Horses for courses or courses for Horses: what is effective teacher development?

This article was downloaded by: [203.144.170.99]On: 22 March 2014, At: 04:51Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH,UK

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Horses for courses or coursesfor Horses: what is effectiveteacher development?Steven Higgins a & David Leat aa University of Newcastle , United KingdomPublished online: 20 Dec 2006.

To cite this article: Steven Higgins & David Leat (1997) Horses for courses or courses forHorses: what is effective teacher development?, Journal of In-Service Education, 23:3,303-314, DOI: 10.1080/13674589700200025

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Horses for Courses or Courses for Horses: what is effective teacher development?

STEVEN HIGGINS & DAVID LEATUniversity of Newcastle, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT In this article we attempt to move forward the debate on whatconstitutes effective development for teachers by examining some of thecurrent models of teacher development. We argue that each of themodels is from a particular perspective and that this needs to be takeninto account. We further argue that the purposes of these models andconceptualisations need to be considered as they can be categorisedaccording to whether they are descriptive, explanatory or prescriptive.Yet it is not clear how descriptive and explanatory models becomeprescriptive to guide action. In addition, we highlight the role of theindividual as an important locus of control in teacher development.Further literature is then used to support our argument that the choice ofdevelopmental model intended to have an impact on teachers’ practiceneeds to be flexible, informed and deliberate if it is to be effective.

Introduction

In this article we aim to consider the issue of effective support fordeveloping teachers’ practice. It is stimulated by a realisation that thereare radically different perspectives on teacher education and by a desireto bring some coherence to these potentially conflicting viewpoints. Thefirst of these perspectives is personal and comes from a universityeducation department where research and experience combine to indicatethat trainee teachers are individuals with different responses to a 1-yearpostgraduate teacher training year. In addition, we are mindful that theeffect of teacher training institutions upon students may be somewhat lessthan might be hoped, as courses may influence students very little in theirbeliefs (Bramald et al, 1995) and any effects may be ‘washed out’ in thefirst year of teaching (Zeichner & Tabachnik, 1981). The secondperspective is in the light of current national debates about the training ofpre-service teachers which represent teaching predominantly as acompetence-based profession. Course requirements (TTA 1997) forprimary teacher training in the UK suggest that getting enough lectures

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about subject knowledge and effective teaching methods, and then beingshown what to do will meet all the needs of professional learning. Theinspection system for Initial Teacher Training (ITT) has been made morerigorous and one institution has been closed after failing to meet requiredstandards. The increasing involvement of the Teacher Training Agency(TTA) in continuing professional development seems likely to strengthenthe competence approach to assessing professionalism. The finalviewpoint is that of schools where there are a range of factors in play.These may be characterised as a tension between meeting demands foraccountability (appraisal, inspection, league tables, etc.), whilstmaintaining professional commitment towards developing practice. Thedangers in getting this balance wrong is in one direction low morale andfeelings of deprofessionalisation and in the other direction lack of publicor political confidence in the teaching profession.

Each perspective tends to generate a particular or partial view ofprofessional development. In this article we aim to give an overview ofteacher development with these perspectives in mind, and to try toidentify the strengths and weaknesses of these apparent perspectives. It iswritten with an acknowledged bias as we believe that the current climatedoes not give enough attention to individual development needs. However,the other perspectives have strong claims either through the legitimacy ofpower (the right of might) or the democratic claims of accountability.

We are, therefore, intending to offer help to those responsible forproviding professional development by clarifying means and ends inteacher development which could therefore allow more informed choice ofappropriate developmental strategies or approaches. It may also help toclarify some possible outcomes of government reforms in teachereducation. The article deliberately uses a number of figures and diagrams.The intention of these is to present various aspects of teacherdevelopment visually, so that they can be more easily interpreted andrelated one to another – to provide a bigger picture.

Personal Experience and Perspective

Both authors work with emerging and experienced professionals: studentson a 1-year preservice (PGCE) teacher training course, and groups ofteachers in their first and second years of teaching as well as experiencedteachers in a variety of in-service roles, including higher degree courses,school-based INSET sessions and curriculum development consultancy. Inthese roles we encounter the differing perspectives described earlier andwe try to work with each as the context dictates. Our acquaintance withthe literature on teacher development provided a spur to try to resolvecontradictions as there are a number of paradigms which compete andoverlap. Instead of just working with the perspectives as we encounteredthem we felt that we needed to examine the relationships between them sothat we could be more deliberate in our response to and our use of theseperspectives in practical contexts. To give an extreme example, a

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struggling PGCE student will have different developmental requirementscompared with an articulate Masters student pursuing an action researchroute.

Further stimulus came from an internal evaluation of an innovativeprogramme of support for newly qualified teachers (Ford et al, 1996). TheNew Teacher in School programme (NTIS) is intended for those enteringtheir first year of teaching and was introduced into the University ofNewcastle’s Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Programme inthe autumn of 1994. The course is innovative in that few Higher Educationestablishments involved in postgraduate teacher training offer additionalsupport of this nature. The programme runs over a period of 2 years. Inyear 1 there are three conferences complemented by a personal link withuniversity tutors. In year 2 the programme is more intensive and involvesregular evening sessions over two terms. As most of the participants camethrough Newcastle University’s PGCE course it was a challengingopportunity to consider the effects of the preservice training as well ashow to work effectively with recently established professionals. Thiscrystallised our perceptions of the competing perspectives on the newlyqualified teachers both through their own words and through the words ofsome of the members of staff responsible for their development, includingheadteachers. The views held by senior staff tended to mirror those ofmost of the new teachers in that the needs of newly qualified teacherswere seen to revolve around the practical issues of classroommanagement. However, one senior staff member acknowledged the more“cerebral” nature of the university’s perspective and this exemplified theview expressed by other headteachers that the advantage that the highereducation could offer was in terms of providing a wider context in whichto place Newly Qualified Teacher (NQT) development. Furthermore, onestudent valued the discussion about “broader issues of education”typifying a more personal approach to professional development. Ateacher in the second year of the programme indicated that she regardedthe programme as a “sign post which helped me remember where I wastrying to get to”. Within this sample, therefore, there were many concernsabout basic teaching competences, or the means of teaching, but alsosome desire to consider the ends.

As teacher education comes increasingly under the spotlight, there isa growing realisation of the need for greater continuity, which mightprovide an almost seamless progression from initial teacher education,through induction, to continuing professional development. This view isreinforced by the Teacher Training Agency’s (TTA) involvement andidentification of NQT status as one of the five steps in professionalqualifications leading ultimately to headship. The implicit framework for acontinuity of provision is to be welcomed. However, as it stands, thecompetence framework for such development is likely to omit a number ofavenues for professional development, especially those which explore thepurpose of education or teaching.

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STEVEN HIGGINS & DA VID LEA T

Conceptuallsatlons of Teacher Development

A variety of models of teacher development have been offered In the literature. In our initial desire to understand the relationships between them, we attempted a simple mapping exercise, representing particular models as circles. By their relative position and overlap, we hoped to develop our understanding of them as a set (Figure 1). We also wondered whether the perspectives outlined In the introduction (personal, governmental and school) would neatly overlay our map. Although the mapping process advanced our thinking the final picture was unsatisfactory as we could not adequately represent the complexity of relationships between the models in this way. Furthermore, the literature in relation to some of the conceptualisations is far from homogeneous. As Adler (1991) has noted In relation to the reflective paradigm, reflection does not mean the same thing to different authors. Cruikshank (1987), for example, describes a process In which teachers reflect In a journey towards mastering a prescribed set of teaching skills, whilst Zelchner & Tabachnik (1981) regard the process as critical enquiry Into the purposes of education.

Figure 1. Models of teacher development.

Although the mapping process failed, lt reinforced an understanding that the models are not mutually exclusive. We felt strongly that they represent different perspectives, generated by different contexts and lnsights. Accordingly, we still felt that they could be placed In over-arching frameworks which can then be used both to describe and understand the national debates, and clarify some of the confusion In what effective teacher development might be. Through such a framework

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one can be more conscious, deliberative and metacognitive in the choice of the model or dimension to suit a particular context or person. Each of the models has a number of assumptions, and when these are appreciated the selection can be more informed and deliberate. Without this understanding it is too easy to be hurried down one particular route or approach by dictat or custom without questioning the probable effect. As professionals in teacher education we have to be concerned about the purposes of our work. We are not simply technicians, we must consider means and ends in order to be effective.

Pedagogical knowledge Subject knowledge

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Stages models e.g Novice to expert Reflection Socialisation

Figure 2. What, why, how and where.

Conceptualisations of teacher development can be categorised as to their intent. Some are descriptive and seek only to document the difference between teachers of different expertise (Novice to Expert models, e.g. Leinhardt, 1988, Livingstone & Borko, 1989). Others are explanatory and attempt to explain why teachers develop as they do as in the literature on images and autobiography (e.g. Knowles, 1992). We tried to add this further dimension to the model to show more appropriately how the different perspectives related to each other. This proved too complex to illustrate easily. Instead, we simplified the questions about the purposes of the models of what develops, how development happens (descriptive) why development occurs (explanatory) and where that development

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(context). Our next step therefore was to try to align models in relation tothese central enquiry questions:x What changes?x How and why do these changes take place?x What influence does context have?The self emerged as the most appropriate centre piece of this diagram(see Figure 2). This diagram was a step forward as it helped to clarify thecontribution that different models can make to teacher development.However, the diagram still had some frayed edges. Whilst the question‘What?’ is perhaps an appropriate headline for models relating to craftknowledge and subject or pedagogical knowledge, socialisation literaturerelates strongly to both the ‘Where?’ and ‘How?’ questions, which we havetried to indicate on the diagram. Our intention through the diagram is toencourage all those with a stake in teacher development to ask criticalquestions in professional development situations such as:x Who is this person? Who are these people?x What changes are we seeking?x What is the significance of the context? (school culture, socialisation,

locality, etc.)x How might changes be effected?x What are the likely consequences of choosing different approaches?There are a number of areas of confusion which may appear if theassumptions and limitations of a specific conceptualisation are not madeexplicit. For example, in the novice to expert transition it is not clear hownovices become expert. Rich (1993) clearly illustrates that expertise is notnecessarily transferable to new teaching situations. We would furtherargue that because a novice to expert model is largely descriptive andcentres on the question of what distinguishes experts, or what constitutesexpertise, it is presumptuous to use it as a strong component in decidingthe nature of professional development courses. So, for example, theTTA’s proposed primary initial teacher education course requirements(TTA, 1997) demand high levels of input in relation to mathematics andEnglish subject knowledge. These proposals have been reportedly basedon reviews of literature on effective teachers in these subject areas. Weseem to be proceeding on the assumption that if we deliver enoughsessions on subject knowledge, subject application and technical skillsthen trainee primary teachers will automatically be better prepared, but itdoes not necessarily follow that addressing specific technical skills willlead to the desired development. We mean that an over-reliance on thisthinking is in danger of ignoring how such expertise is really developedand the influence that context imposes – as through school placements.On the other hand, a reliance on reflective paradigms which use personalhistories and images of teaching as raw materials can leave some teachersand student teachers frustrated by a lack of guidance for action (Leat,1995). In this situation there is the danger that an explanatory theorybecomes prescriptive.

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It may be noted that these questions are framed as if voiced by an 'other', who could be an inspector, adviser, line manager, headteacher or tutor, which implies that the control of professional development is invested in these people. This, in itself, raises many questions about locus of control which we return to below.

Horses for Courses

As was alluded to earlier, individual teachers differ markedly, which is an unremarkable statement in itself. More significantly, their teaching styles differ (robin & Fraser, 1989), their views of teaching and learning differ (Cooper & Mclntyre, 1996), their relationships with pupils vary (Wubbels & Levy, 1995) and they have differing effects on achievement. This variance would seem to argue for a differentiated approach to professional development: courses for horses, as our title suggests.

What changes

Subject knowledge

Pedagogical knowledge

Craft knowledge

Images and self concept

Understanding goals of education

Figure 3. 'What' versus 'How'.

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In Figure 3 we offer another diagrammatic representation, which elaborates this metaphor 'horses for courses'. Under the heading "What changes" are listed some of the constructs used to describe teachers and their expertise. The horizontal parallel lines are labelled "How" and these represent some of the professional development routes that could be offered to a teacher depending on the construct under development and the particular context. The point being made is that a conscious choice can be made in relation both to the construct chosen and the route offered, and this could be different for two teachers in the same school doing similar jobs. We appreciate that such a complex choice would need to be informed by a special insight, but we write with the purpose of building awareness of this understanding.

Some caveats have to be entered about the diagram. First, the 'routes' (shown vertically) are open to debate and clarification. We would encourage others to amend these terms or Insert new ones. Secondly, we imply no preference by arranging them In the order shown. Critical enquiry is not better than instruction, it is different and is probably

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suited to certain purposes. Thirdly, a period of professional developmentcould include any combination of these routes; they are not mutuallyexclusive. Finally, the diagram is just that. If the letters on our routes donot cut a particular line we are not arguing that it is totally inappropriatefor that construct.

By instruction we would mean lecture and seminar formats. We usemodelling to mean conscious attempts to copy the thinking and actions ofother teachers. Induction is used to describe formal and informalprocesses which communicate the routines, norms and values of aninstitution. By coaching we would mean professional development supportthat reaches inside the classroom, and provides both feedback and adviceon performance. Peer collaboration represents professional growthachieved through working by choice with others in some joint venture.Action research is that cyclical process whereby teachers investigate theirown practice, typically involving data collection, reflection and thereformulation of practice. By critical enquiry we mean a reflective processwhereby aspects of the self are one focus of the enquiry, and in theprocess of development questions of the purpose of education and one’srole in it are reviewed.

Our proposition, therefore, is that one approach to teacherdevelopment with a set agenda for what needs to be developed is clumsyin the extreme. No one approach is likely to meet the needs of teachers toimprove their effectiveness. To consolidate this argument we presentsome brief examples from research literature on teacher differences.

Student teachers assume basic competence in the skills to makeclassrooms run smoothly at different rates. For example, Lawes (1987)found that student teachers’ ability to judge pupils’ comprehension,interest and ability from watching silent video tape of a class was relatedto the student’s teaching effectiveness, as rated by the tutor andsupervising teacher. Those who develop this perceptual ability quickly areready to operate on this information whilst those who are slower will bedelayed. With regard to more visible behaviour, Neil (1989) compiledratings of student teachers from referees and at interview on posture,willingness to meet gaze, calmness of behaviour and gesturecharacterising enthusiastic speech. These ratings were compared withratings during the course by supervising teachers and tutors of control,clamness, enthusiasm and progress, showing a positive relationship. Heconcluded “calm, dominant behaviour ... seem(s) to allow studentteachers to maintain control, they can then show their enthusiasm fortheir subject and thus build up positive relationships with classes”. Theteaching skills described here might be characterised as first order. It isdifficult to argue that the whole cohort in these two studies have the samedevelopmental needs. The struggling students may benefit from acompetence approach, with meticulous instruction, modelling andcoaching, but this could constrain and frustrate those for whom suchskills are easily developed.

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Chandler et al (1991) used the construct of the pro-active studentteacher to correlate against ratings of performance. They described asmall minority of students who have high levels of personal commitmentand motivation who go beyond the normal expectations of traditionalteaching. There is the implication here that we are now dealing with asmaller proportion of teachers who appear to be developing in a markedlydifferent way. These teachers are innovative and willing to try things out,and these least cautious students were rated more highly than their morecautious contemporaries. This is an approach to learning which is noteasily subsumed into a competence framework, nor to coaching ormodelling; in such circumstances action research and the exploration ofpersonal effectiveness seem better approaches.

Finally, the study by Rich (1993) throws issues of competence intostark relief. He describes an Israeli study in which a number of teacherswho were rated by superiors as expert and a number who were not sorated were given instruction to allow them to implement cooperativegroup work in their classrooms. In the process of implementation all theteachers showed some characteristics of novices, including anxiety, in theclassroom. Some experts emerged from the process as proficient in usingcooperative groups, but not all. Furthermore, some of the non-expertteachers emerged as proficient in this new style. It would appear that therange of teachers in this study had very different experiences in theimplementation process, which would argue for some differentiation in theprofessional development that they received.

Locus of Control

Who is in control of the development is a crucial issue. Any approach toprofessional development which ignores this issue is missing a vitalcomponent. The main dilemma in this area is about how precisely theoutcomes of a programme of development can be specified.

Cole’s (1991) idea of a community of learners aims to establish theecological conditions for development, but this might not be acceptable tothose requiring specific determinable outcomes from a programme ofdevelopment. However, her observations about the pivotal role of theindividual cannot be ignored. There are three main possibilities forconsidering who controls the development. First, there are the individualsthemselves. The individual is the key to any development. All thesubsequent models make the assumption that the individual is a willingand able participant in developmental programmes. Certain approachessuch as the reflective paradigm or images and autobiographical modelsmake this explicit. The second grouping can broadly be described asmanagerial. Competence models fall into this category as they seedevelopment as identifiable and deliverable according to an institutionalplanning and implementation framework. Approaches using the schooldevelopment plan would usually fit into this view as would Novice toExpert models and technical skills approaches. The third option for the

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STEVEN HlGGINS & DAVID LEA T

The third option for the locus of control is situatlonal. In this the agent of change is seen from a situational or ecological viewpoint. Those developing or changing are not In complete or direct control, but are affected by the particular and complex context of their school. All of these viewpoints have some validity and they are not mutually exclusive. Development can perhaps be seen as the Interplay between the different elements. In practice, change and development can and does occur in each of these areas. In order to promote efficient development it will be necessary to consider all of these aspects to see which Is most relevant in order to be effective in particular circumstances. To some extent the particular focus will depend on desired outcomes.

In Figure 3 we suggested that a number of related approaches could be set against how development can be effected. In Figure 4 the locus of control shifts significantly across the development.

What changes

Subject knowledge Locus of control ~ :;::

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Understanding goals of education

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Figure 4. What, how and the locus of control.

It is important to recognise that people are problematic If they think they are being manipulated. Hence, our concern that a perspective that only concentrates on the 'what' will fail to carry the teachers along with the intended development. The results is likely to be that the process of development will be inefficient and the desired outcome will not be reached as teachers adopt, adapt, and subvert new skills and techniques according to their existing practice, and their existing conceptualisations of teaching and learning.

In this article we are suggesting that the locus of control needs to be made explicit on two levels: 1. First for those working with teachers. This will make deciding upon the means of development more conscious. The 'what' may be broadly agreed, but the process needs to take into account the complexity of individuals and contexts;

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2. To raise awareness of teacher themselves as to the purpose ofdevelopment. Studies such as Nolder & Johnson (1995) suggest that acrucial part of the process of professional practice development is makingthe process explicit to the learner.Imposed development will clearly have an effect, but the results may notbe those intended. Establishing procedures to enforce desired results willalso have effects, again probably not those intended. Without consent,imposed development will be reinterpreted, and at best subverted or,more likely, ignored or refused. At worst, it will have unintendedconsequences that both sides agree are detrimental to pupils’ learning.The perceived locus of control is an important part of this equation.

From a more theoretical stance Ashcroft & Griffiths (1989), inadvancing the cause of the reflective paradigm in teacher education inwhich critical enquiry is fundamental, argue that values related toopen-mindedness, responsibility and wholeheartedness need to bedeveloped. They quote Zeichner (1983) “rather than just acceptingexisting traditions or curricula and imitating current practice, the effectiveteacher is seen as one who reflects on the question of what ought to bedone”. There is reinforcement here therefore for the idea that a criticalcharacteristic is both motivation and adventure: the energy, confidenceand commitment to experiment, to try things out and take to risks.

Conclusions

Our conclusion is that the conceptualisations that we have discussed areincomplete and the perspectives that they offer, though valuable, do notencompass the complexity of developmental needs in particular individualcircumstances. Our interpretation would be that the assumptions ignorethe human complexity of professional or practice development. Thechoice of appropriate support for professional developments needs to bemore flexible, more informed and more deliberate if it is to be effective.

Correspondence

Steve Higgins, Department of Education, University of Newcastle,St Thomas Street, Newcastle NE1 7RU, United Kingdom.

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