Home, Work, and Middle-Class Emergence “The Nest at Home,” Godey’s Lady’s Book, January 1850.

Home, Work, and Home, Work, and Middle-Class EmergenceMiddle-Class Emergence

““The Nest at Home,” The Nest at Home,” Godey’s Godey’s Lady’s Book, Lady’s Book, January 1850January 1850

The Four Seasons of Life: Middle AgeThe Four Seasons of Life: Middle Age

Lithograph by Currier and Ives, New York, 1868Lithograph by Currier and Ives, New York, 1868

Useful Sources on Gender and Useful Sources on Gender and Middle Class FormationMiddle Class Formation

Mary Ryan, Mary Ryan, Cradle of the Middle ClassCradle of the Middle Class, , 1983 1983

Stuart Blumin, Stuart Blumin, The Emergence of the The Emergence of the Middle ClassMiddle Class, 1989, 1989

Kenneth Ames, Kenneth Ames, Death in the Dining Room Death in the Dining Room and Other Tales of Victorian Cultureand Other Tales of Victorian Culture, 1992, 1992

Nancy Cott, Nancy Cott, The Bonds of WomanhoodThe Bonds of Womanhood, , 19771977

[T]he period between 1780 and 1830 was a time of wide [T]he period between 1780 and 1830 was a time of wide and deep-ranging transformation, including the beginning and deep-ranging transformation, including the beginning of rapid intensive economic growth, especially in foreign of rapid intensive economic growth, especially in foreign commerce, agricultural productivity, and the fiscal and commerce, agricultural productivity, and the fiscal and banking system; the start of sustained urbanization; banking system; the start of sustained urbanization; demographic transition toward modern fertility patterns; demographic transition toward modern fertility patterns; marked change toward social stratification by wealth and marked change toward social stratification by wealth and growing inequality in the distribution of wealth; rapid growing inequality in the distribution of wealth; rapid pragmatic adaptation in the law; shifts from unitary to pragmatic adaptation in the law; shifts from unitary to pluralistic networks in personal association; pluralistic networks in personal association; unprecedented expansion in primary education; unprecedented expansion in primary education; democratization of the political process; invention of a democratization of the political process; invention of a new language of political and social thought; and -- not new language of political and social thought; and -- not least -- with respect to family life, the appearance of least -- with respect to family life, the appearance of "domesticity." "domesticity."

Nancy Cott, Nancy Cott, The Bonds of WomanhoodThe Bonds of Womanhood, 3, 3

Preliminary QuestionsPreliminary Questions

Has the United States always been a Has the United States always been a middle class nation? middle class nation?

What do we mean when we use the What do we mean when we use the term term ““middle classmiddle class””? ?

When and how did the middle class When and how did the middle class emerge?emerge?

What differentiated the middle class What differentiated the middle class from other social strata in the early from other social strata in the early 1919thth century? century?

More Questions:More Questions:

How are gender and class categories How are gender and class categories mutually informing?mutually informing?

How do we interpret popular cultural How do we interpret popular cultural forms like forms like Godey’s Lady’s Book?Godey’s Lady’s Book?

Difficulty of defining “middle class”: Difficulty of defining “middle class”:

Term refers not only to occupation or Term refers not only to occupation or economic circumstances, but also to economic circumstances, but also to one’s goals and lifestyle.one’s goals and lifestyle.

Five aspects of middle-class Five aspects of middle-class identityidentity

WorkWork ConsumptionConsumption Residential locationResidential location Formal and informal voluntary Formal and informal voluntary

associationsassociations Family organization and strategyFamily organization and strategy

Middle-Class WorkMiddle-Class Work

Growing removal of work from the Growing removal of work from the home home

Increasing separation of non-manual Increasing separation of non-manual and manual workers in larger and manual workers in larger enterprises enterprises

Shoemaker and his Shoemaker and his journeymen journeymen apprentices in apprentices in workshop that would workshop that would have been attached to have been attached to the master the master craftsman’s home, craftsman’s home, circa 1800circa 1800

Preindustrial Modes of Labor:Preindustrial Modes of Labor:

•Shared Space of Home and WorkShared Space of Home and Work

•Fluid interaction of Masters and WorkersFluid interaction of Masters and Workers

Slater Mill, 1793 as it appeared circa 1810Slater Mill, 1793 as it appeared circa 1810

Factory Production and the Transformation of Factory Production and the Transformation of Work and ClassWork and Class

Skilled Toolmaker, 1850Skilled Toolmaker, 1850

Changing Conditions of Labor 1790-1850Changing Conditions of Labor 1790-1850

Middle-Class Work and the Ideal of Self-Made ManhoodMiddle-Class Work and the Ideal of Self-Made Manhood

•Increasingly urbanIncreasingly urban

•Fluid and migratoryFluid and migratory

•Influenced by:Influenced by:

•economic expansioneconomic expansion•extension of suffrageextension of suffrage•expansion of common schoolsexpansion of common schools•evangelismevangelism

•Competitive and morally suspect Competitive and morally suspect nature of middle-class men’s work:nature of middle-class men’s work:

•Relies on compensatory morality Relies on compensatory morality and sentimentalism of the and sentimentalism of the middle-class homemiddle-class home

Home as an antidote to Home as an antidote to middle-class public sphere:middle-class public sphere:

"It is at home, where man . . . seeks a refuge from "It is at home, where man . . . seeks a refuge from the vexations and embarrassments of business, an the vexations and embarrassments of business, an enchanting repose from exertion, a relaxation from enchanting repose from exertion, a relaxation from care by the interchange of affection: where some of care by the interchange of affection: where some of his finest sympathies, tastes, and moral and religious his finest sympathies, tastes, and moral and religious feelings are formed and nourished;--where is the feelings are formed and nourished;--where is the treasury of pure disinterested love, such as is seldom treasury of pure disinterested love, such as is seldom found in the busy walks of a selfish and calculating found in the busy walks of a selfish and calculating world.“world.“

New Hampshire pastor, 1827New Hampshire pastor, 1827

ConsumptionConsumption

Increasing standard of living for all Increasing standard of living for all Americans in the early 19Americans in the early 19thth century century

Increasing availability of consumer Increasing availability of consumer goodsgoods

Household consumption as a means Household consumption as a means of establishing claims to middle-class of establishing claims to middle-class statusstatus

Consumption, gender, and powerConsumption, gender, and power

““Consumption too was a family strategy, a more or less deliberate attempt to shape the Consumption too was a family strategy, a more or less deliberate attempt to shape the domestic environment in ways that signified social respectability, and that facilitated the domestic environment in ways that signified social respectability, and that facilitated the acquisition of habits of personal deportment that set a family apart from both the rough acquisition of habits of personal deportment that set a family apart from both the rough world of the mechanics and the artificial world of fashion.” -Stuart Bluminworld of the mechanics and the artificial world of fashion.” -Stuart Blumin

Fashion Plates from Fashion Plates from Godey’s Lady’s Godey’s Lady’s Book, Book, 18501850

Fashion and Middle-Class IdentityFashion and Middle-Class Identity

ResidenceResidence

Middle-class home as the expression Middle-class home as the expression of claims to genteel statusof claims to genteel status

Contrast with elite and working-class Contrast with elite and working-class homeshomes

Importance of the parlorImportance of the parlor

Time was when it was sufficient for a comfortable liver to have Time was when it was sufficient for a comfortable liver to have half a house, or to have one spare front-room for company: half a house, or to have one spare front-room for company: now, now, the same man must have a whole house, and the first story must the same man must have a whole house, and the first story must be thrown into parlors.be thrown into parlors. Not Not veryvery long since, one servant, for long since, one servant, for general purposes, was all that was deemed necessary: now, the general purposes, was all that was deemed necessary: now, the requirement is extended to two certainly, with special aid for extra requirement is extended to two certainly, with special aid for extra occasions, and a nurse for the little ones. . . .It is not many years occasions, and a nurse for the little ones. . . .It is not many years since the class spoken of were only occasionally favored with a since the class spoken of were only occasionally favored with a piano: now, that instrument must be set down as a requisite to piano: now, that instrument must be set down as a requisite to parlor equipment. The same is true of the dietetic department, of parlor equipment. The same is true of the dietetic department, of our social entertainments and modes of dressing – our social entertainments and modes of dressing – great changes great changes have occurred with our so-called advancing civilization.have occurred with our so-called advancing civilization.

--Isaac Ferris, --Isaac Ferris, The Man of Business: Their Home The Man of Business: Their Home Responsibilities” Responsibilities” (1857)(1857)

In the years between 1827 and 1860 the new middle class In the years between 1827 and 1860 the new middle class enjoyed a number of important advances in everyday enjoyed a number of important advances in everyday consumption. consumption. The bare floors, whitewashed walls, and scant The bare floors, whitewashed walls, and scant furniture of middle-income eighteenth-century homes gave way furniture of middle-income eighteenth-century homes gave way to wool carpeting, wallpaper, and all manner of furnishings.to wool carpeting, wallpaper, and all manner of furnishings. The houses themselves became relatively cheaper and grew in The houses themselves became relatively cheaper and grew in size from three rooms to four-to-six rooms in row houses or size from three rooms to four-to-six rooms in row houses or flats in row houses. The children slept one to a bed, and indoor flats in row houses. The children slept one to a bed, and indoor toilets became common in their homes. toilets became common in their homes. In contrast to the In contrast to the eighteenth century when the middle-income house generally eighteenth century when the middle-income house generally included the shop, the husband now commonly worked in an included the shop, the husband now commonly worked in an office, store or shop outside his home, and the first-floor, front office, store or shop outside his home, and the first-floor, front room became a parlorroom became a parlor instead of a family trade or shop; they instead of a family trade or shop; they could take full advantage of the new public grammar school could take full advantage of the new public grammar school education. Finally, they had grown prosperous enough to education. Finally, they had grown prosperous enough to attend the increasing variety of offerings of commercial attend the increasing variety of offerings of commercial downtown entertainment. downtown entertainment. --Samuel Bass Warner, Jr., --Samuel Bass Warner, Jr., The Private City The Private City (1968), 66.(1968), 66.

Standardization of the Standardization of the middle-class home:middle-class home:

Gervase Wheeler’s Gervase Wheeler’s Homes for the People, Homes for the People, 18551855

Middle-class row houses Middle-class row houses front on Pine Street in front on Pine Street in PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia

Working-class row houses:Working-class row houses:

““The better tenements of New The better tenements of New York, and the workingmen’s York, and the workingmen’s houses of Boston, houses of Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Philadelphia, Baltimore, and other cities, provided skilled other cities, provided skilled mechanics and their families mechanics and their families with housing that may have with housing that may have been adequate in many been adequate in many respects, but that was neither respects, but that was neither spacious, attractive, nor very spacious, attractive, nor very comfortable.” –Stuart Blumincomfortable.” –Stuart Blumin

Voluntary AssociationsVoluntary Associations

Early 19Early 19thth century as the “Age of century as the “Age of Association”Association”

Attractiveness of horizontal Attractiveness of horizontal associations reflects democratic ideals associations reflects democratic ideals of the ageof the age

Associations divided along class, Associations divided along class, racial, and gender linesracial, and gender lines

Example: Example: Female Benevolent Society of Weybridge

Family organization and Family organization and strategystrategy

Separation of “home” and “work” as a Separation of “home” and “work” as a defining attribute of middle-class lifedefining attribute of middle-class life

““Home” as “haven in a heartless world”Home” as “haven in a heartless world” Canon of domesticity and the Canon of domesticity and the

importance of woman’s placeimportance of woman’s place Decreasing fertility and home Decreasing fertility and home

production and the changing nature of production and the changing nature of middle-class women’s workmiddle-class women’s work

“ “The canon of domesticity expressed the The canon of domesticity expressed the dominance of what may be designated a dominance of what may be designated a middle-class ideal, a cultural preference middle-class ideal, a cultural preference for domestic retirement and conjugal-for domestic retirement and conjugal-family intimacy over both the ‘vain’ and family intimacy over both the ‘vain’ and fashionable sociability of the rich and the fashionable sociability of the rich and the promiscuous sociability of the poor.”promiscuous sociability of the poor.”

--Nancy Cott, --Nancy Cott, The Bonds of The Bonds of Womanhood Womanhood (1977)(1977)

Frontispiece to Beecher and Frontispiece to Beecher and Stowe’s Stowe’s American Woman’s American Woman’s Home: Home:

Illustrates what Cott Illustrates what Cott terms “a cultural terms “a cultural preference for domestic preference for domestic retirement and conjugal-retirement and conjugal-family intimacy.”family intimacy.”

Middle-Class True Middle-Class True WomanhoodWomanhood

PietyPiety PurityPurity DomesticityDomesticity SubmissivenessSubmissiveness

How are these ideals evident in How are these ideals evident in Godey’s Godey’s Lady’s Book, Lady’s Book, and particularly in the and particularly in the stories by T.S. Arthur and Mrs. Joseph C. stories by T.S. Arthur and Mrs. Joseph C. Neal?Neal?

Piety: Piety:

““The Christian Home”The Christian Home”

Beecher and Stowe, Beecher and Stowe, The American The American Woman’s Home Woman’s Home (1869)(1869)

Reading as a middle-class Reading as a middle-class pastime:pastime:

Common schools meant increased Common schools meant increased literacyliteracy

Changes in print technology and Changes in print technology and transportation made publication and transportation made publication and distribution easierdistribution easier

Etiquette manualsEtiquette manuals T.S. Arthur and T.S. Arthur and Godey’s Lady’s BookGodey’s Lady’s Book

According to historian Karen According to historian Karen Halttunen, approximately 70 Halttunen, approximately 70 American etiquette manuals American etiquette manuals were published between were published between 1830 and 1860, and many 1830 and 1860, and many went through several went through several editions. These etiquette editions. These etiquette manuals further helped to manuals further helped to engender a shared middle-engender a shared middle-class identity by holding out class identity by holding out the promise of republican the promise of republican society—that social society—that social respectability was not respectability was not dependent on money alone dependent on money alone but could be achieved by but could be achieved by learning the proper learning the proper manners. manners.

--from --from The Lost Museum

See also “Points of See also “Points of Etiquette” in 1850 Etiquette” in 1850 issue of issue of Godey’s Lady’s Book

At Top: At Top: Bad Manners at the TableBad Manners at the Table

At Bottom:At Bottom:Gentility in the Dining Gentility in the Dining RoomRoom

From Thomas E. Hill, From Thomas E. Hill, Manual of Social and Manual of Social and Business Forms,Business Forms,18921892

In the nineteenth century, middle-class people In the nineteenth century, middle-class people wanted everyone to be middle class or at least to wanted everyone to be middle class or at least to subscribe to middle-class values and behaviors. subscribe to middle-class values and behaviors. Values and behaviors that were not middle class Values and behaviors that were not middle class were not merely different; they were morally were not merely different; they were morally evaluated as “bad.” Although this image evaluated as “bad.” Although this image allegedly demonstrates “bad” manners, it can allegedly demonstrates “bad” manners, it can more accurately be described as recording certain more accurately be described as recording certain working-class manners. working-class manners.

--Kenneth Ames, --Kenneth Ames, Death in the Dining Room Death in the Dining Room (1992),(1992), 211.211.

T.S. Arthur, 1809-1885T.S. Arthur, 1809-1885

Popular 19Popular 19thth-century writer -century writer of didactic fictionof didactic fiction

Wrote Wrote Ten Nights in a Bar-Ten Nights in a Bar-Room and What I Saw There Room and What I Saw There (1854) and other (1854) and other temperance narrativestemperance narratives

Also wrote sentimental Also wrote sentimental stories for middle-class, stories for middle-class, female readershipfemale readership

Godey’s Lady’s BookGodey’s Lady’s Book Most popular example of Most popular example of

the ladies’ magazine in the ladies’ magazine in antebellum periodantebellum period

Published colorful Published colorful illustrations along with illustrations along with sentimental literaturesentimental literature

Advertising and consumer Advertising and consumer goods relegated to back goods relegated to back pagespages

Benefited from emergence Benefited from emergence of literate, middle-class of literate, middle-class female readership female readership

““Sweethearts and Wives”:Sweethearts and Wives”:

How do we make sense of this story?How do we make sense of this story? As didactic fiction written by a male As didactic fiction written by a male

author for a middle-class female author for a middle-class female readership, is it purely a reflection of readership, is it purely a reflection of dominant cultural ideals?dominant cultural ideals?

Or does it leave room for alternative Or does it leave room for alternative readings? readings?

Fairfield installed his wife mistress of a neatly furnished Fairfield installed his wife mistress of a neatly furnished house, and both settled themselves down in it, brimful of present house, and both settled themselves down in it, brimful of present pleasure, and delightful anticipations. The two servants managed pleasure, and delightful anticipations. The two servants managed things pretty well for the first few weeks, but after that, many things pretty well for the first few weeks, but after that, many irregularities became apparent. The meals were often half an hour irregularities became apparent. The meals were often half an hour beyond the usual and set time, and were frequently very badly beyond the usual and set time, and were frequently very badly cooked. The sweeping and dusting were carelessly done, and the cooked. The sweeping and dusting were carelessly done, and the furniture, from want of attention, began to look a little dingy, much furniture, from want of attention, began to look a little dingy, much to the annoyance of Mrs. Fairfield. Still, it did not occur to her, that to the annoyance of Mrs. Fairfield. Still, it did not occur to her, that she was wrong in leaving every thing to her servants. It never she was wrong in leaving every thing to her servants. It never came into her thoughts that her mind should be the governing one came into her thoughts that her mind should be the governing one of her household, of her household, in all things, in all things, great and small, as much as was great and small, as much as was her husband’s the governing mind in his business. The idea, that her husband’s the governing mind in his business. The idea, that she was to take pleasure in exemption from domestic duties, and she was to take pleasure in exemption from domestic duties, and not in the performance of them, was fully entertained by her, and not in the performance of them, was fully entertained by her, and this her husband soon perceived, and it pained him much, for her this her husband soon perceived, and it pained him much, for her saw that in this false idea was an active germ of future saw that in this false idea was an active germ of future disquietude. (140-41)disquietude. (140-41)

And they did, really love one another, but had not yet And they did, really love one another, but had not yet learned to accommodate themselves to each other’s learned to accommodate themselves to each other’s peculiarities. Fairfield was to blame, as well as Agnes. He peculiarities. Fairfield was to blame, as well as Agnes. He should have been open and candid towards her, and have should have been open and candid towards her, and have explained to her rationally, calmly, and affectionately, her explained to her rationally, calmly, and affectionately, her duty; but he shrunk from this for fear of wounding her, thus duty; but he shrunk from this for fear of wounding her, thus wounding her a thousand times more acutely, in permitting wounding her a thousand times more acutely, in permitting her to go on in actions and omissions the natural results of her to go on in actions and omissions the natural results of which, were exceedingly painful to the heart of a young and which, were exceedingly painful to the heart of a young and loving wife. (144)loving wife. (144)

““Surely,” she said “William, you do not wish to see Surely,” she said “William, you do not wish to see your wife a drudge?”your wife a drudge?”

““Not by any means, Agnes. But, then, I wish to see her Not by any means, Agnes. But, then, I wish to see her engaged in the steady performance of every duty required by engaged in the steady performance of every duty required by her station; because I know that only by doing so, can she her station; because I know that only by doing so, can she render herself and family truly happy. No station, my dear render herself and family truly happy. No station, my dear wife, is exempt from its cares and its duties; if these are wife, is exempt from its cares and its duties; if these are faithfully and willingly assumed, peace of mind will follow; if faithfully and willingly assumed, peace of mind will follow; if neglected pain. As the mistress of a family, the comfort of neglected pain. As the mistress of a family, the comfort of others is placed in your hands, and, particularly, that of your others is placed in your hands, and, particularly, that of your husband….(145)husband….(145)

……Your error lies in a false idea which you have entertained, Your error lies in a false idea which you have entertained, that your happiness was to come somewhere from out of that your happiness was to come somewhere from out of your domestic duties, instead of in the performance of themyour domestic duties, instead of in the performance of them—that they were not part of a wife’s obligations, but —that they were not part of a wife’s obligations, but something that she could put aside if she were able to hire something that she could put aside if she were able to hire enough servants. I cannot, thus, delegate my business enough servants. I cannot, thus, delegate my business duties to any one; without my governing mind and constant duties to any one; without my governing mind and constant attention, every thing would soon be in disorder, and an utter attention, every thing would soon be in disorder, and an utter failure, instead of prosperity, be the result of my efforts. By failure, instead of prosperity, be the result of my efforts. By my carefulness and constant devotion to business, I am my carefulness and constant devotion to business, I am enabled to provide you with every comfort; surely, then, you enabled to provide you with every comfort; surely, then, you should be willing also to give careful attention to your should be willing also to give careful attention to your department, that I may feel home to be a pleasant place…. department, that I may feel home to be a pleasant place…. (146) (146)