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Some Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for
Second Language TeachingAuthor(s): Elaine K. HorwitzSource:
Hispania, Vol. 69, No. 3 (Sep., 1986), pp. 684-689Published by:
American Association of Teachers of Spanish and PortugueseStable
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APPLIED LINGUISTICS Prepared by Yolanda Russinovich Sole*
Some Language Acquisition Principles and Their Implications for
Second Language Teaching
U Elaine K. Horwitz, University of Texas at Austin
Introduction
In the last decade, we have witnessed an in- tense interest in
research in second language acquisition. Unfortunately, the
resulting liter- ature often seems to contain more controver- sies
than clear-cut findings. Many teachers feel frustrated and
overwhelmed, not only by the sheer number of research studies, but
by their confusing and sometimes contradictory results. Language
teachers and students will ultimately benefit from a thorough
under- standing of second language development, but in the
meantime, many teachers, preferring pragmatic certainty to
theoretical contradic- tions, elect to base teaching practices on
their own intuitions and classroom experience. While doubtless much
of this instruction is sound, it can be strengthened and enriched
when based on knowledge about how people develop fluency in a
second languange.
This paper will summarize some current trends in second language
acquisition re- search and suggest implications of research
findings for teaching. The purpose of this paper is to give
teachers a guide to second language acquisition research that is
readily applicable to classroom practice, as it may be a long time
before researchers resolve many of the current controversies. This
paper is organized around language acquisition princi- ples, i.e.,
general statements about second language development which have
theoretical and empirical support from recent research. Each
principle is followed by a discussion of the relevant literature
and a description of con- sistent language teaching practices. In
some cases, because of interrelationships among the acquisition
principles, the same teaching practice(s) is listed for several
principles.
The reader should note that this survey is, of necessity,
somewhat selective; it reflects the author's judgments of the
relative impor- tance of individual studies, the appropriate- ness
of research designs, and the most com- pelling and parsimonious
explanations for empirical findings. The scope of this effort
introduces a further element of subjectivity. This review attempts
to identify important findings from the large and varied body of
literature, loosely organized under the label of second language
acquisition, and at the same time, to make research findings acces-
sible to people with varied backgrounds. It cannot, therefore,
reflect the complexity and subtlety of some issues as they appear
in the research literature, although an effort has been made to
point out controversies where they exist.
Language Acquisition Principles Principle #1
There is a nonconscious process involved in second language
development which ac- counts primarily for second language flu-
ency. Several researchers have discussed this
nonconscious process, but the best-known definition comes from
Krashen's monitor model. Krashen distinguishes between sec- ond
language learning which is conscious and second language
acquisition which is not. Sec- ond language acquisition, as
described by Krashen, might best be explained as a by- product of
listening or reading comprehen- sion. When a language learner
encounters target language input data (speech or writing) which is
at least to some extent comprehensi- ble, second language
acquisition may occur.
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LINGUISTICS: APPLIED 685
(Learner receptiveness to the input is also necessary for second
language acquisition, a condition which is discussed in Principle
2.) For example, when a language learner who has no background in
Russian tunes into a short-wave broadcast from Radio Moscow, it is
unlikely that second language acquisition will occur because the
learner will not have any means to understand the Russian. On the
other hand, when a language learner who al- ready speaks Spanish
happens onto a Por- tuguese broadcast, the learner's previous lin-
guistic background will help to decode the Portuguese. As
understanding input is the major criterion for second language
acquisi- tion, in this example, the language learner who already
speaks Spanish is "acquiring" Portuguese via the radio
broadcast.
The alternative process, second language learning, is familiar
to both language teachers and students. It involves a conscious
effort on the part of the learner to "get" part of the target
language. In concrete terms, second language learning includes
memorizing vocab- ulary, studying grammar, and practicing struc-
tural usage. In Krashen's model, second lan- guage learning can
never lead to true second language fluency; all fluency stems from
sec- ond language acquisition.
Other researchers, most notably Bialystok, allow that with
practice a learner can make second language learning automatic, and
therefore conscious learning could ultimately contribute to true
language fluency. Principle 1 does not imply a position on this
controversy. It does not state that second language learn- ing has
no role in second language develop- ment; rather, it calls second
language acqui- sition the primary or more important proc- ess in
the development of second language fluency.
The Good Language Learner Study by Nai- man, Fr6hlich, Todesco,
and Stern also sup- ports the idea of a nonconscious language ac-
quisition process. In case studies of successful language learners,
i.e., those who had de- veloped a near-native proficiency in the
sec- ond language, the researchers found many who had undergone an
intensive listening and/ or reading experience. In one instance, a
21- year-old woman living in France attended one or two movies
every day. Since many of the movies were American, dubbed in
French, and she had already seen most of them, they were an
excellent source of comprehensible
input. This individual used her opportunity in the target
country, contrary to popular wis- dom, to listen to French rather
than to prac- tice speaking it, with very successful results.
Suggested Teaching Practices 1. Much class time should be
devoted to the
development of listening and reading abilities.
2. Teachers should provide meaning support for the listening and
reading materials in order to make them more comprehensible.
3. Conscious grammar learning and teaching should be
deemphasized.
4. Teachers should expect that students' lis- tening and reading
abilities will exceed their speaking and writing abilities.
5. Teachers should help students develop strategies to get more
listening and read- ing experiences; that is, help them find
sources of natural but comprehensible lin- guistic input.
A significant amount of class time should be devoted to
listening and reading activities since second language proficiency
is a by- product of listening and reading comprehen- sion. The role
of the teacher, however, is not limited to supplying listening and
reading ma- terial; the teacher must also make the listen- ing and
reading passages as comprehensible as possible. In Krashen's terms,
the teacher must supply "meaning support." To do this, the teacher
might- among many possibili- ties- give an advance organizer
(Ausubel) to the passage, supply pictures, act it out, give
vocabulary words, or use sound effects. How- ever, the teacher must
also be aware that students may come to use meaning support as a
crutch, attending primarily to the extralin- guistic cues that the
teacher supplies rather than the linguistic cues contained in the
target language message. Therefore, while provid- ing meaning
support the teacher should at the same time discourage the
development of student dependence on it.
Although Krashen hypothesizes that listen- ing and reading lead
to oral proficiency, it is likely that learners will, for a while,
have higher levels of receptive than productive skills. Learners
who complain that they un- derstand what the teacher says but have
diffi- culty expressing themselves orally are ex- hibiting normal
developmental patterns and should be reassured by the teacher. As
listen- ing and reading comprehension abilities in-
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686 HISPANIA 69 SEPTEMBER 1986
crease, so should speaking fluency. There- fore, the teacher
should encourage and assist students to find sources of
comprehensible linguistic input (video tapes, shortwave broad-
casts, magazines, native speakers in the com- munity, more advanced
students, etc.). Principle #2
The efficiency of the acquisition process is influenced by the
degree of student involve- ment with the listening or reading
material (input data). The degree of student involve- ment is
influenced, in turn, by many factors including: (1) affective
variables, e.g., at- titudes and motivation (Gardner and Lam-
bert); personality traits, e.g., tolerance of ambiguity (Naiman et
al.) and (3) conceptual level (Horwitz); (4) the interest level of
the material; and (5) the comprehensibility of the material. In a
long series of studies, Gardner and
Lambert and their colleagues confirmed teachers' intuitive
feelings that student at- titudes and motivation play an important
role in successful second language development. These studies found
that students with posi- tive attitudes toward the target language
and culture and with strong motivation were more successful
language learners (although the re- search designs employed do not
allow an un- equivocal interpretation that the positive at- titudes
and motivation "caused" the success- ful learning).
Dulay and Burt argue that learner attitudes and motivation act
as an "affective filter" through which the target language must
pass. Students with positive attitudes are receptive to language
acquisition experiences, while students with negative attitudes or
poor moti- vation have a less permeable affective filter and are
more likely to close themselves off from listening and reading in a
second lan- guage.
Learning style also plays a role in absorbing linguistic input.
More flexible students are able to listen (or read) for the gist of
a passage and ignore unimportant words they do not understand. For
example, Hosenfeld found that good foreign language readers were
able to ignore less important words they did not know while poor
readers attempted to decode every word in a text. Good readers are
thus able to extract the maximum amount of mean- ing from the input
while less flexible students may be left wrestling with one word in
the
first sentence of the first paragraph.
Suggested Teaching Practices (The first four teaching practices
listed here
refer to strategies for increasing student in- volvement with
the linguistic input; the final four suggest means for despelling
student stereotypes about the target culture.) 1. Teachers should
assess student interests
and supply appropriate listening and read- ing materials.
2. Teachers should provide meaning support for the listening and
reading materials.
3. Teachers should promote a supportive, nonthreatening
classroom atmosphere.
4. Teachers should give students specific and reassuring
instructions on how to listen and how to read ("You're not expected
to understand every word," etc.).
5. Teachers should present cultural materials to illustrate
cultural differences.
6. Teachers should help students identify and confront their
stereotypes about the target people and their culture.
7. Teachers should help students clarify their reasons for
studying a language and help them to set and achieve individual
goals.
8. Wherever possible, teachers should arrange student contacts
with native speakers. By creating a supportive atmosphere and
supplying interesting and comprehensible materials, the teacher
can do much to weaken the affective filter. Negative attitudes and
stereotypes may have to be confronted di- rectly, because if these
prejudices are not dealt with, affective filters will likely remain
impermeable. Students would thus be insuffi- ciently receptive to
the target language mate- rial to allow language acquisition to
take place.
Most importantly, the teacher should help students develop
concrete skills for decoding foreign language materials. They
should be taught to listen (or read) for the gist of a passage
instead of searching for the meaning of individual words. Reading
and listening (and rereading and relistening) are highly ef-
fective means of increasing second language acquisition. Each time
students encounter a specific passage, they have more information
to use to understand it; therefore, their lan- guage acquisition is
facilitated. They also learn not to get anxious when their first
comprehen- sion attempts are not successful. Decreasing
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LINGUISTICS: APPLIED 687
anxiety itself is an important means of weak- ening the
affective filter.
Principle #3 You learn to talk by talking. To develop true
speaking fluency, a learner
must have experience with the pressures and feedback of natural
conversational interac- tions. This principle is based on research
in communicative competence and discourse analysis (although it is
in direct contradiction to the monitor model). Savignon found that
students who spent an hour a week in role- play and simulation
activities achieved higher levels of communicative competence than
stu- dents who spent the same amount of time in the language
laboratory or in cultural ac- tivities. Studies in discourse
analysis have shown that the speech of second language learners
tends to emerge from conversational interactions and have
documented the exist- ence of vertical structures in the speech of
second language learners (Peck). In a vertical structure, the
language learner con- tinues to build an utterance through conver-
sational turns. Previous parts of an utter- ance and the response
of a conversational partner are used to build a longer utterance.
Hatch argues that such data questions a basic assumption of the
second language acquisi- tion literature that "one first learns how
to manipulate structures, that one gradually builds up a repertoire
of structures, and then, somehow, learns how to put the structures
to use in discourse." Rather, she argues that ". .. one learns how
to interact verbally, and out of this interaction syntactic
structures are developed" (Hatch 404); thus, according to this
perspective, language learners use con- versational interactions to
increase their abil- ity to communicate.
Principle 3 is also supported by recent re- search in first
language acquisition where re- searchers are pointing increasingly
to the role of parents and other caretakers in encourag- ing a
child's verbal development. In a large- scale study in Britain,
Wells has found that children who are encouraged to talk (asked
open-ended questions, responded to inquisi- tively, etc.) are more
verbally fluent than chil- dren whose caretakers discourage
communi- cation attempts. Wells's findings are taken as additional
evidence that merely immersing a child in language is not
sufficient to develop communicative competence.
Suggested Teaching Practices
1. Speaking fluency emerges from acquisition and practical
language use.
2. Teachers should promote a supportive, nonthreatening
classroom atmosphere to encourage communication attempts.
3. Teachers should listen carefully to stu- dents' communication
attempts and help to formulate them in the target language.
4. Conversation activities should focus on the communication of
meaning and be impor- tant to the student.
5. Errors should be corrected within the con- text of a
conversation. ("Oh, you mean that you went to the store over the
weekend?") The teacher's primary responsibility here
is to provide students with interesting and realistic
communication experiences and ap- propriate feedback on their
communication at- tempts. The classroom atmosphere is espe- cially
important if the teacher wants students to speak spontaneously in
the target lan- guage. In one study, Steinberg and Horwitz found
that ESL students undergoing an ex- perimental condition intended
to induce anxi- ety attempted less personal and interpretive
messages than those students in a relaxed and comfortable
environment.
Once students have developed some speak- ing fluency, every
effort should be made to put them in contact with native speakers.
Foreign language teachers, native or non- native, have experience
with the halting speech of language learners and will likely
understand target language attempts which might well be
incomprehensible to native speakers unused to foreigners. Learning
to negotiate meaning in real life interactions is an essential part
of the language learner's task (Horwitz and Horwitz). Principle
#4
Target language errors are a natural part of the language
development process. Teachers sometimes feel that student er-
rors are the result of a poor learning effort or even poor
teaching practices; however, numerous studies have shown that
second lan- guage learners produce a systematic, albeit
"incorrect," version of the target language called an interlanguage
(Selinker). The errors found in learner interlanguage seem to be at
least somewhat independent of the learners'
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688 HISPANIA 69 SEPTEMBER 1986
native language. For example, longitudinal studies of learners
of varying linguistic back- grounds have found that learners, for
the most part, follow a similar sequence in the acquisi- tion of
certain grammatical morphemes as well as the negative,
interrogative, and auxil- iary systems in English. (See Dulay,
Burt, and Krashen; and Hatch, Psycholinguistics, for a full review
of this literature.) These findings seem to question a belief that
students are destined to make errors when target-language
structures contrast with structures in their native language.
Student errors are also seen as evidence that learner target
language pro- duction is based on a systematic set of rules and is
relatively impervious to correction. Hendrickson, for example, has
found that teacher identification or explanation of learner errors
has little if any effect on subsequent productions of error. This
finding is consistent with the monitor model which posits that un-
conscious interlanguage rules and consequent production errors are
only modified by second language acquisition resulting from
increased exposure to the target language. Suggested Teaching
Practices 1. Teachers should expect that students will
make errors. 2. Teachers should not expect either overt
or covert error correction to have a strong impact on the
correctness of learner target-language speech. First-language
researchers have found that
parents and caretakers tend to correct the truth value of
children's speech rather than its structural correctness. Foreign
language students would probably also benefit from feedback based
on the communicativeness of their utterances. In addition, since
learners of different linguistic backgrounds tend to make similar
target language errors, it ap- pears unnecessary to structure a
grammar curriculum for learners of a particular native language.
Principle #5
Students can only consciously correct a minimum of their errors.
Human memory limitations and the demands of the com- munication
situation allow for only minimal use of conscious grammatical
knowledge. Krashen calls the student's store of con-
scious grammatical knowledge the "monitor" and posits that it
has only limited utility for
language production; that is, the learner must have time to use
the monitor, must know the correct rule, and must be motivated to
speak (or write) correctly. Krashen and his col- leagues have
tested the time requirement of this hypothesis by comparing student
per- formance on timed and untimed written tasks (Krashen, Butler,
Birnbaum, and Robertson). They have found that language learners
make more and different errors under the time- pressed conditions
when they presumably do not have adequate time to use the monitor.
Krashen believes that students do not have access to the monitor
during free speech ac- tivities, and therefore, they are likely to
make errors even in structures they have already consciously
learned.
Suggested Teaching Practices 1. Teachers should expect that
students will
make mistakes during spontaneous com- munication on material
they already "know."
2. The teaching of conscious language rules should be
deemphasized.
3. Speaking practice should be as much like natural conversation
as possible (role-play- ing, etc.) to provide for natural error
feed- back. Since it is hypothesized that increased flu-
ency stems from language acquisition rather than language
learning experiences, overt teaching of grammatical principles
probably will not lead to fewer student errors. Although previous
language teaching paradigms urged the teacher to correct all errors
as early and as consistently as possible, Principles 4 and 5 when
considered together imply that stu- dent errors are a natural part
of the learning process and that conscious attempts on the part of
the learner can only have a small impact on them. As an alternative
to strict teacher correction of form, the research reviewed here
suggests that participation in realistic communication activities
will more likely give students the feedback they need to improve
their grammatical accuracy. Conclusion
In the last decade, researchers have begun to make significant
progress in understanding how people become bilingual. This
knowledge can provide teachers with a sound basis for foreign
language instruction. This paper has summarized some recent
findings in second
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LINGUISTICS: APPLIED 689
language acquisition research which have im- portant classroom
applications. The language acquisition principles presented here
em- phasize the importance of natural and holistic linguistic
experiences in the development of language fluency. Teaching
practices consis- tent with these principles stress the develop-
ment of listening and reading comprehension, participation in
lifelike conversational ac- tivities, and contact with natural
instances of the target language. Student attitudes and motivation
are also very important in the de- velopment of fluency because
they can affect a person's willingness to participate in the
necessary language acquisition and language use experiences.
Language teaching practices tend to change when conceptions
about language learning change. In previous times, a behavioral
view of language learning influenced teachers to isolate the
structural patterns of the target language and require correct
manipulation of individual patterns by their students. Teach- ers
whose training reflected this perspective may find it difficult to
adjust to the view of language learning described here. It may,
therefore, be wise to experiment slowly with some of the suggested
teaching practices. Since many studies stress the importance of
second language acquisition or language proc- essing to the
development of fluency, increas- ing the number of listening and
reading ac- tivities could be a natural starting point.
Second language acquisition is very much an applied field of
study; many of the research- ers are also practicing language
teachers. The scientist-practitioner model has been particu- larly
successful in identifying a useful body of knowledge for foreign
language teachers. For- eign language instruction will continue to
im- prove over the years as researcher/practition- ers come to
better understand the processes of second language acquisition and
learning.
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Article Contentsp. [684]p. 685p. 686p. 687p. 688p. 689
Issue Table of ContentsHispania, Vol. 69, No. 3 (Sep., 1986),
pp. 466-755+i-livFront Matter [pp. 573-664]The Ascetical Meditative
Literature of Renaissance Spain: An Alternative to Amads, Elisa and
Diana [pp. 466-475]El gracioso en La hija del aire [pp.
476-482]Petrarchan Motifs and Plurisignative Tension in Quevedo's
Love Sonnets: New Dimensions of Meaning [pp. 483-494]Stranger in a
Strange Land: The Discourse of Alienation in Gmez de Avellaneda's
Abolitionist Novel Sab [pp. 495-503]Problemas de tcnica narrativa
en dos novellas de Lizardi [pp. 504-511]Al margen de la ficcin:
Autobiografa y literatura mexicana [pp. 512-520]Juego de cmaras de
Carlos Gorostiza [pp. 521-530]Vargas Llosa y La seorita de Tacna:
Historia de una historia [pp. 531-536]ReviewsPeninsular
LiteratureReview: untitled [pp. 537-538]Review: untitled [pp.
538-539]Review: untitled [p. 539]Review: untitled [p. 540]Review:
untitled [pp. 540-541]Review: untitled [pp. 541-542]Review:
untitled [pp. 542-543]Review: untitled [pp. 543-544]Review:
untitled [pp. 544-545]Review: untitled [pp. 545-547]Review:
untitled [pp. 547-548]Review: untitled [p. 548]Review: untitled [p.
549]Review: untitled [pp. 549-550]Review: untitled [pp.
550-551]
Latin American LiteratureReview: untitled [pp. 551-552]Review:
untitled [pp. 552-553]Review: untitled [pp. 553-554]Review:
untitled [pp. 554-555]Review: untitled [pp. 555-556]Review:
untitled [pp. 556-557]Review: untitled [pp. 557-558]Review:
untitled [pp. 558-559]Review: untitled [pp. 559-560]Review:
untitled [pp. 560-561]Review: untitled [pp. 561-562]Review:
untitled [pp. 562-563]
Pedagogy, Linguistics, TextsReview: untitled [pp.
563-565]Review: untitled [pp. 565-566]Review: untitled [pp.
566-567]Review: untitled [pp. 567-568]Review: untitled [pp.
568-569]Review: untitled [pp. 569-570]
Books Received [pp. 570-572]Letters to the EditorOn " 'How': The
Missing Interrogative in Spanish" [p. 574]On Distinguishing between
ser and estar through Structure Analysis [p. 574]Response to "Cuba,
an American Boogeyman" (March 1986: 148-49) [p. 575]
The President's Corner [pp. 575-576]Professional News [pp.
577-584]The Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian World [pp. 585-598]Chapter
News [pp. 599-605]The 1986 AATSP National Spanish Examination [pp.
606-623]Preliminary Directory Materials: The American Association
of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, Inc. [pp. 624-640]Official
Announcements [pp. 641-660]1985-1986 AATSP Medal Awards [pp.
661-662]Theoretical LinguisticsThe Effect of Two Phonological
Processes on Syllable Structure in Peruvian Spanish [pp.
665-668]Clusulas e infinitivos con verbos y preposiciones [pp.
669-676]Acerca del Voseo Culto de Chile [pp. 677-683]
Applied LinguisticsSome Language Acquisition Principles and
Their Implications for Second Language Teaching [pp.
684-689]Observations on the Tu/Vos Option in Guatemalan Ladino
Spanish [pp. 690-698]
Pedagogy: Elementary SchoolsThe Teacher of FLES in 1986 [pp.
699-701]Distinguished Children's Books in Spanish [pp. 702-706]
Pedagogy: Secondary SchoolsFun and Games-With a Purpose [pp.
707-708]Introducing Literature: Some Points of Departure [pp.
709-710]
Pedagogy: Community CollegesAprendiendo con movimientos: TPR in
a College Spanish as a Second Language Class [pp. 711-713]
Pedagogy: Colleges and UniversitiesFitting It All in One
Semester: An Intensive Introductory Course in Spanish for
Health-Care Personnel [pp. 714-719]Strategies for Teaching and
Testing Reading [pp. 720-722]A Survival Spanish Course for the
Older Learner [pp. 723-727]
Audio-Visual Instructional MediaReview: untitled [p. 728]Review:
untitled [pp. 728-729]Review: untitled [p. 729]Review: untitled
[pp. 729-730]
Computers in Research and Teaching[Introduction] [p. 731]Our
Continuing Progress [p. 732]Computers in Teaching, Research, and
Departmental Administration [pp. 733-735]The Power of Public Domain
Software, Built-In Editors, and Computer Games in CALL [pp.
736-739]The Athena Language Learning Project [pp. 740-745]Software
ReviewsReview: untitled [pp. 746-747]Review: untitled [pp.
747-748]Review: untitled [p. 749]Review: untitled [pp.
749-750]Review: untitled [pp. 750-752]Review: untitled [pp.
752-753]Review: untitled [pp. 753-754]Review: untitled [pp.
754-755]
Back Matter [pp. i-liv]