Hodgetts12_S08

PowerPoint PresentationMotivation across Cultures
The Nature of Motivation
Motivation
Psychological process through which unsatisfied wants or needs lead to drives that are aimed at goals or incentives
Universalist Assumption
All people are motivated to pursue goals they value
Specific content of the goals that are pursued will be influenced by culture
Movement toward market economies may make motivation more similar in different countries
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Figure 12-1
The Nature of Motivation (cont.)
Content theories
Explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employee behavior
Process theories
Explain work motivation by how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted
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Figure 12-2
Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory
Physiological needs - food, clothing, shelter, and other basic physical needs
Safety needs - desire for security, stability, and the absence of pain
Social needs - need to interact and affiliate with others and the need to feel wanted by others
Esteem needs - needs for power and status
Self-actualization needs - desire to reach one’s full potential by becoming everything one is capable of becoming
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Hierarchy-of-Needs Theory (2)
Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs become motivators
Once satisfied, a need is no longer a motivator
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Maslow's Theory &
International Managers
Each country or geographic region appears to have its own need-satisfaction profile
Managers in U.S., U.K., Nordic Europe and Latin America report that autonomy and self-actualization are the most important and least satisfied needs.
Some East Asian managers report even more difficulty in satisfying these needs
Study was conducted by Haire and others.
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Adapting Maslow's Theory to Asia
Nevis suggested that the hierarchy of needs is western-oriented and focuses on the individual.
Asian societies focus on group concerns.
Nevis suggested changing hierarchy for China:
Belonging (social)
There is no esteem need in Nevis' hierarchy.
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Maslow's Theory and Job Categories
Hofstede noted that the Haire study was limited to managers
Every culture has different sub-cultures
Looked at job categories as sub-cultures
Analyzed motivation by job categories
Divided Maslow's hierarchy into 3 categories
Low: physiological and safety needs
Middle: social needs
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Highest-ranked Needs by Job Category
Unskilled workers: low-level needs
Technicians: mix of needs from different categories – at least one high-order need and one low-level need
Clerical workers: middle (social) needs
Managers: high and mid-level needs
Professionals: high-order needs
Two-Factor Theory of Motivation
Theory that holds there are two sets of factors that influence job satisfaction
Motivators (correspond to Maslow's high-level needs)
Job content factors which include achievement, recognition, responsibility, advancement, and the work itself
Produce satisfaction but not dissatisfaction
Hygiene factors (correspond to Maslow's low level and middle level needs)
Job context variables that include salary, interpersonal relations, technical supervision, working conditions, and company policies and administration
Produce dissatisfaction but not satisfaction
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Figure 12-3
Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (2)
Cross-Cultural Job-Satisfaction Studies
Results indicate that Herzberg-type motivators tend to be more important sources of job satisfaction than are hygiene factors
Job content factors are more important than job context factors in motivating all levels of employees
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Achievement Motivation Theory
Theory holds that individuals can have a need to get ahead, to attain success and to reach objectives
People who have strong a achievement need:
Want personal responsibility for solving problems
Tend to be moderate risk takers
Want concrete feedback about their performance
Often do not get along well with other people
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Achievement Motivation Theory (2)
Achievement motivation is learned and, therefore, can be developed through training
Theory has shortcomings
Does not explain need for achievement in cultures where individual accomplishment is not valued
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How to Encourage Achievement Motivation
Train people to
Obtain feedback on performance
Use the feedback to make efforts in areas where they are likely to succeed
Emulate people who have been successful achievers
Develop an internal desire for success and challenges
Daydream in positive terms by picturing themselves as being successful in the pursuit of important objectives
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Achievement Motivation Theory (3)
Because the achievement need is learned, it is largely determined by the prevailing culture
Achievement need is not universal and may change over time.
Achievement motivation training programs have been successful in underdeveloped countries
Cultures of Anglo countries and those that reward entrepreneurial effort support achievement motivation.
Countries have high masculinity and low uncertainty avoidance support achievement motivation.
In countries with low masculinity, managers should focus on quality of life as a motivator.
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Process Theories – Equity Theory
Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated
When people believe that they are being treated equitably, it will have a positive effect on their job satisfaction
If they believe they are not being treated fairly (especially in relation to others)
They will be dissatisfied, which will have a negative effect on their job performance.
They will strive to restore equity.
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Process Theories – Equity Theory (2)
Focuses on how motivation is affected by people’s perception of how fairly they are being treated
Research in western work groups supports the theory
Limitations of the theory
Perceptions of equity are not the same everywhere.
In collectivist cultures, people may accept unequal treatment to preserve group harmony.
Examples: Most countries in the Middle East & Asia
In some cultures, women may accept unequal treatment (example: lower wages than men)
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Process Theories – Goal-Setting Theory
People perform best when they have challenging goals and have a role in setting those goals (participative goal setting).
In the United States and in Israel, participative goal setting with individuals increases both motivation and performance
International research on goal setting theories
Employees in Norway and the United Kingdom prefer to have management work with union officials in setting work goals
Participative goal setting with individuals may not work well in collectivist cultures
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Setting Goals
Specific: The employee should know what is expected
Measurable: The employee and the manager should agree on how the goal will be measured
The employee should receive timely and frequent feedback on progress toward the goal
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Process Theories - Expectancy Theory
Motivation is influenced by a person’s belief that effort will lead to performance, performance will lead to specific outcomes, and that these outcomes are valued by the individual
Theory is likely to work best in cultures where employees believe that they have control over what happens to them
Expectancy theory has been used successfully in Japan.
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Motivation Applied - Overview
Rewards
Incentives
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Quality of Work Life
Hofstede's cultural dimensions can be used to explain differences in work life.
Example: Japan
Strong uncertainty avoidance work is highly structured and risk taking is discouraged
High masculinity people are willing to work hard for success and money is a powerful motivator.
High collectivism emphasis on group harmony and use of quality circles (with limited power)
Moderately high power distance top management makes most decisions
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Sociotechnical Job Design
The objective of these designs is to integrate new technology into the workplace so that workers accept and use it to increase overall productivity
New technology often requires people learn new methods and in some cases work faster
Employee resistance is common
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Sociotechnical Job Design (2)
Task variety
Skill variety
Task identity: employees perform an identifiable unit of work
Timely feedback on job performance
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Sociotechnical Job Design (3)
Substantial investment in training
Managers function as coaches, rather than bosses – some managers resist this change.
Some workers may not want more authority and responsibility
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Work Centrality
Work centrality is the importance of work in a person's life, vs. other activities.
An economic need to work may be the most important factor in determining work centrality.
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Rewards and Incentives
Managers everywhere use rewards to motivate their personnel
Some rewards are financial in nature such as salary raises, bonuses, and stock options
Others are non-financial such as feedback and recognition