History of Consciousness 1. Psychology began as a science of consciousness. 2. Behaviorists argued about alienating consciousness from psychology. 3. However,

History of Consciousness1. Psychology began as a science of

consciousness.

2. Behaviorists argued about alienating consciousness from psychology.

3. However, after 1960, mental concepts (consciousness) started reentering psychology.

Consciousness, modern psychologists believe, is an awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Forms of Consciousness

Consciousness & Information Processing

The unconscious mind processes information simultaneously on multiple tracks, while the conscious mind

processes information sequentially.

Conscious mind

Unconscious mind

Waking Consciousness

Levels of information Processing Parallel processing– subconscious

(unconscious/unaware) information processing occurs simultaneously on many parallel tracks.

Serial processing– conscious processing takes place in sequence

Sleep & Dreams

Sleep – the irresistible tempter to whom we inevitably succumb.

Mysteries about sleep and dreams have just startedunraveling in sleep laboratories around the world.

Sleep and Dreams

Sleep periodic, natural,

reversible loss of

consciousness

Biological Clocks

Biological clocks are internal units that control parts of the body and which are regulated by nature. They operate on free-running cycles (under their own control).

Through entrainment, some cycles can be modified to fit a different rhythm (sleep-wake cycle).

Biological Rhythms

1. Annual cycles: On an annual cycle, geese migrate, grizzly bears hibernate, and humans experience seasonal variations in appetite, sleep, and mood. Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD) is a mood disorder people experience during dark winter months.

Biological rhythms are controlled byinternal “biological clocks.”

Biological Rhythms

2. 28-day cycles: The female menstrual cycle averages 28 days. Research shows menstruation may not affect moods.

And as an example

Q: How many women with PMS does it take to change a light bulb?

A: One!!! ONLY ONE!!!! And do you know WHY?Because no one else in this house knows HOW to change a light bulb! They don't even know that the bulb is BURNED OUT!! They'd sit there in the dark for THREE DAYS before they figured it out!! And, once they figured it out, they wouldn't be able to find the light bulbs despite the fact they've been in the SAME CUPBOARD for the past 13 YEARS! But if they did, by some miracle of God, actually find the bulbs 2 DAYS LATER, the chair they dragged to stand on to change the STUPID light bulb would STILL BE IN THE SAME SPOT!!!!! AND UNDERNEATH IT WOULD BE THE WRAPPER THE STUPID LIGHT BULBS CAME IN!!! BECAUSE NO ONE EVER CARRIES OUT THE GARBAGE!!!! IT'S A WONDER WE HAVEN'T ALL SUFFOCATED FROM THE PILES OF GARBAGE THAT ARE A FOOT DEEP THROUGHOUT THE ENTIRE HOUSE!! IT WOULD TAKE AN ARMY TO CLEAN THIS HOUSE!

I'm sorry. What was your question?

Biological Rhythms

3. 24-hour cycles: Humans experience 24-hour cycles of varying alertness (sleep), body temperature, and growth hormone secretion.

4. 90-minute cycles: We go through various stages of sleep in 90-minute cycles.

Rhythm of Sleep

Circadian Rhythms occur on a 24-hour cycle and include sleep and wakefulness, which are disrupted during transcontinental flights.

Light triggers the suprachiasmatic nucleus to decrease(morning) melatonin from the pineal gland

and increase (evening) it at night fall.

Jet Lag

Measuring sleep: About every 90 minutes, we pass through a cycle of five distinct sleep stages.

Sleep Stages

Hank Morgan/ Rainbow

Awake & Alert

During strong mental engagement, the brain exhibits low amplitude and fast, irregular beta

waves (15-30 cps). An awake person involved in a conversation shows beta activity.

Beta Waves

Awake but Relaxed

When an individual closes his eyes but remains awake, his brain activity slows down to a large amplitude and slow, regular alpha waves (9-14

cps). A meditating person exhibits an alpha brain activity.

During early, light sleep (stages 1-2) the brain enters a high-amplitude, slow, regular wave form

called theta waves (5-8 cps). A person who is daydreaming shows theta activity.

Sleep Stages 1-2

Theta Waves

During deepest sleep (stages 3-4), brain activity slows down. There are large-amplitude, slow delta

waves (1.5-4 cps).

Sleep Stages 3-4

Stage 5: REM SleepAfter reaching the deepest sleep stage (4), the

sleep cycle starts moving backward towards stage 1. Although still asleep, the brain engages in low-

amplitude, fast and regular beta waves (15-40 cps) much like awake-aroused state.

A person during this sleep exhibits

Rapid Eye Movements (REM)

and reports vivid dreams.

Sleep and Dreams

REM (Rapid Eye Movement) Sleep recurring sleep stage vivid dreams “paradoxical sleep”

muscles are generally relaxed, but other body systems are active

Sleep and DreamsREM SLEEP NREM SLEEP

1. Rapid eye movement 1. Non-rapid eye movement

2. Increases in length as

night’s sleep progresses.

2.Decreases in length as night’s sleep progresses.

3. Vivid dreams 3. Vague, partial images and stories

4. Nightmares 4. Incubus attacks (night terrors)

5. Paralyzed body 5. Sleepwalking & talking in sleep

6. Essential part of sleep 6. Less essential part of sleep

90-Minute Cycles During SleepWith each 90-minute cycle, stage 4 sleep decreases and the duration of REM sleep

increases.

Brain Waves and Sleep Stages

Beta Waves Wide awake waves

Alpha Waves slow waves of a relaxed,

awake brain Delta Waves

large, slow waves of deep sleep

Hallucinations false sensory experiences

Sleep Spindles Begin during stage 2 sleep

and increase through the cycle

Fig. 5-5a, p. 180

Fig. 5-5b, p. 181

The Nature of Sleep and Dreams

Stages of Sleep Upon reaching stage 4 and after about 80 to 100 minutes of total sleep

time, sleep lightens, returns through stages 3 and 2 REM sleep emerges, characterized by EEG patterns that resemble beta

waves of alert wakefulness muscles most relaxed rapid eye movements occur dreams occur

Four or five sleep cycles occur in a typical night’s sleep; less time is spent in slow-wave, more is spent in REM

Why do we sleep?We spend one-third of

our lives sleeping.

If an individual remains awake for several days, they deteriorate in terms

of immune function, concentration, and

accidents.

Sleep Theories1. Sleep Protects: Sleeping in the darkness when

predators loomed about kept our ancestors out of harm’s way.

2. Sleep Recuperates: Sleep helps restore and repair brain tissue.

3. Sleep Helps Remembering: Sleep restores and rebuilds our fading memories.

4. Sleep and Growth: During sleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone. Older people release less of this hormone and sleep less.

Functions of Sleep

Restoration theory —body wears out during the day and sleep is necessary to put it back in shape

Adaptive theory— sleep emerged in evolution to preserve energy and protect during the time of day when there is little value and considerable danger

Sleep Deprivation

1. Fatigue and subsequent death.

2. Impaired concentration.

3. Emotional irritability.

4. Depressed immune system.

5. Greater vulnerability.

Sleep Deprivation

Has little effect on

performance of tasks

requiring physical

skill or intellectual

judgment Hurts performance on simple, boring tasks

more than challenging ones

Sleep Deprivation

2,400

2,700

2,600

2,500

2,800

Spring time change(hour sleep loss)

3,600

4,200

4000

3,800

Fall time change(hour sleep gained)

Less sleep,more accidents

More sleep,fewer accidents

Monday before time change Monday after time change

Accident frequency

Insomnia Insomnia

persistent problems in

falling or staying asleep Insomniacs—has a normal desire for sleep,

but is unable to and feels tired during the day Research Shows-Milk before bed often help

those who have trouble falling asleep; alcohol makes sleeping through the night more difficult

Sleep Disorders

Narcolepsy uncontrollable sleep attacks

Sleep Apnea temporary cessation of breathing momentary reawakenings

Fig. 5-11, p. 188

Sleep Disorders

REM sleep disorder— sleeper acts out his or her dreams

Night terrors— sudden arousal from sleep and intense fear accompanied by physiological reactions (e.g., rapid heart rate, perspiration) that occur during slow-wave sleep

Nightmares– a vivid dream depicting frightening disturbing, anxiety-provoking events.

Somnambulism-- Sleepwalking.

Sleep DisordersNightmares Night Terrors

1. Occurs during REM sleep, usually during the second half of the night.

1. Occurs during NREM sleep, usually during the first hour of the night.

2. Mild physiological changes 2. Drastic bodily changes: breathing & heart rate rise dramatically.

3. Associated with vivid images 3. Associated with panic

4. Most likely to occur during REM rebound.

4. Most likely to occur in children

Figure 7.9 Night terrors and nightmaresMyers: Psychology, Eighth EditionCopyright © 2007 by Worth Publishers

Practical Issues in Sleep

Many people walk and talk in their sleep. It is normal. It is not dangerous to awaken a sleepwalker, as long as the person feels safe and secure.

Walking and Talking

Sleepwalking (somnambulism)About 25% of all children have at least one episode of sleepwalking. It typically occurs during the first three hours of sleep.

Why do we dream?

1. Wish Fulfillment: Sigmund Freud suggested that dreams provide a psychic safety valve to discharge unacceptable feelings. The dream’s manifest (apparent) content may also have symbolic meanings (latent content) that signify our unacceptable feelings.

Dreams: Freud

Sigmund Freud--The Interpretation of Dreams (1900) wish fulfillment discharge otherwise unacceptable

feelings Manifest Content

remembered story line Latent Content

underlying meaning

Manifest Content

Monsters On Bikes • I have this recurring dream of being chased by a gang of monsters

on bikes. I know the neighborhood that I am in because I used to live there. I am on foot trying to get away and hiding in places that I know are safe. But they keep finding me. I also know it is Halloween, because I am in costume and so is everyone else. I am screaming for help, but the people around me, and the people whose doorbells I am ringing keep telling me that there is no one after me. They ask me if I want some candy to calm myself down. Then they start taking guns and shooting at me, but they miss. Finally, I can't run anymore, and they catch up to me, and grab me by my nose when I wake up.

Thank you!JessicaOctober 1, 2000

Latent ContentHi Jessica,

Chase dreams are quite common and often reflect a situation that you are afraid in confronting. Being chased by a gang of monsters sounds quite frightening. You indicated that in your dream it was Halloween. These monsters were probably really people dressed in their own mask and costumes. The scenario of your dream and being that it is Halloween, furthers my belief that you are truly afraid in directly confronting a particular situation. Disguises and costumes protect and shield your real self. Behind a mask, you adapt a new persona and and feel freer in releasing your inhibitions. The costume/mask provides some sort of barrier against your vulnerabilities. It protects you from being hurt.

Another significant aspect of your dream is that the people you turn to for help turns against you. Does this parallel a situation in your waking life where you felt betrayed or that your trust was undermined? Next time you have another chase dream, turn around and confront the chasers. You may be surprised to find that what you are running from is not all that frightening. In doing so, you will even find that your recurring chase dreams will occur less often.

Best Regards,Steve

Why we Dream

• Information Processing: Dreams may help sift, sort, and fix a day’s experiences in our memories.

Why do we dream?

3. Physiological Function: Dreams provide the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation to develop and preserve neural pathways. Neural networks of newborns are quickly developing; therefore, they need more sleep.

Why do we dream?

4. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Suggests that the brain engages in a lot of random neural activity. Dreams make sense of this activity.

5. Cognitive Development: Some researchers argue that we dream as a part of brain maturation and cognitive development.

All dream researchers believe we need REM sleep. Whendeprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep,

we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.

Dream TheoriesSummary

The Psychology of Dreams

Usually dreams contain everyday occurrences such as interactions with family, friends, school teachers, and so on. They also contain ideas about fears and inadequacies.

Everyone dreams...

Usually contain imagined conquests

Take place outdoors more than indoors

May be recurrent

Usually involve running or jumping

Usually involve strong emotions

Contain visual, auditory, and even taste sensations. (About 50% of our dreams are in color. No one knows why.)

Dream Content

What do we Dream?

1. Negative Emotional Content: 8 out of 10 dreams have negative emotional content.

2. Failure Dreams: People commonly dream about failure, being attacked, pursued, rejected, or struck with misfortune.

3. Sexual Dreams: Contrary to our thinking, sexual dreams are sparse. Sexual dreams in men are 1 in 10; and in women 1 in 30.

4. Dreams of Gender: Women dream of men and women equally; men dream more about men than women.

Dreams REM Rebound

Tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (caused by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

When deprived of REM sleep and then allowed to sleep, we show increased REM sleep called REM Rebound.

No one can be hypnotized to do something they wouldn’t do anyway.

HypnosisHypnosis is a state of relaxation. Attention is focused on certain objects, acts, or feelings.

Anton Mesmer believed power came from magnetism.

Hypnotic results really come from the power of suggestion to focus or block.

Trances are periods of deep relaxation.

Hypnosis

Hypnosis a social interaction in which one person (the

hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

Posthypnotic Amnesia supposed inability to recall what one

experienced during hypnosis induced by the hypnotist’s suggestion

Fig. 5-15, p. 194

Hypnosis

Hypnos: Greek god of sleep

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A social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to

another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or

behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Mesmerism

Credit for the popularity of hypnosis goes to Franz

Anton Mesmer, a physician, who mistakenly

thought he discovered “animal magnetism.” Some of his patients

experienced a trancelike state and felt better upon

waking up.

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Age Regression

Controversial aspect of hypnotherapy which the patient mentally returns to an earlier stage of life in order to explore a memory or to get in touch with some difficult-to-access aspect of their personality.

False Memories

Under hypnosis memories can be altered or added

Factually incorrect but strongly believed Found in situations of presumed abuse

Strength, stamina, and perceptual and memory abilities similarly affect those who are hypnotized

and those who are not hypnotized.

Hypnotic Feats

Is Hypnosis an Altered State of Consciousness?

1. Social Influence Theory: Hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role.

2. Divided Consciousness Theory: Hypnosis is a special state of dissociated (divided) consciousness (Hilgard, 1986, 1992).

(Hilgard, 1992)

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Hypnosis: Divided Consciousness Dissociation (divided consciousness)

a split in consciousness allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur

simultaneously with others Hidden Observer

Hilgard’s term describing a hypnotized subject’s awareness of experiences, such as pain, that go unreported during hypnosis

Hypnosis

Orne & Evans (1965) control group instructed to “pretend” unhypnotized subjects performed the same acts

as the hypnotized ones Posthypnotic Suggestion

suggestion to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized

used by some clinicians to control undesired symptoms and behaviors

Facts and Falsehood

Those who practice hypnosis agree that its power resides in the subject’s openness to suggestion.

Can anyone experience hypnosis? Yes, to some extent.

Can hypnosis enhance recall of forgotten events?

No.

Facts and Falsehood

Can hypnosis be therapeutic?Yes. Self-suggestion

can heal too.

Can hypnosis alleviate pain?Yes. Lamaze can

do that too.

Can hypnosis force people to act against their will?

No.

Explaining Hypnosis

Drugs and Consciousness

Psychoactive Drug a chemical substance that alters perceptions and

mood Physical Dependence

physiological need for a drug marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms

Psychological Dependence a psychological need to use a drug for example, to relieve negative emotions

Misconceptions about Addiction

1. Addictive drugs quickly corrupt.

2. Addiction cannot be overcome voluntarily.

3. Addiction is no different than repetitive pleasure-seeking behaviors.

Addiction is a craving for a chemical substance, despite its adverse consequences

(physical & psychological).

Dependence and Addiction

Tolerance diminishing effect with

regular use Withdrawal

discomfort and distress that follow discontinued use

Small Large

Drug dose

Littleeffect

Bigeffect

Drugeffect

Response tofirst exposure

After repeatedexposure, moredrug is neededto produce same effect

Psychoactive Drugs

Psychoactive drugs are divided into three groups.

1. Depressants

2. Stimulants

3. Hallucinogens

Depressants

Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions. They include:

1. Alcohol

2. Barbiturates

3. Opiates

Alcohol

1. Alcohol affects motor skills, judgment, and memory…and increases aggressiveness while reducing self awareness.

Drinking and Driving

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Psychoactive Drugs

Alcohol– in large or small doses it is a depressant. Small doses may indeed, enliven a drinker, but they do so by slowing brain activity that controls judgment and inhibitions. It contributes to the greatest number of deaths.

Barbiturates

2. Barbiturates: Drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment. Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal are some examples.

Depressants

3. Opiates: Opium and its derivatives (morphine and heroin) depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety. They are highly addictive.

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Stimulants

Stimulants are drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

1. Caffeine

2. Nicotine

3. Cocaine

4. Ecstasy

5. Amphetamines

6. Methamphetamines

Caffeine & Nicotine

Caffeine and nicotine increase heart and breathing rates and other autonomic functions to provide

energy.

Amphetamines

Amphetamines stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and

mood changes, with devastating effects.

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Ecstasy

Ecstasy or Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a stimulant and mild

hallucinogen. It produces a euphoric high and can damage serotonin-producing neurons, which results in a permanent

deflation of mood and impairment of memory.

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Cocaine

Cocaine induces immediate euphoria followed by a crash. Crack, a form of cocaine, can be smoked. Other forms of cocaine can be sniffed or injected.Works by blocking reuptake of dopamine

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Fig. 5-18, p. 202

Hallucinogens

Hallucinogens are psychedelic (mind-

manifesting) drugs that distort perceptions and

evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory

input.

Ronald K

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Hallucinogens

1. LSD: (lysergic acid diethylamide) powerful hallucinogenic drug (ergot fungus) that is also known as acid.

2. THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol): is the major active ingredient in marijuana (hemp plant) that triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

Hemp Plant

Drugs

Summary

Psychoactive Drugs

Ecstasy (MDMA) synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen both short-term and long-term health risks

LSD lysergic acid diethylamide a powerful hallucinogenic drug also known as acid

THC the major active ingredient in marijuana triggers a variety of effects,

including mild hallucinations

Trends in Drug Use

1975 ‘77 ‘79 ‘81 ‘83 ‘85 ‘87 ‘89 ‘91 ‘93 ‘95 ‘97 ‘99Year

80%

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High schoolseniors

reportingdrug use

Alcohol

Marijuana/hashish

Cocaine

Marijuana Use

The use of marijuana in teenagers is directly related to the “perceived risk” involved with the drug.

Psychoactive Drugs

Influences on Drug Use

The use of drugs is based on biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences.

Near-Death Experiences

After a close brush with death, many people report an experience of moving through a dark tunnel with a light at the end. This experience is often accompanied by fantastic, mystical imagery.

Mind-Body Problem

1. Dualism: Dualists believe that mind (non-physical) and body (physical) are two distinct entities that interact.

2. Monism: Monists believe that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing.

Near-death experiences raise the mind-body issue. Can the mind survive the dying body?