. However, Figure 10 demonstrates that the
largest number of fixations, from the second to the fifth fixation, were measured on
text, and considerable visual attention was paid to the task, in contrast to spread E.
Very little visual attention was paid to task-referred photo 68.3 and only limited visual
attention was paid to graphics 68.2 and 69.1 during the first five fixations. The
participants’ poor ratings for spread B with regard to comprehensibility (66 points,
second least) and quickly finding information for solving the task (66 points, second
least) (questionnaire, Table 3) might indicate that the participants perceived some
difficulties while completing the task. Further, the design of graphics 68.2 and 69.1
and the picture motif of 68.3 might have influenced the participants’ visual attention.
Additionally, the poor task outcome of spread B (35 points = 43%; Figure 4) could be
induced by the high number of referred materials in task 3, and the limited visual
attention that participants paid to referred visuals 68.2, 68.3 and 69.1 (Table 1, Figure
9). Consequently, it could be assumed that the more different resources are interlinked
in one task, the poorer the task outcome is likely to be. However, because knowledge
acquisition through visuals and text is a complex process that might be influenced by
various factors, the number of depicted materials is only one possible factor amongst
others that might influence students’ visual attention to specific textbook content.
Conclusions
Findings from the current study may verify textbook design as one crucial factor
(amongst others) for successful knowledge acquisition from textbooks because how
coherently a textbook layout is organised and how clearly the content of depicted
visuals is designed might influence the degree of visual attention paid to textbook
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
1. fixation 2. fixation 3. fixation 4. fixation 5. fixationNu
mb
er
of
fixa
tio
ns/
20
par
tici
pan
ts
Order of fixated textbook elements
Text
Task
Graphic1
Caption1
Headline
Graphic 2
Caption2
Photo
Caption Photo
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elements. This would be in accord with Morgan (2014) who emphasized the crucial
role of well-designed textbooks for students’ learning process, and with LaSpina
(1998) who argued that good textbook design requires the expert guidance of well-
articulated layouts in which clarity and complexity are not mutually exclusive.
Furthermore, the data evaluation revealed that participants’ ratings for design and
comprehensibility of the tested textbook spreads A–E (Table 4) corresponded in many
aspects with the results of the textbook analysis from a visual communication
perspective and with findings from educational psychology. Moreover, participants
rated those textbook spreads best which also obtained the best results in the written
task evaluation. Consequently, it might be concluded that participants were able to
assess the visual quality of the examined textbook spreads A–E in relation to their
effectiveness and efficacy of their individual learning process.
This might be of significance, as studies suggest that subjective norms and
subjective perceived self-efficacy, ease of use and usefulness are important factors for
the acceptance and efficacy of educational media (Joo et al. 2014). This would be
supported by the emotional design hypothesis (Mayer 2014) and by Moreno’s
Cognitive Affective Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM), which assume that
emotions, motivation and behaviour are, in addition to cognitive variables, crucial
factors in learning with educational media (Park et al. 2014).
Moreover, studies suggest that motivational features can improve student learning
by fostering generative processing as long as the learner is not continually overloaded
with extraneous processing or overly distracted from essential processing (Mayer
2014). However, though attention is one important prerequisite for comprehension
processes, studies addressing the attention-comprehension gap have stated that
attention paid to a depicted visual (graphic or photograph) does not automatically
mean content comprehension (St. Amant & Meloncon 2015). Therefore, learning-
effective textbook design should consider findings from pedagogical psychology,
multimedia learning and information design. This would also support studies from
educational psychology that emphasise the importance of the purposeful design of
learning materials in relation to content and learner; a purposeful design of learning
materials may support learners in understanding the meaning of the provided
information (Holmqvist Olander, Brante, & Nyström 2014).
Therefore, several factors should be considered, such as the clarity and coherence
with which information in graphic visualisations is presented. A textbook layout that
guides the learner through the depicted resources and enables the student to easily
identify relevant information includes visual and textual linking between related
materials, and the instructional, didactical, technical and aesthetic quality of depicted
visuals (Pettersson 2015), to name only a few.
Furthermore, this eye-tracking investigation revealed a disparity between the
number of visuals depicted in the analysed geography textbooks and participants’
visual attention to depicted graphics and photos on the tested geography textbook
spreads A–E. Interestingly, graphics were often looked at rather superficially;
exceedingly little attention was paid to the depicted photos, and a marked focus on
text elements was observed. Within this context, Pintó and Amettler (2002 p. 341)
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stated, “Science teachers should be aware that an image is worth more than thousand
words only if the reader knows the codes to interpret and to design images”. Thus, it
can be assumed that notwithstanding the omnipresence of visuals in everyday life,
students face challenges while learning with images. Consequently, competencies in
decoding visuals (i.e., visual literacy) should be mediated more intensely and
practised regularly. This might be essential for geography education, as geography is
inter alia defined as a visual discipline because “geography is unique in how it relies
on certain kinds of visualities and visual images to construct its knowledges” (Rose
2003, p.212).
Therefore, to construct knowledge from visuals in geography textbooks, visual
attention to depicted materials is a crucial factor in the learning process. Particularly,
studies from pedagogical psychology reveal that knowledge acquisition through
visuals and text in combination is more successful (multimedia effect) than through
text or images in isolation (Mayer 2009, Eitel et al. 2013). However, knowledge
acquisition from textbooks is a complex process that may be affected by various
factors, such as previous knowledge, students’ interests, students’ learning strategies,
media specific skills and design that promotes learning (Ainsworth 2006; Schnotz et
al. 2011). Therefore, further research is required.
It is important to mention as a concluding remark to classify the experimental
results that the study aimed at analysing students’ visual attention to depicted
materials in textbooks; not in measuring learning outcome. Additionally, a number of
possible limitations in the present study should be taken into account. First, only one
type of graphic (infographic) was primarily evaluated. Therefore, for final conclusions
and recommendations, a broader research sample is needed with a wider range of
graphics (e.g., maps, diagrams, statistics). Further limitations might be found in the
small sample size (n = 20), the heterogeneous sample composition, the heterogeneous
stimuli, the lack of a prior knowledge test, and the design of the questionnaire (only
five questions). Furthermore, the research design (five textbook spreads on the same
topic) might affect participants’ attention to the depicted graphics. For these reasons,
and based on the findings of this exploratory study utilising random sampling, a
supplementary eye tracking study with a larger sample and improved research design
is currently in preparation.
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Picture credits
Figure 1
Spread A: Krause, K., Werner, S. 2013. Terra Geographie 9/10 Berlin und
Brandenburg. Stuttgart: Klett. 50-51.
Spread B: Felsch, M., Heß, H., Marth, U. 2012. Seydlitz 9/10 Geographie Berlin.
Braunschweig. Schroedel: 68-69.
Spread C: Heit, E., Ernst M. (ed.). 2012. Diercke Erdkunde Saarland Gymnasium 7.
Schuljahr. Braunschweig: Westermann 26-27.
Spread D: Flath M., Rudyk, E. (ed.) 2012. Unsere Erde Hessen 1. Berlin: Cornelsen
176-177.
Spread E: Bahr, M. et al. (2013). Durchblick. Erdkunde 7/8. Niedersachsen.
Differenzierende Ausgabe. Braunschweig: Westermann, 110-111.
Figures 2 , 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10
Own figures and calculation
Figure 5
Own figures and calculation
Background image: Bahr, M. et al. (2013). Durchblick. Erdkunde 7/8. Niedersachsen.
Differenzierende Ausgabe. Braunschweig: Westermann, 110-111.
Figure 8
Own figures and calculation
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Background image: Felsch, M., Heß, H., Marth, U. 2012. Seydlitz 9/10 Geographie
Berlin. Braunschweig. Schroedel: 68-69.
Table 1–5
Own figures and calculation