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History of modern Greece
History of Greece
Greece portal
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The history of modern Greececovers the history ofGreecefrom the recognition of itsautonomy from theOttoman Empireby the Great Powers (theUnited Kingdom,France,and
Russia)in 1828, after theGreek War of Independence,to its present day status as asovereign
country.
Contents
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1 Background
2 Administration of Ioannis Kapodistrias
3 Assassination and creation of the Kingdom of Greece
4 Reign of King Otto, 18331863
5 Reign of King George I, 18641913
6 Wars and crises, 19121922o 6.1 Balkan Wars
o 6.2 World War I
o 6.3 Greco-Turkish War (19191922) 7 Republic and Monarchy (19221940) 8 World War II
9 Civil War
10 Postwar Greece (19501973)o 10.1 Greek military junta of 19671974
11 Transition to democracy (19732009)
12 Economic crisis of 2009-2012
o
12.1 Coalition Government 13 See also
14 References
15 Further reading
Background
Main articles:Frankokratia,Ottoman GreeceandGreek War of Independence
TheByzantine Empirehad ruled most of the Greek-speaking world since late Antiquity, but wasfatally weakened since the sacking of Constantinopleby the Latin Crusaders in 1204. Theestablishment of CatholicLatin stateson Greek soil, and the struggles of the OrthodoxByzantine
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Greeksagainst them, led to the emergence of a distinct "Greek" national identity. The Byzantine
Empire was restored by thePalaiologosdynasty in 1261, but it was a shadow of its former self,
and constant civil wars and foreign attacks in the 14th century brought about its terminal decline.As a result, most of Greece gradually became part of theOttoman Empirein the late 14th and
early 15th century, culminating in theFall of Constantinoplein 1453, the conquest of theDuchy
of Athensin 1458, and of theDespotate of the Moreain 1460.
Ottoman control was largely absent in the mountainous interior of Greece, and many fled there,
often becoming brigands. Otherwise, only the islands of the Aegean and a few coastal fortresseson the mainland, underVenetianandGenoeserule, remained free from Ottoman rule, but by the
mid-16th century, the Ottomans had conquered most of them as well. Rhodes fell in 1522,
Cyprus in 1571, and the Venetians retained Crete until 1670. The Ionian Islands were only
briefly ruled by the Ottomans (Kefalonia from 1479 to 1481 and from 1485 to 1500), andremained primarily under the rule of Venice.
The first large-scale insurrection against Ottoman rule was theOrlov Revoltof the early 1770s,
but it was brutally repressed. The same time, however, also marks the start of theModern GreekEnlightenment,as Greeks who studied in Western Europe brought knowledge and ideas back to
their homeland, and as Greek merchants and shipowners increased their wealth. As a result,especially in the aftermath of theFrench Revolution,liberal and nationalist ideas began to spread
across the Greek lands.
In 1821, the Greeks rose up against the Ottoman Empire. Initial successes were followed by
infighting, which had almost seen the Greek struggle collapse; nevertheless, the prolongation of
the fight forced the Great Powers (Britain, Russia and France) to recognize the claims of the
Greek rebels to separate statehood (Treaty of London)and intervene against the Ottomans at theBattle of Navarino.Greece was initially to be anautonomousstate under Ottomansuzerainty,but
by 1832, in the Treaty of Constantinople,it was recognized as a fully independent kingdom. Inthe meantime, in 1827 the3rd National Assemblyof the Greek insurgents called upon IoannisKapodistrias,a former foreign minister of Russia, to take over the governance of the fledgling
state.
Administration of Ioannis Kapodistrias
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Ioannis Kapodistrias.
On his arrival, Kapodistrias launched a major reform and modernisation programme that covered
all areas. He re-established military unity, bringing an end to the second phase of the civil war;
re-organised the military, which was then able to reconquer territory lost to the Ottoman military
during the civil wars, and introduced the first modern quarantine system in Greece, whichbrought epidemics liketyphoid fever,choleraanddysenteryunder control for the first time since
the start of the War of Independence;
Kapodistrias negotiated with the Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire the borders and the
degree of independence of the Greek state and signed the peace treaty that ended the War of
Independence with the Ottomans; introduced the phoenix, the first modern Greek currency;organised local administration; and, in an effort to raise the living standards of the population,
introduced the cultivation of thepotatointo Greece.
Face and Obverse of aPhoenixcoin.
Furthermore, as part of his programme he tried to undermine the authority of the traditional clans
or dynasties which he considered the useless legacy of a bygone and obsolete era.[2]
However, he
underestimated the political and military strength of the capetanei( commanders)who had led the revolt againstOttoman Empirein 1821, and who had expected a leadership role
in the post-revolution Government. When a dispute between the capetanei of Laconia and the
appointed governor of the province escalated into an armed conflict, he called in Russian troopsto restore order, because much of the army was controlled by capetaneiwho were part of the
rebellion.
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George Finlay's 1861 History of Greek Revolution records that by 1831 Kapodistrias's
government had become hated, chiefly by the independent Maniates, but also by theRoumeliotes
and the rich and influential merchant families of Hydra, Spetses and Psara. The Hydriots'customs dues were the chief source of the municipalities' revenue, so they refused to hand these
over to Kapodistrias. It appears that Kapodistrias had refused to convene the National Assembly
and was ruling as a despot, possibly influenced by his Russian experiences. The municipality ofHydra instructed AdmiralMiaoulisandMavrocordatosto go to Poros and to seize the HellenicNavy's fleet there. This Miaoulis did, the intention being to prevent a blockade of the islands, so
for a time it seemed as if the National Assembly would be called.
Kapodistrias called on the British and French residents to support him in putting down the
rebellion, but this they refused to do, but Admiral Richord (or Ricord) took his ships north to
Poros. Colonel (later General) Kallergis took a half-trained force of Greek Army regulars and aforce of irregulars in support. With less than 200 men, Miaoulis was unable to make much of a
fight; Fort Heidek on Bourtzi Island was overrun by the regulars and the brig Spetses (once
Laskarina Bouboulina's Agamemnon) sunk by Richord's force. Encircled by the Russians in the
harbor and Kallergis's force on land, Poros surrendered. Miaoulis was forced to set charges in theflagshipHellasand the corvette Hydra, blowing them up when he and his handful of followers
returned to Hydra. Kallergis's men were enraged by the loss of the ships and sacked Poros,carrying off plunder to Nauplion.
The loss of the best ships in the fleet crippled the Hellenic Navy for many years, but it also
weakened Kapodistrias's position. He did finally call the National Assembly but his other actionstriggered more opposition and that led to his downfall.
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Assassination and creation of the Kingdom of Greece
Further information:Kingdom of Greece
Assassination of Ioannis Kapodistriasby Dionysios Tsokos.
The Entry ofKing Ottoin AthensbyPeter von Hess.
In 1831, Kapodistrias ordered the imprisonment ofPetrobey Mavromichalis,theBeyof theManiPeninsula,one of the wildest and most rebellious parts of Greece. This was a mortal offence to
the Mavromichalis family, and on 9 October 1831 (27 September in the Julian Calendar)
Kapodistrias was assassinated by Petrobey's brotherKonstantisand sonGeorgioson the steps ofthe church ofSaint SpyridoninNafplio.
Kapodistrias woke up early in the morning and decided to go to church despite the urges of hisservants and bodyguards to stay at home. When he reached the church he saw his assassins
waiting for him. When he reached the church steps, Konstantis and Georgios came close as if to
greet him. Suddenly Konstantis drew his pistol and fired, missing, the bullet sticking in the
church wall where it is still visible today. He then drew his dagger and stabbed Kapodistrias inthe stomach while Georgios shot Kapodistrias in the head.
Konstantis was shot by General Fotomaras, who watched the murder scene from his own
window. Georgios managed to escape and hide in the French Embassy; after a few days he
surrendered to the Greek authorities. He was sentenced to death by a court-martial and was
executed by firing squad. His last wish was that the firing squad not shoot his face, and his lastwords were "Peace Brothers!"
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Ioannis Kapodistrias was succeeded as Governor by his younger brother, Augustinos
Kapodistrias.Augustinos ruled only for six months, during which the country was very much
plunged into chaos. Under the protocol signed on 7 May 1832 between Bavaria and theprotecting Powers, and basically dealing with the way in which the Regency was to be managed
until Otto reached his majority (while also concluding the second Greek loan, for a sum of
2,400,000 sterling), Greece was defined as an independent kingdom, with the Arta-Volos lineas its northern frontier.
The Ottoman Empire was indemnified in the sum of 40,000,000 piastres for the loss of theterritory. The borders of the Kingdom were reiterated in the London Protocol of 30 August 1832
signed by the Great Powers, which ratified the terms of the Constantinople Arrangement in
connection with the border between Greece and the Ottoman Empire and marked the end of the
Greek War of Independencecreating modern Greece as an independent state free of the OttomanEmpire.
Reign of King Otto, 18331863
Main article:Otto of Greece
Otto,the first King of modern Greece.
Otto's reign would prove troubled, but managed to last for 30 years before he and his wife,
Queen Amalia,left the way they came, aboard a British warship. During the early years of his
reign a group of BavarianRegents ruled in his name, and made themselves very unpopular by
trying to impose German ideas of rigid hierarchical government on the Greeks, while keeping
most significant state offices away from them. Nevertheless they laid the foundations of a Greekadministration, army, justice system and education system. Otto was sincere in his desire to give
Greece good government, but he suffered from two great handicaps, his Roman Catholicfaith,and the fact that his marriage toQueen Amaliaremained childless. This meant he could neither
be crowned as King of Greece under the Orthodox rite nor establish a dynasty.
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At the urging of Britain andKing George,Greece adopted a much more democraticconstitution
in 1864. The powers of the King were reduced and the Senate was abolished, and the franchise
was extended to all adult males. Nevertheless Greek politics remained heavily dynastic, as it hasalways been. Family names such as Zaimis, Rallis and Trikoupis occurred repeatedly as Prime
Ministers.
Although parties were centered around the individual leaders, often bearing their names, two
broad political tendencies existed: the liberals, led first by Charilaos Trikoupis and later by
Eleftherios Venizelos,and the conservatives, led initially byTheodoros Deligiannisand later byThrasivoulos Zaimis. Trikoupis and Deligiannis dominated Greek politics in the later 19th
century, alternating in office. Trikoupis favoured co-operation with Great Britain in foreign
affairs, the creation of infrastructure and an indigenous industry, raising protective tariffs and
progressive social legislation, while the more populist Deligiannis depended on the promotion ofGreek nationalism and theMegali Idea.
Greece remained a very poor country throughout the 19th century. The country lacked raw
materials, infrastructure and capital. Agriculture was mostly at the subsistence level, and the onlyimportant export commodities were currants, raisins and tobacco. Some Greeks grew rich as
merchants and shipowners, and Piraeusbecame a major port, but little of this wealth found itsway to the Greek peasantry. Greece remained hopelessly in debt to London finance houses.
By the 1890s Greece was virtually bankrupt, and public insolvency was declared in 1893.Poverty was rife in the rural areas and the islands, and was eased only by large-scale emigration
to the United States. There was little education in the rural areas. Nevertheless there was
progress in building communications and infrastructure, and fine public buildings were erected
in Athens. Despite the bad financial situation, Athens staged the revival of the Olympic Gamesin 1896, which proved a great success.
TheHellenic Parliamentin the 1880s, with PMCharilaos Trikoupisstanding at the podium.
The parliamentary process developed greatly in Greece during the reign of George I. Initially, theroyal prerogative in choosing his prime minister remained and contributed to governmental
instability, until the introduction of the dedilomeniprinciple ofparliamentary confidencein 1875by the reformist Charilaos Trikoupis. Clientelism and frequent electoral upheavals however
remained the norm in Greek politics, and frustrated the country's development.
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Corruption and Trikoupis' increased spending to create necessary infrastructure like the CorinthCanalovertaxed the weak Greek economy, forcing the declaration of public insolvencyin 1893
and to accept the imposition of an International Financial Control authority to pay off the
country's creditors.
Another political issue in 19th-century Greece was uniquely Greek: thelanguage question.The
Greek people spoke a form of Greek calledDemotic.Many of the educated elite saw this as apeasant dialect and were determined to restore the glories of Ancient Greek. Government
documents and newspapers were consequently published in Katharevousa (purified) Greek, a
form which few ordinary Greeks could read. Liberals favoured recognising Demotic as thenational language, but conservatives and the Orthodox Church resisted all such efforts, to the
extent that, when the New Testament was translated into Demotic in 1901, riots erupted in
Athens and the government fell (the Evangeliaka). This issue would continue to plague Greek
politics until the 1970s.
Map of theKingdom of Greece,theCretan Stateand thePrincipality of Samosin 1903, before
theBalkan Wars.
All Greeks were united, however, in their determination to liberate the Greek-speaking provincesof the Ottoman Empire. Especially in Crete, a prolonged revolt in 18661869 had raisednationalist fervour. When war broke out between Russia and the Ottomans in 1877, Greek
popular sentiment rallied to Russia's side, but Greece was too poor, and too concerned of British
intervention, to officially enter the war. Nevertheless, in 1881,Thessalyand small parts ofEpiruswere ceded to Greece as part of theTreaty of Berlin,while frustrating Greek hopes of receiving
Crete.
Greeks in Crete continued to stage regular revolts, and in 1897, the Greek government under
Theodoros Deligiannis, bowing to popular pressure, declared war on the Ottomans. In theensuingGreco-Turkish War of 1897the badly trained and equipped Greek army was defeated by
the Ottomans. Through the intervention of the Great Powers however, Greece lost only a littleterritory along the border to Turkey, while Crete was established as anautonomous stateunder
Prince George of Greece.
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Popular lithograph celebrating the success of theGoudi pronunciamientoof 1909 as a national
rebirth.
Nationalist sentiment among Greeks in the Ottoman Empire continued to grow, and by the 1890s
there were constant disturbances in Macedonia.Here the Greeks were in competition not only
with the Ottomans but also with the Bulgarians, engaged in an armed propaganda struggle for thehearts and minds of the ethnically mixed local population, the so-called "Macedonian Struggle".
In July 1908, theYoung Turk Revolutionbroke out in theOttoman Empire.
Taking advantage of the Ottoman internal turmoil, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and
Herzegovina,andBulgariadeclared its independence from the Ottoman Empire. On Crete, thelocal population, led by a young politician namedEleftherios Venizelos,declaredEnosis,Union
with Greece, provoking another crisis. The fact that the Greek government, led by Dimitrios
Rallis,proved unable to likewise take advantage of the situation and bring Crete into the fold,
rankled with many Greeks, especially with young officers. These formed a secret society, the"Military League", with the purpose of emulating their Ottoman colleagues and seek reforms.
The resultingGoudi coupon 15 August 1909 marked a watershed in modern Greek history: as
the military conspirators were inexperienced in politics, they asked Venizelos, who had
impeccable liberal credentials, to come to Greece as their political adviser. Venizelos quickly
established himself as a powerful political figure, and his allies won the August 1910 elections.Venizelos became Prime Minister in October 1910, ushering a period of 25 years where his
personality would dominate Greek politics.
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Wars and crises, 19121922
Main articles:Balkan Wars,Greece during World War I,National Schism,Greek genocideand
Asia Minor Campaign
The two protagonists of the fateful decade 19121922: KingConstantine Iand PM EleftheriosVenizelosin the days of their close cooperation during theSecond Balkan War,before the deep
political and personal rift between the two materialized and led to theNational Schism.
Venizelos initiated a major reform program, including a new and more liberal constitutionand
reforms in the spheres of public administration, education and economy. French and British
military missions were invited for the army and navy respectively, and arms purchases weremade. In the meantime, the Ottoman Empire's weaknesses were revealed by the ongoing Italo-
Turkish Warin Libya.
Balkan Wars
Through spring 1912, a series of bilateral agreements between the Christian Balkan states
(Greece,Bulgaria,MontenegroandSerbia)formed theBalkan League,which in October 1912declared war on the Ottoman Empire. In theFirst Balkan War,the Ottomans were defeated on all
fronts, and the four allies rushed to grab as much territory as they could. The Greeks occupied
Thessalonikijust ahead of the Bulgarians, and also took much ofEpiruswithIoannina,as well as
Creteand theAegean Islands.
TheTreaty of Londonended the war, but no one was left satisfied, and soon, the four allies fell
out over the partition of Macedonia. In June 1913, Bulgaria attacked Greece and Serbia,beginning the Second Balkan War, but was beaten back. The Treaty of Bucharest, which
concluded the war, left Greece with southern Epirus, thesouthern halfof Macedonia, Crete andthe Aegean islands, except for theDodecanese,which had been occupied byItalyin 1911. Thesegains nearly doubled Greece's area and population.
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In March 1913, an anarchist,Alexandros Schinas,assassinated King George in Thessaloniki, andhis son came to the throne as Constantine I. Constantine was the first Greek king born in Greece
and the first to be Greek Orthodox. His very name had been chosen in the spirit of romantic
Greek nationalism (theMegali Idea), evoking the Byzantine emperors of that name. In addition,as the Commander-in-chief of the Greek Army during the Balkan Wars, his popularity was
enormous, rivalled only by that of Venizelos, his Prime Minister.
World War I
When World War Ibroke out in 1914, despite Greece's treaty of alliance with Serbia, both
leaders preferred to maintain a neutral stance. But when, in early 1915, the Allies asked forGreek help in the Dardanelles campaign, offering Cyprus in exchange, their diverging views
became apparent: Constantine had been educated inGermany,was married toSophia of Prussia,
sister ofKaiser Wilhelm,and was convinced of the Central Powers'victory. Venizelos on the
other hand was an ardentanglophile,and believed in an Allied victory.
Since Greece, a maritime country, could not oppose the mighty British navy, and citing the needfor a respite after two wars, King Constantine favored continued neutrality, while Venizelos
actively sought Greek entry in the war on the Allied side. Venizelos resigned, but won the next
elections,and again formed the government. WhenBulgariaentered the war as a German ally inOctober 1915, Venizelos invited Ententeforces into Greece (the Salonika Front), for which he
was again dismissed by Constantine.
Venizelos reviews a section of the Greek army on theMacedonian frontduring theFirst WorldWar, 1917. He is accompanied by Admiral Pavlos Koundouriotis (left) and General Maurice
Sarrail(right).
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In August 1916, after several incidents where both combatants encroached upon the still
theoretically neutral Greek territory, Venizelist officers rose up in Allied-controlled
Thessaloniki, and Venizelos established a separate government there. Constantine was nowruling only in what was Greece before the Balkan Wars ("Old Greece"), and his government was
subject to repeated humiliations from the Allies. In November 1916 the French occupiedPiraeus,
bombarded Athens and forced the Greek fleet to surrender. The royalist troops fired at them,leading to a battle between French and Greek royalist troops. There were also riots againstsupporters of Venizelos in Athens (theNoemvriana).
Following theFebruary RevolutioninRussia,the Tsar's support for his cousin was removed, and
Constantine was forced to leave the country, without actually abdicating, in June 1917. His
second son Alexanderbecame King, while the remaining royal family and the most prominent
royalists followed into exile. Venizelos now led a superficially united Greece into the war on theAllied side, but underneath the surface, the division of Greek society into Venizelistsand anti-
Venizelists, the so-calledNational Schism,became more entrenched.
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Two failed Venizelist military coups followed in an effort to preserve the Republic in 1933 and
1935, but they had the opposite effect. On 10 October 1935, a few months after he suppressed
thesecond attemptin March 1935,Georgios Kondylis,the former Venizelist stalwart, abolishedthe Republic in another coup, and declared the monarchy restored. A riggedplebisciteconfirmed
the regime change (with an unsurprising 97.88% of votes), and King George II returned.
The conservative regime ofIoannis Metaxas(4th of August Regime)adopted many of the ideas
and symbolism of Italian Fascism. Here members of theNational Organisation of Youthgive the
Roman saluteto Metaxas.
King George II immediately dismissed Kondylis and appointed Professor KonstantinosDemertzisas interim Prime Minister. Venizelos meanwhile, in exile, urged an end to the conflict
over the monarchy in view of the threat to Greece from the rise ofFascist Italy.His successors as
Liberal leader,Themistoklis SophoulisandGeorgios Papandreou,agreed, and the restoration ofthe monarchy was accepted. The 1936 elections resulted in a hung parliament, with the
Communistsholding the balance. As no government could be formed, Demertzis continued on.
At the same time, a series of deaths left the Greek political scene in disarray: Kondylis died in
February, Venizelos in March, Demertzis in April and Tsaldaris in May. The road was now clearfor Ioannis Metaxas, who had succeeded Demertzis as interim Prime Minister.
Metaxas, a retired royalist general, believed that an authoritarian government was necessary toprevent social conflict and, especially, quell the rising power of the Communists. On 4 August
1936, with the King's support, he suspended parliament and established the 4th of August
Regime. The Communists were suppressed and the Liberal leaders went into internal exile.Patterning itself after Benito Mussolini's Fascist Italy,
[citation needed] Metaxas' regime promoted
various concepts such as the "Third Hellenic Civilization", theRoman salute,anational youth
organization, and introduced measures to gain popular support, such as the Greek SocialInsurance Institute(IKA), still the biggest social security institution in Greece.
Despite these efforts the regime lacked a broad popular base or a mass movement supporting it.
The Greek people were generally apathetic, without actively opposing Metaxas. Metaxas alsoimproved the country's defenses in preparation for the forthcoming European war, constructing,
among other defensive measures, the "Metaxas Line". Despite his aping of Fascism, and the
strong economic ties with resurgent Nazi Germany, Metaxas followed a policy of neutrality,given Greece's traditionally strong ties to Britain, reinforced by King George II's personal
anglophilia. In April 1939, the Italian threat suddenly loomed closer, as Italy annexedAlbania,
whereupon Britain publicly guaranteed Greece's borders. Thus, whenWorld War IIbroke out inSeptember 1939, Greece remained neutral.
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The three occupation zones. Blue indicates the Italian, red the German and green the territory
annexed by Bulgaria. The Italian zone was taken over by the Germans in September 1943.
The occupied country was divided in three zones (German, Italian and Bulgarian) and in Athens,
a puppet regime was established. The members were either conservatives or nationalists with
fascist leanings. The threequislingprime ministers wereGeorgios Tsolakoglou,the general whohad signed the armistice with the Wehrmacht,Konstantinos Logothetopoulos,andIoannis Rallis,
who took office when the German defeat was inevitable, and aimed primarily at combating the
left-wing Resistance movement. To this end, he created thecollaborationistSecurity Battalions.
Greece suffered terrible privations duringWorld War II,as the Germans appropriated most of
the country's agricultural production and prevented its fishing fleets from operating. As a result,and because a British blockade initially hindered foreign relief efforts, a wide-scale famine
resulted, when hundreds of thousands perished, especially in the winter of 19411942. In themountains of the Greek mainland, in the meantime, severalresistance movementssprang up, andby mid-1943, the Axis forces controlled only the main towns and the connecting roads, while a
"Free Greece" was set up in the mountains.
The largest resistance group, the National Liberation Front (EAM), was controlled by the
Communists,as was (Elas) led by Aris Velouchiotis and a civil war soon broke out between it
and non-Communist groups such as the National Republican Greek League (EDES) in thoseareas liberated from the Germans. The exiled government in Cairo was only intermittently in
touch with the resistance movement, and exercised virtually no influence in the occupied
country. Part of this was due to the unpopularity of the King George II in Greece itself, but
despite efforts by Greek politicians, British support ensured his retention at the head of the Cairogovernment.
As the German defeat drew nearer, the various Greek political factions convened in Lebanon inMay 1944, under British auspices, and formed a government of national unity, under George
Papandreou,in which EAM was represented by six ministers.
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Civil War
Main article:Greek civil war
German forces withdrew on 12 October 1944, and the government in exile returned to Athens.
After the German withdrawal, the EAM-ELAS guerrilla army effectively controlled most ofGreece, but its leaders were reluctant to take control of the country, as they knew that Soviet
premierJoseph Stalinhadagreedthat Greece would be in the British sphere of influence after the
war. Tensions between the British-backed Papandreou and EAM, especially over the issue of
disarmament of the various armed groups, led to the resignation of the latter's ministers from thegovernment.
A few days later, on 3 December 1944, a large-scale pro-EAM demonstration in Athens ended inviolence and ushered an intense, house-to-house struggle with British and monarchist forces (the
Dekemvriana). After three weeks, the Communists were defeated: theVarkiza agreementended
the conflict and disarmed ELAS, and an unstable coalition government was formed. The anti-
EAM backlash grew into a full-scale "White Terror", which exacerbated tensions.
Organization and military bases of the "Demogratic Army", as well as entry routes to Greece.
The Communists boycotted the March 1946 elections,and on the same day, fighting broke outagain. By the end of 1946, the CommunistDemocratic Army of Greecehad been formed, pitted
against the governmental National Army, which was backed first by Britain and after 1947 by
theUnited States.
Communist successes in 19471948 enabled them to move freely over much of mainlandGreece, but with extensive reorganization, the deportation of rural populations and American
material support, the National Army was slowly able to regain control over most of thecountryside. In 1949, the insurgents suffered a major blow, as Yugoslavia closed its borders
following the splitbetween MarshalJosip Broz Titowith theSoviet Union.Finally, in August1949, the National Army under Marshal Alexander Papagos launched an offensive that forcedthe remaining insurgents to surrender or flee across the northern border into the territory of
Greece's northern Communist neighbors.
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The civil war resulted in 100,000 killed and caused catastrophic economic disruption. In
addition, at least 25,000 Greeks and an unspecified number of Macedonian Slavs were either
voluntarily or forcibly evacuated to Eastern bloc countries, while 700,000 became displacedpersons inside the country. Many more emigrated toAustraliaand other countries.
The postwar settlement ended Greece's territorial expansion, which had begun in 1832. The 1947Treaty of Parisrequired Italy to hand over theDodecaneseislands to Greece. These were the last
majority-Greek-speaking areas to be united with the Greek state, apart from Cyprus which was a
British possession until it became independent in 1960. Greece's ethnic homogeneity wasincreased by the postwar expulsion of 25,000 Albanians from Epirus (seeCham Albanians). The
only significant remaining minorities are theMuslims in Western Thrace(about 100,000) and a
small Slavic-speaking minority in the north. Greek nationalists continued to claim southern
Albania(which they calledNorthern Epirus), home of a significant Greek population (about 3%-12% in the whole of Albania), and the Turkish-held islands ofImvrosandTenedos,where there
were smaller Greek minorities.
Postwar Greece (19501973)
After the civil war, Greece sought to join the Western democracies and became a member of the
North Atlantic Treaty Organizationin 1952.
Since the Civil war (194649) but even more after that, the parties in the parliament weredivided in three political concentrations. The political formation Right-Centre-Left, given theexacerbation of political animosity that had preceded dividing the country in the 40s, tended to
turn the concurrence of parties into ideological positions.
Workmen grade the street in front of new housing constructed with the help of Marshall Plan
funds in Greece.
In the beginning of the 1950s, the forces of the Centre (EPEK) succeeded in gaining the powerand under the leadership of the aged general N. Plastiras they governed for about half a four-year
term. These were a series of governments having limited manoeuvre ability and inadequateinfluence in the political arena. This government, as well as those that followed, was constantly
under the American auspices. The defeat of EPEK in the elections of 1952, apart from increasing
the repressive measures that concerned the defeated of the Civil war, also marked the end of thegeneral political position that it represented, namely political consensus and social reconciliation.
The Left, which had been ostracized from the political life of the country, found a way of
expression through the constitution of EDA (United Democratic Left) in 1951, which turned outto be a significant pole, yet steadily excluded from the decision making centres. After the
disbandment of the Centre as an autonomous political institution, EDA practically expanded its
electoral influence to a significant part of the EAM-based Centre-Left.
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The 1960s are part of the period 1953-72, during which Greek economy developed rapidly and
was structured within the scope of European and worldwide economic developments. One of the
main characteristics of that period was the major political event - as we have come to accept it -of the countrys accession in the EEC, in an attempt to create a common market. The relevant
treaty was contracted in 1962.
The developmental strategy adopted by the country was embodied in centrally organized five-
year plans; yet their orientation was indistinct. The average annual emigration, which absorbed
the excess workforce and contributed to extremely high growth rates, exceeded the annualnatural increase in population. The influx of large amounts of foreign private capital was being
facilitated and consumption was expanded. These, associated with the rise of tourism, the
expansion of shipping activity and with the migrant remittances, had a positive effect on the
balance of payments.
The peak of development was registered principally in manufacture, mainly in the textile and
chemical industry and in the sector of metallurgy, the growth rate of which tended to reach 11%
during 1965-70. The other large branch where obvious economic and social consequences werebrought about, was that of construction. Consideration, a Greek invention, favoured the creation
of a class of small-medium contractors on one hand and settled the housing system and propertystatus on the other.
During that decade, youth came forth in society as a distinct social power with autonomouspresence (creation of a new culture in music, fashion etc.) and displaying dynamism in the
assertion of their social rights. The independence granted to Cyprus, which was mined from the
very beginning, constituted the main focus of young activist mobilizations, along with struggles
aiming at reforms in education, which were provisionally realized to a certain extent through theeducational reform of 1964. The country reckoned on and was influenced by Europe - usually
behind time - and by the current trends like never before. Thus, in a sense, the imposition of themilitary junta conflicted with the social and cultural occurrences.
Greek military junta of 19671974
Main article:Greek military junta of 19671974
A Greek army tank on the streets of Athens on 21 April 1967.
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