Horace Brown - British Brewing in Retrospect and Prospect

88 [March-April, 1948

HORACE BROWN MEMORIAL LECTURE*

BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT

By Julian L. Baker

"Men should not be vain in publishing

their knowledge whether orally or by

wiling, neither should they be cunning insecreting what they have acquired, but be

generous and free in communicating the

facts making them as comprehensive and

as simple as possible."—Bacon.

Introduction

When some months ago the Council of this

Institute awarded me the Horace Brown

Medal, I confess I had misgivings in acceptingso signal an honour when I remembered the

great scientific and technical achievements of

past recipients of the medal. Moreover, it iscustomary for the Medallist to give an

address on a subject with "which his life'swork has been associated. I have been

tempted, however, to -take a liberal view ofmy task and to submit certain ideas on the

effect of past and present research, legislation,and changes.in the customs of the inhabitants

of these islands on the future of our great

industry, rather than discuss my research"

work on the biochemical changes undergone

by starch when acted on by the amylases,

which might be considered of somewhat

limited interest.

The impetus of social changes which is so

markedly increasing "the ambit off beer

consumers, of improved processes and plant,and methods of presentation of products in

premises have brought about many changes

in brewery practice, and it is unlikely that

we shall ever again see the varieties andgravities of beer which were available to the

public before the first world war. It thus

becomes a matter of interest to speculate and,if possible, foresee what confronts us.

Whether some of the surmises which follow

be correct or not, time will show. They are

submitted with all sincerity.

• Delivered at a meeting of the Institute ofBrewing, held at the Royal Institution, AlberaarieStreet, London, on 10th January, 1048 (<;/. this

purn., 1948, 6).

When in 1925 the death of Horace Brown

was reported to the Council, it was agreedthat the memory of his outstanding services

to the brewing industry should be perpetuated by inviting at suitable intervals someone

of eminence alternately on the practical and

on the scientific side to receive a medal, and

to deliver an address to be known as the

"Horace .Brown Memorial Lecture." Thefirst lecture in 1027 was given by Prof. H. E.

Armstrong, and was followed in later yearsby Dr. E. S. Beaven (1930), Mr. F. P.

Whitbread (1934), Sir W. W. Butler (1937),Mr. J. S. Ford (1941)—all these alas no longer

with us.

Horace Brown's character and place in the

galaxy of great scientists is admirably

described by Prof. H. E. Armstrong in his

1927 address, published posthumously (this

Journ., 1937, 375). One realizes how great aman Horace Brown was, and how broad his

outlook on scientific matters, particularly

those associated with natural history in the

wide sense of the term. In 1877 he started

work on the enzymic hydrolysis of starch

with the object of studying the changes which

the starch of malt undergoes during themashing process—a subject which had been

begun by 0. O'Sullivan. A long series ofresearches followed until 1899, in association

with ,J. Heron, G. H. Morris and J. H.

Millar, the action of amylase on starch

being studied under a great variety of

conditions. The work was conducted withthat infinite care and patience so charac

teristic of Horace Brown and much light wasthrown on the enzymic degradation products

of starch and some on the constitution of'

starch itself anti two of its typical derivatives,the stable dextrin and maltodextrin, but heseems to have sensed that the lines on which

he was attacking the starch question would

not carry him much further, and so turnedhis energies to the solution of other problems

in which he was interested.Subsequent activities in directing the

brewing research of Messrs. A. Guinness &Son in Dublin, studies on the germination of

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 89

seeds, the diffusion of COS through the

stomata of leaves, thermal changes in optical

activity of freshly prepared solutions ofsome of the sugars, bear witness to his

remarkable versatility.His papers on the "Nitrogen Question in

Brewing'* (this/o«m., 1907, 394; 1909, 169;1913, 84), and "Reminiscences of Fifty

Years' Experience of the Application ofScientific Method to Brewery Practice"

(ibid., 1916, 267), will long be remembered.Throughout his career Brown never

wavered from his belief that his life's work

lay with the brewing industry, and in his

remarkable paper just mentioned he, to use

the words of his biographer, Dr. J. H. Millar,

"struck a fair balance between the claims of

science and art in brewing with a useful

prejudice in favour of science."

His final service to the brewing industry

was in conjunction with Sir Edward Thorpe,

when the revision of the table of originalgravities of beers was made for the Board of

Inland Revenue.

Throughout the ages the creature comforts

of men have always been a subject of the

pens of the literati. Much has been written

on the early history of brewing, and there is a

fairly clear picture of it available from the

Egyptian dynastic period. In 1860 Dr.H. Bottinger, a well-known German chemist

and manager of Allsopp's brewery at Burton,

contributed an article on "Brewing" in

Muspratt's Chemistry as Applied to Arts and

Manufactures, which even now well repays

perusal, as much practical information is

recorded. But it reveals how small a part

science played in brewing in those days.

Bottinger, who had a great personal influence

on the early life of Horace Brown, expressed

his conviction that the principles of brewing

then based on mere empiricism would in time

admit of a rational and scientific explanation.

The correctness of this outlook can now be

appreciated, and it has served to convince

the industry of the vital necessity of organized

research work.

The last half of the nineteenth century

witnessed a great urge for scientific investiga

tion in all directions. The doctrines enuncia

ted on agriculture by the great Germanchemist, Liebig, the work of Gilbert andLawes and a host of workers here and in other

countries on soils, their treatment, and the

requirements of different crops, were preparing the way for the introduction of

improved varieties of seeds.

Barley

Remarkable advances have been made in

malting barleys in the first instance by theclassical work of two well-known men, Dr.

H. Hunter and the late Dr. E. S. Beaven.An authoritative account of the position ofbarley growing in this country is set out inDr.' Beaven's "Horace Brown MemorialLecture" of 1934, and again in an interesting

article which he wrote, entitled "Barley for

Brewing" (this/owrn., 1936,487). Beaven's

name will always be associated with his

Plumage-Archer and Dr. Hunter's with

Spratt-Archer. These two pure-line barleys

may now be said to constitute the main bulk

of malting barleys in this country, replacing

the former Chevallier, Standwell, Goldthorpe,

etc.

British brewers generally like to brew

malt made from two-rowed barleys mixedwith malt from six-rowed barleys grown inwarmer countries. It is claimed there is

more "sun" in the latter barleys, which

therefore constitute better brewing material.These barleys being more husky in character

certainly favour drainage in the mash tun,

but beyond this the advantage appears tobe dubious in the light of the experience

gained in the war years, when such barleys

were not available.According to Dr. H. Hunter, the area used

for the cultivation of barley in this country

in pre-war years was about 1,000,000 acres.

During the war this acreage was doubled;

some 60 per cent, of it served for the cultiva

tion of the two varieties Spratt-Archer and

Plumage-Archer. Sixty per cent, of the total

barley crops is used for malting and brewing,

10 per cent, for seeds and 30 per cent, for

feeding and other purposes. Nowadays,

more Spratt-Archer than Plumage-Archer is

grown.

It is difficult to assess the monetary value

of the work of Beaven and Hunter to the

brewing industry, but it must run intoastronomical figures. In 1900, first-class

malts rarely yielded extracts of 95 Ib. per

quarter. As more of the Archer types ofbarleys came into cultivation the extract

values rose, and for many years past,

provided climatic conditions were favourable,figures of 97-99 Ib. extract per quarter have

90 BAKER.' BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948

been customary. Sixteen years ago the lateSir Walter Fletcher, Secretary of the MedicalResearch Council, stated in his address

"Biology and Statecraft" that the new

barleys as calculated from official returns

meant a saving of fully £1,000,000 a year.

The work of Beaven and Hunter had thus

repaid to the country already far more than

all the Government expenditure on agricul

tural research of every kind since the war of

1914-18. Sir Walter Fletcher truly said

"there could be no plainer example of how

this new science of genetics can add to the

wealth of the nation."

Imported Barleys.—Under the old malt

duty it was not profitable to steep thin six-

rowed barleys, but after its repeal in 1880 theuse of thin foreign barleys increased rapidly,

particularly when there was a shortage of

sound home barley. Between 1890 and 1900

the six-rowed Californian brewing barley

became very popular in this country, largely

owing to its uniformity of character from year

to year. In fact this and other importedsix-rowed barleys accounted for 20 -per cent.

of the malt made in Great Britain.

Grave misgivings were felt by brewers

when, at an early stage in the recent war,

importation of these foreign barleys for

brewing ceased. Technical difficulties suchas drainage in the mash tun were thought

probable, and there were forebodings that theloss of a large proportion of barley with the

"sun in it" would cause other abnormalities.

But brewers rose to the occasion, and for

some years past they have had to brew with

malt made from barley grown in these islands;

and, if allowance be made for the enforced

drop in gravities, with remarkable success.

The experience so gained has proved beyond

doubt that home grown barleys can be used

alone in brewing—a point of considerable

economic significance.

In this connection reference may be made

to a series of malting and brewing trials with

three types of English barleys, which were

made in 1946 for the purpose of determining

under ordinary conditions the effect of using

one type of malt only on fermentation and

yeast crop, and on the character and stability

of the beer. Successive brewings (12 qrs.)

were made with each malt, the yeast from

the first brewing being'used in the second

brewing and so on for five or six brewings.

The results (this Journ., 1946, 17) showed

that whilst the three barleys showed variations in composition and were only of

medium quality as judged by ordinary

standards, yet the series of five beers brewed

from each behaved normally throughout the

brewing process. The yeast crops were

satisfactory, all the beers were sound and

bright, and remained so for the usual time.My colleague Mr. T. J. Ward and myself are

indebted to Messrs. Watney Combe Reid &

Co. for placing facilities at our disposal for

the conduct of the series of makings and

brewings.

Messrs. B. M. Brown and J. Wilmot of

Whitbread & Co. (this Journ., 1947, 10)

reported the results of a somewhat similar

series of makings and brewings with the same

strains of barleys grown in the following year.The barleys, though not of a high quality,

malted satisfactorily without special treat

ment and produced satisfactory beers, whichpassed into the trade without comment and

remained stable for normal periods.These results are of some interest and,

very briefly summed up, show that English

malts of different quality with nitrogen

percentages varying from 1-51 to 2-00 per

cent, in straight brewing produce normal

yeast crops and beers. In a measure this

prepares the way for trials on a brewery scalewith improved races of barley already in

existence and those yet to be genetically

raised. As an example, early ripening

varieties, if firmly established, would be of

great help to the farmer in staggering

harvesting operations.

The improvement of malting barleys is afascinating study, and much valuable work

has been carried out on it during recent years

by Dr. H. Hunter at the National Institute

of Agricultural Botany. Those who are

interested should read his paper (this Journ.,

1943, 296) in which his views and the results

of his work are set out. The production of anew variety of barley presents many diffi

culties, for whilst such a variety may be

favourably received by the grower because inall its agricultural aspects it is satisfactory,

it may not meet the requirements of thebrewer, and vice versa. In fact, the produc

tion of new varieties is still largely a questionof trial and error, but such material advances

have already been made that it is legitimate

to anticipate that further systematic research

will result in new varieties suitable alike to

grower and user. The realization of such a

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 91

hope would, it is obvious, have a profound

effect on brewing in general.

Malting

It cannot be claimed that there have beenany substantial changes in malting technique

since early times. When new makings havebeen erected, thought and care have been

directed to their layout to embrace mddern

ideas of internal transport of material,

economy of fuel and other obvious considera

tions. The fact, however, remains that theoutlook has been conservative; maltsters

appear to be wedded to the floor system

and with a few exceptions have been shyofembarking on new procedures such as have

been adopted elsewhere. Another difficultyis that of installing mechanical devices forfloor turning, drums and improved kilns,

in existing and expensive buildings.

Since the beginning of the century very

keen competition has obtained amongst

maltsters-for-sale, and small profits have not

encouraged additional capital outlay onimprovements. Further, the tendency for

brewers to make a proportion of their own

malt has greatly increased, particularlyamong larger brewing firms. It will be

apparent that the maltster-for-sale is in a

difficult position, but his survival is a matter

of interest to the brewer who does not want

to make all the malt he requires, as he would

then lose any favourable turn in fluctuating

market prices. Moreover, a large quantity

of malt is now made on commission terms,

the barley being purchased by agreementbetween brewer and malting firm and malted

at a fixed charge per quarter. This arrange

ment permits the maltster to work to some

thing approaching capacity and- obviates

erection of new malting buildings by the

brewer.

The ever-increasing overhead charges forlabour and fuel and the replacement or repair

of makings arising from war damage arecausing some interesting changes of. outlook,

and various modifications in the adaptation

and construction of the well-known Saladin

box, the drum method, mechanical turning in

floor maltings, and Continental and American

procedures for rapid drying and curing are

all under consideration and will be installed

as soon as circumstances and materials

permit. In the past, malting drums and

mechanical turning have been used in a few

instances in this country with satisfactory

results, but the inherent conservatism of the

industry has not aided a general develop

ment of modern iteas. It is clear, however,that compulsion is bringing about a change

in this respect.

The storage and maturation of barleyand the proper age at which to malt it to get

the best results are now becoming matters of

interest among maltsters, largely due to the

very promising work of Dr. L. R. Bishop

(see e.g., this Journ., 1947, 86).

Hops

Hops appear to have been first introduced

into this country early in the sixteenthcentury, the cuttings being obtained from

Flanders. Formerly they were grown in

many districts, including Cheshire and

Lancashire, but gradually their cultivation

became restricted to the present areas.

However, the hop can grow elsewhere, and it

may well be that in the near future the

possibility of other hop-growing areas may

require consideration.

Advances in the culture and improvement

of varieties of hops, although considerable,

have not been so rapid as with barley, the

underlying cause being the understandable

desire of the grower to conserve his capital

outlay. Another difficulty is that of assess

ing the real value of the hop whether for

copper or dry-hopping purposes, and, whilst

vigorous efforts are being made in thesedirections by brewers and chemists alike,

the study is really only in its infancy.

Decades of work have evolved the P.V.

determination—a useful weapon, but onewhich does not carry us very far. The

pioneer work of Prof. Salmon and his school

of workers in the production and introduction

of new varieties has been of value to the

brewer, and this value will be greater in the

future. Already some of the new varieties

have proved to be successful in varying

degrees in their brewing value and in resis

tance to disease. The industry owes a great

debt to Prof. Salmon and to his colleagues for

the long, arduous and patient care devoted

to this subject, and it must be a pleasure to

him to realize that his efforts are at length

proving fruitful.

Growers and brewers alike are shy ofinnovations, and the lack of definite analytical methods on the evaluation of hops—

for the P.V. although useful is at best a blunt

instrument—has acted as a contributory

BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948

cause. In this matter the grower waits on

the chemist. It is no easy task, and willrequire much patient investigation and

correlation of results on a scale far more

comprehensive than has sa far been possible

with the Institute Research Scheme. Evenso, much useful work has been done on a very

difficult subject. '

The acreage under hops is insufficient forthe brewers' needs, and during the war years

the grower has been beset by all manner of

difficulties. The ravages of some diseases

are unfortunately on the increase, and it

seems reasonable that new districts for hopfields must be sought and the present lands

given a rest. It should be borne in mind

that some of the best hop fields have been in

cultivation under the same crop and heavily

manured for a great number of years, and it

may well be that some protective constituentor condition of the soil becomes gradually

diminished or altered in character, with the

result that the plant then offers less resistance

to disease. Unfortunately, the attendant

capital outlay on the growth and drying of

hops as practised is very heavy, and tends to

prohibit the speculative development of new

areas, but if there be anything in this surmise,

it is a situation which will have to be faced.

In a measure the hop grower is not in a parti

cularly happy position, for he supplies only

the brewer; so far no other use has been found

for this prolific crop.

Before discussing the advances which have

been made in our knowledge of the composition of mash tun wort, a few remarks con

cerning the enzymic hydrolysis of maltstarch may not be out of place. An enor

mous amount of labour has been expended in

this country and abroad on the elusive starchgranule and its hydrolytic products, and on'

no subject have more researches been

published, so much laborious work done, so

many unconfirmed experiments recorded, and

so many tentative and arbitrary findings putforward. The pertinacity with which

chemists attack this subject is understand

able, for starch is one of the principal foodsof man. Moreover, its breakdown products

are of profound interest to our own industry.The writer has been a worker in this field

since 1894, first with A. R. Ling and from1906 to 1939 with H. F. E. Hulton. In the

course of our work the idea graduallygained ground that the principal products of

the enzymic hydrolysis of starch were not so

numerous or so complicated as stated by

C. O'Sullivan, Horace Brown and many

other workers. At all temperatures the

main products of such hydrolysis are maltose,

maltodextrin, stable dextrin and a small

undetermined amount of a low molecular

weight carbohydrate, dextrin-like in nature,

which may well be a trisaccharide as stated

by the Danish chemist, Blom (this Journ.,

1947, 302).

At conversion temperatures between 60°

and 122° F., no maltodextrin can be found,

for, if produced, it is at once hydrolyzed to

maltose; at 160° F. its presence is definite,and at 165° F. very marked. The stable

dextrin and maltodextrin were isolated in a

pure state and their properties described; theformer dextrin resembles ct-amylodextrin,

which I isolated and described in 1902

(J. Chem. Soc, 1902, 134; this Journ., 1902,

628), in its greater resistance, as compared

with starch, to the action of a- and j3-amylases.

Having established the facts concerning

the character of the products of the hydrolysis of starch by malt amylase, the corollary

is their isolation and identification in brewery

worts and beer, and this is likely to prove a

difficult problem. In this connection it is

interesting to note that L. R. Bishop has

succeeded in preparing pure crystalline mal

tose from mash tun wort and has also

suggested a method for the estimation of

dextrin (this Journ., 1944, 6). So far the

conclusions which I have submitted havenot been challenged, but they assist to only

a limited extent in the fundamental problem

of the make up of the starch molecule.

In 1987 H. E. Armstrong wrote (this Journ.,

1937,383):

" I doubt if we can assert anything more to-day

than that the molecule is very complex; that theprimary unit is a glucose radicle; the secondary a

maltose radicle; that there is some probability

also that a triose complex is present. Formulae

such as have been drawn are practically worth

less."

It is thus apparent that what may be

termed the enzyme method of attack to

elucidate the constitution of starch is insuffi

cient. In recent years the organic chemists

have tackled the problem, and the brilliantresearches of Sir Norman Howarth and Prof.

E. L. Hirst and then* schools have estab

lished a number of facts which bear on the

problem. It may well be that the joint

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 03

efforts of the biochemist and the organicchemist may result in success, but it is

obvious that much has yet to be done by askilfully-led team of workers. One recent

and important discovery by C. S. Hanes,

which constitutes a step forward, is the

enzymic synthesis of a component of natural

starch.

Nevertheless, the problem of the changes

which malt starch undergoes in the mash

tun is relatively simple, compared with that

affecting the nitrogenous constituents. The

latter provide a problem of great complexity,

and have been and still are the subject of

investigation in many directions. Not

withstanding the advances which have been

made, we are only on the threshold of

understanding the subject. As Horace

Brown pointed out many years ago, the

work of the physiologist must go hand in

hand with that of the chemist, if the problems

of agricultural and malting practice are everto emerge from empiricism.

There are indications that more of the

recent work is following this precept.

Strenuous efforts are being made to isolate

and study qualitatively and quantitatively

the nitrogenous constituents of barley and

malt, the changes they undergo during

malting and mashing, and their effect and

behaviour during fermentation. The re

sults of the studies of L. R. Bishop and

R. S. W. Thome at Birmingham in this

connection are of great promise, and have

already advanced our knowledge materially.

It is reasonable to anticipate further definite

results from the Institute's enlarged research

scheme.

It may be anticipated that as the amounts

and kinds of carbohydrate, nitrogenous, and

other constituents of wort most necessary

for brewing become known, the growers of

barley will find themselves in a surer position

than they are at present. Already field

trials at the agricultural research stations

have effected great improvements in malting

barleys, but much yet requires to be done

before growers of barley have precise know

ledge of the type which they should produce.

The Mashing Process

Centuries of experience and the advances

in scientific knowledge of the reactions which

take place in the mash tun have not altered

essentially the procedure for obtaining ex

tract from malt. The modern mash tun is

provided with an external mashing machine,internal mashing' machinery, rotating sparge

arms and a false bottom of fitted metal

plates supported on short feet which serves

as a draining area to separate the malt

husks from the wort. The mash tun is

a well-tried and, up to a point, an efficient

piece of apparatus, but the fact remains that

the removal of the wort is not complete.

At the beginning of this century the

suggestion was mooted that the mash should

be passed through a filter press. It was tried

in a spasmodic fashion but not very success

fully, owing to poor designs on the part of

filter-press makers. Moreover, there was an

impression among brewers that abnormally

high extracts were to be distrusted, although

really nothing tangible could be adduced to

support such a statement.

In fact, the inherent conservatism of the

brewer and the strong financial position of the

industry were against the innovation, andlittle has been heard since of the mash filter in

British breweries. America and the Conti

nent, where competition plays a greater part

than here, have adopted the process with

success. Economic considerations ultimately

will compel a reconsideration of the use of

the mash filter, and in this connection the

forthcoming work of the Institute's research

scheme will be of great help. The problemis a big one, as it entails heavy alterations and

expense; against these, however, must be

set material saving in time and more efficient

removal of extract.

Fermentation

The classic work of Pasteur, his controversy with Liebig and his school of

thought marked the beginning of an epoch

in the study of the problems involved in the

phenomenon of fermentation. Earlier

workers had formulated the doctrine that

there could be no decomposition of sugar, i.e.,

no fermentation, without the physiological

activity of vegetation. These ideas were

elaborated by Pasteur, and it was due to his

researches that this doctrine gained recogni

tion. In his well-known work Etudes sur laBiSre (1876) he discussed the diseases to

which beer is exposed when it is attacked by

bacteria; and, since these are distinguishable

from yeast cells when examined under amicroscope, he recommended the employment of that instrument for diagnostic

94 BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948

purposes in breweries. He also urged the

importance of conducting the fermentation of

beer wort so that foreign organisms cannot

gain admission. Thus was the way made

clear for far-reaching improvements in the

brewing industry. Pasteur with his strong

impression that bacteria were the cause of

beer diseases suggested the purification of

brewery yeast by treatment with cane sugar

and tartaric acid, which would result in the

suppression of the bacteria. He made no

attempt to differentiate between the sac-

charomycetes and non-saccharomycetes, and

at that time there was no evidence to distin

guish a brewery yeast from a disease yeast.

The botanical treatment of the problem had

not occurred to him, and he had no exact

methods of pure cultivation. But Pasteur

had started the ball rolling and there was

much controversy concerning the degenera

tion and transformations which occur in

brewery yeast.

To Emil Chr. Hansen must fall the honour

of clearing up many of these difficulties and

misunderstandings. This great investigator,to whom brewers are profoundly indebted,

elaborated methods for the pure culture of

yeasts from single cells, and his work afforded

results which have had a lasting effect on the

fermentation industries. His criticisms of

Pasteur's investigations and his polemics with

Duclaux, Velten and others afford most

interesting and instructive reading.

The application of Hansen's pure yeast

system, although successful in many

Continental breweries, was not so -in this

country. The trials were made in a cautious

and half-hearted manner from about 1890

to 1910, but the general opinion held by

brewers was that no advantages wereapparent, and that the "pure" yeast rapidly

deteriorated. Moreover, the great disadvan

tage was the difficulty experienced in inducing

secondary fermentation, which was necessary

in many of the types of beer brewed at that

time. In 1900 to 1903, I fermented success

fully at Castle Street, Long Acre, portions

(100 barrels) of many gyles of mild ale,

but it was found that after the third succes

sive fermentation the yeast had become

mixed in type, and had to be renewed from

the original culture.

The then rather parlous state of the

brewing industry, and the outpouring of

capital in the rush for purchase of tied houses

made brewers in this country conservative in

their outlook on any departure from recognized practice, and it was felt that not

enough was known of the Hansen principle

to justify the expenditure of large sums for

the radical alteration of existing fermentation

plant.

Looking back on those days it can be

realized now that the underlying cause for the

apparent failure of the " pure yeast" doctrine

was the contamination of wort from air, and

plant infection, due to the very elementary

ideas then current regarding cleanliness and

to the unsatisfactory conditions of yeast

storage.

With Hansen's name, that of Alfred

Jorgensen will be associated. His book

Micro-organisms and Fermentation has run

through many editions in this country. His

association with Hansen began during their

botanical studies at Copenhagen University,

and it was this early collaboration whichresulted later on in such far-reaching results

in the Continental fermentation industries.

Since experience in this country indicated

that pitching yeast derived from a single cell

did not function in secondary fermentation,

attempts were made to ferment worts with

mixed types, each produced from single cells.

Hansen regarded this as a schism, but claimsfor satisfactory results have been made by

several observers, and a particularly interest

ing and successful application was suggested

and introduced by B. M. Brown of Whit-

bread's Brewery in 1934 (this Jottrn., 1934,9).

The work of Pasteur, Hansen and

Jorgensen started vigorous and productive

lines of investigation on yeasts, moulds and

bacteria, which have greatly increased our

knowledge of the properties and functions of

these organisms and the part they play in

fermentation industries generally. Much re

mains to be done before anything approaching

a complete list of the great number of

micro-organisms of interest to the brewer can

be drawn up. This it is to be hoped, will

constitute one of the tasks of the Institute'sresearch scheme. Valuable contributions

have already been made on this subject by

J. L. Shimwell and also by T. K. Walker.One profound effect of Pasteur and

Hansen's work was to bring home to brewers

the importance of cleanliness in the brewing

plant and the prevention of aerial and other

infections. In this respect the brewery of

to-day is very different from that of fifty

years ago. The necessity of freedom from.

March-April, 1048] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect

and elimination of, external and internal

sources of infection is now recognized by the

brewer, and modern plant is designed to meet

this demand. Formerly the heavier gravities

and high hop rate permitted liberties to be

taken in the matter of infection, but it is quite

another matter with the low-gravity beers

which we are now compelled to brew.

Hansen's ideas on the permanent in

dividuality of races of yeast remained undis

puted until W. Winge and O. Laustsen

working in the famous Carlsberg laboratoriesin Copenhagen found that by delicate micro-

manipulation it was possible to induce a

spore from each of two distinct species of

yeast to conjugate forming a zygote, which

subsequently developed buds of a hybrid

yeast (Compt. rend. Trav. Lab. Carlsberg,

S&r. physiol., 1035,21, 77; 1030, 22, 337; this

Journ., 1035, 406; 1930, 406).

It is thus evident that a culture of yeast

derived from a single cell may contain more

than one type of yeast, and even the product

from a single spore may also consist of at

least two types. Previous work on yeasts

has been limited to selection of types spon

taneously produced in nature, but there is

now the possibility of work on the breeding

of yeasts corresponding to that carried out on

the higher plants.

This interesting discovery of Winge's un

folds far-reaching- lines of investigation.

Already advances have been reported, and

one of the artificial hybrids is in use in an

English yeast factory, where it is considered

superior to its "natural" predecessor. It is

known that the type of yeast used in fermentation plays a part in the flavour of the

resulting product, and in this connection the

wine yeasts are a notable example. As

knowledge of the constituents of wort prior

to fermentation progresses and fari passu

that of the properties of certain yeasts, it is

surely not too radical a view to anticipate

complete control of brewery fermentations

in any desired respect. It can be visualizedthat in the future something of the nature of a

"standard hopped wort" will become general

in British breweries, with any particular

flavour to meet local requirements controlled

by appropriate yeasts. Criticism is antici

pated in submitting this suggestion, but it

seems highly probable that something of this

nature faces the industry.*

There has been a slow but steady advance

in the improvement of fermentation plant in

British breweries, although the fundamental

principles of the skimming and dropping,

Burton union, and stone square systems

remain the same. The improvements have

been in the direction of obtaining purity of

the air in the fermentation-rooms, control of

temperature during fermentation, ease of

keeping the plant clean, preservation of the

yeast crop, and reduction of fermentation

losses. Owing to the high beer duty the last-

mentioned item has much significance, and a

former President of the Institute, Mr.

W. Scott, has devised a process now in use

in many breweries to effect this purpose.

Fermentation vessels made of copper and

wood are being gradually replaced by other

materials of a less costly and more durable

character, such as stainless steel, aluminium

alloys and concrete. Plastic materials may

well have a future in this connection.

The introduction of the paraflow with

which Dr. Seligman's name is so closely

associated is a notable step forward in thesubmission of a clean wort to the action ofyeast, and the necessity of pure air and

controlled temperatures in the fermenting

rooms is now claiming the close attention of

brewers. Progress in these respects is un

fortunately retarded by constructional diffi

culties inherent in adapting old buildings to

modern requirements, whilst brewing opera

tions have to continue. A brewery cannot

cease production whilst a new building toaccommodate modern plant is being erected.

New building is rarely possible, and the best

has to be made of the existing lay-out. The

present position of this country will delay

still further improvements and developments

in building and in plant.

The changes affecting the presentation and

consumption of the national beverage have

been very great during the last 50 years,

economic considerations and Government

ordinances arising from the two great wars

being largely responsible. The high prices of

wines and spirits have had their effect inincreasing the number of beer drinkers.

More women now drink beer and, in this

respect, improved licensed premises and the

* Those who are interested in the hybridization ofyeasts should read an interesting account of Winge'swork by Prof. R. H. Hopkins (this Journ., 1040, 68)and a later paper by Dr. R. S. W. Thome on

"Inheritance in Yeast" (ibid.. 1047, 25).

96 BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IK RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1048

more liberal outlook on life which obtains inlarge centres of population have had a

considerable influence. The spread of know

ledge brought about by education that exces

sive consumption is harmful and unsocial, thegeneral improvement in conditions of life,

and the high price of beer and its low alcoholiccontent, have each and all contributed to the

greater sobriety which is now so apparent ascompared with the past.

If those responsible for the retailing of beer

had a free hand and were not so hampered by

the curious and—in many cases—archaic

regulations enforced by various authorities,

the progress of internal and external improve

ments in, and the alteration of, licensed

premises would doubtless have been more

rapid and substantial. For at least three

decades it has been the settled policy of

breweries owning houses to improve them

and to bring them up to date to meet modern

requirements. The old gin "palace" is

vanishing and the many fine and attractive

licensed premises now to be seen in town

and country show what can be done and

what may be anticipated in the future.

Few people outside the brewing industry

realize the many restrictions imposed by the

Licensing Acts upon reasonable developments and alterations of licensed premises.

It is not so much that the provisions of those

Acts are contested as the fact that such pro

visions are not always fairly interpreted.

The expression "discretion of the Licensing

Justices" freely permits the faddist reformer

and temperance fanatic to indulge in pre

judiced views, so that instead of judicial and

impartial decisions the owners of licensed

premises are subjected to personal and partial

interpretation of the Acts. The many

difficulties, and obstructions to alterations

and improvements in licensed premises

necessary to meet modern conditions, and

particularly those connected with new licen

ces, are too well known to brewers to need

any elaboration. The existing licensing law

calls urgently for revision and the removal of

many anomalies, so that it may harmonize

with present social requirements.

Whilst the necessity for State control of

the conditions affecting the sale and consump

tion of alcoholic beverages is admitted, it is

regrettable that so many take a narrow view

and lose sight of the fact of the very important

part played by licensed premises in the club

life of the community.

Throughout the ages there has been a closeassociation between the consumption of

alcohol and social relaxation, and there can

be no denial that the reason basically is

psychological. Alcohol plays a great part

in the lighter side of our life, but excessive

indulgence has been the cause of much misery

and unhappiness and accounts for theimmense amount of prejudice which hasaccumulated on all sides of the "drink"

problem. As mankind advances in know

ledge and culture, a sense of resentment

arises against the continuation of restrictions

to his legitimate leisure and entertainment,

which were deemed necessary to the welfare

of his forefathers. Let us hope that a morehumane and considerate legislature will

evolve something better than the present

irksome regulations.

As a result of changes in the taste of the

public arising from the aftermath of war and

from legislation, the strength of beers has

steadily dropped. It seems unlikely that

the production of heavily hopped beers of

60° and over will ever again become general.

Although a pleasant memory to many, they

are forgotten by or unknown to the majority,

and interest now centres in the appropriate

presentation of low gravity products.

Whilst some still prefer draught beer, the

consumption of filtered carbonated beer from

either cask, other movable container, or

bottle is greatly on the increase. The

pewter pot of former days has almost

vanished, glass having taken its place, and

this has resulted in the demand for brilliance

and clarity of the beverage.

Great advances have been made in recent

years in the chilling, filtering, and carbonation

plants of breweries, necessitating heavy

capital expenditure. The construction of thedifferent types of machines involved in the

bottling of carbonated beer is eloquent

testimony to the skill of our engineers. The

many patents granted for all types ofmachines involved in the bottling processl

for detergents for cleaning bottles, etc., would

seem to suggest that more research andenquiry have been directed to the finished

product than to the brewing of it.

Research

From early years to the end of the second

decade of the present century, research work

associated with brewing and fermentation

was carried out by individuals deeply

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 97

interested in their subject. With a few

notable exceptions the results of such work

excited only a mild interest amongst those in

the hierarchy of the industry. In those days

relatively few breweries had a scientific staff,

and any problems or difficulties were referred

to the consultant in whose laboratories much

valuable work of a pioneer character was

done, the results in many cases being pub

lished in the different journals.

The experience during the first world warof the immense value to many essential

industries at a very critical time in our

national life of organized research carried out

by workers under efficient directorship,

brought home to manufacturers the urgent

necessity of research, if this country was to

hold its own in the markets of the world.

The Government encouraged the movement

and provided financial assistance. The brew

ing industry, however, decided to adopt an

independent line, and the Institute Research

Scheme from its inception in 1919 has been

financed by brewing and malting firms with

out State aid, freedom of outlook and opera

tion being thus assured. With the modest

sum at its disposal, the scheme admittedly

has made good progress—thanks to the

efforts of those engaged on the work, to the

assistance and advice of distinguished scien

tists outside the industry, and to many

actively engaged in brewing and malting.

The industrial world now more than ever

realizes the necessity of research, and

hastens to give material expression to this

feeling, if the frequent advertisements appear

ing in the Press for qualified workers and

directors of research be any indication.The intensive scientific team-work which

produced such remarkable results during the

two war periods, and certain adjustments inthe incidence of taxation designed to en

courage research in industry have acted as a

spur. Now the major industries have re

search organizations, and so have some of theminor ones also. Brewers arc not in the

rearguard in this accelerated movement and

a comprehensive programme of work has

been arranged and approved and, what is

most important, supported by ample financial

aid from the Brewers' Society.

The scheme was launched on 1st October

of last year under the able direction of Prof.

Gulland, and we were all pleased that the

services of so distinguished a scientist had

been secured. But Fate willed otherwise.

and owing to the railway accident on 26th

October, 1947, we were deprived of his help.

Men of Prof. Gulland's eminence and capa

bilities are rare, and the Institute may find it

difficult to replace him.

The labour involved in formulating the

enlarged scheme of research has been great,

and we are indebted to Dr. Seligman for the

valuable and painstaking services he hasrendered as Chairman of the Research

Committee, to the committees dealing with

the different subjects needing investigation

and to our Secretary, Mr. W. H. Bird, who

has so wholeheartedly devoted his energies

to the end in view.

Reference has been made to the striking

results emanating from physical and chemical

research during the stress of the war years,

and a recollection of these should not relegate

the long range view of research work to a

secondary place. With so many of what may

be regarded as minor problems connectedwith brewing which, in the opinion of some,

require immediate investigation, there is a

possibility that efforts to solve them may

claim more time and attention than ought to

be allowed compared with what should be

regarded as the main work of the Research

Scheme.

The pregnant remarks of Sir Henry Dale

at the last meeting of the British Association

on this aspect of research work are of the

highest importance. He drew attention to

the remarkable stimulus given by thenecessities of war to scientific research,

involving as it did an unparalleled concentra

tion of scientific collaboration. These practi

cal results were, however, achieved only by

the diversion of the thought and efforts of

the leaders of scientific research from the

advancement of basic science to the attainment of certain material ends, which, at the

time, were of primary importance.

Thus the outlook of the workers in pure

science was wholly changed during thatperiod. Sir Henry Dale suggested that there

is a grave danger to the future of science, if

research workers come to be confirmed inthis war-time attitude that it is the exclusive

task of science to provide rapid solutions of

practical problems as they arise.

The following words from a leader in The

Times of 28th August, 1947, dealing with Sir

Henry Dale's address aptly expressed theviews of serious-minded men, and served as

■98 BAKER: BRITISH BREWING IN RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT [March-April, 1948

a salutary caution to "all out" exponents of

short-term research:

"Nobody,' of course, will wish to underrate the importance of applied science or to con

tend that this country and the world are not in

urgent need of spectacular achievements but also

of numberless improvements. On the other hand,

every great advance which is now occupying

popular attention, every scientific war-time

achievement had its origin in research not only

carried out with no other object than gain of pureknowledge bnt in research which at the time of its

accomplishment, not even the most far-sightedever suggested could have any practical interest."

Whilst there are many immediate problems

associated with the brewing industry capable

of solution by a team of research workers,

there are those of a fundamental character

which demand a "long-term" research

policy, and it is in this sense that Sir Henry

Dale's remarks merit attention. Doubtless

able directorship of our Research Scheme will

establish an appropriate balance between the

two policies of "long-" and "short-"term

research.

The Outlook for the Brewing Industry

It is with a degree of reluctance that thisaspect of my address is approached, as it is

somewhat speculative and probably some of

the ideas which follow will not be received

with unanimity. An attempt has been

made to give a brief outline of the moreimportant scientific and technical advances

which have been made during the last half

century, and from the results achieved it ispermissible to surmise what general changes

in practice are probable in the future.

One point to bear in mind is that brewing

is not a free industry, in that brewery

premises are subject, to close supervision and

inspection by the Excise Authorities. No

material may be used in brewing other than

malt, grain, sugar and hops unless the

sanction of the Commissioners of Excise isobtained. The excise officer can be present

at brewing operations and can take samplesof all materials which the brewer uses.

Nothing can be added to beer such as

saccharine or liquorice, as they produce

sweetness and fullness and so replace gravitywhich would be a loss to the revenue. Nopreservative other than sulphurous acid or

sulphites may be used in beer, the permissible

limit being 5 grains per gallon of SO2. Thissupervision has one advantage in that it

furnishes all the evidence required to confute■the propaganda so frequently used by

prohibitionists that chemicals are used in

brewing. '

Owing to the vast revenue derived from

beer—the duty last year amounted to

£259-7 millions, the capital sunk in tied-

houses and the concomitant conditions of

trading, brewing is to some extent a pro

tected industry. Hence there is not the

same amount or degree of competition asin

free industries, and this is probably the

major reason for the slow changes in the'improvement of essential brewing operations.

It will be admitted that much of the plant

and many brewery buildings are, to put it

mildly, out of date.

Under present circumstances the need for

the reduction of operational charges by the

introduction of new plant and improvements

is not so urgent as in the free industries, and

there is an understandable inclination to leave

well alone. But when new plant and vessels

have to be installed, the brewer is as keen asany other progressive industrialist to get the /

best and most suitable for his purpose; but

so often this desirable aim is prevented by

the general lay-out of old brewery buildings.

Indeed, some of the larger breweries are

hopeless in this respect with their out-of-date

structure, their great length of mains so

awkwardly placed that it is next to im

possible to keep them in that state of cleanli

ness which the brewer desires, steam mains

running great distances with consequent loss

of heat, and a number of other well recog

nized difficulties. Brewery directorates areaware of the many drawbacks to improve

ments, and the multiple trading conditions

make it extremely difficult to start afreshand build an entirely new brewery; under

present restrictions it is impossible.

It is a problem which will ultimately have

to be faced, and, with improved methods of

transport, breweries situated in areas of greatvalue in large towns and cities will have to

be transferred to localities as near and as

suitable as possible, where space is less

valuable. In this matter one aspect merits

attention. Owing to general economic condi

tions the consumption of beer is now spread

more generally than it was formerly, particu

larly in domestic life, and the demand for

bottled beer has steadily increased. Bottling

plants occupy relatively large areas, and

many breweries have not the space to meet

the requirements of their trade, and conse

quently have to transfer operations to

March-April, 1948] baker: British brewing in retrospect and prospect 99

distant bottleries.' This often involves, in

addition to transport of the beer, either

cooling, filtration and carbonation, or any one

of these, all of which are more conveniently

carried out at the home brewery, and with

less damage to the beer. In cases when a

local demand has been successfully fostered

for the products of some far distant brewery,

it may well be economical and convenient to

send beer in bulk and bottle in that area.

This is, in fact, being done in a number of

cases. .

Another matter which brewers are con

sidering is the presentation of their bottled

beers. We are a conservative people in

domestic affairs, but it must be admitted

that our beer bottles are generally not

attractive on the table or sideboard. A

study of the containers used on the Continent

and in America and of their labelling is well

worth undertaking, as the psychological

value of an attractively labelled bottle

cannot be ignored. It would also be anadvantage and save much trouble and

expense, if brewers could agree to use

standard sizes in interchangeable bottles.

Most brewing companies these days do far

more than supply beer. Their houses are

social centres; they provide meals, and in

increasing numbers, entertainment. Con

certs where distinguished artists perform,

and lectures and addresses by well-known

men are not unknown, and there is every

indication that this movement will be

developed. The catering side has increased

greatly, but far more could be done in this

respect, as so many houses in our large towns

occupy prominent positions appropriate for

the provision of meals. Owing to thegeneral conditions of life there seems to be an

increasing movement for the more substantial

meals to be consumed away from the home,

and with the liberal views now obtainingregarding entry to licensed premises there is a

large field awaiting development by the

licensed victualler.

The crowded premises at meal times

provide striking evidence of this. Our

habits under the force of circumstances, the

great numbers of women now employed onwork other than that of a domestic nature,

and those who consequently have to take

meals away from their homes, are factors

which demand consideration in this connection.

It appears inevitable that licensed premiseswill play a much greater part in the life of

the people than heretofore; no longer will the

sale of exciseable liquors be the only con

sideration, and there will be a more appro

priate balance between these and food and

entertainment.

It is to be hoped that legislation will by

degrees remove the anomalies and difficultiesnow experienced by the licensee. More

freedom in these matters would result inkeener competition amongst brewers, and

competition means a closer consideration

than is at present possible of how existing

processes can be improved and made more

economical. It seem probable that it is in

this direction that advances will be made.There is much leeway for the mechanical sideto make up, before it can approach the

advances which have been made in the

knowledge of and improvements in materials.

Financial enterprise has brought aboutamalgamation of a great number of smaller

breweries with larger concerns and the

economies in overhead and other charges

so brought about are reflected in satisfactory

dividends. This movement still continues

and it would appear that in the future mostof the smaller concerns will be absorbed and

the brewing industry will be in the hands of a

few large companies. Thus there will be a

gradual tendency to similarity of outputthroughout the country. As the knowledge

of materials and processes increases theinevitable result will be that brewing,hitherto generally regarded as an art, will

progressively become a chemical engineering

proposition.