History Of Architecture Notes For part2 Examination (Indian Institute Of Architects)

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Notes On History OfArchitecture For indianInstitute Of ArchitectsEXamination Part-2)Collection By Atul Saxena

ContentsArticles

Chandigarh 1Laurie Baker 11Louis Kahn 16Frank Lloyd Wright 24Bauhaus 45Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 55Le Corbusier 67Hafeez Contractor 80Antoni Gaudí 82Achyut Kanvinde 87Joseph Allen Stein 88Raj Rewal 90Philip Johnson 92B. V. Doshi 99Anant Raje 101Walter Gropius 102Modern architecture 107Crystal Palace, London 112Eiffel Tower 118Woolworth Building 136

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 141Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 145

Article LicensesLicense 149

Chandigarh 1

Chandigarh

Chandigarhਚੰਡੀਗੜ੍ਹचण्डीगढ़

City Beautiful

—  Union territory  —

Seal

Chandigarh

Location of Chandigarhਚੰਡੀਗੜ੍ਹचण्डीगढ़

Coordinates 30.75°N 76.78°E

Country  India

District(s) 1

Established 1953

Capital Chandigarh

Largest city Chandigarh

Population• Density

900635[1]  (29)• 7900 /km2 (20461 /sq mi)

HDI ▲0.860 (high) (1st)

Literacy 81.9%

Official languages Punjabi, Hindi and English

Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)

Area• Elevation

114 km2 (44 sq mi)• 350 metres (1150 ft)

ISO 3166-2 IN-CH

Chandigarh 2

Website chandigarh.nic.in/ [2]

Chandigarh (Punjabi: ਚੰਡੀਗੜ੍ਹ, Hindi: चण्डीगढ़) is a union territory of India, that serves as the capital of two states,Punjab and Haryana. The name Chandigarh translates as "The Fort of Chandi". The name was coined from anancient temple called Chandi Mandir, devoted to the Hindu Goddess Chandi, present in the city's vicinity.[3] It isoccasionally referred to as The City Beautiful. Chandigarh Capital Region (CCR) including Mohali, Panchkula andZirakpur had a combined population of 1,165,111 (1.16 million) as per the 2001 census. Earlier the ChandigarhCapital region was also called 'Tricity' because of Panchkula and Mohali as adjacent cities but with mushrooming ofother towns like Zirakpur, Kharar etc. with considerable population it is better called 'Chandigarh Capital Region'.As the first planned city of India, Chandigarh is known internationally for its architecture and urban planning.[4]

Chandigarh is home to numerous architectural projects of Le Corbusier, Pierre Jeanneret, Matthew Nowicki, andAlbert Mayer. The city tops the list of Indian States and Union Territories with the highest per capita income in thecountry at Rs.99,262 at current prices and Rs.70,361 at constant prices (2006–2007).[5] As per a study conducted byMinistry of Urban Development, Chandigarh has emerged as the cleanest city in India.[6]

HistoryAfter the partition of British India into the two nations of India and Pakistan in 1947, the region of Punjab was alsosplit between India and Pakistan. The Indian state of Punjab required a new capital city to replace Lahore, whichbecame part of Pakistan during the partition. After several plans to make additions to existing cities were found to beinfeasible for various reasons, the decision to construct a new and planned city was undertaken.Of all the new town schemes in independent India, the Chandigarh project quickly assumed prime significance,because of the city's strategic location as well as the personal interest of Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister ofindependent India. Commissioned by Nehru to reflect the new nation's modern, progressive outlook, Nehru famouslyproclaimed Chandigarh to be "unfettered by the traditions of the past, a symbol of the nation's faith in the future."Several buildings and layouts in Chandigarh were designed by the French (born Swiss) architect and urban planner,Le Corbusier, in the 1950s. Le Corbusier was in fact the second architect of the city, after the initial master plan wasprepared by the American architect-planner Albert Mayer who was working with the Poland-born architect MatthewNowicki. It was only after Nowicki's death in 1950 that Le Corbusier was pulled into the project.On 1 November 1966, the newly-formed Indian state of Haryana was carved out of the eastern portion of the Punjab,in order to create Haryana as a majority Hindi speaking state, while the western portion of Punjab retained a mostlyPunjabi language-speaking majority and remained as the current day Punjab. However, the city of Chandigarh wason the border, and was thus created into a union territory to serve as capital of both these states. It was the capital ofPunjab alone from 1952 to 1966.[7] Chandigarh was due to be transferred to Punjab in 1986, in accordance with anagreement signed in August 1985 by Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India, with Sant Harchand SinghLongowal of the Akali Dal. This was to be accompanied by the creation of a new capital for Haryana, but thetransfer had been delayed. There is currently a discussion about which villages in southern districts of Punjab shouldbe transferred to Haryana, and about which Punjabi-speaking villages should be transferred to Punjab. But analystsbelieve that now it is not possible as none of the State governments would like to give up their claim and Chandigarhwould remain to be the capital of both states and a union territory.On 15 July 2007, Chandigarh became the first Indian city to go smoke-free. Smoking at public places was strictly prohibited and considered as a punishable act by Chandigarh Administration but, according to public opinion and a secret survey done by several prominent citizens of the U.T., smoking still exists in Chandigarh, which is not completely smoke-free zone due to delays in the construction of smoking zones promised to by the administration. Recent developments also showed that Chandigarh had become the hub of drugs and a very spoiled part of northern India. The police are recognised as the most effective police in the region, mostly free from corruption with high-spirited officers first taking the cause to make Chandigarh drug-free, but they failed to do so. The roots of drugs

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lie deep and the area is becoming degraded as modernisation, the term used to cover the decaying values andmanners for which the area was once famous. That was followed up by a complete ban on polythene bags with effectfrom 2 October (the birthday of Mahatma Gandhi) in the year 2008.[8] [9] .

Geography and climate

Sukhna Lake

Chandigarh is located near the foothills of the Shivalik range of theHimalayas in Northwest India. It covers an area of approximately 44sq mi or 114 km². and shares its borders with the states of Haryana inthe east and Punjab in the north, west and south. The exactcartographic co-ordinates of Chandigarh are 30°44′N 76°47′E.[10] Ithas an average elevation of 321 metres (1053 ft).

The surrounding districts are of Mohali, Patiala and Roopnagar inPunjab and Panchkula and Ambala in Haryana. The boundary of thestate of Himachal Pradesh is also minutes away from its north border.

Chandigarh has a humid subtropical climate characterized by aseasonal rhythm: very hot summers, mild winters, unreliable rainfall and great variation in temperature (-1 °C to 41.2°C). In winter, pieces of snow sometimes occurs during December and January. The average annual rainfall is1110.7 mm [11]. The city also receives occasional winter rains from the west.

Average temperature• Spring: The climate remains quite pleasant during the spring season (from mid-February to mid-March and then

from mid-September to mid-October). Temperatures vary between (max) 16 °C to 25 °C and (min) 9 °C to 18 °C.• Autumn: In autumn (from Mid-March to April), the temperature may rise to a maximum of 36 °C. Temperatures

usually remain between 16° to 27° in autumn. The minimum temperature is around 11 °C.• Summer: The temperature in summer (from Mid-May to Mid-June) may rise to a maximum of 45 °C (rarely).

Temperatures generally remain between 35 °C to 40 °C.• Monsoon: During monsoon(from mid-June to mid-September), Chandigarh receives moderate to heavy rainfall

and sometimes heavy to very heavy rainfall (generally during the month of August or September). Usually, therain bearing monsoon winds blow from south-west/ south-east. Mostly, the city receives heavy rain from south(which is mainly a persistent rain) but it generally receives most of its rain during monsoon either fromNorth-west or North-east. Maximum amount of rain received by the city of Chandigrah during monsoon season is195.5 mm in a single day.

• Winter: Winters (November to Mid-March) are mild but it can sometimes get quite chilly in Chandigarh.Average temperatures in the winter remain at (max) 7 °C to 15 °C and (min) -3 °C to 5 °C. Rain usually comesfrom the west during winters and it is usually a persistent rain for 2–3 days with sometimes hail-storms.

Chandigarh 4

Flora and fauna

Sambar in a forest

Most of Chandigarh is covered by dense Banyan and Eucalyptusplantations. Asoka, Cassia, Mulberry and other trees flourish in theforested ecosystem.The city has forests surrounding it which sustainmany animal and plant species. Deers, Sambars, Barking Deers,Parrots, Woodpeckers and Peacocks inhabit the protected forests.Sukhna Lake hosts a variety of ducks and geese, and attracts migratorybirds from parts of Siberia and Japan in the winter season.

A parrot sanctuary located in the city is home to a variety of birdspecies.

Architecture and urban planning

Chandigarh Secretariat Building

Taking over from Albert Mayer, Le Corbusier produced a plan forChandigarh that conformed to the modern city planning principles ofCongrès International d'Architecture Moderne CIAM, in terms ofdivision of urban functions, an anthropomorphic plan form, and ahierarchy of road and pedestrian networks. This vision of Chandigarh,contained in the innumerable conceptual maps on the drawing boardtogether with notes and sketches had to be translated into brick andmortar. Le Corbusier retained many of the seminal ideas of Mayer and Nowicki, like the basic framework of themaster plan and its components: The Capitol, City Center, besides the University, Industrial area, and linearparkland. Even the neighborhood unit was retained as the basic module of planning. However, the curving outline ofMayer and Nowicki was reorganized into a mesh of rectangles, and the buildings were characterized by an "honestyof materials". Exposed brick and boulder stone masonry in its rough form produced unfinished concrete surfaces, ingeometrical structures. This became the architectural form characteristic of Chandigarh, set amidst landscapedgardens and parks.

The Open Hand Monument

The initial plan had two phases: the first for a population of 150,000and the second taking the total population to 500,000. Le Corbusierdivided the city into units called "sectors", each representing atheoretically self-sufficient entity with space for living, working andleisure. The sectors were linked to each other by a road and pathnetwork developed along the line of the 7 Vs, or a hierarchy of seventypes of circulation patterns. At the highest point in this network wasthe V1, the highways connecting the city to others, and at the lowestwere the V7s, the streets leading to individual houses. Later a V8 wasadded: cycle and pedestrian paths. The Palace Assembly, designed byLe Corbusier The city plan is laid down in a grid pattern. The wholecity has been divided into rectangular patterns, forming identicallooking sectors, each sector measures 800 m x 1200 m. The sectorswere to act as self-sufficient neighbourhoods, each with its ownmarket, places of worship, schools and colleges - all within 10 minuteswalking distance from within the sector. The original two phases of theplan delineated sectors from 1 to 47, with the exception of 13 (Number 13 is considered unlucky). The Assembly,the secretariat and the high court, all located in Sector - 1 are the three monumental buildings designed by Le

Chandigarh 5

Corbusier in which he showcased his architectural genius to the maximum. The city was to be surrounded by a 16kilometer wide greenbelt that was to ensure that no development could take place in the immediate vicinity of thetown, thus checking suburbs and urban sprawl; hence is famous for its greenness too.While leaving the bulk of the city's architecture to other members of his team, Le Corbusier took responsibility forthe overall master plan of the city, and the design of some of the major public buildings including the High Court,Assembly, Secretariat, the Museum and Art Gallery, School of Art and the Lake Club. Le Corbusier's mostprominent building, the Court House, consists of the High court, which is literally higher than the other, eight lowercourts. Most of the other housing was done by Le Corbusier's cousin Pierre Jeanneret, the English husband and wifeteam of Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew, along with a team of nine Indian architects. The city in its final form, while notresembling his previous city projects like the Ville Contemporaine or the Ville Radieuse, was an important andiconic landmark in the history of town planning. It continues to be an object of interest for architects, planners,historians and social scientists. Chandigarh has two satellite cities: Panchkula and Mohali. Sometimes, the triangle ofthese three cities is collectively called the Chandigarh Tricity.

Chandigarh administrationChandigarh Administration is under the control of the Administrator who is appointed under the provisions of Art239 of the Constitution. The administrative control of Chandigarh is under the Ministry of Home Affairs. TheAdviser to the Administrator, a very senior officer equivalent to the Chief Secretary of a state, belonging to one ofthe All India Services, is second in command after the Administrator. He generally belongs to the AGMU cadre ofthe Indian Administrative Service.

Chandigarh High Court

• The Deputy Commissioner, an officer belonging to the IndianAdministrative Service, is the in-charge of the GeneralAdministration in the Chandigarh UT.

• The Senior Superintendent of Police, an officer belonging to theIndian Police Service, is responsible for maintaining Law & Orderand related issues in the Chandigarh UT.

• The Deputy Conservator of Forests, an officer belonging to theIndian Forest Service, is responsible for the management of theForests, Environment, Wild-Life and Pollution Control in theChandigarh UT.

The above three officers are generally from AGMU cadre and can also be from Punjab or Haryana cadres of the AllIndia Services.

DemographicsAs of 2001 India census,[13] Chandigarh had a population of 900,635, making for a density of about 7900 personsper square kilometre. Males constitute 56% of the population and females 44%. The sex ratio is 777 females forevery 1,000 males–which is the lowest in the country. Chandigarh has an average literacy rate of 81.9%, higher thanthe national average of 64.8%; with male literacy of 86.1% and female literacy of 76.5%. About 12% of thepopulation is under 6 years of age. The main religions in Chandigarh are Hinduism(78.60%), Sikhism (16.1%), Islam(3.9%), and Christianity (0.8%).[14] Hindi and Punjabi and are the main languages spoken in Chandigarh, althoughthese days English is quite popular. A significant percentage of the population of Chandigarh consists of people whohad moved here from the neighboring states of Haryana and Punjab to fill up the large number of vacancies invarious government departments that were established in Chandigarh.

Chandigarh 6

CultureThe culture of Chandigarh is an amalgamation of cultures neighboring states with an urban tinge. Still it is mostlyinfluenced by Punjabi culture, followed by Haryanavi, Himachali, UP and Bihar. North indian food is popular in thecity. Weddings in the region prefer a long lavish menu[15] .Trousers and shirts are mostly popular for gents. Older ladies prefer Punjabi suits and salwars. Young girls and boysare mostly seen in Jeans and T Shirts.

Economy

A Shopping mall in the city.

The government is a major employer in Chandigarh with threegovernments having their base here. A significant percentage ofChandigarh’s population therefore consists of people who are eitherworking for one of these governments or have retired from governmentservice. For this reason, Chandigarh is often called a “Pensioner'sParadise”. There are about 15 medium to large industrial including twoin the Public sector. In addition Chandigarh has over 2500 units areregistered under small scale sector. The important industries are papermanufacturing, basic metals and alloys and machinery. Otherindustries are relating to food products, sanitary ware, auto parts,machine tools, pharmaceuticals and electrical appliances. Yet, with aPer capita income (PCI) of 99,262, Chandigarh is the richest city in India.[16] Chandigarh's gross state domesticproduct for 2004 is estimated at $2.2 billion in current prices.

Chandigarh has a well developed market and banking infrastructure. Nearly all the major banks in the country haveregistered their presence in Chandigarh. Most banks with a pan India presence have their zonal/regional officespresent in Chandigarh. The Bank Square in Sector 17 in Chandigarh has a large presence of such offices all in onesection of the commercial sector.Three major trade promotion organizations have their offices in Chandigarh. These are: Federation of IndianChambers of Commerce & Industry, (FICCI) the PHD Chamber of Commerce and Industry (PHDCCI) and theConfederation of Indian Industry (CII) which has its regional headquarters at Sector 31, Chandigarh.The defence forces have a significant presence in Chandigarh, apart from the Indian Airforce base in Sector 31 andthe nearby Cantonment in Chandimandir, the city is the base for sourcing supplies for the Leh - Laddakh andSiachen region of defence operations.Chandigarh IT Park (also Chandigarh Technology Park) is the city's attempt to break into the IT world. Chandigarh'sinfrastructure, proximity to Delhi, Punjab, Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, and the IT talent pool attracts ITbusinesses looking for office space in the area. Major Indian firms and multinational corporations to the like ofQuark, Infosys, Dell have set up base in the city and its suburbs. According to a recent Global Services Surveyconducted by Cyber Media, Chandigarh is ranked 9th in the top 50 cities identified globally as ‘emergingoutsourcing and IT services destinations.’[17]

Chandigarh 7

Education

Gandhi Bhavan built by Pierre Jeanneret forPunjab University

Chandigarh is known for its quality school education. The schools areaffiliated to different types of school curricula. The prominent collegesin Chandigarh include GGDSD College, Punjab Engineering College,Chandigarh College Of Engineering & Technology(CCET), UniversityInstitute Of Engineering & Technology (UIET), DAV College, MCMDAV College, Government College for Girls and Boys andGovernment Teacher Training College. There are model schools set upby the government in various sectors, originally aimed to cater theneeds of each sector. It is a major study hub for students all overHaryana, Himachal Pradesh, J&K, Punjab, Bihar, Uttaranchal, and alsofor students from South-East Asia.

Transport

The new "Green Bus" introduced by the CTUruns throughout Chandigarh

Chandigarh has the largest number of vehicles per capita.[18] Wide,well maintained roads and ample parking space all over the city, makeit convenient to use private vehicles for local transport.

Public buses run by the Chandigarh Transport Undertaking (CTU), anundertaking of the Chandigarh Administration, provide local transportas well as inter-state transport services.[19]

The Chandigarh Traffic Police oversees the implementation of thetraffic rules, and is widely credited for a fairly orderly traffic system.The Traffic Park in Sector 23 introduces children, rickshaw-pullers andnew drivers to traffic safety.[20]

Rickshaws are common for traveling short distances, especially by school-going children, housewives and theelderly. Auto-rickshaws are limited, and most often ply to and from the ISBT. Most heavy traffic roads now haverickshaw lanes, which the rickshaw-pullers must adhere to compulsorily. The city also boasts of a well establishednetwork of modern radio cabs .Chandigarh is well connected by road. The two main National Highways (NH) connecting Chandigarh with the restof the country are: NH 22 (Ambala - Kalka - Shimla - Kinnaur) and NH 21 (Chandigarh - Leh). Chandigarh has twoInter-State Bus Terminus (ISBT), one for the North, East and South located in Sector 17, which is the biggest depotof Haryana Roadways and has regular bus services to most major cites in Haryana,and the national capital Delhi,which is about 240 km away. And a second in Sector 43 for the Western section, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, andUttarakhandand Jammu and Kashmir.Chandigarh has a railway station located about 10 km. away from the ISBT. Regular train connections are availableto the national capital New Delhi and to some other junctions like Ambala, Amritsar, Bhiwani, Chennai, Howrah,Kalka, Lucknow, Mumbai, Patna, Sri Ganganagar and Trivandrum.Chandigarh also has a domestic airport located nearly 12 kilometers from the ISBT. Its name is Chandigarh Airport.Air India, Jet Airways, JetLite and Kingfisher Airlines operate regular flights from Chandigarh to New Delhi andMumbai. The airport is under process of becoming an international airport and is negotiating with several airlinesincluding Kingfisher and SilkAir for international flights to Bangkok and Singapore, among other South East Asiancountries [21]

Chandigarh 8

In the near future, the city will also see a Metro Rail,[22] and an international airport. They are both approved by thegovernments, and are now at the design step to finalize the project design.

Sporting venues and gardens

The popular Sector-42 Hockey Stadium

Chandigarh is home to numerous inter state sporting teams intournaments like PHL and IPL. The city has built upon thisachievements a network of sound infrastructure ranging from stadiumto training camps. This include the entire gamut from cricket stadiums,swimming pools, shooting ranges to skating rinks and hockeystadiums. Chandigarh also has gardens across the entire city.Chandigarh is home to world famous Rock Garden,built from wastethings. The most famous being the Rose Garden. Other gardens areGarden of Annuals, Fragrance Garden, Hibiscus Garden,Chrysanthemum Garden, Botanical Garden and Shanti Kunj

Notable residents• G.S.Virk:Owner bristol hotel and resorts.• Abhinav Bindra, 2008 Olympic Gold Medalist, Men's 10m Air Rifle• Ashok Malhotra,Former Indian Cricketer• Harmohan Dhawan, Former minister of Civil Aviation• Jaspal Bhatti, Renowned comedian• Jeev Milkha Singh, The first Indian golfer to become a member of the European Tour, ranked as Asia's best golfer• Kanwardeep Singh ,Member of Rajya Sabha, Business Tycoon(Owner Of Alchemist Group).• Kapil Dev, Former Captain of the Indian cricket team• Milkha Singh, Athlete

Waterfall at Rock Garden, Chandigarh

• Nek Chand, Artist, famous for designing The Rock Garden• Pawan Kumar Bansal, Member of 15th Lok Sabha & Union

Minister.R• Poonam Dhillon, Hindi Film Actress• Rajeev Bedi[23] , Cancer Specialist, Oncologist, Best cancer

researcher in 2002 by Dr A.P.J Abdul Kalam - the then President ofIndia

• Rajpal Singh, Captain of Indian National Hockey Team.• Ramesh Kumar Nibhoria, Winner of Ashden Award also known as

Green Oscar• Dr.Rati Ram Sharma, Former Head of Deptt, BioPhysics & Nuclear

Medicine,received the 1989 Albert Schweitzer Prize and in 1996was nominated for a Nobel Prize in Medicine.

• Satya Pal Jain, former Lok Sabha Member, Senior Advocate and Politician• Yograj Singh, former Indian cricketer, Punjabi movie actor• Yuvraj Singh, Member of the Indian national cricket team, son of Yograj Singh

Chandigarh 9

See also• Chandigarh Capital region• Mohali• Panchkula• Rock Garden• Zirakpur

Academic works• Evenson, Norma. Chandigarh. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1966.• Joshi, Kiran. Documenting Chandigarh: The Indian Architecture of Pierre Jeanneret, Edwin Maxwell Fry and

Jane Drew. Ahmedabad: Mapin Publishing in association with Chandigarh College of Architecture, 1999. ISBN1-890206-13-X

• Kalia, Ravi. Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.• Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew. Chandigarh and Planning Development in India, London: Journal of the Royal

Society of Arts, No.4948, 1 April 1955, Vol.CIII, pages 315-333. I. The Plan, by E. Maxwell Fry, II. Housing, byJane B. Drew.

• Nangia, Ashish. Re-locating Modernism: Chandigarh, Le Corbusier and the Global Postcolonial. PhDDissertation, University of Washington, 2008.

• Perera, Nihal. "Contesting Visions: Hybridity, Liminality and Authorship of the Chandigarh Plan" PlanningPerspectives 19 (2004): 175-199

• Prakash, Vikramaditya. Chandigarh’s Le Corbusier: The Struggle for Modernity in Postcolonial India. Seattle:University of Washington Press, 2002.

• Sarin, Madhu. Urban Planning in the Third World: The Chandigarh Experience. London: Mansell Publishing,1982.

References[1] Indian Census (http:/ / www. censusindia. gov. in/ )[2] http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/[3] The Official Government Website (http:/ / chandigarh. gov. in/ knowchd_general. htm)[4] Business Portal of India (http:/ / business. gov. in/ investment_incentives/ chandigarh. php)[5] "Front Page News : Monday, July 26, 2010" (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2008/ 09/ 17/ stories/ 2008091755600800. htm). The Hindu. .

Retrieved 2010-07-26.[6] "India's cleanest: Where does your city stand?: Rediff.com News" (http:/ / news. rediff. com/ slide-show/ 2010/ may/ 11/

slide-show-1-chandigarh-cleanest-of-all. htm). News.rediff.com. 2010-05-13. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.[7] "Official Website of Chandigarh Administration" (http:/ / chandigarh. gov. in/ admn_index. htm). Chandigarh.gov.in. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.[8] TNN, Oct 2, 2008, 04.09am IST (2008-10-02). "Smoke out smoking violations - Chandigarh - City - The Times of India" (http:/ /

timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ Cities/ Chandigarh/ Smoke_out_smoking_violations_/ articleshow/ 3551323. cms).Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. . Retrieved 2010-07-26.

[9] "Chandigarh Administration" (http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/ WriteReadData\notification\not_env684_300708. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved2010-07-26.

[10] Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Chandigarh (http:/ / www. fallingrain. com/ world/ IN/ 5/ Chandigarh. html)[11] http:/ / chandigarh. nic. in/ knowchd_general. htm[12] "Census population" (http:/ / sampark. chd. nic. in/ images/ State_2006/ StatisticalAbstract2004/ Areapopulation/ area_pop_tab2. 1. pdf)

(PDF). Census of India. http:/ / sampark. chd. nic. in. . Retrieved 2008-06-04.[13] "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/

20040616075334/ http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ results/ town. php?stad=A& state5=999). Census Commission of India. Archived from theoriginal (http:/ / www. censusindia. net/ results/ town. php?stad=A& state5=999) on 2004-06-16. . Retrieved 2008-11-01.

[14] Indian Census (http:/ / censusindia. gov. in/ Dist_File/ datasheet-0401. pdf)[15] http:/ / tastytouch. co. in/ menus/ make-my-menu/[16] Chandigarh's the richest of 'em all (http:/ / www. ibnlive. com/ news/ chandigarhs-the-richest-of-em-all/ 12571-3. html)[17] The Hindu Business Line (http:/ / www. thehindubusinessline. com/ 2007/ 10/ 03/ stories/ 2007100351450400. htm)

Chandigarh 10

[18] (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ deccanherald/ jun132006/ national181232006612. asp)[19] CITCO (http:/ / www. citcochandigarh. com/ how_to_reach/ index. php)[20] Chandigarh traffic police, promoting road safety, traffic safety, India road signs & rules, safe responsible driving, first aid India (http:/ /

www. chandigarhtrafficpolice. org/ )[21] City Beautiful to get its first international flight in August - ExpressIndia.Com (http:/ / www. expressindia. com/ latest-news/

City-Beautiful-to-get-its-first-international-flight-in-August/ 297421/ )[22] Deccan Herald - Metro comes to Chandigarh (http:/ / www. deccanherald. com/ Content/ Jan182008/ national2008011747237. asp)[23] Dr Rajeev Bedi, Oncologist - Official Website (http:/ / www. drrajeevbedi. com)

External links• Chandigarh travel guide from Wikitravel• Chandigarh Administration Official Site (http:/ / chandigarh. gov. in/ )

Laurie Baker 11

Laurie Baker

Laurence Wilfred BakerPersonal information

Nationality British-origin, Indian

Born March 2, 1917Birmingham, England

Died April 1, 2007 (aged 90)Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Work

Buildings Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum), Literacy Village (Lucknow), Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology andNatural History (SACON) (Coimbatore), Chitralekha Film Studio (Aakulam), The Indian Coffee House (Trivandrum),Attapadi Hill Area Development Society (Attapadi), Dakshina Chitra (Chennai), Chengalchoola Slum dwelling units(Trivandrum), Nirmithi Kendra (Aakulam), Tourist Centre (Ponmudi), Mitraniketan (Vellanad)

Awards Padma Shri, MBE

Laurence Wilfred "Laurie" Baker (March 2, 1917 – April 1, 2007) was an award-winning British-born Indianarchitect, renowned for his initiatives in cost-effective energy-efficient architecture and for his unique spaceutilisation and simple but beautiful aesthetic sensibility. In time he made a name for himself both in sustainablearchitecture as well as in organic architecture.He went to India in 1945 in part as a missionary and since then lived and worked in India for over 50 years. Heobtained Indian citizenship in 1989 and resided in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum), Kerala, since 1970 , where helater set up an organization called COSTFORD (Centre of Science and Technology for Rural Development), forspreading awareness for low cost housing.In 1990, the Government of India awarded him with the Padma Shri in recognition of his meritorious service in thefield of architecture.

Education and missionary workBaker was born into a staunch Methodist family, the youngest son of Birmingham Gas Distribution Authority's chiefaccountant, Wilfred Baker and Emiley.[1] His elder brothers, Leonard and Norman, were both studying law, and hada married sister, Edna. In his teens Baker began to question what religion meant to him and decided to become aQuaker since it was closer to what he believed in. Baker studied architecture at Birmingham Institute of Art andDesign, Birmingham and graduated in 1937, aged 20, in a period of political unrest for Europe.During the Second World War, he served in the Friends Ambulance Unit in China and Burma.[2]

His initial commitment to India had him working as an architect for World Leprosy Mission, an international andinterdenominational Mission dedicated to the care of those suffering from leprosy in 1945.[3] As new medicines forthe treatment of the disease were becoming more prevalent, his responsibilities were focused on converting orreplacing asylums once used to house the ostracized sufferers of the disease - "lepers". Finding his Englishconstruction education to be inadequate for the types of issues and materials he was faced with: termites and theyearly monsoon, as well as laterite, cow dung, and mud walls, respectively, Baker had no choice but to observe andlearn from the methods and practices of the vernacular architecture. He soon learned that the indigenous architectureand methods of these places were in fact the only viable means to deal with his once daunting problems.Inspired by his discoveries (which he modestly admitted were 'discoveries' only for him, and mere commonknowledge to those who developed the practices he observed), he began to turn his style of architecture towards onethat respected the actual culture and needs of those who would actually use his buildings, rather than just playing tothe more "Modern-istic" tunes of his paying clients.

Laurie Baker 12

Gandhian encouragement and initial workAfter he came to India Laurie had a chance encounter with Mahatma Gandhi which was to have a lasting impact onhis ideology and also his work and building philosophy.[4] After India gained her independence and MahatmaGandhi was assassinated, Baker lived in Kerala with Doctor P.J. Chandy, from whom he received greatencouragement and whose sister he would later wed in 1948.[5] Herself a doctor, Elizabeth Jacob and Laurie weremarried and moved to Pithoragarh, a small village in Uttarakhand, where they lived and worked for the next 16years. Elizabeth's medical training was put to use aiding the afflicted in the village while Laurie continued hisarchitectural work and research accommodating the medical needs of the community through his constructions ofvarious hospitals and clinics. It is here that Baker would acquire and hone those skills from the local buildingcommunity which had so fascinated him during his missionary work. In 1966, Baker moved south and worked withthe tribals of Peerumed, Kerala, and in 1970 moved to Thiruvananthapuram.[6]

Baker sought to enrich the culture in which he participated by promoting simplicity and home-grown quality in hisbuildings. Seeing so many people living in poverty in the region and throughout India served also to amplify hisemphasis on cost-conscious construction, one that encouraged local participation in development and craftsmanship -an ideal that the Mahatma expressed as the only means to revitalize and liberate an impoverished India. This drivefor simplicity also stemmed from his Quaker faith, one that saw indulging in a deceitful facade as a way to fool the'Creator' as quite pointless. Instead, Baker sought to provide the 'right' space for his clients and to avoid anythingpretentious.Eventually, he was drawn back to work in India as more and more people began commissioning work from him inthe area. The first client being Welthy Honsinger Fisher, an elderly American woman concerned with adult illiteracythroughout India, who sought to set up a 'Literacy Village' in which she intended to use puppetry, music and art asteaching methods to help illiterate and newly-literate adults add to their skills.[7] [8] [9] An aging woman who riskedher health to visit Laurie, refused to leave until she received plans for the village. More and more hospitalcommissions were received as medical professionals realized that the surroundings for their patients were as much apart of the healing process as any other form of treatment, and that Baker seemed the only architect who caredenough to become familiarized with how to build what made Indian patients comfortable with those surroundings.His presence would also soon be required on-site at Ms. Fisher's "Village," and he became well known for hisconstant presence on the construction sites of all his projects, often finalizing designs through hand-drawninstructions to masons and laborers on how to achieve certain design solutions.

Laurie Baker 13

Architectural style

The Indian Coffee House inThiruvananthapuram, which was

designed by Laurie Baker

Throughout his practice, Baker became well known for designing andbuilding low cost, high quality, beautiful homes, with a great portion of hiswork suited to or built for lower-middle to lower class clients. His buildingstend to emphasize prolific - at times virtuosic - masonry construction,instilling privacy and evoking history with brick jali walls, a perforated brickscreen which invites a natural air flow to cool the buildings' interior, inaddition to creating intricate patterns of light and shadow. Another significantBaker feature is irregular, pyramid-like structures on roofs, with one side leftopen and tilting into the wind. Baker's designs invariably have traditionalIndian sloping roofs and terracotta Mangalore tile shingling with gables andvents allowing rising hot air to escape. Curved walls enter Baker'sarchitectural vocabulary as a means to enclose more volume at lower materialcost than straight walls, and for Laurie, "building [became] more fun with thecircle." A testament to his frugality, Baker was often seen rummaging throughsalvage heaps looking for suitable building materials, door and windowframes, sometimes hitting a stroke of luck as evidenced by the intricatelycarved entry to the Chitralekha Film Studio (Aakulam, Trivandrum, 1974–76): a capricious architectural elementfound in a junk heap.

Baker's works, such as this house, blendseamlessly into the natural settings.

Baker's architectural method is one of improvisation, in which initialdrawings have only an idealistic link to the final construction, withmost of the accommodations and design choices being made on-site bythe architect himself. Compartments for milk bottles near the doorstep,windowsills that double as bench surfaces, and a heavy emphasis ontaking cues from the natural condition of the site are just someexamples. His Quaker-instilled respect for nature lead him to let theidiosyncrasies of a site inform his architectural improvisations, rarelyis a topography line marred or a tree uprooted. This saves constructioncost as well, since working around difficult site conditions is muchmore cost-effective than clear-cutting. ("I think it's a waste of money tolevel a well-moulded site") Resistant to "high-technology" thataddresses building environment issues by ignoring naturalenvironment, at the Centre for Development Studies (Trivandrum,1971) Baker created a cooling system by placing a high, latticed, brickwall near a pond that uses air pressure differences to draw cool air

through the building. Various features of his work such as using recycled material, natural environment control andfrugality of design may be seen as sustainable architecture or green building with its emphasis on sustainability. Hisresponsiveness to never-identical site conditions quite obviously allowed for the variegation that permeates his work.

Laurie Baker 14

Death

The Hamlet at Nalanchira nearThiruvananthapuram, which was home to Baker

and his wife since 1970. The house, which resideson a hill top, was constructed by Baker.

Laurie Baker died at 7:30 am on April 1, 2007, aged 90, he is survivedby wife Elizabeth, son Tilak and daughters Vidya and Heidi. Until theend, he continued to work in and around his home in Trivandrum,though health concerns had kept his famous on-site physical presenceto a minimum. His designing and writing were done mostly at hishome. His approach to architecture steadily gained appreciation asarchitectural sentiment creaks towards place-making over modernizingor stylizing. As a result of this more widespread acceptance, however,the "Baker Style" home is gaining popularity, much to Baker's ownchagrin, since he felt that the 'style' being commoditised is merely theinevitable manifestation of the cultural and economic imperatives ofthe region in which he worked, not a solution that could be appliedwhole-cloth to any outside situation. Laurie Baker's architecturefocused on retaining a site's natural character, and economically minded indigenous construction, and the seamlessintegration of local culture that has been very inspirational.

Many of Laurie Baker's writings were published and are available through COSTFORD (the Center Of Science andTechnology For Rural Development) the voluntary organisation which carried out many of his later projects, atwhich he was the Master Architect. COSTFORD is carrying on working towards the ideals that Laurie Bakerespoused throughout his life.

Awards• 1981: D.Litt. conferred by the Royal University of Netherlands for outstanding work in the developing countries.• 1983: Order of the British Empire, MBE• 1987: Received the first Indian National Habitat Award• 1988: Received Indian Citizenship• 1989: Indian Institute of Architects Outstanding Architect of the Year• 1990: Received the Padma Sri• 1990: Great Master Architect of the Year• 1992: UNO Habitat Award & UN Roll of Honour• 1993: International Union of Architects (IUA) Award• 1993: Sir Robert Matthew Prize for Improvement of Human Settlements• 1994: People of the Year Award• 1995: Awarded Doctorate from the University of Central England• 1998: Awarded Doctorate from Sri Venkateshwara University• 2001: Coinpar MR Kurup Endowment Award• 2003: Basheer Puraskaram• 2003: D.Litt. from the Kerala University• 2005: Kerala Government Certificate of Appreciation• 2006: L-Ramp Award of Excellence• 2006: Nominated for the Pritzker Prize (considered the Nobel Prize in Architecture)

Laurie Baker 15

Further reading• Bhatia, Gautam, Laurie Baker, Life, Work, Writings, Viking Press, 1991. ISBN 0-670-83991-4• Bhatia, Gautam, Laurie Baker, Life, Work, Writings, New Delhi, India, Penguin Books, 1994. ISBN

0-14-015460-4• The Other Side of Laurie Baker: Memoirs, by Elizabeth Baker. ISBN 81-264-1462-6.• Voluntary Agencies and Housing: A Report on Some Voluntary Agencies Working in the Field of Housing in

India, by Madhao Achwal. Published by UNICEF, 1979. Chapter 3:Laurie Baker.

References[1] Laurie Baker's creative journey (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl2005/ stories/ 20030314000906400. htm) Frontline, Volume 20 -

Issue 05, March 01 - 14, 2003.[2] Obituary in The Friend by Pat Knowles: "Laurie Baker: pioneering architect", May 18, 2007 pp.18-19[3] Obituary (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2007/ 04/ 02/ stories/ 2007040203471300. htm) The Hindu, April 2, 2007.[4] The last Quaker in India (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ thehindu/ mag/ 2007/ 04/ 15/ stories/ 2007041500060300. htm) The Hindu, April

15, 2007.[5] The other side of Laurie Baker (http:/ / www. hindu. com/ 2004/ 02/ 15/ stories/ 2004021508980300. htm) The Hindu, February 15, 2004.[6] Mud by Laurie Baker - Introduction (http:/ / www. nitc. ac. in/ nitc/ static_files/ arch/ Mud-Laurie_Baker. pdf)[7] Citation for The 1964 Ramon Magsaysay Award for International Understanding: Dr. Fisher (http:/ / www. rmaf. org. ph/ Awardees/ Citation/

CitationFisherWel. htm)[8] Ms Fisher was the author of To Light a Candle New York, McGraw-Hill. 1962, an autobiography.[9] World Education website: Our founder page (http:/ / www. worlded. org/ WEIInternet/ aboutus/ founder. cfm) (extract from Sally Swenson

Welthy Honsinger Fisher: Signals of a Century, 1988.) (accessed 13 February 2008)

External links• Official Website of Architect Laurie Baker (http:/ / www. lauriebaker. net)• Laurie Baker, Homepage (http:/ / 59. 92. 116. 99/ website/ RDC/ docsweb/ Booklet-Laurie Baker/

1stpg-laurie-baker-main. php) at Centre for Education and Documentation (CED).Articles• Laurie Baker: The man we will never forget (http:/ / specials. rediff. com/ news/ 2007/ apr/ 04sld1. htm)

Rediff.com• Master mason by G. SHANKAR (http:/ / www. frontlineonnet. com/ fl2407/ stories/ 20070420004012600. htm).• Of Architectural Truths and Lies (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ folio/ fo9908/ 99080300. htm)• ARCHIPLANET article: Includes fuller list of buildings designed by Laurie Baker (http:/ / www. archiplanet.

org/ wiki/ Laurie_Baker)• "Here was a Baker"- a tribute (http:/ / vidyaonline. org/ arvindgupta/ bakertribute. pdf)• Laurie Baker Building Center, New Delhi (http:/ / www. archinomy. com/ blog/

a-visit-to-laurie-baker-building-centre-new-delhi. html)

Louis Kahn 16

Louis Kahn

Louis I. KahnPersonal information

Nationality American

Born February 20, 1901Kuressaare, Governorate of Estonia, Russian Empire

Died March 17, 1974 (aged 73)New York City

Work

Buildings Yale University Art GallerySalk InstituteIndian Institute of Management, AhmedabadJatiyo Sangshad BhabanPhillips Exeter Academy LibraryKimbell Art Museum

Projects Center of Philadelphia,Urban and Traffic Study

Louis Isadore Kahn (born Itze-Leib Schmuilowsky) (February 20, 1901 or 1902 – March 17, 1974) was aworld-renowned American architect of Estonian Jewish origin,[1] based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States.After working in various capacities for several firms in Philadelphia, he founded his own atelier in 1935. Whilecontinuing his private practice, he served as a design critic and professor of architecture at Yale School ofArchitecture from 1947 to 1957. From 1957 until his death, he was a professor of architecture at the School ofDesign at the University of Pennsylvania. Influenced by ancient ruins, Kahn's style tends to the monumental andmonolithic; his heavy buildings do not hide their weight, their materials, or the way they are assembled.

Biography

Early life

Jesse Oser House, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania(1940)

Louis Kahn, whose original name was Itze-Leib (Leiser-Itze)Schmuilowsky (Schmalowski), was born into a poor Jewish family inPärnu and spent the rest of his early childhood in Kuressaare on theEstonian island of Saaremaa, then part of the Russian Empire. At age3, he was badly burned on his face and hands in an accident involvinga coal fire, while jumping over the bonfire on St John's Day;[2] hecarried these scars for the rest of his life.[3]

In 1906, his family immigrated to the United States, fearing that hisfather would be recalled into the military during the Russo-JapaneseWar. His actual birth year may have been inaccurately recorded in theprocess of immigration. According to his son's documentary film in2003[4] the family couldn't afford pencils but made their own charcoalsticks from burnt twigs so that Louis could earn a little money fromdrawings and later by playing piano to accompany silent movies. Hebecame a naturalized citizen on May 15, 1914. His father changed theirname in 1915.

Louis Kahn 17

CareerHe trained in a rigorous Beaux-Arts tradition, with its emphasis on drawing, at the University of Pennsylvania. Aftercompleting his Bachelor of Architecture in 1924, Kahn worked as senior draftsman in the office of City ArchitectJohn Molitor. In this capacity, he worked on the design for the 1926 Sesquicentennial Exposition.[5]

In 1928, Kahn made a European tour and took a particular interest in the medieval walled city of Carcassonne,France and the castles of Scotland rather than any of the strongholds of classicism or modernism.[6] After returningto the States in 1929, Kahn worked in the offices of Paul Philippe Cret, his former studio critic at the University ofPennsylvania, and in the offices of Zantzinger, Borie and Medary in Philadelphia.[5] In 1932, Kahn and DominiqueBerninger founded the Architectural Research Group, whose members were interested in the populist social agendaand new aesthetics of the European avant-gardes. Among the projects Kahn worked on during this collaboration areunbuilt schemes for public housing that had originally been presented to the Public Works Administration.[5]

Among the more important of Kahn's early collaborations was with George Howe.[7] Kahn worked with Howe inlate 1930s on projects for the Philadelphia Housing Authority and again in 1940, along with German-born architectOscar Stonorov for the design of housing developments in other parts of Pennsylvania.[8]

The National Assembly Building (Jatiyo SangshadBhaban) of Bangladesh

Kahn did not find his distinctive architectural style until he was inhis fifties. Initially working in a fairly orthodox version of theInternational Style, a stay at the American Academy in Rome inthe early 1950s marked a turning point in Kahn's career. Theback-to-the-basics approach he adopted after visiting the ruins ofancient buildings in Italy, Greece, and Egypt helped him todevelop his own style of architecture influenced by earlier modernmovements but not limited by their sometimes dogmaticideologies.

In 1961 he received a grant from the Graham Foundation forAdvanced Studies in the Fine Arts to study traffic movement[9] [10]

in Philadelphia and create a proposal for a viaduct system. Hedescribes this proposal at a lecture given in 1962 at the International Design Conference in Aspen, Colorado:

In the center of town the streets should become buildings. This should be interplayed with a sense ofmovement which does not tax local streets for non-local traffic. There should be a system of viaductswhich encase an area which can reclaim the local streets for their own use, and it should be made so thisviaduct has a ground floor of shops and usable area. A model which I did for the Graham Foundationrecently, and which I presented to Mr. Entenza, showed the scheme.[11]

Kahn's teaching career began at Yale University in 1947, and he was eventually named Albert F. Bemis Professor ofArchitecture and Planning at Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1962 and Paul Philippe Cret Professor ofArchitecture at the University of Pennsylvania in 1966 and was also a Visiting Lecturer at Princeton University from1961 to 1967. Kahn was elected a Fellow in the American Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1953. He was made amember of the National Institute of Arts and Letters in 1964. He was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal in 1964.He was made a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1968 and awarded the AIA Gold Medal,the highest award given by the AIA, in 1971[12] and the Royal Gold Medal by the RIBA in 1972.

Louis Kahn 18

DeathIn 1974, Kahn died of a heart attack in a men's restroom in Pennsylvania Station in New York.[13] He wentunidentified for three days because he had crossed out the home address on his passport. He had just returned from awork trip to Bangladesh, and despite his long career, he was deeply in debt when he died.

Personal lifeKahn had three different families with three different women: his wife, Esther, whom he married in 1930; AnneTyng, who began her working collaboration and personal relationship with Kahn in 1945; and Harriet Pattison. Hisobituary in the New York Times, written by Paul Goldberger, mentions only Esther and his daughter by her assurvivors. But in 2003, Kahn's son with Pattison, Nathaniel Kahn, released an Oscar-nominated biographicaldocumentary about his father, titled My Architect: A Son's Journey, which gives glimpses of the architecture whilefocusing on talking to the people who knew him: family, friends, and colleagues. It includes interviews withrenowned architect contemporaries such as B. V. Doshi, Frank Gehry, Ed Bacon, Philip Johnson, I. M. Pei, andRobert A. M. Stern, but also an insider's view of Kahn's unusual family arrangements. The unusual manner of hisdeath is used as a point of departure and a metaphor for Kahn's "nomadic" life in the film.

Important works

Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas (1966-72)

• Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven,Connecticut,(1951–1953), the first significant commission ofLouis Kahn and his first masterpiece, replete with technicalinnovations. For example, he designed a hollow concretetetrahedral space-frame that did away with the need forductwork and reduced the floor-to-floor height by channelingair through the structure itself. Like many of Kahn's buildings,the Art Gallery makes subtle references to its context whileovertly rejecting any historical style.

• Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University ofPennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, (1957–1965),[14] regarding which Kahn said, “No space you can devisecan satisfy these requirements. I thought what they should have was a corner for thought, in a word, a studioinstead of slices of space.”

• The Salk Institute, La Jolla, California, (1959–1965), was to be a campus composed of three main clusters:meeting and conference areas, living quarters, and laboratories. Only the laboratory cluster, consisting of twoparallel blocks enclosing a water garden, was actually built. The two laboratory blocks frame an exquisite view ofthe Pacific Ocean, accentuated by a thin linear fountain that seems to reach for the horizon.

• First Unitarian Church, Rochester, New York (1959–1969), named as one of the greatest religious structures ofthe 20th century by Paul Goldberger, Pulitzer Prize-winning architectural critic.[15] Tall, narrow window recessescreate an irregular rhythm of shadows on the exterior while four light towers flood the sanctuary walls withindirect natural light.

• Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, in Ahmedabad, India (1962).• Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban (National Assembly Building) in Dhaka, Bangladesh (1962–1974), considered to be his

masterpiece and one of the great monuments of International Modernism.• Phillips Exeter Academy Library, Exeter, New Hampshire, (1965–1972), awarded the Twenty-five Year Award

by the American Institute of Architects in 1997. It is famous for its dramatic atrium with enormous circularopenings into the book stacks.

• Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth, Texas, (1967–1972), features repeated bays of cycloid-shaped barrel vaultswith light slits along the apex, which bathe the artwork on display in an ever-changing diffuse light.

Louis Kahn 19

• Yale Center for British Art, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, (1969–1974).• Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park, Roosevelt Island, New York, (1972–1974), unbuilt.

Timeline of works

Interior of Phillips Exeter Academy Library,Exeter, New Hampshire (1965-72)

All dates refer to the year project commenced• 1935 – Jersey Homesteads Cooperative Development, Hightstown,

New Jersey• 1940 – Jesse Oser House, 628 Stetson Road, Elkins Park,

Pennsylvania• 1947 – Phillip Q. Roche House, 2101 Harts Lane, Conshohocken,

Pennsylvania• 1951 – Yale University Art Gallery, 1111 Chapel Street, New

Haven, Connecticut• 1952 – City Tower Project, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (unbuilt)• 1954 – Jewish Community Center (aka Trenton Bath House), 999

Lower Ferry Road, Ewing, New Jersey• 1956 – Wharton Esherick Studio, 1520 Horseshoe Trail, Malvern,

Pennsylvania (designed with Wharton Esherick)• 1957 – Richards Medical Research Laboratories, University of

Pennsylvania, 3700 Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania• 1957 – Fred Clever House [16], 417 Sherry Way, Cherry Hill, New

Jersey• 1959 – Margaret Esherick House, 204 Sunrise Lane, Chestnut Hill,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania[17]

• 1958 – Tribune Review Printing Press, 622 Cabin Hill Drive, Greensburg, Pennsylvania• 1959 – Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California• 1959 – First Unitarian Church, 220 South Winton Road, Rochester, New York• 1960 – Erdman Hall Dormitories, Bryn Mawr College, Morris Avenue, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania• 1960 – Norman Fisher House, 197 East Mill Road, Hatboro, Pennsylvania• 1962 – Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, India• 1962 – National Assembly Building, Dhaka, Bangladesh• 1963 – President's Estate, Islamabad, Pakistan (unbuilt)• 1965 – Phillips Exeter Academy Library, Front Street, Exeter, New Hampshire• 1966 – Kimbell Art Museum, 3333 Camp Bowie Boulevard, Fort Worth, Texas• 1966 – Olivetti-Underwood Factory, Valley Road, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania• 1968 – Hurva Synagogue, Jerusalem, Israel (unbuilt)• 1969 – Yale Center for British Art, Yale University, 1080 Chapel Street, New Haven, Connecticut• 1971 – Steven Korman House, Sheaff Lane, Fort Washington, Pennsylvania• 1972 – Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park, Roosevelt Island, New York City, New York (unbuilt)[18]

• 1973 - The Arts United Center,(Formerly known as the Fine Arts Foundation Civic Center) Fort Wayne, Indiana[19]

Louis Kahn 20

Legacy

360° panorama in the courtyard of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, California (1959–65).

Louis Kahn Memorial Park, 11th & Pine Streets,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

Louis Kahn's work infused the International style with a fastidious,highly personal taste, a poetry of light. His few projects reflect his deeppersonal involvement with each. Isamu Noguchi called him "aphilosopher among architects." He was known for his ability to createmonumental architecture that responded to the human scale. He wasalso concerned with creating strong formal distinctions between servedspaces and servant spaces. What he meant by servant spaces was notspaces for servants, but rather spaces that serve other spaces, such asstairwells, corridors, restrooms, or any other back-of-house functionlike storage space or mechanical rooms. His palette of materials tendedtoward heavily textured brick and bare concrete, the textures oftenreinforced by juxtaposition to highly refined surfaces such as travertinemarble.

While widely known for his spaces' poetic sensibilities, Kahn also worked closely with engineers and contractors onhis buildings. The results were often technically innovative and highly refined. In addition to the influence Kahn'smore well-known work has on contemporary architects (such as Mazharul Islam, Tadao Ando), some of his work(especially the unbuilt City Tower Project) became very influential among the high-tech architects of the late 20thcentury (such as Renzo Piano, who worked in Kahn's office, Richard Rogers and Norman Foster). His prominentapprentices include Mazharul Islam, Moshe Safdie, Robert Venturi, Jack Diamond.

Many years after his death, Kahn continues to inspire controversy. Interest is growing in a plan to build aKahn-designed Franklin D. Roosevelt Four Freedoms Park at the southern tip of Roosevelt Island.[20] A New YorkTimes editorial opined:

There's a magic to the project. That the task is daunting makes it worthy of the man it honors, whoguided the nation through the Depression, the New Deal and a world war. As for Mr. Kahn, he died in1974, as he passed alone through New York's Penn Station. In his briefcase were renderings of thememorial, his last completed plan.[21]

The editorial describes Kahn's plan as:...simple and elegant. Drawing inspiration from Roosevelt's defense of the Four Freedoms – of speechand religion, and from want and fear – he designed an open 'room and a garden' at the bottom of theisland. Trees on either side form a 'V' defining a green space, and leading to a two-walled stone room atthe water's edge that frames the United Nations and the rest of the skyline.

Critics note that the panoramic view of Manhattan and the UN are actually blocked by the walls of that room and by the trees.[22] Other as-yet-unanswered critics have argued more broadly that not enough thought has been given to

Louis Kahn 21

what visitors to the memorial would actually be able to do at the site.[23] The proposed project is opposed by amajority of island residents who were surveyed by the Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation groupcurrently working extensively on the island.[24]

The movement for the memorial, which was conceived by Kahn's firm almost 35 years ago, needed to raise $40million by the end of 2007; as of July 20, it had collected $5.1 million.[25] There is a merest hint in ArchitecturalRecord about the often-heard argument that it must be built because it was literally Kahn's last project;[26] and this isrebutted by those who've said the plans aren't enough like Kahn's other work for it to be touted as a memorial toKahn as well as FDR.[27]

Gallery

Yale UniversityArt Gallery, New

Haven,Connecticut(1951–53).

Coffered ceiling in YaleUniversity Art Gallery

(1951–53).

Stairwell in YaleUniversity Art Gallery

(1951–53).

Reconstructed model (2008) ofTrenton Bath House, Ewing,

New Jersey (1954).

Wharton Esherick Studio,1520 Horseshoe Trail,Malvern, Pennsylvania(1956). Designed with

Wharton Esherick.

Richards Medical ResearchLaboratories, University of

Pennsylvania, 3700Hamilton Walk,

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania(1957-65).

Interior of First UnitarianChurch, Rochester, New

York (1959)

Indian Institute of Management,Ahmedabad, India (1962).

Yale Center for British Art, YaleUniversity, New Haven,Connecticut (1969–74).

Louis Kahn 22

See also• Louis Kahn buildings

Notes[1] Voolen, Edward (2006). Jewish art and culture (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?client=firefox-a& um=1& q="The+ Estonian-born+

architect+ Kahn+ (1901-1974),+ who+ immigrated+ with+ his+ family+ to+ Philadelphia+ in+ 1906"& btnG=Search+ Books). Prestel. p. 138.. "The Estonian-born architect Kahn (1901–1974), who immigrated with his family to Philadelphia in 1906"

[2] "Kus sündis Louis Kahn?" (http:/ / paber. ekspress. ee/ viewdoc/ 48EBEEC2DFC8B555C22571F1003A8A93) (in Estonian). Eesti Ekspress(http:/ / www. ekspress. ee). . Retrieved 2006-09-28.

[3] Commstock, Paul. "An Interview with Louis Kahn Biographer Carter Wiseman," (http:/ / calitreview. com/ 224) California Literary Review.June 15, 2007.

[4] SBS Hot Docs Jan 15, 2008 My architect: A son's journey (http:/ / www20. sbs. com. au/ whatson/ ?date=2008-01-15& channelID=1)[5] Louis Isadore Kahn (1901–1974) – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings (http:/ / www. philadelphiabuildings. org/ pab/ app/ ar_display.

cfm/ 21829)[6] Johnson, Eugene J. "A Drawing of the Cathedral of Albi by Louis I. Kahn," (http:/ / links. jstor. org/

sici?sici=0016-920X(1986)25:1<159:ADOTCO>2. 0. CO;2-K& size=LARGE& origin=JSTOR-enlargePage) Gesta, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp.159–165.

[7] Howe, George (1886–1955) – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings (http:/ / www. philadelphiabuildings. org/ pab/ app/ ar_display. cfm/25206)

[8] Stonorov, Oskar Gregory (1905–1970) – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings (http:/ / www. philadelphiabuildings. org/ pab/ app/ar_display. cfm/ 21630)

[9] Philadelphia City Planning: Market Street East Project Page (http:/ / www. design. upenn. edu/ archives/ majorcollections/ kahn/ likpcpmark.html)

[10] MoMA.org | The Collection | Louis I. Kahn. Traffic Study, project, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Plan of proposed traffic-movement pattern.1952 (http:/ / www. moma. org/ collection/ browse_results. php?criteria=O:AD:E:2964& page_number=1& template_id=1& sort_order=1)

[11] Kahn, Louis I.; Robert C. Twombly. Louis Kahn: Essential Texts. W. W. Norton & Company. pp.  158 (http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=UEZo6XU324MC& pg=PA158& lpg=PA158& dq=louis+ kahn+ graham+ foundation& source=web& ots=ERjS-TanGd&sig=KkA3cUxVRRTqkdW5lYUzigSnb_c). ISBN 0393731138.

[12] AIA150 – The 150th Anniversary of the American Institute of Architects (http:/ / www. aia150. org/ aw_gm_1971. php)[13] Goldberger, Paul (March 20, 1974). "Louis I. Kahn Dies; Architect was 73." The New York Times, p 1.[14] Richards Medical Building (http:/ / www. american-architecture. info/ USA/ USA-Northeast/ NT-015. htm) from World Architecture

Images.[15] Goldberger, Paul (Dec 26, 1982). "Housing for the Spirit" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 1982/ 12/ 26/ books/ housing-for-the-spirit. html?&

pagewanted=all). New York Times. .[16] http:/ / www. design. upenn. edu/ archives/ majorcollections/ kahn/ likclever. html[17] Margaret Esherick House (http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ jpmm/ 258737493/ ) from Flickr.[18] Saffron, Inga. "Changing Skyline: One more masterpiece by Kahn nears reality." (http:/ / www. philly. com/ inquirer/ columnists/

inga_saffron/ 20090823_Changing_Skyline__One_more_masterpiece_by_Kahn_nears_reality. html) Philadelphia Inquirer. August 23, 2009.[19] http:/ / www. artsunited. org/ auc_hisarcfacility. php[20] Press Releases from the Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt Institute (http:/ / www. feri. org/ news/ news_detail. cfm?QID=3332)[21] "A Roosevelt for Roosevelt Island," New York Times. November 5, 2007.[22] COMING TO LIGHT: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt (http:/ / archweb. cooper. edu/ exhibitions/ kahn/ index. html)[23] Huxtable, Ada Louise. "Roosevelt Memorial Design Hits Snags; Skillful Blend Museum Idea Dropped Must Look Beautiful," New York

Times. May 1, 1973.[24] New York City, Southpoint Park Plan Complete for Roosevelt Island: The Trust for Public Land (http:/ / www. tpl. org/ tier3_cd.

cfm?content_item_id=19000& folder_id=631)[25] Dunlap, David W., "A Campaign to Build a Long-Delayed F.D.R. Memorial," New York Times. October 26, 2007; "Roosevelt Island May

Soon See FDR Memorial," New York Sun. October 26, 2007. Link for New York Times photographs of project site (http:/ / cityroom. blogs.nytimes. com/ 2007/ 10/ 26/ a-campaign-to-build-a-long-delayed-fdr-memorial)

[26] Is Kahn’s FDR Memorial Back on Track? | News | Architectural Record (http:/ / archrecord. construction. com/ news/ daily/ archives/070709fdr. asp)

[27] Braudy, Susan. "The Architectural Metaphysic of Louis Kahn; 'Is the center of a column filled with hope?' 'What is a wall?' 'What does thisspace want to be?'" New York Times Magazine. November 15, 1970.

Louis Kahn 23

References• Curtis, William. Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd Ed. ed.). Prentice-Hall. pp. 309–316. ISBN 0135866944.• Kahn, Louis I.. Louis I.Kahn: Complete Work 1935–1974 (2nd Rev. and Enl. Ed edition ed.). Birkhauser Verlag

AG. pp. 437. ISBN 3764313471.• Leslie, Thomas.. Louis I.Kahn: Building Art, Building Science. New York: George Braziller. ISBN 0807615404.• McCarter, Robert. Louis I. Kahn. Phaidon Press Ltd. pp. 512. ISBN 0714840459.• Wiseman, Carter. Louis I. Kahn: Beyond Time and Style: A Life in Architecture (1st Ed. ed.). New York: W.W.

Norton (http:/ / books. wwnorton. com/ books/ detail. aspx?ID=9780). ISBN 0393731650.• Larson, Kent. Louis I. Kahn: Unbuilt Masterworks. New York: Monacelli Press. pp. 232. ISBN 1-58093-014-X.• Rosa, Joseph. Peter Gossel. ed. Louis I.Kahn: Enlightened space. Germany: Taschen GmbH. pp. 96.

ISBN 3822836419.

Further reading• Louis Kahn: Essential Texts (http:/ / books. wwnorton. com/ books/ detail. aspx?ID=9704), edited by Robert

Twombly, WW Norton & Company, 2003.

External links• Louis I. Kahn – Philadelphia Architects and Buildings Project (http:/ / www. philadelphiabuildings. org/ pab/ app/

ar_display. cfm/ 21829)• The Louis I. Kahn Collection – The Architectural Archives of the University of Pennsylvania (http:/ / www.

design. upenn. edu/ archives/ majorcollections/ kahn/ likidxdate. html)• Exhibition at the University of Pennsylvania on Louis I. Kahn Interiors (http:/ / www. arthistory. upenn. edu/

themakingofaroom/ )• Great Buildings Online – Louis I. Kahn (http:/ / www. greatbuildings. com/ architects/ Louis_I. _Kahn. html)• The Works of Louis I. Kahn (http:/ / www. naquib. com/ kahnpics), a personal collection of photographs taken at

various Kahn buildings.• Honoring Louis Kahn's Legacy on the 100th Anniversary of His Birth (http:/ / www. upenn. edu/ almanac/ v47/

n22/ Kahn100. html)• My Architect (http:/ / www. myarchitectfilm. com/ ), biographical movie ( IMDb (http:/ / www. imdb. com/ title/

tt0373175/ ), 2003)• Yale University Art Gallery – Louis I. Kahn building (http:/ / artgallery. yale. edu/ pages/ collection/ buildings/

build_renovation. html), information from the Yale University Art Gallery on the renovation effort.• The Trenton Bath House of Louis Kahn (http:/ / home. mindspring. com/ ~kahnpage/ bathhouse/ index. html)• Friends Of The Trenton Bath House (http:/ / www. kahnbathhouse. org)• Louis Kahn buildings (http:/ / members. tripod. com/ ~freshness/ links. html)• Redefining the Basemap (http:/ / www. intelligentagent. com/ archive/ Vol6_No2_interactive_city_sant. htm)• Louis Kahn traffic studies (http:/ / www. flickr. com/ photos/ 21525853@N00/ 575838737/ )• Kahn Project Amherst College (http:/ / www. amherst. edu/ ~kahn/ )• Aerial image of the Olivetti-Underwood factory, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (http:/ / maps. live. com/ default.

aspx?v=2& FORM=LMLTCP& cp=qqhs408kx1np& style=o& lvl=1& tilt=-90& dir=0& alt=-1000&scene=22801538& phx=0& phy=0& phscl=1& encType=1)

• Louis Kahn (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=561) at Find a Grave• Una nuova fabbrica in America: lo stabilimento di Harrisburg (Italian only, several exterior and interior photos of

the Olivetti factory in Harrisburg, PA) (http:/ / www. storiaolivetti. it/ percorso. asp?idPercorso=623)

Frank Lloyd Wright 24

Frank Lloyd Wright

Frank Lloyd Wright

Personal information

Nationality American

Born June 8, 1867Richland Center, Wisconsin

Died April 9, 1959 (aged 91)Phoenix, Arizona

Work

Buildings Robie HousePrice TowerFallingwaterJohnson Wax BuildingSolomon R. Guggenheim MuseumTaliesin

Projects Florida Southern College

Frank Lloyd Wright (born Frank Lincoln Wright, June 8, 1867 – April 9, 1959) was an American architect,interior designer, writer and educator, who designed more than 1,000 projects, which resulted in more than 500completed works.[1] Wright promoted organic architecture (exemplified by Fallingwater), was a leader of the PrairieSchool movement of architecture (exemplified by the Robie House, the Westcott House, and the Darwin D. MartinHouse), and developed the concept of the Usonian home (exemplified by the Rosenbaum House). His work includesoriginal and innovative examples of many different building types, including offices, churches, schools, skyscrapers,hotels, and museums. Wright also often designed many of the interior elements of his buildings, such as the furnitureand stained glass.Wright authored 20 books and many articles, and was a popular lecturer in the United States and in Europe. Hiscolorful personal life often made headlines, most notably for the 1914 fire and murders at his Taliesin studio.Already well-known during his lifetime, Wright was recognized in 1991 by the American Institute of Architects as"the greatest American architect of all time".[1]

Frank Lloyd Wright 25

Early yearsFrank Lloyd Wright was born in the farming town of Richland Center, Wisconsin, United States, in 1867. Originallynamed Frank Lincoln Wright, he changed his name after his parents' divorce to honor his mother's Welsh family, theLloyd Joneses. His father, William Carey Wright (1825–1904) was a locally admired orator, music teacher,occasional lawyer and itinerant minister. William Wright had met and married Anna Lloyd Jones (1838/39 – 1923),a county school teacher, the previous year when he was employed as the superintendent of schools for RichlandCounty. Originally from Massachusetts, William Wright had been a Baptist minister but he later joined his wife'sfamily in the Unitarian faith. Anna was a member of the large, prosperous and well-known Lloyd Jones family ofUnitarians, who had emigrated from Wales to Spring Green, Wisconsin. One of Anna's brothers was Jenkin LloydJones, who would become an important figure in the spread of the Unitarian faith in the Western United States. Bothof Wright's parents were strong-willed individuals with idiosyncratic interests that they passed on to him. In hisbiography his mother declared, when she was expecting her first child, that he would grow up to build beautifulbuildings. She decorated his nursery with engravings of English cathedrals torn from a periodical to encourage theinfant's ambition. The family moved to Weymouth, Massachusetts in 1870 for William to minister a smallcongregation. In 1876, Anna visited the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia and saw an exhibit of educationalblocks created by Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. The blocks, known as Froebel Gifts, were the foundation of hisinnovative kindergarten curriculum. A trained teacher, Anna was excited by the program and bought a set of blocksfor her family. Young Wright spent much time playing with the blocks. These were geometrically shaped and couldbe assembled in various combinations to form three-dimensional compositions. Wright's autobiography talks aboutthe influence of these exercises on his approach to design. Many of his buildings are notable for the geometricalclarity they exhibit.The Wright family struggled financially in Weymouth and returned to Spring Green, Wisconsin, where thesupportive Lloyd Jones clan could help William find employment. They settled in Madison, where William taughtmusic lessons and served as the secretary to the newly formed Unitarian society. Although William was a distantparent, he shared his love of music, especially the works of Johann Sebastian Bach, with his children.Soon after Wright turned 14 his parents separated. Anna had been unhappy for some time with William's inability toprovide for his family and asked him to leave. The divorce was finalized in 1885 after William sued Anna for lack ofphysical affection. William left Wisconsin after the divorce and Wright claimed he never saw his father again.[2] Atthis time Wright's middle name was changed from Lincoln to Lloyd. As the only male left in the family, Wrightassumed financial responsibility for his mother and two sisters.

Education and work for Silsbee (1885-1888)Wright attended a Madison high school but there is no evidence he ever graduated.[3] He was admitted to theUniversity of Wisconsin–Madison as a special student in 1886. There he joined Phi Delta Theta fraternity,[4] tookclasses part-time for two semesters, and worked with a professor of civil engineering, Allan D. Conover.[5] In 1887,Wright left the school without taking a degree (although he was granted an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from theUniversity in 1955).In 1887, Wright arrived in Chicago in search of employment. Resulting from the devastating Great Chicago Fire of 1871 and recent population boom, new development was plentiful in the city. He later recalled that his first impressions of Chicago were that of grimy neighborhoods, crowded streets and disappointing architecture, yet he was determined to find work. Within days, and after interviews with several prominent firms, he was hired as a draftsman with the architectural firm of Joseph Lyman Silsbee.[6] Wright previously collaborated with Silsbee — accredited as the draftsman and the construction supervisor — on the 1886 Unity Chapel for Wright’s family in Spring Green, Wisconsin.[7] While with the firm, he also worked on two other family projects: the All Souls Church in Chicago for uncle, Jenkin Lloyd Jones, and the Hillside Home School I in Spring Green for two of his aunts.[8]

Other draftsmen that also worked for Silsbee in 1887 included future architects, Cecil Corwin, George W. Maher,

Frank Lloyd Wright 26

and George G. Elmslie. Wright soon befriended Corwin, with whom he lived until he found a permanent home.In his autobiography, Wright accounts that he also had a short stint in another Chicago architecture office. Feelingthat he was underpaid for the quality of his work for Silsbee (at $8.00 a week), the young draftsman quit and foundwork as a designer at the firm of Beers, Clay, and Dutton. However, Wright soon realized that he was not ready tohandle building design by himself; he left his new job to return to Joseph Silsbee – this time with a raise in salary.[9]

Although Silsbee adhered mainly to Victorian and revivalist architecture, Wright found his work to be more"gracefully picturesque" than the other "brutalities" of the period.[10] Still, Wright aspired for more progressive work.After less than a year had passed in Silsbee’s office, Wright learned that Adler & Sullivan, the forerunning firm inChicago, were "looking for someone to make the finish drawings for the interior of the Auditorium [Building]."[11]

Wright demonstrated that he was a competent impressionist of Louis Sullivan’s ornamental designs and two shortinterviews later, was an official apprentice in the firm.[12]

Adler & Sullivan (1888-1893)Wright did not get along well with Sullivan’s other draftsmen; he wrote that several violent altercations occurredbetween them during the first years of his apprenticeship. For that matter, Sullivan showed very little respect for hisemployees as well.[13] In spite of this, "Sullivan took [Wright] under his wing and gave him great designresponsibility." As a show of respect, Wright would later refer to Sullivan as Lieber Meister (German for "DearMaster").[14] Wright also formed a bond with office foreman, Paul Mueller. Wright would later engage Mueller tobuild several of his public and commercial buildings between 1903 and 1923.[15]

Wright's home in Oak Park, Illinois

On June 1, 1889, Wright married his first wife, Catherine Lee "Kitty"Tobin (1871–1959). The two had met around a year earlier duringactivities at All Souls Church. Sullivan did his part to facilitate thefinancial success of the young couple by granting Wright a five yearemployment contract. Wright made one more request: "Mr. Sullivan, ifyou want me to work for you as long as five years, couldn't you lendme enough money to build a little house?"[16] With Sullivan’s $5000loan, Wright purchased a lot at the corner of Chicago and ForestAvenues in the suburb of Oak Park. The existing Gothic Revival housewas given to his mother, while a compact Shingle style house was builtalongside for Wright and Catherine.[17]

According to an 1890 diagram of the firm's new, 17th floor space atop the Auditorium Building, Wright soon earneda private office next to Sullivan’s own.[15] However, that office was actually shared with friend and draftsmanGeorge Elmslie, who was hired by Sullivan at Wright's request.[18] Wright had risen to head draftsman and handledall residential design work in the office. As a general rule, Adler & Sullivan did not design or build houses, but theyobliged to do so when asked by the clients of their important commercial projects. Wright was occupied by the firm’smajor commissions during office hours, so house designs were relegated to evening and weekend overtime hours athis home studio. He would later claim total responsibility for the design of these houses, but careful inspection oftheir architectural style, and accounts from historian Robert Twombly suggest that it was Sullivan that dictated theoverall form and motifs of the residential works; Wright's design duties were often reduced to detailing the projectsfrom Sullivan's sketches.[18] During this time, Wright worked on Sullivan’s bungalow (1890) and the James A.Charnley Bungalow (1890) both in Ocean Springs, Mississippi, the Berry-MacHarg House (1891) and Sullivan’stownhouse (1892) both in Chicago, and the most noted 1891 James A. Charnley House also in Chicago. Of the fivecollaborations, only the two commissions for the Charnley family still stand.[19] [20]

Frank Lloyd Wright 27

The Walter Gale House (1893) is Queen Anne instyle yet features window bands and a

cantilevered porch roof which hint at Wright'sdeveloping aesthetics

Despite Sullivan’s loan and overtime salary, Wright was constantlyshort on funds. Wright admitted that his poor finances were likely dueto his expensive tastes in wardrobe and vehicles, and the extra luxurieshe designed into his house. To compound the problem, Wright'schildren — including first born Lloyd (b.1890) and John (b.1892) —would share similar tastes for fine goods.[16] [21] To supplement hisincome and repay his debts, Wright accepted independent commissionsfor at least nine houses. These "bootlegged" houses, as he later calledthem, were conservatively designed in variations of the fashionableQueen Anne and Colonial Revival styles. Nevertheless, unlike theprevailing architecture of the period, each house emphasized simplegeometric massing and contained features such as bands of horizontalwindows, occasional cantilevers, and open floor plans which wouldbecome hallmarks of his later work. Eight of these early houses remain today including the Thomas Gale, Parker,Blossom, and Walter Gale houses.[22]

As with the residential projects for Adler & Sullivan, Wright designed his bootleg houses on his own time. Sullivanknew nothing of the independent works until 1893, when he recognized that one of the houses was unmistakably aFrank Lloyd Wright design. This particular house, built for Allison Harlan, was only blocks away from Sullivan’stownhouse in the Chicago community of Kenwood. Aside from the location, the geometric purity of the compositionand balcony tracery in the same style as the Charnley House likely gave away Wright’s involvement. Since Wright’sfive year contract forbade any outside work, the incident led to his departure from Sullivan’s firm.[20] A variety ofstories recount the break in the relationship between Sullivan and Wright; even Wright later told two differentversions of the occurrence. In An Autobiography, Wright claimed that he was unaware that his side ventures were abreach of his contract. When Sullivan learned of them, he was angered and offended; he prohibited any furtheroutside commissions and refused to issue Wright the deed to his Oak Park house until after he completed his fiveyears. Wright couldn’t bear the new hostility from his master and thought the situation was unjust. He "threw down[his] pencil and walked out of the Adler and Sullivan office never to return." Dankmar Adler, who was moresympathetic to Wright’s actions, later sent him the deed.[23] On the other hand, Wright told his Taliesin apprentices(as recorded by Edgar Tafel) that Sullivan fired him on the spot upon learning of the Harlan House. Tafel alsoaccounted that Wright had Cecil Corwin sign several of the bootleg jobs, indicating that Wright was aware of theirillegal nature.[20] [24] Regardless of the correct series of events, Wright and Sullivan did not meet or speak for twelveyears.

Transition and experimentation (1893-1900)After leaving Louis Sullivan, Wright established his own practice on the top floor of the Sullivan designed SchillerBuilding (1892, demolished 1961) on Randolph Street in Chicago. Wright chose to locate his office in the buildingbecause the tower location reminded him of the office of Adler & Sullivan. Although Cecil Corwin followed Wrightand set up his architecture practice in the same office, the two worked independently and did not consider themselvespartners.[25] Within a year, Corwin decided that he did not enjoy architecture and journeyed east to find a newprofession.[26]

With Corwin gone, Wright moved out of the Schiller Building and into the nearby and newly completed Steinway Hall Building. The loft space was shared with Robert C. Spencer, Jr., Myron Hunt, and Dwight H. Perkins.[27] These young architects, inspired by the Arts and Crafts Movement and the philosophies of Louis Sullivan, formed what would become known as the Prairie School.[28] They were joined by Perkins apprentice, Marion Mahony, who in 1895 transferred to Wright’s team of drafters and took over production of his presentation drawings and watercolor renderings. Mahony, the first licensed female architect in the United States, also designed furniture, leaded glass

Frank Lloyd Wright 28

windows, and light fixtures, among other features, for Wright’s houses.[29] [30] Between 1894 and the early 1910s,several other leading Prairie School architects and many of Wright’s future employees launched their careers in theoffices of Steinway Hall.

William H. Winslow House (1893) in RiverForest, Illinois

Wright’s projects during this period followed two basic models. On onehand, there was his first independent commission, the Winslow House,which combined Sullivanesque ornamentation with the emphasis onsimple geometry and horizontal lines that is typical in Wright houses.The Francis Apartments (1895, demolished 1971) Heller House(1896), Rollin Furbeck House (1897), and Husser House (1899,demolished 1926) were designed in the same mode. For moreconservative clients, Wright conceded to design more traditionaldwellings. These included the Dutch Colonial Revival style BagleyHouse (1894), Tudor Revival style Moore House I (1895), and QueenAnne style Charles Roberts House (1896).[31] As an emerging architect, Wright could not afford to turn down clientsover disagreements in taste, but even his most conservative designs retained simplified massing and occasionalSullivan inspired details.[32]

Soon after the completion of the Winslow House in 1894, Edward Waller, a friend and former client, invited Wrightto meet Chicago architect and planner Daniel Burnham. Burnham had been impressed by the Winslow House andother examples of Wright’s work; he offered to finance a four year education at the École des Beaux-Arts and twoyears in Rome. To top it off, Wright would have a position in Burnham’s firm upon his return. In spite of guaranteedsuccess and support of his family, Wright declined the offer. Burnham, who had directed the classical design of theWorld’s Columbian Exposition was a major proponent of the Beaux Arts movement, thought that Wright wasmaking a foolish mistake. Yet for Wright, the classical education of the École lacked creativity and was altogether atodds with his vision of modern American architecture.[33] [34]

Wright's studio (1898) viewed from ChicagoAvenue

Wright relocated his practice to his home in 1898 in order to bring hiswork and family lives closer. This move made further sense as themajority of the architect’s projects at that time were in Oak Park orneighboring River Forest. The past five years had seen the birth ofthree more children — Catherine in 1894, David in 1895, and Francesin 1898 — prompting Wright to sacrifice his original home studiospace for additional bedrooms. Thus, moving his workspacenecessitated his design and construction of an expansive studioaddition to the north of the main house. The space, which included ahanging balcony within the two story drafting room, was one ofWright’s first experiments with innovative structure. The studio was aposter for Wright’s developing aesthetics and would become the laboratory from which the next ten years ofarchitectural creations would emerge.[35]

Frank Lloyd Wright 29

Prairie HouseBy 1901, Wright had completed about 50 projects, including many houses in Oak Park. As his son John LloydWright wrote:

"William Eugene Drummond, Francis Barry Byrne, Walter Burley Griffin, Albert Chase McArthur,Marion Mahony, Isabel Roberts and George Willis were the draftsmen. Five men, two women. Theywore flowing ties, and smocks suitable to the realm. The men wore their hair like Papa, all exceptAlbert, he didn’t have enough hair. They worshiped Papa! Papa liked them! I know that each one ofthem was then making valuable contributions to the pioneering of the modern American architecture forwhich my father gets the full glory, headaches and recognition today!"[36]

Between 1900 and 1901, Frank Lloyd Wright completed four houses which have since been considered the onset ofthe "Prairie style". Two, the Hickox and Bradley Houses, were the last transitional step between Wright’s earlydesigns and the Prairie creations.[37] Meanwhile, the Thomas House and Willits House received recognition as thefirst mature examples of the new style.[38] [39] At the same time, Wright gave his new ideas for the American housewidespread awareness through two publications in the Ladies' Home Journal. The articles were a answer to aninvitation from the president of Curtis Publishing Company, Edward Bok, as part of a project to improve modernhouse design. Bok also extended the offer to other architects, but Wright was the sole responder. "A Home in aPrairie Town" and "A Small House with Lots of Room in it" appeared respectively in the February and July 1901issues of the journal. Although neither of the affordable house plans were ever constructed, Wright receivedincreased requests for similar designs in following years.[37]

Wright's residential designs were "Prairie Houses" because the design is considered to complement the land aroundChicago. These houses featured extended low buildings with shallow, sloping roofs, clean sky lines, suppressedchimneys, overhangs and terraces, using unfinished materials. The houses are credited with being the first examplesof the "open plan". Windows whenever possible are long, and low, allowing a connection between the interior andnature, outside, that was new to western architecture and reflected the influence of Japanese architecture on Wright .The manipulation of interior space in residential and public buildings are hallmarks of his style.Commercial buildings in the Prairie style include Unity Temple, the home of the Unitarian Universalist congregationin Oak Park. As a lifelong Unitarian and member of Unity Temple, Wright offered his services to the congregationafter their church burned down in 1904. The community agreed to hire him and he worked on the building from 1905to 1908. Wright later said that Unity Temple was the edifice in which he ceased to be an architect of structure, andbecame an architect of space. Many architects consider it the world's first modern building, because of its uniqueconstruction of only one material: reinforced concrete. This would become a hallmark of the modernists whofollowed Wright, such as Mies van der Rohe, and even some post-modernists, such as Frank Gehry.

Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York

Many examples of this work are in Buffalo, New York as a result offriendship between Wright and Darwin D. Martin, an executive of theLarkin Soap Company. In 1902, the Larkin Company decided to builda new administration building. Wright came to Buffalo and designednot only the Larkin Administration Building (completed in 1904,demolished in 1950), but also homes for three of the company'sexecutives including the Darwin D. Martin House in 1904.

Other Wright houses considered to be masterpieces of the late Prairie Period (1907–1909) are the Frederick RobieHouse in Chicago and the Avery and Queene Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois. The Robie House, with itssoaring, cantilevered roof lines, supported by a

Frank Lloyd Wright 30

Hillside Home School, 1902, Taliesin, SpringGreen, Wisconsin

110-foot-long (34 m) channel of steel, is the most dramatic. Its livingand dining areas form virtually one uninterrupted space. This buildinghad a profound influence on young European architects after WorldWar I and is sometimes called the "cornerstone of modernism".However, Wright's work was not known to European architects untilthe publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio.

Midlife controversy and architecture

Family abandonment

Aerial photo of Taliesin, Spring Green,Wisconsin

Local gossips noticed Wright's flirtations, and he developed areputation in Oak Park as a man-about-town. His family had grown tosix children, and the brood required most of Catherine's attention. In1903, Wright designed a house for Edwin Cheney, a neighbor in OakPark, and immediately took a liking to Cheney's wife, MamahBorthwick Cheney. Mamah Cheney was a modern woman withinterests outside the home. She was an early feminist and Wrightviewed her as his intellectual equal. The two fell in love, even thoughWright had been married for almost 20 years. Often the two could beseen taking rides in Wright's automobile through Oak Park, and theybecame the talk of the town. Wright's wife, Kitty, sure that thisattachment would fade as the others had, refused to grant him a divorce. Neither would Edwin Cheney grant one toMamah. In 1909, even before the Robie House was completed, Wright and Mamah Cheney eloped to Europe,leaving their own spouses and children behind. The scandal that erupted virtually destroyed Wright's ability topractice architecture in the United States.

Scholars argue that he felt by 1907 that he had done everything he could do with the Prairie Style, particularly fromthe standpoint of the single family house. Wright was not getting larger commissions for commercial or publicbuildings, which frustrated him.What drew Wright to Europe was the chance to publish a portfolio of his work with Ernst Wasmuth, who had agreedin 1909 to publish his work there.[40] This chance also allowed Wright to deepen his relationship with MamahCheney. Wright and Cheney left the United States separately in 1910, meeting in Berlin, where the offices ofWasmuth were located.The resulting two volumes, entitled Studies and Executed Buildings of Frank Lloyd Wright, were published in 1910and 1911 in two editions, creating the first major exposure of Wright's work in Europe. The work contained morethan 100 lithographs of Wright’s designs and was commonly known as the Wasmuth Portfolio.Wright remained in Europe for one year (though Mamah Cheney returned to the United States a few times) and set up a home in Fiesole, Italy. During this time, Edwin Cheney granted her a divorce, though Kitty still refused to grant one to her husband. After Wright's return to the United States in late 1910, Wright persuaded his mother to buy land for him in Spring Green, Wisconsin. The land, bought on April 10, 1911, was adjacent to land held by his mother's family, the Lloyd-Joneses. Wright began to build himself a new home, which he called Taliesin, by May 1911. The recurring theme of Taliesin also came from his mother's side: Taliesin in Welsh mythology was a poet, magician, and priest. The family motto was Y Gwir yn Erbyn y Byd which means "The Truth Against the World"; it was created by Iolo Morgannwg who also had a son called Taliesin, and the motto is still used today as the cry of the druids and

Frank Lloyd Wright 31

chief bard of the Eisteddfod in Wales.[41]

More personal turmoilOn August 15, 1914, while Wright was working in Chicago, Julian Carlton, a male servant from Barbados who hadbeen hired several months earlier, set fire to the living quarters of Taliesin and murdered seven people with an axe asthe fire burned.[42] The dead included Mamah; her two children, John and Martha; a gardener; a draftsman; aworkman; and another workman’s son. Two people survived the mayhem, one of whom helped to put out the firethat almost completely consumed the residential wing of the house. Carlton swallowed acid immediately followingthe attack in an attempt to kill himself.[42] He was nearly lynched on the spot, but was taken to the Dodgevillejail.[42] Carlton died from starvation seven weeks after the attack, despite medical attention.[42]

In 1922, Wright's first wife, Kitty, granted him a divorce, and Wright was required to wait one year until he marriedhis then-partner, Maude "Miriam" Noel. In 1923, Wright's mother, Anna (Lloyd Jones) Wright, died. Wright wedMiriam Noel in November 1923, but her addiction to morphine led to the failure of the marriage in less than oneyear. In 1924, after the separation, but while still married, Wright met Olga (Olgivanna) Lazovich Hinzenburg, at aPetrograd Ballet performance in Chicago. They moved in together at Taliesin in 1925, and soon Olgivanna waspregnant with their daughter, Iovanna. Iovanna was born December 2, 1925 and years later married and divorcedWright's associate Arthur Pieper.On April 20, 1925, another fire destroyed the bungalow at Taliesin. Crossed wires from a newly installed telephonesystem were held responsible for the fire, which destroyed a collection of Japanese prints that Wright declaredinvaluable. Wright estimated the loss at $250,000 to $500,000.[43] Wright rebuilt the living quarters again, namingthe home "Taliesin III".In 1926, Olga's ex-husband, Vlademar Hinzenburg, sought custody of his daughter, Svetlana. In October 1926,Wright and Olgivanna were accused of violating the Mann Act and arrested in Minnetonka, Minnesota. The chargeswere later dropped.Wright and Miriam Noel's divorce was finalized in 1927, and once again, Wright was required to wait for one yearuntil marrying again. Wright and Olgivanna married in 1928.

California and the textile block housesWright also built several houses in the Los Angeles area. Currently open to the public are the Hollyhock House(Aline Barnsdall Residence) in Hollywood and the Anderton Court Shops in Beverly Hills.Following the Hollyhock House, Wright used an innovative building process in 1923 and 1924, which he called thetextile block system [44] where buildings were constructed with precast concrete blocks with a patterned, squarishexterior surface: The Alice Millard House (Pasadena), the John Storer House (West Hollywood), the SamuelFreeman House (Hollywood) and the Ennis House in the Griffith Park area of Los Angeles. During the past twodecades the Ennis House has become popular as an exotic, nearby shooting location to Hollywood television andmovie makers. He also designed a fifth textile block house for Aline Barnsdall, the Community Playhouse ("LittleDipper"), which was never constructed. Wright's son, Lloyd Wright, supervised construction for the Storer, Freemanand Ennis House. Most of these houses are private residences closed to the public because of renovation, includingthe George Sturges House (Brentwood) and the Arch Oboler Gatehouse & Studio (Malibu).

Frank Lloyd Wright 32

Mature Organic StyleDuring the later 1920s and 1930s Wright's Organic style had fully matured with the design of Graycliff, Fallingwaterand Taliesin West.Graycliff, located just south of Buffalo, NY is an important mid-career (1926–1931) design by Wright; it is asummer estate designed for his long-time patrons, Isabelle and Darwin D. Martin. Created in Wright's high Organicstyle, Wright wrote in a letter to the Martins that "Coming in the house would be something like putting on your hatand going outdoors." [45] Graycliff consists of three buildings set within 8.4 acres of landscape, also designed byWright. Its site, high on a bluff overlooking Lake Erie, inspired Wright to create a home that was transparent, withviews through the building to the lake beyond. Terraces and cantilevered balconies also encourage lake views, andwater features throughout the landscape were designed by Wright to echo the lake as well.

Fallingwater, Bear Run, Pennsylvania (1937)

One of Wright's most famous private residences was built from 1934 to1937—Fallingwater—for Mr. and Mrs. Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr., at BearRun, Pennsylvania, near Pittsburgh. It was designed according toWright's desire to place the occupants close to the naturalsurroundings, with a stream and waterfall running under part of thebuilding. The construction is a series of cantilevered balconies andterraces, using limestone for all verticals and concrete for thehorizontals. The house cost $155,000, including the architect's fee of$8,000. Kaufmann's own engineers argued that the design was notsound. They were overruled by Wright, but the contractor secretlyadded extra steel to the horizontal concrete elements. In 1994, RobertSilman and Associates examined the building and developed a plan to restore the structure. In the late 1990s, steelsupports were added under the lowest cantilever until a detailed structural analysis could be done. In March 2002,post-tensioning of the lowest terrace was completed.

Taliesin West, Wright's winter home and studio complex in Scottsdale, AZ, was a laboratory for Wright from 1937to his death in 1959. Now the home of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation and archives, it continues today as thesite of the Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture.Wright is responsible for a series of concepts of suburban development united under the term Broadacre City. Heproposed the idea in his book The Disappearing City in 1932, and unveiled a 12-square-foot (1.1 m2) model of thiscommunity of the future, showing it in several venues in the following years. He continued developing the idea untilhis death.

Usonian HousesConcurrent with the development of Broadacre City, also referred to as Usonia, Wright conceived a new type ofdwelling that came to be known as the Usonian House. An early version of the form can be seen in the MalcolmWilley House (1934) in Minneapolis; but the Usonian ideal emerged most completely in the Herbert and KatherineJacobs First House (1937) in Madison, Wisconsin. Designed on a gridded concrete slab that integrated the house'sradiant heating system, the house featured new approaches to construction, including sandwich walls that consistedof layers of wood siding, plywood cores and building paper, a significant change from typically framed walls.Usonian houses most commonly featured flat roofs and were mostly constructed without basements, completing theexcision of attics and basements from houses, a feat Wright had been attempting since the early 20th century.Intended to be highly practical houses for middle-class clients, and designed to be run without servants, Usonian houses often featured small kitchens — called "workspaces" by Wright — that adjoined the dining spaces. These spaces in turn flowed into the main living areas, which also were characteristically outfitted with built-in seating and tables. As in the Prairie Houses, Usonian living areas focused on the fireplace. Bedrooms were typically isolated and

Frank Lloyd Wright 33

relatively small, encouraging the family to gather in the main living areas. The conception of spaces instead of roomswas a development of the Prairie ideal; as the built-in furnishings related to the Arts and Crafts principles fromwhich Wright's early works grew. Spatially and in terms of their construction, the Usonian houses represented a newmodel for independent living, and allowed dozens of clients to live in a Wright-designed house at relatively low cost.The diversity of the Usonian ideal can be seen in houses such as the Gregor S. and Elizabeth B. Affleck House(1941) in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, which projects over a ravine; and the Hanna-Honeycomb House (1937) inPalo Alto, California, which features a honeycomb planning grid. Gordon House, completed in 1963, was Wright'slast Usonian design.His Usonian homes set a new style for suburban design that was a feature of countless developers. Many features ofmodern American homes date back to Wright, including open plans, slab-on-grade foundations, and simplifiedconstruction techniques that allowed more mechanization and efficiency in building.

Significant later works

Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New YorkCity, New York (1959)

The Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York City occupiedWright for 16 years (1943–1959)[46] and is probably his mostrecognized masterpiece. The building rises as a warm beige spiral fromits site on Fifth Avenue; its interior is similar to the inside of a seashell.Its unique central geometry was meant to allow visitors to easilyexperience Guggenheim's collection of nonobjective geometricpaintings by taking an elevator to the top level and then viewingartworks by walking down the slowly descending, central spiral ramp,which features a floor embedded with circular shapes and triangularlight fixtures to complement the geometric nature of the structure.Unfortunately, when the museum was completed, a number ofimportant details of Wright's design were ignored, including his desirefor the interior to be painted off-white. Furthermore, the Museum currently designs exhibits to be viewed by walkingup the curved walkway rather than walking down from the top level.

Wright's Price Tower in Bartlesville,Oklahoma

The only realized skyscraper designed by Wright is the Price Tower, a 19-storytower in Bartlesville, Oklahoma. It is also one of the two existingvertically-oriented Wright structures (the other is the S.C. Johnson Wax ResearchTower in Racine, Wisconsin). The Price Tower was commissioned by Harold C.Price of the H. C. Price Company, a local oil pipeline and chemical firm. Itopened to the public in February 1956. On March 29, 2007, Price Tower wasdesignated a National Historic Landmark by the United States Department of theInterior, one of only 20 such properties in the state of Oklahoma.[47]

Other projects

Wright designed over 400 built structures[48] of which about 300 survive as of2005. Four have been lost to forces of nature: the waterfront house for W. L.Fuller in Pass Christian, Mississippi, destroyed by Hurricane Camille in August1969; the Louis Sullivan Bungalow of Ocean Springs, Mississippi, destroyed byHurricane Katrina in 2005; and the Arinobu Fukuhara House (1918) in Hakone,Japan, destroyed in the Great Kantō Earthquake of 1923. The Ennis House in California has also been damaged byearthquake and rain-induced ground movement. In January, 2006, the Wilbur Wynant House in Gary, Indiana wasdestroyed by fire.[49]

Frank Lloyd Wright 34

Imperial Hotel, Tokyo (1923)

In addition, other buildings were intentionally demolished during andafter Wright's lifetime, such as: Midway Gardens (1913, Chicago,Illinois) and the Larkin Administration Building (1903, Buffalo, NewYork) were destroyed in 1929 and 1950 respectively; the FrancisApartments and Francisco Terrace Apartments (both located inChicago and designed in 1895) were destroyed in 1971 and 1974,respectively; the Geneva Inn (1911) in Lake Geneva, Wisconsin wasdestroyed in 1970; and the Banff National Park Pavilion (1911) inAlberta, Canada was destroyed in 1939. The Imperial Hotel, in Tokyo(1913) survived the Great Kantō earthquake but was demolished in

1968 due to urban developmental pressures.[50]

One of his projects, Monona Terrace, originally designed in 1937 as municipal offices for Madison, Wisconsin, wascompleted in 1997 on the original site, using a variation of Wright's final design for the exterior with the interiordesign altered by its new purpose as a convention center. The "as-built" design was carried out by Wright'sapprentice Tony Puttnam. Monona Terrace was accompanied by controversy throughout the 60 years between theoriginal design and the completion of the structure.[51]

Florida Southern College, located in Lakeland, Florida, constructed 12 (out of 18 planned) Frank Lloyd Wrightbuildings between 1941 and 1958 as part of the Child of the Sun project. It is the world’s largest single-site collectionof Frank Lloyd Wright architecture.A lesser known project that never came to fruition was Wright's plan for Emerald Bay, Lake Tahoe.[52] Few Tahoelocals know of the iconic American architect's plan for their natural treasure.The Kalita Humphreys Theater in Dallas, Texas was Wright's last project before his death.

Wright's last design and first European projectA design that Wright signed off on shortly before his death in 1959 – possibly his last completed design – wasrealised in late 2007 in the Republic of Ireland.[53] Wright scholar and devotee Marc Coleman worked closely withthe Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, dealing with E. Thomas Casey, the last surviving Foundation architect whotrained under Wright. Working with the Foundation, Coleman selected an unbuilt design that was originallycommissioned for Mr. and Mrs. Gilbert Wieland and due to be built in Maryland, USA. However, the Wielandssubsequently had financial problems and the design was shelved. The Foundation looked through its archive of 380unbuilt designs and selected 4 for Coleman that were the closest fit for his site. In the end, he chose the Wielandhouse, largely because the topography of his site is virtually identical to that which the building was originallydesigned for. The completed house,[54] in only the fourth country in which a Wright design has been realised, isattracting broad interest from the international architectural community. Casey visited the site in County Wicklow,but died before construction began.

Community planningFrank Lloyd Wright was interested in site and community planning throughout his career. His commissions andtheories on urban design began as early as 1900 and continued until his death. He had 41 commissions on the scaleof community planning or urban design.[55]

His thoughts on suburban design started in 1900 with a proposed subdivision layout for Charles E. Roberts entitled the "Quadruple Block Plan." This design strayed from traditional suburban lot layouts and set houses on small square blocks of four equal-sized lots surrounded on all sides by roads instead of straight rows of houses on parallel streets. The houses — which used the same design as published in "A Home in a Prairie Town" from the Ladies' Home Journal — were set toward the center of the block to maximize the yard space and included private space in the

Frank Lloyd Wright 35

center. This also allowed for far more interesting views from each house. Although this plan was never realized,Wright published the design in the Wasmuth Portfolio in 1910.[56]

The more ambitious designs of entire communities were exemplified by his entry into the City Club of Chicago LandDevelopment Competition in 1913. The contest was for the development of a suburban quarter section. This designexpanded on the Quadruple Block Plan and included several social levels. The design shows the placement of theupscale homes in the most desirable areas and the blue collar homes and apartments separated by parks and commonspaces. The design also included all the amenities of a small city: schools, museums, markets, etc.[57] This view ofdecentralization was later reinforced by theoretical Broadacre City design. The philosophy behind his communityplanning was decentralization. The new development must be away from the cities. In this decentralized America, allservices and facilities could coexist “factories side by side with farm and home.”[58] Notable Community PlanningDesigns:

1900–1903 – Quadruple Block Plan – 24 homes in Oak Park, IL (unbuilt)1909 – Como Orchard Summer Colony – Town site development for new town in the Bitterroot Valley, MT1913 – Chicago Land Development competition – Suburban Chicago quarter section1934–1959 – Broadacre City – Theoretical decentralized city plan – exhibits of large scale model1938 – Suntop Homes also known as Cloverleaf Quadruple Housing Project – commission from FederalWorks Agency, Division of Defense Housing – low cost multifamily housing alternative to suburbandevelopment1945 – Usonia Homes – 47 homes (3 designed by Wright himself) in Pleasantville, New York1949 – The Acres, also known as Galesburg Country Homes, 5 homes (4 designed by Wright himself) inCharleston Township, Michigan

Japanese artThough most famous as an architect, Wright was an active dealer in Japanese art, primarily ukiyo-e woodblockprints. He frequently served as both architect and art dealer to the same clients; "he designed a home, then providedthe art to fill it".[59] For a time, Wright made more from selling art than from his work as an architect.Wright first traveled to Japan in 1905, where he bought hundreds of prints. The following year, he helped organizethe world's first retrospective exhibition of works by Hiroshige, held at the Art Institute of Chicago.[59] For manyyears, he was a major presence in the Japanese art world, selling a great number of works to prominent collectorssuch as John Spaulding of Boston,[59] and to prominent museums such as the Metropolitan Museum of Art in NewYork.[60] He penned a book on Japanese art in 1912.[60]

In 1920, however, rival art dealers began to spread rumors that Wright was selling retouched prints; this combinedwith Wright's tendency to live beyond his means, and other factors, led to great financial troubles for the architect.Though he provided his clients with genuine prints as replacements for those he was accused of retouching, thismarked the end of the high point of his career as an art dealer.[60] He was forced to sell off much of his art collectionin 1927 to pay off outstanding debts; the Bank of Wisconsin claimed his Taliesin home the following year, and soldthousands of his prints, for only one dollar a piece, to collector Edward Burr Van Vleck.[59]

Wright continued to collect, and deal in, prints until his death in 1959, frequently using prints as collateral for loans,frequently relying upon his art business to remain financially solvent[60]

The extent of his dealings in Japanese art went largely unknown, or underestimated, among art historians for decades until, in 1980, Julia Meech, then associate curator of Japanese art at the Metropolitan Museum, began researching the history of the museum's collection of Japanese prints. She discovered "a three-inch-deep 'clump of 400 cards' from 1918, each listing a print bought from the same seller—'F. L. Wright'" and a number of letters exchanged between Wright and the museum's first curator of Far Eastern Art, Sigisbert C. Bosch Reitz, in 1918 to 1922.[60] These

Frank Lloyd Wright 36

discoveries, and subsequent research, led to a renewed understanding of Wright's career as an art dealer.

Death and legacy

Wright with his wife Olgivanna and theiryoungest daughter Iovanna in 1957

1954 portrait by Al Ravenna, New YorkWorld-Telegram and the Sun staff photographer

Turmoil followed Wright even many years after his death on April 9,1959 while undergoing surgery in Phoenix, Arizona to remove anintestinal obstruction.[61] His third wife, Olgivanna, ran the Fellowshipafter Wright's death, until her own death in Scottsdale, Arizona in1985. That year, it was learned that her dying wish had been thatWright, she and her daughter by a first marriage all be cremated andrelocated to Scottsdale, Arizona. By then, Wright's body had lain forover 25 years in the Lloyd-Jones cemetery, next to the Unity Chapel,near Taliesin, Wright's later-life home in Spring Green, Wisconsin.[62]

Olgivanna's plan called for a memorial garden, already in the works, tobe finished and prepared for their remains. Although the garden hadyet to be finished, his remains were prepared and sent to Scottsdalewhere they waited in storage for an unidentified amount of time beforebeing interred in the memorial area. Today, the small cemetery southof Spring Green, Wisconsin and a long stone's throw from Taliesin,contains a gravestone marked with Wright's name but its grave isempty.[63]

Personal style and concepts

Wright's creations took his concern with organic architecture down tothe smallest details. From his largest commercial commissions to therelatively modest Usonian houses, Wright conceived virtually everydetail of both the external design and the internal fixtures, includingfurniture, carpets, windows, doors, tables and chairs, light fittings anddecorative elements. He was one of the first architects to design andsupply custom-made, purpose-built furniture and fittings thatfunctioned as integrated parts of the whole design, and he oftenreturned to earlier commissions to redesign internal fittings. Some ofthe built-in furniture remains, while other restorations have includedreplacement pieces created using his plans. His Prairie houses usethemed, coordinated design elements (often based on plant forms) thatare repeated in windows, carpets and other fittings. He madeinnovative use of new building materials such as precast concreteblocks, glass bricks and zinc cames (instead of the traditional lead) forhis leadlight windows, and he famously used Pyrex glass tubing as a major element in the Johnson WaxHeadquarters. Wright was also one of the first architects to design and install custom-made electric light fittings,including some of the very first electric floor lamps, and his very early use of the then-novel spherical glasslampshade (a design previously not possible due to the physical restrictions of gas lighting).

Frank Lloyd Wright 37

Wright-designed window in Robie House,Chicago (1906)

As Wright's career progressed, so did the mechanization of the glassindustry. Wright fully embraced glass in his designs and found that itfit well into his philosophy of organic architecture. Glass allowed forinteraction and viewing of the outdoors while still protecting from theelements. In 1928, Wright wrote an essay on glass in which hecompared it to the mirrors of nature: lakes, rivers and ponds. One ofWright's earliest uses of glass in his works was to string panes of glassalong whole walls in an attempt to create light screens to join togethersolid walls. By utilizing this large amount of glass, Wright sought toachieve a balance between the lightness and airiness of the glass andthe solid, hard walls. Arguably, Wright's best-known art glass is that ofthe Prairie style. The simple geometric shapes that yield to very ornateand intricate windows represent some of the most integral ornamentation of his career.[64]

Wright responded to the transformation of domestic life that occurred at the turn of the 20th century, when servantsbecame a less prominent or completely absent from most American households, by developing homes withprogressively more open plans. This allowed the woman of the house to work in her 'workspace', as he often calledthe kitchen, yet keep track of and be available for the children and/or guests in the dining room. Much of modernarchitecture, including the early work of Mies van der Rohe, can be traced back to Wright's innovative work.Wright also designed some of his own clothing. His fashion sense was unique, and he usually wore expensive suits,flowing neckties, and capes. Wright drove a custom yellow 'raceabout' in the Prairie years, a red Cord convertible inthe 1930s, and a famously customized 1940 Lincoln for many years. He earned many speeding tickets in each of hisvehicles.

Colleagues and influencesWright rarely credited any influences on his designs, but most architects, historians and scholars agree he had fivemajor influences:1. Louis Sullivan, whom he considered to be his 'Lieber Meister' (dear master),2. Nature, particularly shapes/forms and colors/patterns of plant life,3. Music (his favorite composer was Ludwig van Beethoven),4. Japanese art, prints and buildings,5. Froebel GiftsHe also routinely claimed the architects and architectural designers who were his employees' work as his own designand claimed that the rest of the Prairie School architects were merely his followers, imitators and subordinates.[65]

But, as with any architect, Wright worked in a collaborative process and drew his ideas from the work of others. Inhis earlier days, Wright worked with some of the top architects of the Chicago School, including Sullivan. In hisPrairie School days, Wright's office was populated by many talented architects including William EugeneDrummond, John Van Bergen, Isabel Roberts, Francis Barry Byrne, Albert McArthur, Marion Mahony Griffin andWalter Burley Griffin.The Czech-born architect Antonin Raymond, recognized as the father of modern architecture in Japan, worked forWright at Taliesin and led the construction of the Imperial Hotel in Tokyo. He subsequently stayed in Japan andopened his own practice. Rudolf Schindler also worked for Wright on the Imperial hotel. His own work is oftencredited as influencing Wright's Usonian houses. Schindler's friend Richard Neutra also worked briefly for Wrightand became an internationally successful architect.Later in the Taliesin days, Wright employed many architects and artists who later become notable, such as Aaron Green, John Lautner, E. Fay Jones, Henry Klumb and Paolo Soleri in architecture and Santiago Martinez Delgado in

Frank Lloyd Wright 38

the arts. As a young man, actor Anthony Quinn applied to study with Wright at Taliesin. However, Wright suggestedthat he first take voice lessons to help overcome a speech impediment.Bruce Goff never worked for Wright but maintained correspondence with him. Their works can be seen to paralleleach other.

Recognition

1966 U.S. postage stamp honoring FrankLloyd Wright

Later in his life and well after his death in 1959, Wright received muchhonorary recognition for his lifetime achievements. He received Gold Medalawards from The Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) in 1941 and theAmerican Institute of Architects (AIA) in 1949. He was awarded the FranklinInstitute's Frank P. Brown Medal in 1953. He received honorary degrees fromseveral universities (including his "alma mater", the University of Wisconsin)and several nations named him as an honorary board member to their nationalacademies of art and/or architecture. In 2000, Fallingwater was named "TheBuilding of the 20th century" in an unscientific "Top-Ten" poll taken bymembers attending the AIA annual convention in Philadelphia. On that list,Wright was listed along with many of the USA's other greatest architectsincluding Eero Saarinen, I.M. Pei, Louis Kahn, Philip Johnson and LudwigMies van der Rohe, and he was the only architect who had more than onebuilding on the list. The other three buildings were the Guggenheim Museum,

the Frederick C. Robie House and the Johnson Wax Building.

In 1992, The Madison Opera in Madison, Wisconsin commissioned and premiered the opera Shining Brow, bycomposer Daron Hagen and librettist Paul Muldoon based on events early in Wright's life. The work has sincereceived numerous revivals. In 2000, Work Song: Three Views of Frank Lloyd Wright, a play based on therelationship between the personal and working aspects of Wright's life, debuted at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater.In 1966, the United States Postal Service honored Wright with a Prominent Americans series 2¢ postage stamp.

FamilyFrank Lloyd Wright was married three times and fathered seven children: four sons and three daughters. He alsoadopted Svetlana Milanoff, the daughter of his third wife, Olgivanna Lloyd Wright.[66]

His wives were:• Catherine "Kitty" (Tobin) Wright (1871–1959). Socialite and Social Worker. Married June 1889; divorced

November 1922.• Maude "Miriam" (Noel) Wright (1869–1930). Artist. Married November, 1923; divorced August 1927.• Olga Ivanovna "Olgivanna" (Lazovich Milanoff) Lloyd Wright (1897–1985). Dancer and writer. Married August

1928.One of Wright's sons, Frank Lloyd Wright Jr., known as Lloyd Wright, was also a notable architect in Los Angeles.Lloyd Wright's son (and Wright's grandson), Eric Lloyd Wright, is currently an architect in Malibu, California wherehe has a practice of mostly residences, but also civic and commercial buildings.Another son and architect, John Lloyd Wright, invented Lincoln Logs in 1918, and practiced extensively in the SanDiego area. John's daughter, Elizabeth Wright Ingraham [67], is an architect in Colorado Springs, Colorado. She isthe mother of Christine, an interior designer in Connecticut, and Catherine, an architecture professor at the PrattInstitute.[68]

Frank Lloyd Wright 39

The Oscar-winning actress Anne Baxter was Wright's granddaughter. Baxter was the daughter of Catherine Baxter, achild born of Wright's first marriage. Anne's daughter, Melissa Galt, currently lives and works in Atlanta as aninterior designer.[68]

His adopted daughter Svetlana (daughter of Olgivanna) and her son Daniel died in an automobile accident in 1946.Her widower, William Wesley Peters, was later briefly married to Svetlana Alliluyeva, the youngest child and onlydaughter of Joseph Stalin. They divorced after she could not adjust to the communal lifestyle of the Wrightcommunities, which she compared to life in the Soviet Union under her father, and because of the constantinterference of Wright's widow. Peters served as Chairman of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation from 1985 to1991.A great-grandson of Wright, S. Lloyd Natof, currently lives and works in Chicago as a master woodworker whospecializes in the design and creation of custom wood furniture.[69]

ArchivesPhotographs and other archival materials are held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute ofChicago. The Herbert and Katherine Jacobs Residence and Frank Lloyd Wright Records, 1924–1974, Collectionincludes drawings, correspondence, and other materials documenting the construction of two homes for the Jacobs aswell as research files on Wright's life. The Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan Collection, 1945–1988, consists ofresearch documents, including photocopied correspondence between Wright and his clients, used for the book"Frank Lloyd Wright in Michigan." The Wrightiana Collection, c. 1897–1997 (bulk 1949–1969), includes a varietyof printed materials and photographs about Wright and his projects. The Joseph J. Bagley Cottage Collection, c.1916–1925, contains photographs and drawings documenting the Bagley cottage which was completed in 1916.The architect's personal archives [70] are located at Taliesin West in Scottsdale, Arizona. The Frank Lloyd Wrightarchives include photographs of his drawings, indexed correspondence beginning in the 1880s and continuingthrough Wright's life, and other ephemera. The Getty Research Center in Los Angeles, California, also has copies ofWright's correspondence and photographs of his drawings in their "Frank Lloyd Wright Special Collection [71]".Wright's correspondence is indexed in An Index to the Taliesin Correspondence, ed. by Professor Anthony Alofsin,which is available at larger libraries.

Selected works

Nathan G. Moore House, Oak Park, Illinois

• Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio, Oak Park, Illinois,1889–1909

• William H. Winslow House, River Forest, Illinois, 1894• Ward Winfield Willits Residence, and Gardener’s Cottage and

Stables, Highland Park, Illinois, 1901• Dana-Thomas House, Springfield, Illinois, 1902• Larkin Administration Building, Buffalo, New York, 1903

(demolished, 1950)• Darwin D. Martin House, Buffalo, New York, 1903–1905• Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1904• Frederick C. Robie Residence, Chicago, Illinois, 1909• Taliesin I, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1911• Midway Gardens, Chicago, Illinois, 1913 (demolished, 1929)• Imperial Hotel, Tokyo, Japan, 1923 (demolished, 1968; entrance hall reconstructed at Meiji Mura near Nagoya,

Japan, 1976)

Frank Lloyd Wright 40

The Robie House on the University of Chicagocampus

Taliesin West Panorama from the "prow" lookingat the "ship"

Gammage Auditorium viewed from one of thepedestrian ramps

• Hollyhock House (Aline Barnsdall Residence), Los Angeles,California, 1919–1921

• Ennis House, Los Angeles, California, 1923• Taliesin III, Spring Green, Wisconsin, 1925• Graycliff. Buffalo, NY 1926• Fallingwater (Edgar J. Kaufmann Sr. Residence), Bear Run,

Pennsylvania, 1935–1937• First Jacobs House, 1936–1937• Johnson Wax Headquarters, Racine, Wisconsin, 1936• Herbert F. Johnson Residence ("Wingspread"), Wind Point, WI,

1937• Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 1937• Usonian homes, various locations, 1930s–1950s• Child of the Sun, Florida Southern College, Lakeland, Florida,

1941–1958• First Unitarian Society of Madison, Shorewood Hills, Wisconsin,

1947• V. C. Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, California, 1948• Price Tower, Bartlesville, Oklahoma, 1952–1956• Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1954• Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,

1956–1961• Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, New York, New York,

1956–1959• Kentuck Knob, Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania, 1956• The Illinois, mile-high tower in Chicago, 1956 (unbuilt)• Marshall Erdman Prefab Houses, various locations, 1956–1960• Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Wauwatosa, Wisconsin,

1956–1961• Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, CA, 1957–1966• Gammage Auditorium, Tempe, Arizona, 1959–1964

See also• Frank Lloyd Wright buildings• Wasmuth Portfolio• Richard Bock• Roman brick• Jaroslav Joseph Polivka• Frank Lloyd Wright Home and Studio• Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy• Frank Lloyd Wright-Prairie School of Architecture Historic District• List of Frank Lloyd Wright works• List of Frank Lloyd Wright works by location• Broadacre City• Fallingwater

Frank Lloyd Wright 41

References

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nf20040728_3153_db078. htm). Business Week (The McGraw-Hill Companies). . Retrieved 2008-01-22.[2] An Autobiography, by Frank Lloyd Wright, Duell, Sloan and Pearce, New York City, 1943, p. 51[3] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, University of Chicago Press, 1992, p.72[4] Phi Delta Theta list of Famous Phis, accessed on May 26. 2008 (http:/ / www. phideltatheta. org/ index. php?option=com_content&

task=view& id=16& Itemid=161)[5] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, p. 82[6] Wright, Frank Lloyd (2005). Frank Lloyd Wright: An Autobiography. Petaluma, CA: Pomegranate Communications. pp. 60–63.

ISBN 076493243.[7] "A brief Biography" (http:/ / www. franklloydwright. org/ fllwf_web_091104/ Biography. html). Wright’s Life + Work. Frank Lloyd Wright

Foundation. 2010. . Retrieved 16 May 2010.[8] O'Gorman, Thomas J. (2004). Frank Lloyd Wright's Chicago. San Diego: Thunder Bay Press. pp. 31–33. ISBN 1-59223-127-6.[9] Wright 2005, p. 69.[10] Wright 2005, p. 66.[11] Wright 2005, p. 83.[12] Wright 2005, p. 86.[13] Wright 2005, pp. 89-94.[14] Tafel, Edgar (1985). Years With Frank lloyd Wright: Apprentice to Genius. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. p. 31. ISBN 0-486-24801-1.[15] Saint, Andrew (May 2004). "Frank Lloyd Wright and Paul Mueller: the architect and his builder of choice" (http:/ / www. bolender. com/

Frank Lloyd Wright/ Files/ Frank Lloyd Wright and Paul Mueller June 2003. pdf). Architectural Research Quarterly (Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press) 7 (2): 157–167. . Retrieved 16 March 2010.

[16] Wright 2005, p. 97.[17] Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust (2001). Zarine Weil. ed. Building A Legacy: The Restoration of Frank Lloyd Wright’s Oak Park

Home and Studio. San Francisco: Pomegranite. p. 4. ISBN 0-7649-1461-8.[18] Gebhard, David; Patricia Gebhard (2006). Purcell & Elmslie: Prairie Progressive Architects. Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith. p. 32.

ISBN 1-4236-0005-3.[19] Wright 2005, p. 100.[20] Lind, Carla (1996). Lost Wright: Frank Lloyd Wright's Vanished Masterpieces. New York: Simon & Schuster, Inc.. pp. 40–43.

ISBN 0-684-81306-8.[21] Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust 2001, p. 7.[22] O'Gorman 2004, pp. 38-54.[23] Wright 2005, p. 101[24] Tafel 1985, p. 41[25] Wright 2005, p. 112.[26] Wright 2005, pp. 118-119.[27] Wright 2005, p. 119.[28] Brooks, H. Allen (2005). "Architecture: The Prairie School" (http:/ / www. encyclopedia. chicagohistory. org/ pages/ 63. html).

Encyclopedia of Chicago. Chicago Historical Society. . Retrieved 25 May 2010.[29] Cassidy, Victor M. (21 October 2005). "Lost Woman" (http:/ / www. artnet. com/ magazineus/ features/ cassidy/ cassidy10-21-05. asp).

Artnet Magazine. . Retrieved 24 May 2010.[30] "Marion Mahony Griffin (1871-1962)" (http:/ / web. mit. edu/ museum/ chicago/ griffin. html). From Louis Sullivan to SOM: Boston Grads

Go to Chicago. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 1996. . Retrieved 24 May 2010.[31] O'Gorman 2004, pp. 56-109.[32] Wright 2005, p. 116[33] Wright 2005, pp. 114-116.[34] Goldberger, Paul (9 march 2009). "Toddlin’ Town: Daniel Burnham’s great Chicago Plan turns one hundred" (http:/ / www. newyorker.

com/ arts/ critics/ skyline/ 2009/ 03/ 09/ 090309crsk_skyline_goldberger). The Sky Line. The New Yorker. . Retrieved 26 march 2009.[35] Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust 2001, pp. 6-9.[36] My Father: Frank Lloyd Wright, by John Lloyd Wright; 1992; page 35[37] Clayton, Marie (2002). Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide. Running Press. pp. 97–102. ISBN 0-7624-1324-7.[38] Sommer, Robin Langley (1997). "Frank W. Thomas House". Frank Lloyd Wright: A Gatefold Portfolio. Honk Kong: Barnes & Noble

Books. ISBN 0-7607-0463-5.[39] O'Gorman 2004, p. 134.[40] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, Alfred A. Knopf, 1993, p. 202[41] "Home Country" (http:/ / www. unitychapel. org/ home_country. htm). Unitychapel.org. 2005-07-01. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.

Frank Lloyd Wright 42

[42] BBC News article: " Mystery of the murders at Taliesin (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ uk_news/ wales/ 1110359. stm)".[43] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, by Meryle Secrest, p. 315–317. "$500,000 Fire in Bungalow,"The New York Times, April 22, 1925[44] A. P. Vargas & G. G. Schierle, The textile block system: seismic analysis and upgrading, http:/ / library. witpress. com/ pages/ PaperInfo.

asp?PaperID=18110[45] State University of New York at Buffalo Archives http:/ / ubdigit. buffalo. edu/ collections/ lib/ lib-ua/ lib-ua001_DDMartin. php[46] Guggenheim Museum – History (http:/ / www. guggenheim. org/ history. html)[47] National Park Service (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ history/ nr/ listings/ 20070413. HTM) – National Historic Landmarks Designated, April 13,

2007[48] The Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, by William Allin Storrer, University of Chicago Press, 1992 (third edition)[49] "Preservation Online: Today's News Archives: Fire Guts Rare FLW House in Indiana" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080612122021/

http:/ / www. nationaltrust. org/ magazine/ archives/ arc_news_2006/ 011706. htm). Nationaltrust.org. Archived from the original (http:/ /www. nationaltrust. org/ magazine/ archives/ arc_news_2006/ 011706. htm) on June 12, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.

[50] Berstein, Fred A. "Near Nagoya, Architecture From When the East Looked West," (http:/ / travel. nytimes. com/ 2006/ 04/ 02/ travel/02journeys. html?scp=4& sq=wright+ 1923& st=nyt) New York Times. April 2, 2006.

[51] Monona Terrace Convention Center, history web page (http:/ / www. mononaterrace. com/ educatorspage/ images/ brief-history. pdf)[52] "Frank Lloyd Wright Emerald Bay, Lake Tahoe" (http:/ / tahoelocals. com/ articles/ franklloydwright. php). Tahoelocals.com. 2007-01-08. .

Retrieved 2009-10-16.[53] "Wright On" (http:/ / constructireland. ie/ Vol-3-Issue-11/ Articles/ Case-Studies/

Late-1950s-Frank-Lloyd-Wright-design-realised-in-Wicklow. html). constructireland.ie. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.[54] Wright On (http:/ / constructireland. ie/ Articles/ Case-Studies/ Late-1950s-Frank-Lloyd-Wright-design-realised-in-Wicklow. html) – Late

1950s Frank Lloyd Wright design realised in Wicklow (Retrieved 18 November 2009)[55] Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs, Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, McGraw-Hill, 2002, p.344[56] Wrightscapes:Frank Lloyd Wright's Landscape Designs, Charles E. and Berdeana Aguar, McGraw-Hill, 2002, pp. 51–56[57] "Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities," American Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct., 1972), p. 544[58] "Undoing the City: Frank Lloyd Wright's Planned Communities," American Quarterly, Vol. 24, No. 4 (Oct., 1972), p. 542[59] Cotter, Holland. "Seeking Japan's Prints, Out of Love and Need." New York Times. 6 April 2001.[60] Reif, Rita. "Frank Lloyd Wright's Love of Japanese Prints Helped Pay the Bills." New York Times. 18 March 2001.[61] "Frank Lloyd Wright Dies; Famed Architect Was 89" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ learning/ general/ onthisday/ bday/ 0608. html).

nytimes.com<!. 1959-04-10. . Retrieved 2010-05-21.[62] The Unity Chapel, designed by Joseph Silsbee, should not be confused with the much larger and vastly more famous Unity Temple,

designed by Wright and located in Oak Park, IL. Wright was the draftsman for the design of the Unity Chapel.[63] Frank Lloyd Wright: A Biography, Meryle Secrest, University of Chicago Press, 1992.[64] Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs, Carla Lind, Pomegranate Artbooks/Archetype Press, 1995.[65] "The Magic of America, Marion Mahony Griffin[66] ascedia.com. "Taliesin Preservation, Inc. – Frank Lloyd Wright – FAQ's" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20080610011735/ http:/ / www.

taliesinpreservation. org/ frank/ faq. htm#Wives_children). Taliesinpreservation.org. Archived from the original (http:/ / www.taliesinpreservation. org/ frank/ faq. htm#Wives_children) on June 10, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-10-16.

[67] http:/ / www. ewrightingraham. com/[68] Mann, Leslie (2008-02-01). "Reflecting pools: Descendants follow in Frank Lloyd Wright's footsteps" (http:/ / www. chicagotribune. com/

classified/ realestate/ news/ chi-cp_wright_re_02-10feb03,1,4161107. story). Chicago Tribune. . Retrieved 2008-03-28.[69] "The Short List" (http:/ / www. chicagomag. com/ Chicago-Magazine/ November-2006/ Short-List-November-2006/ ). Chicago Magazine.

November 2006. . Retrieved 2008-03-10.[70] http:/ / www. franklloydwright. org/ fllwf_web_091104/ Archives. html[71] http:/ / www. getty. edu/ research/ conducting_research/ special_collections/ wright. html

Selected books and articles on Wright’s philosophy• An Autobiography, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1943, Duell, Sloan and Pearce / 2005, Pomegranate; ISBN

0-7649-3243-8)• Frank Lloyd Wright: A Primer on Architectural Principles, by Robert McCarter (1991, Princeton Architectural

Press; ISBN 1878271261)• Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes: Designs for Moderate Cost One-Family Homes, by John Sergeant (1984,

Watson-Guptill; ISBN 0823071782)• Frank Lloyd Wright’s Usonian Homes (Wright at a Glance Series), by Carla Lind (1994, Pomegranate

Communications; ISBN 1566409985)• "In the Cause of Architecture," Architectural Record, March, 1908, by Frank Lloyd Wright. Published in Frank

Lloyd Wright: Collected Writings, vol. 1 (1992, Rizzoli; ISBN 0-8478-1546-3)

Frank Lloyd Wright 43

• Natural House, The, by Frank Lloyd Wright (1954, Horizon Press; ISBN 0517020785)• Taliesin Reflections: My Years Before, During, and After Living with Frank Lloyd Wright, by Earl Nisbet (2006,

Meridian Press; ISBN 0-9778951-0-6)• Truth Against the World: Frank Lloyd Wright Speaks for an Organic Architecture, ed. by Patrick Meehan (1987,

Wiley; ISBN 0471845094)• Understanding Frank Lloyd Wright's Architecture, by Donald Hoffman (1995, Dover Publications; ISBN

048628364X)• Usonia : Frank Lloyd Wright's Design for America, Alvin Rosenbaum (1993, Preservation Press; ISBN

0891332014)• Frank Lloyd Wright, by Daniel Treiber (2008, Birkhäuser Basel, 2nd, updated edition; ISBN 978-3764386979)

Biographies of Wright• Frank Lloyd Wright: Architecture, man in possession of his earth, by Iovanna Lloyd Wright (1962, Doubleday;

OCLC 31514669)• Many Masks, by Brendan Gill (1987, Putnam; ISBN 0399132325)• Frank Lloyd Wright, by Ada Louise Huxtable (2004, Lipper/Viking; ISBN 0670033421)• Frank Lloyd Wright: a Biography, by Meryle Secrest (1992, Knopf; ISBN 0394564367)• Frank Lloyd Wright: His Life and Architecture, by Robert Twombly (1979, Wiley; ISBN 0471034002)• Frank Lloyd Wright: by Vaccaro, Tony, (2002, Kultur-unterm-Schirm)• The Fellowship: The Untold Story of Frank Lloyd Wright and the Taliesin Fellowship, by Roger Friedland and

Harold Zellman (2006, Regan Books; ISBN 0060393882)• Loving Frank, by Nancy Horan, (2008, Random House, Inc; ISBN 0345494997)

Selected survey books on Wright’s work• Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright, The, by Neil Levine (1996, Princeton University Press; ISBN 0691033714)• Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright: A Complete Catalog, The, by William Allin Storrer (2007 updated 3rd. ed.,

University of Chicago Press; ISBN 0-226-77620-4)• Frank Lloyd Wright, by Robert McCarter (1997, Phaidon, London; ISBN 0 7148 31484 (hardback), ISBN

0714838543 (paperback))• Frank Lloyd Wright: America’s Master Architect, by Kathryn Smith (1998, Abbeville Publishing Group

(Abbeville Press, Inc.); ISBN 0789202875)• Frank Lloyd Wright: Architect, by the Museum of Modern Art (1994, ISBN 087070642X)• Frank Lloyd Wright Companion, The, by William Allin Storrer (2006 Rev. Ed., University of Chicago Press;

ISBN 0-226-77621-2)• Frank Lloyd Wright: Masterworks, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer (1993, Rizzoli; ISBN 0847817156)• Frank Lloyd Wright: Building for Democracy, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer (2004, Taschen; ISBN 3-8228-2757-6)• Wrightscapes: Frank Lloyd Wright’s Landscape Designs, by Charles and Berdeana Aguar (2003, McGraw-Hill;

ISBN 007140953X)• Wright Space: Pattern and Meaning in Frank Lloyd Wright's Houses by Grant Hildebrand (1991, University of

Washington Press; ISBN 0295970057)• Frank Lloyd Wright Field Guide, by Thomas A. Heinz (1999, Academy Editions; ISBN 0-8101-2244-8)• Frank Lloyd Wright's Glass Designs, by Carla Lind (1995, Pomegranate; ISBN 0876544685)• The Gardens of Frank Lloyd Wright, introduction by James van Sweden, Frances Linden 2009 ISBN

978-0-711229678• Frank Lloyd Wright Complete Works 1943–1959, by Bruce Brooks Pfeiffer and Peter Gössel (editor) (2009,

Taschen; ISBN 978-3-8228-5770-0). First in a series of three monographs featuring all of Wright's 1,100designs, both realized and unrealized.

Frank Lloyd Wright 44

Selected books about specific Wright projects• Fallingwater Rising: Frank Lloyd Wright, E. J. Kaufmann, and America's Most Extraordinary House, by Franklin

Toker (2003, Knopf; ISBN 1400040264)

External links• Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation (http:/ / www. franklloydwright. org/ ) Official Website• Frank Lloyd Wright, Wisconsin Historical Society (http:/ / www. wisconsinhistory. org/ topics/ flw)• Frank Lloyd Wright Building Conservancy (http:/ / www. savewright. org/ )• Works by or about Frank Lloyd Wright (http:/ / worldcat. org/ identities/ lccn-nr2001-33991) in libraries

(WorldCat catalog)• Frank Lloyd Wright YouTube (http:/ / www. nou-sera. com/ architect/ wright. html#Anchor-4159)• Frank Lloyd Wright Preservation Trust (http:/ / www. gowright. org/ ) – FLW Home and Studio, Robie House• Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture (http:/ / www. taliesin. edu/ )• Frank Lloyd Wright Wisconsin Heritage Tourism Program (http:/ / www. WrightInWisconsin. org/ )• Frank Lloyd Wright (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ flw/ ) – PBS documentary by Ken Burns and resources• American System-Built Houses by Frank Lloyd Wright (http:/ / www. housing. com/ categories/ homes/

history-prefabricated-home/ american-system-built-houses-frank-lloyd-wright. html) – an overview withslideshow.

• Frank Lloyd Wright. Designs for an American Landscape 1922–1932 (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ exhibits/ flw/ flw.html)

• Frank Lloyd Wright Buildings Recorded by the Historic American Buildings Survey (http:/ / www. loc. gov/ rr/print/ list/ 103_flw. html)

• Complete list of Wright buildings by location (http:/ / architecture. about. com/ library/ bl-wright-list. htm)• Sullivan, Wright, Prairie School, & Organic Architecture (http:/ / www. artic. edu/ aic/ libraries/ research/

specialcollections/ subject/ sullivanwright. html)• Audio interview with Martin Filler on Frank Lloyd Wright (http:/ / media. nybooks. com/ 111008-filler. mp3)

from The New York Review of Books• Article on the 50th anniversary of Wright's only gas station. (http:/ / www. metropolismag. com/ story/ 20081015/

higher-station)• Frank Lloyd Wright and Quebec (http:/ / cca. qc. ca/ en/ collection/ 5-frank-lloyd-wright-and-quebec)• Frank Lloyd Wright (http:/ / www. hrc. utexas. edu/ multimedia/ video/ 2008/ wallace/ wright_frank_lloyd. html)

interviewed by Mike Wallace on The Mike Wallace Interview recorded September 1 & 28, 1957

Bauhaus 45

Bauhaus

The Bauhaus Dessau

1921/2, Walter Gropius's ExpressionistMonument to the March Dead

Typography by Herbert Bayer above the entranceto the workshop block of the Bauhaus, Dessau,

2005

Staatliches Bauhaus, commonly known simply as Bauhaus, was aschool in Germany that combined crafts and the fine arts, and wasfamous for the approach to design that it publicized and taught. Itoperated from 1919 to 1933. The term Bauhaus is German for "Houseof Building" or "Building School".

The Bauhaus school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar. Inspite of its name, and the fact that its founder was an architect, theBauhaus did not have an architecture department during the first yearsof its existence. Nonetheless it was founded with the idea of creating a'total' work of art in which all arts, including architecture wouldeventually be brought together. The Bauhaus style became one of themost influential currents in Modernist architecture and moderndesign.[1] The Bauhaus had a profound influence upon subsequentdevelopments in art, architecture, graphic design, interior design,industrial design, and typography.

The school existed in three German cities (Weimar from 1919 to 1925,Dessau from 1925 to 1932 and Berlin from 1932 to 1933), under threedifferent architect-directors: Walter Gropius from 1919 to 1928,Hannes Meyer from 1928 to 1930 and Ludwig Mies van der Rohefrom 1930 until 1933, when the school was closed by its ownleadership under pressure from the Nazi regime.

The changes of venue and leadership resulted in a constant shifting offocus, technique, instructors, and politics. For instance: the potteryshop was discontinued when the school moved from Weimar toDessau, even though it had been an important revenue source; whenMies van der Rohe took over the school in 1930, he transformed it intoa private school, and would not allow any supporters of Hannes Meyerto attend it.

Bauhaus and German modernism

Defeat in World War I, the fall of the German monarchy and theabolition of censorship under the new, liberal Weimar Republic allowed an upsurge of radical experimentation in allthe arts, previously suppressed by the old regime. Many Germans of left-wing views were influenced by the culturalexperimentation that followed the Russian Revolution, such as constructivism. Such influences can be overstated:Gropius himself did not share these radical views, and said that Bauhaus was entirely apolitical.[2] Just as importantwas the influence of the 19th century English designer William Morris, who had argued that art should meet theneeds of society and that there should be no distinction between form and function.[3] Thus the Bauhaus style, alsoknown as the International Style, was marked by the absence of ornamentation and by harmony between the functionof an object or a building and its design.

However, the most important influence on Bauhaus was modernism, a cultural movement whose origins lay as far back as the 1880s, and which had already made its presence felt in Germany before the World War, despite the prevailing conservatism. The design innovations commonly associated with Gropius and the Bauhaus—the radically

Bauhaus 46

simplified forms, the rationality and functionality, and the idea that mass-production was reconcilable with theindividual artistic spirit—were already partly developed in Germany before the Bauhaus was founded. The Germannational designers' organization Deutscher Werkbund was formed in 1907 by Hermann Muthesius to harness the newpotentials of mass production, with a mind towards preserving Germany's economic competitiveness with England.In its first seven years, the Werkbund came to be regarded as the authoritative body on questions of design inGermany, and was copied in other countries. Many fundamental questions of craftsmanship vs. mass production, therelationship of usefulness and beauty, the practical purpose of formal beauty in a commonplace object, and whetheror not a single proper form could exist, were argued out among its 1,870 members (by 1914).The entire movement of German architectural modernism was known as Neues Bauen. Beginning in June 1907,Peter Behrens' pioneering industrial design work for the German electrical company AEG successfully integrated artand mass production on a large scale. He designed consumer products, standardized parts, created clean-lineddesigns for the company's graphics, developed a consistent corporate identity, built the modernist landmark AEGTurbine Factory, and made full use of newly developed materials such as poured concrete and exposed steel.Behrens was a founding member of the Werkbund, and both Walter Gropius and Adolf Meier worked for him in thisperiod.The Bauhaus was founded at a time when the German zeitgeist ("spirit of the times") had turned from emotionalExpressionism to the matter-of-fact New Objectivity. An entire group of working architects, including ErichMendelsohn, Bruno Taut and Hans Poelzig, turned away from fanciful experimentation, and turned toward rational,functional, sometimes standardized building. Beyond the Bauhaus, many other significant German-speakingarchitects in the 1920s responded to the same aesthetic issues and material possibilities as the school. They alsoresponded to the promise of a "minimal dwelling" written into the new Weimar Constitution. Ernst May, Bruno Taut,and Martin Wagner, among others, built large housing blocks in Frankfurt and Berlin. The acceptance of modernistdesign into everyday life was the subject of publicity campaigns, well-attended public exhibitions like theWeissenhof Estate, films, and sometimes fierce public debate.

Bauhaus and VkhutemasVkhutemas, the Russian state art and technical school founded in 1920 in Moscow, has been compared to Bauhaus.Founded a year after the Bauhaus school Vkhutemas has close parallels to the German Bauhaus in its intent,organization and scope. The two schools were the first to train artist-designers in a modern manner.[4] Both schoolswere state-sponsored initiatives to merge the craft tradition with modern technology, with a Basic Course in aestheticprinciples, courses in color theory, industrial design, and architecture.[4] Vkhutemas was a larger school than theBauhaus,[5] but it was less publicised outside the Soviet Union and consequently, is less familiar to the West.[6]

With the internationalism of modern architecture and design, there were many exchanges between the Vkhutemasand the Bauhaus.[7] The second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer attempted to organise an exchange between the twoschools, while Hinnerk Scheper of the Bauhaus collaborated with various Vkhutein members on the use of colour inarchitecture. In addition, El Lissitzky's book Russia: an Architecture for World Revolution published in German in1930 featured several illustrations of Vkhutemas/Vkhutein projects there.

History of the Bauhaus

Bauhaus 47

Bauhaus and its Sites in Weimarand Dessau*

UNESCO World Heritage Site

State Party  Germany

Type Cultural

Criteria ii, iv, vi

Reference 729 [8]

Region** Europe and North America

Inscription historyInscription 1996  (20th Session)

* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List. [9]

** Region as classified by UNESCO. [10]

WeimarThe school was founded by Walter Gropius in Weimar in 1919 as a merger of the Grand Ducal School of Arts andCrafts and the Weimar Academy of Fine Art. Its roots lay in the arts and crafts school founded by the Grand Duke ofSaxe-Weimar-Eisenach in 1906 and directed by Belgian Art Nouveau architect Henry van de Velde.[11] When van deVelde was forced to resign in 1915 because he was Belgian, he suggested Gropius, Hermann Obrist and AugustEndell as possible successors. In 1919, after delays caused by the destruction of World War I and a lengthy debateover who should and socio-economic reconciliation of the fine arts and the applied arts (an issue which remained adefining one throughout the school's existence), Gropius was made the director of a new institution integrating thetwo called the Bauhaus.[12] In the pamphlet for an April 1919 exhibition entitled "Exhibition of UnknownArchitects", Gropius proclaimed his goal as being "to create a new guild of craftsmen, without the class distinctionswhich raise an arrogant barrier between craftsman and artist." Gropius' neologism Bauhaus references both buildingand the Bauhütte, a premodern guild of stonemasons.[13] The early intention was for the Bauhaus to be a combinedarchitecture school, crafts school, and academy of the arts. In 1919 Swiss painter Johannes Itten, German-Americanpainter Lyonel Feininger, and German sculptor Gerhard Marcks, along with Gropius, comprised the faculty of theBauhaus. By the following year their ranks had grown to include German painter, sculptor and designer OskarSchlemmer who headed the theater workshop, and Swiss painter Paul Klee, joined in 1922 by Russian painterWassily Kandinsky. A tumultuous year at the Bauhaus, 1922 also saw the move of Dutch painter Theo van Doesburgto Weimar to promote De Stijl ("The Style"), and a visit to the Bauhaus by Russian Constructivist artist and architectEl Lissitzky.[14]

Bauhaus 48

Foyer of the Bauhaus University in Weimar

From 1919 to 1922 the school was shaped by the pedagogical andaesthetic ideas of Johannes Itten, who taught the Vorkurs or'preliminary course' that was the introduction to the ideas of theBauhaus.[12] Itten was heavily influenced in his teaching by the ideasof Franz Cižek and Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel. He was alsoinfluenced in respect to aesthetics by the work of the Blaue Reitergroup in Munich as well as the work of Austrian Expressionist OskarKokoschka. The influence of German Expressionism favoured by Ittenwas analogous in some ways to the fine arts side of the ongoing debate.This influence culminated with the addition of Der Blaue Reiterfounding member Wassily Kandinsky to the faculty and ended when Itten resigned in late 1922. Itten was replacedby the Hungarian designer László Moholy-Nagy, who rewrote the Vorkurs with a leaning towards the NewObjectivity favored by Gropius, which was analogous in some ways to the applied arts side of the debate. Althoughthis shift was an important one, it did not represent a radical break from the past so much as a small step in a broader,more gradual socio-economic movement that had been going on at least since 1907 when van de Velde had arguedfor a craft basis for design while Hermann Muthesius had begun implementing industrial prototypes.[15]

Gropius was not necessarily against Expressionism, and in fact himself in the same 1919 pamphlet proclaiming this"new guild of craftsmen, without the class snobbery," described "painting and sculpture rising to heaven out of thehands of a million craftsmen, the crystal symbol of the new faith of the future." By 1923 however, Gropius was nolonger evoking images of soaring Romanesque cathedrals and the craft-driven aesthetic of the "Völkisch movement",instead declaring "we want an architecture adapted to our world of machines, radios and fast cars."[16] Gropiusargued that a new period of history had begun with the end of the war. He wanted to create a new architectural styleto reflect this new era. His style in architecture and consumer goods was to be functional, cheap and consistent withmass production. To these ends, Gropius wanted to reunite art and craft to arrive at high-end functional productswith artistic pretensions. The Bauhaus issued a magazine called Bauhaus and a series of books called"Bauhausbücher". Since the country lacked the quantity of raw materials that the United States and Great Britainhad, they had to rely on the proficiency of its skilled labor force and ability to export innovative and high qualitygoods. Therefore designers were needed and so was a new type of art education. The school's philosophy stated thatthe artist should be trained to work with the industry.Weimar was in the German state of Thuringia, and the Bauhaus school received state support from the SocialDemocrat-controlled Thuringian state government. From 1923 the school in Weimar came under political pressurefrom right-wing circles, until on December 26, 1924 it issued a press release accusing the government and setting theclosure of the school for the end of March 1925.[17] [18] In February 1924, the Social Democrats lost control of thestate parliament to the Nationalists. The Ministry of Education placed the staff on six-month contracts and cut theschool's funding in half. They had already been looking for alternative sources of funding. After the Bauhaus movedto Dessau, a school of industrial design with teachers and staff less antagonistic to the conservative political regimeremained in Weimar. This school was eventually known as the Technical University of Architecture and CivilEngineering, and in 1996 changed its name to Bauhaus University Weimar.

Bauhaus 49

Dessau

The Bauhaus Dessau

Gropius's design for the Dessau facilities was a return to the futuristicGropius of 1914 that had more in common with the International stylelines of the Fagus Factory than the stripped down Neo-classical of theWerkbund pavilion or the Völkisch Sommerfeld House.[19] The Dessauyears saw a remarkable change in direction for the school. Accordingto Elaine Hoffman, Gropius had approached the Dutch architect MartStam to run the newly-founded architecture program, and when Stamdeclined the position, Gropius turned to Stam's friend and colleague inthe ABC group, Hannes Meyer.

Meyer became director when Gropius resigned in February 1928, and brought the Bauhaus its two most significantbuilding commissions, both of which still exist: five apartment buildings in the city of Dessau, and the headquartersof the Federal School of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau. Meyer favored measurements andcalculations in his presentations to clients, along with the use of off-the-shelf architectural components to reducecosts, and this approach proved attractive to potential clients. The school turned its first profit under his leadership in1929.But Meyer also generated a great deal of conflict. As a radical functionalist, he had no patience with the aestheticprogram, and forced the resignations of Herbert Bayer, Marcel Breuer, and other long-time instructors. As a vocalCommunist, he encouraged the formation of a communist student organization. In the increasingly dangerouspolitical atmosphere, this became a threat to the existence of the Dessau school. Gropius fired him in the summer of1930.[20]

BerlinAlthough neither the Nazi Party nor Hitler himself had a cohesive architectural policy before they came to power in1933, Nazi writers like Wilhelm Frick and Alfred Rosenberg had already labeled the Bauhaus "un-German" andcriticized its modernist styles, deliberately generating public controversy over issues like flat roofs. Increasinglythrough the early 1930s, they characterized the Bauhaus as a front for communists and social liberals. Indeed, anumber of communist students loyal to Meyer moved to the Soviet Union when he was fired in 1930.Even before the Nazis came to power, political pressure on Bauhaus had increased. But the Nazi regime wasdetermined to crack down on what it saw as the foreign, probably Jewish influences of "cosmopolitan modernism."Despite Gropius's protestations that as a war veteran and a patriot his work had no subversive political intent, theBerlin Bauhaus was pressured to close in April 1933. Mies van der Rohe decided to emigrate to the United States forthe directorship of the School of Architecture at the Armour Institute (now IIT) in Chicago and to seek buildingcommissions. (The closure, and the response of Mies van der Rohe, is fully documented in Elaine Hochman'sArchitects of Fortune.) Curiously, however, some Bauhaus influences lived on in Nazi Germany. When Hitler's chiefengineer, Fritz Todt, began opening the new autobahn (highways) in 1935, many of the bridges and service stationswere "bold examples of modernism" - among those submitting designs was Mies van der Rohe.[21]

Bauhaus 50

Architectural output

Bauhaus building in Chemnitz

The Engel House in the White City of Tel Aviv:architect: Ze'ev Rechter, 1933; a residential

building that has become one of the symbols ofModernist architecture and the first building in

Tel Aviv to be built on pilotis

A stage in the Festsaal

The paradox of the early Bauhaus was that, although its manifestoproclaimed that the ultimate aim of all creative activity was building,the school did not offer classes in architecture until 1927. The singlemost profitable tangible product of the Bauhaus was its wallpaper.During the years under Gropius (1919–1927), he and his partner AdolfMeyer observed no real distinction between the output of hisarchitectural office and the school. So the built output of Bauhausarchitecture in these years is the output of Gropius: the Sommerfeldhouse in Berlin, the Otte house in Berlin, the Auerbach house in Jena,and the competition design for the Chicago Tribune Tower, whichbrought the school much attention. The definitive 1926 Bauhausbuilding in Dessau is also attributed to Gropius. Apart fromcontributions to the 1923 Haus am Horn, student architectural workamounted to un-built projects, interior finishes, and craft work likecabinets, chairs and pottery.

In the next two years under Meyer, the architectural focus shifted awayfrom aesthetics and towards functionality. There were majorcommissions: one from the city of Dessau for five tightly designed"Laubenganghäuser" (apartment buildings with balcony access), whichare still in use today, and another for the headquarters of the FederalSchool of the German Trade Unions (ADGB) in Bernau bei Berlin.Meyer's approach was to research users' needs and scientificallydevelop the design solution.

Mies van der Rohe repudiated Meyer's politics, his supporters, and hisarchitectural approach. As opposed to Gropius's "study of essentials",and Meyer's research into user requirements, Mies advocated a "spatialimplementation of intellectual decisions", which effectively meant anadoption of his own aesthetics. Neither van der Rohe nor his Bauhausstudents saw any projects built during the 1930s.

The popular conception of the Bauhaus as the source of extensiveWeimar-era working housing is not accurate. Two projects, theapartment building project in Dessau and the Törten row housing alsoin Dessau, fall in that category, but developing worker housing was notthe first priority of Gropius nor Mies. It was the Bauhauscontemporaries Bruno Taut, Hans Poelzig and particularly Ernst May,as the city architects of Berlin, Dresden and Frankfurt respectively, who are rightfully credited with the thousands ofsocially progressive housing units built in Weimar Germany. In Taut's case, the housing he built in south-west Berlinduring the 1920s, is still occupied, and can be reached by going easily from the U-Bahn stop Onkel Toms Hütte.

Bauhaus 51

Ceiling with light fixtures for stage in the Festsaal

Dormitory balconies in the residence

Mechanically opened windows

Impact

The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends inWestern Europe, the United States, Canada and Israel (particularly inWhite City, Tel Aviv) in the decades following its demise, as many ofthe artists involved fled, or were exiled, by the Nazi regime. Tel Aviv,in fact, has been named to the list of world heritage sites by the UNdue to its abundance of Bauhaus architecture in 2004;[22] [23] it hadsome 4,000 Bauhaus buildings erected from 1933 on.

Walter Gropius, Marcel Breuer, and László Moholy-Nagyre-assembled in Britain during the mid 1930s to live and work in theIsokon project before the war caught up with them. Both Gropius andBreuer went to teach at the Harvard Graduate School of Design andworked together before their professional split. The Harvard Schoolwas enormously influential in America in the late 1920s and early1930s, producing such students as Philip Johnson, I.M. Pei, LawrenceHalprin and Paul Rudolph, among many others.

In the late 1930s, Mies van der Rohe re-settled in Chicago, enjoyed thesponsorship of the influential Philip Johnson, and became one of thepre-eminent architects in the world. Moholy-Nagy also went toChicago and founded the New Bauhaus school under the sponsorshipof industrialist and philanthropist Walter Paepcke. This school becamethe Institute of Design, part of the Illinois Institute of Technology.Printmaker and painter Werner Drewes was also largely responsible forbringing the Bauhaus aesthetic to America and taught at bothColumbia University and Washington University in St. Louis. HerbertBayer, sponsored by Paepcke, moved to Aspen, Colorado in support ofPaepcke's Aspen projects at the Aspen Institute. In 1953, Max Bill,together with Inge Aicher-Scholl and Otl Aicher, founded the UlmSchool of Design (German: Hochschule für Gestaltung - HfG Ulm) inUlm, Germany, a design school in the tradition of the Bauhaus. Theschool is notable for its inclusion of semiotics as a field of study. Theschool closed in 1968, but the ′Ulm Model′ concept continues toinfluence international design education.[24]

One of the main objectives of the Bauhaus was to unify art, craft, andtechnology. The machine was considered a positive element, and therefore industrial and product design wereimportant components. Vorkurs ("initial" or "preliminary course") was taught; this is the modern day "Basic Design"course that has become one of the key foundational courses offered in architectural and design schools across theglobe. There was no teaching of history in the school because everything was supposed to be designed and createdaccording to first principles rather than by following precedent.

Bauhaus 52

The Mensa (Dining room)

One of the most important contributions of the Bauhaus is in the fieldof modern furniture design. The ubiquitous Cantilever chair and theWassily Chair designed by Marcel Breuer are two examples. (Breuereventually lost a legal battle in Germany with Dutch architect/designerMart Stam over the rights to the cantilever chair patent. Although Stamhad worked on the design of the Bauhaus's 1923 exhibit in Weimar,and guest-lectured at the Bauhaus later in the 1920s, he was notformally associated with the school, and he and Breuer had workedindependently on the cantilever concept, thus leading to the patentdispute.)

The physical plant at Dessau survived World War II and was operated as a design school with some architecturalfacilities by the German Democratic Republic. This included live stage productions in the Bauhaus theater under thename of Bauhausbühne ("Bauhaus Stage"). After German reunification, a reorganized school continued in the samebuilding, with no essential continuity with the Bauhaus under Gropius in the early 1920s.[25] In 1979Bauhaus-Dessau College started to organize postgraduate programs with participants from all over the world. Thiseffort has been supported by the Bauhaus-Dessau Foundation which was founded in 1974 as a public institution.American art schools have also rediscovered the Bauhaus school. The Master Craftsman Program at Florida StateUniversity bases its artistic philosophy on Bauhaus theory and practice.

Bauhaus artistsBauhaus was not a formal group, but rather a school. Its three architect-directors (Walter Gropius, Hannes Meyer,and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe) are most closely associated with Bauhaus.Furthermore a large number of outstanding artists of their time were lecturers at Bauhaus:

• Anni Albers• Josef Albers• Herbert Bayer• Max Bill• Marianne Brandt• Marcel Breuer• Avgust Černigoj• Christian Dell

• Werner Drewes• Lyonel Feininger• Naum Gabo• Ludwig Hilberseimer• Ludwig Hirschfeld Mack• Johannes Itten• Wassily Kandinsky• Paul Klee

• Otto Lindig• Gerhard Marcks• László Moholy-Nagy• Piet Mondrian• Oskar Schlemmer• Lothar Schreyer• Joost Schmidt• Naum Slutzky• Gunta Stölzl

See also• Bauhaus Archive• New Objectivity (architecture)• International style (architecture)• Bauhaus in Budapest• New Bauhaus• Form follows function• Constructivist architecture• Bauhaus Dessau Foundation• Ulm School of Design

Bauhaus 53

References[1] Pevsner, Nikolaus, ed (Paperback). A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (5th ed.).

London: Penguin Books. pp. 880. ISBN 78014513233x.[2] Evans, Richard J. The Coming of the Third Reich, p. 416[3] Funk and Wagnall's New Encyclopaedia, Vol 5, p. 348[4] (Russian) Great Soviet Encyclopedia; Bolshaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya, Вхутемас (http:/ / www. cultinfo. ru/ fulltext/ 1/ 001/ 008/

007/ 304. htm)[5] Wood, Paul (1999) The Challenge of the Avant-Garde. New Haven: Yale University Press ISBN 0-300-07762-9, p. 244[6] Tony Fry, Inc. NetLibrary (1999) A New Design Philosophy: an Introduction to Defuturing. UNSW Press ISBN 0-86840-753-4; p. 161[7] Colton, Timothy J. (1995) Moscow: Governing the Socialist Metropolis. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-58749-9; p.

215[8] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 729[9] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list[10] http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ ?search=& search_by_country=& type=& media=& region=& order=region[11] Pevsner, Nikolaus, ed (Paperback). A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Fleming, John; Honour, Hugh (5th ed.).

Penguin Books. p. 44. ISBN 0198606788.[12] Frampton, Kenneth. "The Bauhaus: Evolution of an Idea 1919-32". Modern Architecture: a critical history (3rd ed. rev. ed.). New York,

NY: Thames and Hudson, Inc.. p. 124. ISBN 0500202575.[13] Whitford, Frank, ed. The Bauhaus: Masters & Students by Themselves. London: Conran Octopus. p. 32. ISBN 1850294151. "...He invented

the name 'Bauhaus ' not only because it specifically referred to bauen ('building', 'construction') -- but also because of its similarity to the wordBauhütte, the medieval guild of builders and stonemasons out of which Freemasonry sprang. The Bauhaus was to be a kind of modernBauhütte, therefore, in which craftsmen would work on common projects together, the greatest of which would be buildings in which the artsand crafts would be combined."

[14] Hal Foster, ed. "1923: The Bauhaus … holds its first public exhibition in Weimar, Germany". Art Since 1900: Volume 1 - 1900 to 1944.Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin Buchloh. New York, NY: Thames & Hudson. pp. 185–189. ISBN 0500285349.

[15] Foster, Hal, ed. "1923: The Bauhaus … holds its first public exhibition in Weimar, Germany". Art Since 1900: Volume 1 - 1900 to 1944.Rosalind Krauss, Yve-Alain Bois, Benjamin Buchloh. New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. 185–189. ISBN 0442240392.

[16] Curtis, William. "Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus". Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd Ed. ed.). Prentice-Hall.pp. 309–316. ISBN 0135866944.

[17] Michael Baumgartner and Josef Helfenstein At the Bauhaus in Weimar, 1921–1924 (http:/ / www. paulkleezentrum. ch/ ww/ en/ pub/web_root/ act/ wissenschaftliches_archiv/ werkphasen/ am_bauhaus_in_weimar_1921_1924. cfm), at Zentrum Paul Klee

[18] Magdalena Droste (2002) [1990] Bauhaus, 1919-1933 (http:/ / books. google. ie/ books?id=ZXB8rX5AsgUC) p.113[19] Curtis, William. "Walter Gropius, German Expressionism, and the Bauhaus". Modern Architecture Since 1900 (2nd Ed. ed.). Prentice-Hall.

p. 120. ISBN 0135866944.[20] Richard A. Etlin editor, Art, culture, and media under the Third Reich, page 291, ISBN 0-226-22087-7 ISBN 978-0-226-22087-1[21] Richard J Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 325[22] "Unesco celebrates Tel Aviv" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ middle_east/ 3777385. stm). BBC News. June 8, 2004. . Retrieved April 26,

2010.[23] White City of Tel-Aviv - the Modern Movement - UNESCO World Heritage Centre (http:/ / whc. unesco. org/ en/ list/ 1096)[24] Ulm School of Design | HfG Ulm Archive (http:/ / www. hfg-archiv. ulm. de/ english/ the_hfg_ulm/ )[25] Current information : english : Stiftung Bauhaus Dessau / Bauhaus Dessau Foundation (http:/ / www. bauhaus-dessau. de/ en/ )

Bibliography

• Oskar Schlemmer. Tut Schlemmer, Editor. The Letters and Diaries of Oskar Schlemmer. Translated by KrishnaWinston. Wesleyan University Press, 1972. ISBN 0-8195-4047-1

• Magdalena Droste, Peter Gossel, Editors. Bauhaus, Taschen America LLC, 2005. ISBN 3-8228-3649-4• Marty Bax. Bauhaus Lecture Notes 1930–1933. Theory and practice of architectural training at the Bauhaus,

based on the lecture notes made by the Dutch ex-Bauhaus student and architect J.J. van der Linden of the Miesvan der Rohe curriculum. Amsterdam, Architectura & Natura 1991. ISBN 90-71570-04-5

• Anja Baumhoff, The Gendered World of the Bauhaus. The Politics of Power at the Weimar Republic's PremierArt Institute, 1919-1931. Peter Lang, Frankfurt, New York 2001. ISBN 3-631-37945-5

• Boris Friedewald, Bauhaus, Prestel, Munich, London, New York 2009. ISBN 978-3-7913-4200-9• Catherine Weill-Rochant, "Bauhaus" - Architektur in Tel Aviv, Rita H. Gans. Ed., Kiriat Yearim, Zurich, 2008

(German and French)

Bauhaus 54

• 'The Tel-Aviv School : a constrained rationalism' (Catherine Weill-Rochant)DOCOMOMO journal(Documentation and conservation of buildings, sites and neighbourhoods of the modern movement), April 2009.

• Anker, Peder. From Bauhaus to Eco-House: A History of Ecological Design. Baton Rouge LA.: Louisiana StateUniversity Press, 2009 ISBN 978-0-8071-3551-8

• Kirsten Baumann: "Bauhaus Dessau - Architecture Design Koncept", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007, ISBN978-3-939633-11-2

• Monika Markgraf (Ed.): "Archaeology of Modernism - Renovation Bauhaus Dessau", JOVIS Verlag Berlin 2007,ISBN 978-3-936314-83-0

• Torsten Blume / Burghard Duhm (Eds.): "Bauhaus.Theatre.Dessau - Change of Scene", JOVIS Verlag Berlin,ISBN 978-3-936314-81-6

External links• Bauhaus Dessau (http:/ / www. bauhaus-dessau. de/ ), the foundation maintaining the school and master houses in

Dessau.• Bauhaus (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Arts/ Art_History/ Periods_and_Movements/ Bauhaus/ ) at the Open Directory

Project

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 55

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe

Personal information

Nationality German 1886-1944/American 1944-1969

Born March 27, 1886Aachen, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany

Died August 17, 1969 (aged 83)Chicago, Illinois, USA

Work

Buildings Barcelona PavilionTugendhat HouseCrown HallFarnsworth House860-880 Lake Shore DriveSeagram BuildingNew National GalleryToronto-Dominion Centre

Awards Order Pour le Mérite (1959)Royal Gold Medal (1959)AIA Gold Medal (1960)Presidential Medal of Freedom (1963)

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (March 27, 1886 – August 17, 1969) was a German-American architect.[1] He wascommonly referred to and addressed by his surname, Mies, by his colleagues, students, writers, and others.Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, along with Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier, is widely regarded as one of thepioneering masters of Modern architecture. Mies, like many of his post World War I contemporaries, sought toestablish a new architectural style that could represent modern times just as Classical and Gothic did for their owneras. He created an influential 20th century architectural style, stated with extreme clarity and simplicity. His maturebuildings made use of modern materials such as industrial steel and plate glass to define interior spaces. He strivedtowards an architecture with a minimal framework of structural order balanced against the implied freedom offree-flowing open space. He called his buildings "skin and bones" architecture. He sought a rational approach thatwould guide the creative process of architectural design, and is known for his use of the aphorisms "less is more" and"God is in the details".

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 56

Early careerMies worked in his father's stone-carving shop and at several local design firms before he moved to Berlin joiningthe office of interior designer Bruno Paul. He began his architectural career as an apprentice at the studio of PeterBehrens from 1908 to 1912, where he was exposed to the current design theories and to progressive German culture,working alongside Walter Gropius and Le Corbusier. Mies served as construction manager of the Embassy of theGerman Empire in Saint Petersburg under Behrens.[2] His talent was quickly recognized and he soon beganindependent commissions, despite his lack of a formal college-level education. A physically imposing, deliberative,and reticent man, Ludwig Mies renamed himself as part of his rapid transformation from a tradesman's son to anarchitect working with Berlin's cultural elite, adding his mother's more impressive surname "van der Rohe". Hebegan his independent professional career designing upper class homes in traditional Germanic domestic styles. Headmired the broad proportions, regularity of rhythmic elements, attention to the relationship of the manmade tonature, and compositions using simple cubic volumes of the early 19th century Prussian Neo-Classical architect KarlFriedrich Schinkel, while dismissing the eclectic and cluttered classical so common at the turn of the century asirrelevant to the modern zeitgeist.

Traditionalism to Modernism

Villa Tugendhat built in 1930 in Brno, in today's Czech Republic, for FritzTugendhat.

After World War I, Mies began, while stilldesigning traditional neoclassical homes, aparallel experimental effort. He joined hisavant-garde peers in the long-running searchfor a new style for a new industrial age. Theweak points of traditional styles had beenunder attack by progressive theorists sincethe mid-nineteenth century, primarily for theapplication of historical styles to modernbuilding types. Their mounting criticism ofthe historical styles gained substantialcultural credibility after the disaster ofWorld War I, widely seen as a failure of theold order of imperial leadership of Europe.The classical revival styles were particularlyreviled by many as the architectural symbolof a now-discredited aristocratic system.Progressive thinkers called for a completely new architectural design process guided by rational problem-solvingusing modern materials, rather than the application of classical facades onto predetermined forms.

While continuing his traditional neoclassical design practice Mies began to develop visionary projects that, thoughmostly unbuilt, rocketed him to fame as a progressive architect. Boldly abandoning ornament altogether, Mies madea dramatic modernist debut with his stunning competition proposal for the faceted all-glass Friedrichstraßeskyscraper in 1921, followed by a taller curved version in 1922 named the Glass Skyscraper.[3]

He continued with a series of pioneering projects, culminating in his two European masterworks: the temporaryGerman Pavilion for the Barcelona exposition (often called the Barcelona Pavilion) in 1929 (a 1986 reconstruction isnow built on the original site) and the elegant Villa Tugendhat in Brno, Czech Republic, completed in 1930.He worked with the progressive design magazine G which started in July 1923. He developed prominence as architectural director of the Werkbund, organizing the influential Weissenhof Estate prototype modernist housing exhibition. He was also one of the founders of the architectural association Der Ring. He joined the avant-garde

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 57

Bauhaus design school as their director of architecture, adopting and developing their functionalist application ofsimple geometric forms in the design of useful objects.Like many other avant garde architects of the day, Mies based his own architectural theories and principles on hisown personal re-combination of ideas developed by many other thinkers and designers who had pondered the flawsof the traditional design styles.Mies' modernist thinking was influenced by many of the design and art movements of the day. He selectivelyadopted theoretical ideas such as the aesthetic credos of Russian Constructivism with their ideology of "efficient"sculptural constructions using modern industrial materials. Mies found appeal in the use of simple rectilinear andplanar forms, clean lines, pure use of color, and the extension of space around and beyond interior walls expoundedby the Dutch De Stijl group. In particular, the layering of functional sub-spaces within an overall space and thedistinct articulation of parts as expressed by Gerrit Rietveld appealed to Mies.The design theories of Adolf Loos found resonance with Mies, particularly the ideas of eradication of the superficialand unnecessary, substituting elaborate applied ornament with the straightforward display of rich materials andforms. Loos had famously declared, in the tongue-in-cheek humor of the day, that "ornament is a crime". Mies alsoadmired his ideas about the nobility that could be found in the anonymity of modern life.The bold work of American architects was greatly admired by European architects. Like other architects who viewedthe Wasmuth Portfolio and its associated exhibit, Mies was enthralled with the free-flowing spaces ofinter-connected rooms which encompass their outdoor surroundings as demonstrated by the open floor plans of theAmerican Prairie Style work of Frank Lloyd Wright. American engineering structures were also held up to beexemplary of the beauty possible in functional construction.

Significance and meaningMies pursued an ambitious lifelong mission to create a new architectural language that could be used to represent thenew era of technology and production. He saw a need for an architecture expressive of and in harmony with hisepoch, just as Gothic architecture was for an era of spiritualism. He applied a disciplined design process usingrational thought to achieve his spiritual goals. He believed that the configuration and arrangement of everyarchitectural element must contribute to a unified expression. The self-educated Mies painstakingly studied the greatphilosophers and thinkers, past and present, to enhance his own understanding of the character and essential qualitiesof the technological times he lived in. More than perhaps any other practising pioneer of modernism, Mies mined thewritings of philosophers and thinkers for ideas that were relevant to his architectural mission. Mies' architecture wascreated at a high level of abstraction, and his own generalized descriptions of his principles intentionally leave muchroom for interpretation. Yet his buildings also seem very direct and simple when viewed in person. Every aspect ofhis architecture, from overall concept to the smallest detail, supports his effort to express the modern age. The depthof meaning conveyed by his work, beyond its aesthetic qualities, has drawn many contemporary philosophers andtheoretical thinkers to continue to further explore and speculate about his architecture.

Emigration to the United StatesOpportunities for commissions dwindled with the worldwide depression after 1929. In the early 1930s, Mies served briefly as the last Director of the faltering Bauhaus, at the request of his colleague and competitor Walter Gropius. After 1933, Nazi political pressure soon forced Mies to close the government-financed school. He built very little in these years (one built commission was Philip Johnson's New York apartment); his style was rejected by the Nazis as not "German" in character. Frustrated and unhappy, he left his homeland reluctantly in 1937 as he saw his opportunity for any future building commissions vanish, accepting a residential commission in Wyoming and then an offer to head the department of architecture of the newly established Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago. Here he introduced a new kind of education and attitude later known as Second School of Chicago, which became

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 58

very influential in the following decades in North America and Europe.

IBM Plaza, Chicago, Illinois

Career in the United States

Mies settled in Chicago, Illinois where he was appointed as head of thearchitecture school at Chicago's Armour Institute of Technology (laterrenamed Illinois Institute of Technology - IIT). One of the benefits oftaking this position was that he would be commissioned to design thenew buildings and master plan for the campus. All his buildings stillstand there, including Alumni Hall, the Chapel, and his masterpiece theS.R. Crown Hall, built as the home of IIT's School of Architecture.Crown Hall is widely regarded as Mies' finest work, the definition ofMiesian architecture. In 1944, he became an American citizen,completing his severance from his native Germany. His 30 years as anAmerican architect reflect a more structural, pure approach towardsachieving his goal of a new architecture for the 20th Century. Hefocused his efforts on the idea of enclosing open and adaptable"universal" spaces with clearly arranged structural frameworks,featuring pre-manufactured steel shapes infilled with large sheets ofglass. His early projects at the IIT campus and for developer HerbGreenwald opened the eyes of Americans to a style that seemed anatural progression of the almost forgotten 19th century Chicago Schoolstyle. His architecture, with origins in the German Bauhaus and westernEuropean International Style became an accepted mode of building forAmerican cultural and educational institutions, developers, public agencies, and large corporations.

American workMies worked from his studio in downtown Chicago for his entire 31-year period in America. His significant projectsin the U.S. include the residential towers of 860-880 Lake Shore Dr, the Federal Center, the Farnsworth House,Crown Hall and other structures at IIT, all in and around Chicago, and the Seagram Building in New York. Theseiconic works became the prototypes for his other projects.

Farnsworth HouseBetween 1946 and 1951, Mies van der Rohe designed and built the Farnsworth House, a weekend retreat outside Chicago for an independent professional woman, Dr. Edith Farnsworth. Here, Mies explored the relationship between ourselves, our shelter, and nature. This small masterpiece showed the world that exposed industrial steel and glass were materials capable of creating architecture of great emotional impact. The glass pavilion is raised six feet above a floodplain next to the Fox River, surrounded by forest and rural prairies. The highly crafted pristine white structural frame and all-glass walls define a simple rectilinear interior space, letting nature and light envelop the interior space. A wood-panelled fireplace (also housing mechanical equipment, kitchen, and toilets) is positioned within the open space to suggest living, dining and sleeping spaces without using walls. No partitions touch the surrounding all-glass enclosure. Without solid exterior walls, full-height draperies on a perimeter track allow freedom to provide full or partial privacy when and where desired. The house has been described as sublime, a temple hovering between heaven and earth, a poem, a work of art. The Farnsworth House and its 60-acre (240000 m2) wooded site was purchased at auction for US$7.5 million by preservation groups in 2004 and is now operated by the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois as a public museum. The influential building spawned hundreds of

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 59

modernist glass houses, most notably the Glass House by Philip Johnson, located near New York City and alsoowned by the National Trust for Historic Preservation. The iconic Farnsworth House is considered among Mies'sgreatest works. The house is an embodiment of Mies' mature vision of modern architecture for the new technologicalage: a single unencumbered space within a minimal "skin and bones" framework, a clearly understandablearrangement of architectural parts. His ideas are stated with clarity and simplicity, using materials that are allowed toexpress their own individual character.

860–880 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Illinois.

860-880 Lake Shore Drive

Mies then designed a series of four middle-income high-riseapartment buildings for developer Herb Greenwald (and his successorfirms after his untimely death in a plane crash) the 860/880 (whichwas build between 1949 and 1951) and 900-910 Lake Shore Drivetowers on Chicago's Lakefront. These towers, with façades of steeland glass, were radical departures from the typical residential brickapartment buildings of the time. Interestingly, Mies found their unitsizes too small for himself, choosing instead to continue living in aspacious traditional luxury apartment a few blocks away. The towerswere simple rectangular boxes with a non-hierarchical wall enclosure,raised on stilts above a glass enclosed lobby. The lobby is set backfrom the perimeter columns which were exposed around theperimeter of the building above, creating a modern arcade not unlikethose of the Greek temples. This configuration created a feeling oflight, openness, and freedom of movement at the ground level thatbecame the prototype for countless new towers designed both by

Mies's office and his followers. Some historians argue that this new approach is an expression of the American spiritand the boundless open space of the frontier, which German culture so admired.

Once Mies had established his basic design concept for the general form and details of his tower buildings, heapplied those solutions (with evolving refinements) to his later high-rise building projects. The architecture of histowers appears to be similar, but each project represents new ideas about the formation of highly sophisticated urbanspace at ground level. He delighted in the composition of multiple towers arranged in a seemingly casualnon-hierarchical relation to each other. He created, just as he did in his interiors, free flowing spaces and flat surfacesthat represented the idea of an oasis of uncluttered clarity and calm within the chaos of the city. Nature was includedby leaving openings in the pavement, through which plants seem to grow unfettered by urbanization, just as theywould in their pre-settlement environment.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 60

Seagram BuildingIn 1958, Mies van der Rohe designed what is often regarded as the pinnacle of the modernist high-rise architecture,the Seagram Building in New York City. Mies was chosen by the daughter of the client, Phyllis Bronfman Lambert,who has become a noted architectural figure and patron in her own right.

TD Centre towers frame CN Tower in Toronto.

The Seagram Building has become an icon of the growing powerof that defining institution of the 20th century, the corporation. Ina bold and innovative move, the architect chose to set the towerback from the property line to create a forecourt plaza and fountainon Park Avenue. Although now acclaimed and widely influentialas an urban design feature, Mies had to convince Bronfman'sbankers that a taller tower with significant "unused" open space atground level would enhance the presence and prestige of thebuilding. Mies' design included a bronze curtain wall with externalH-shaped mullions that were exaggerated in depth beyond what isstructurally necessary, touching off criticism by his detractors thatMies had committed Adolf Loos's "crime of ornamentation".Philip Johnson had a role in interior materials selections and hedesigned the sumptuous Four Seasons Restaurant which hasendured un-remodeled to today. The Seagram Building is said tobe an early example of the innovative "fast-track" constructionprocess, where design documentation and construction are doneconcurrently.

Using the Seagram as a prototype, Mies' office designed a number of modern high-rise office towers, notably theChicago Federal Center, which includes the Dirksen and Kluczynski Federal Buildings and Post Office (1959) andthe IBM Plaza in Chicago, the Westmount Square in Montreal and the Toronto-Dominion Centre in 1967. Eachproject applies the prototype rectangular form on stilts and ever-more refined enclosure wall systems, but eachcreates a unique set of exterior spaces that are an essential aspect of his creative efforts.

During 1951-1952, Mies' designed the steel, glass and brick McCormick House, located in Elmhurst, Illinois (15miles west of the Chicago Loop), for real-estate developer Robert Hall McCormick, Jr. A one story adaptation of theexterior curtain wall of his famous 860-880 Lake Shore Drive towers, it served as a prototype for an unbuilt series ofspeculative houses to be constructed in Melrose Park, Illinois. The house has been moved and reconfigured as a partof the public Elmhurst Art Museum.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 61

Caroline Weiss Law Building

Museum of Fine Arts, Houston

Mies designed two buildings for the Museum of FineArts, Houston as additions to the Caroline Weiss LawBuilding. In 1953, the MFAH commissioned Mies vander Rohe to create a master plan for the institution. Hedesigned two additions to the building—Cullinan Hall,completed in 1958, and the Brown Pavilion, completedin 1974. A renowned example of the InternationalStyle, the Caroline Wiess Law Building is one of onlytwo Mies-designed museums in the world.[4]

National Gallery, Berlin

Mies's last work was the Neue Nationalgalerie artmuseum, the New National Gallery, in Berlin. Considered one of the most perfect statements of his architecturalapproach, the upper pavilion is a precise composition of monumental steel columns and a cantilevered (overhanging)roof plane with a glass enclosure. The simple square glass pavilion is a powerful expression of his ideas aboutflexible interior space, defined by transparent walls and supported by an external structural frame. The glass pavilionis a relatively small portion of the overall building, serving as a symbolic architectural entry point and monumentalgallery for larger scale art. A large podium building below the pavilion accommodates most of the buildings actualbuilt area in more functional spaces for galleries, support and utilitarian rooms.

The campus of Whitney Young High School and the adjacent Chicago Police Academy are two examples of theinfluence van der Rohe had on Chicago architecture.

FurnitureMies designed modern furniture pieces using new industrial technologies that have become popular classics, such asthe Barcelona chair and table, the Brno chair, and the Tugendhat chair. His furniture is known for fine craftsmanship,a mix of traditional luxurious fabrics like leather combined with modern chrome frames, and a distinct separation ofthe supporting structure and the supported surfaces, often employing cantilevers to enhance the feeling of lightnesscreated by delicate structural frames. During this period, he collaborated closely with interior designer andcompanion Lilly Reich.

Mies as educatorMies played a significant role as an educator, believing his architectural language could be learned, then applied todesign any type of modern building. He set up a new education at the Department of Architecture of the IllinoisInstitute of Technology in Chicago replacing the old-fashioned Ecole des Beaux-Art attitude by athree-step-education beginning with crafts of building leading to planning skills and finishing with theory ofarchitecture (compare Vitruvius: firmitas, utilitas, venustas). He worked personally and intensively on prototypesolutions, and then allowed his students, both in school and his office, to develop derivative solutions for specificprojects under his guidance. Some of Mies' curriculum is still put in practice in the first and second year programs atIIT, for example the excruciating drafting of bricks in second year. But when none was able to match the genius andpoetic quality of his own work, he agonized about where his educational method had gone wrong. Nevertheless hisachievements for an architecture created out of modern technology survived very successfully until today by othersand is known as High-tech architecture.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 62

Mies placed great importance on education of architects who could carry on his design principles. He devoted a greatdeal of time and effort leading the architecture program at IIT. Mies served on the initial Advisory Board of theGraham Foundation in Chicago. His own practice was based on intensive personal involvement in design efforts tocreate prototype solutions for building types (860 Lake Shore Dr, the Farnsworth, Seagram, S.R. Crown Hall, TheNew National Gallery), then allowing his studio designers to develop derivative buildings under his supervision.Mies's grandson Dirk Lohan and two partners led the firm after he died in 1969. Lohan, who had collaborated withMies on the New National Gallery, continued with existing projects but soon led the firm on his own independentpath. Other disciples continued his teachings for a few years, notably Gene Summers, David Haid, MyronGoldsmith, Jacques Brownson, and other architects at the firms of C.F. Murphy and Skidmore, Owings and Merrill.But while Mies' work had enormous influence and critical recognition, his approach failed to sustain a creative forceas a style after his death and was eclipsed by the new wave of Post Modernism by the 1980s. He had hoped hisarchitecture would serve as a universal model that could be easily imitated, but the aesthetic power of his bestbuildings proved impossible to match, instead resulting mostly in drab and uninspired structures. The failure of hisfollowers to meet his high standard may have contributed to demise of Modernism and the rise of new competingdesign theories, notably Postmodernism.

Mies van der Rohe's grave marker in GracelandCemetery

German commemorative stamp marking 100 yearssince Mies's birth

Death

Over the last twenty years of his life, Mies developed and built hisvision of a monumental "skin and bones" architecture that reflectedhis goal to provide the individual a place to fulfil himself in themodern era. Mies sought to create free and open spaces, enclosedwithin a structural order with minimal presence. Mies van der Rohedied on August 17, 1969. After cremation, his ashes were buried nearChicago's other famous architects in Chicago's Graceland Cemetery.His grave is marked by a simple black slab of granite and a largeHoney locust tree.[1]

Archives

The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe Archive, an administrativelyindependent section of the Museum of Modern Art's Department ofArchitecture and Design, was established in 1968 by the Museum'strustees. It was founded in response to the architect's desire tobequeath his entire work to the Museum. The Archive consists ofabout nineteen thousand drawings and prints, one thousand of whichare by the designer and architect Lilly Reich (1885–1947), Mies vander Rohe's close collaborator from 1927 to 1937; of writtendocuments (primarily, the business correspondence) covering nearlythe entire career of the architect; of photographs of buildings, models, and furniture; and of audiotapes, books, andperiodicals.

Archival materials are also held by the Ryerson & Burnham Libraries at the Art Institute of Chicago. The LudwigMies van der Rohe Collection, 1929-1969 (bulk 1948-1960) includes correspondence, articles, and materials relatedto his association with the Illinois Institute of Technology. The Ludwig Mies van der Rohe/Metropolitan StructuresCollection, 1961–1969, includes scrapbooks and photographs documenting Chicago projects.Other archives are held at the University of Illinois at Chicago (personal book collection), the Canadian Center forArchitecture (drawings and photos) in Montreal, the Newberry Library in Chicago (personal correspondence), the

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 63

Library of Congress in Washington D.C.

Gallery

Martin Luther KingJr. Memorial

Library,Washington.

Interior ofNeue

Nationalgaleriemuseum in

Berlin,Germany

Lafayette Park, Detroit is on theU.S. National Register of

Historic Places

LafayetteTowers

ApartmentsEast,

Detroit.

Toronto-DominionCentre logo includes thefont text created by Mies

Mies-designed section of PATH,Toronto

TD Centre podium, Toronto,used as a branch for TD Canada

Trust bank

S.R. Crown Hall on the campusof the Illinois Institute ofTechnology is a National

Historic Landmark

Highfield House, Baltimore Barcelona Pavilion(reconstruction)

University ofChicago

School ofSocial ServiceAdministration

TD Centre podium,Toronto

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 64

List of works

A memorial to the Spartacist leaders Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg,commissioned by Eduard Fuchs, president of the German Communist Party in Germanydesigned by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, built by Wilhelm Pieck, and inaugurated on 13

June 1926, later destroyed by the Nazis

Canada• Toronto-Dominion Centre - Office

Tower Complex, Toronto• Westmount Square - Office &

Residential Tower Complex,Westmount

• Nuns' Island - 3 Residential towersand a filling station (closed),Montreal (c.1969)

Czech Republic• Tugendhat House - Residential

Home, Brno

Germany• Riehl House - Residential Home,

Potsdam (1907)• Peris House - Residential Home,

Zehlendorf (1911)• Werner House - Residential Home,

Zehlendorf (1913)• Urbig House - Residential Home, Potsdam (1917)• Kempner House - Residential Home, Charlottenburg (1922)• Eichstaedt House - Residential Home, Wannsee (1922)• Feldmann House - Residential Home, Wilmersdorf (1922)• Mosler House - Residential Home, Babelsberg (1926)• Weissenhof Estate - Housing Exhibition coordinated by Mies and with a contribution by him, Stuttgart (1927)• Lemke House - Residential Home, Weissensee (1932)• Haus Lange/Haus Ester - Residential Home and an art museum, Krefeld• New National Gallery - Modern Art Museum, BerlinMexico• Bacardi Office Building - Office Building, Mexico CitySpain• Barcelona Pavilion - World's Fair Pavilion, BarcelonaUnited States• Cullinan Hall - Museum of Fine Arts, Houston• The Promontory Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Chicago• Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial Library - District of Columbia Public Library, Washington, DC• Richard King Mellon Hall of Science - Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA (1968)• IBM Plaza - Office Tower, Chicago• Lake Shore Drive Apartments - Residential Apartment Towers, Chicago• Seagram Building - Office Tower, New York City (1958)• Crown Hall - College of Architecture, and other buildings, at the Illinois Institute of Technology (1956)• University of Chicago School of Social Service Administration - Chicago, IL (1965)• Farnsworth House - Residential Home, Plano, Illinois (1946)

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 65

• Chicago Federal Center• Dirksen Federal Building - Office Tower, Chicago• Kluczynski Federal Building - Office Tower, Chicago• United States Post Office Loop Station - General Post Office, Chicago

• One Illinois Center - Office Tower, Chicago• One Charles Center - Office Tower, Baltimore, Maryland• Highfield House Condominium | 4000 North Charles - Condominium Apartments, Baltimore, Maryland• Colonnade and Pavilion Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Newark, New Jersey (1959)• Lafayette Park - Residential Apartment Complex, Detroit, Michigan (1963).[5]

• Commonwealth Promenade Apartments - Residential Apartment Complex, Chicago (1956)• Caroline Weiss Law Building, Cullinan Hall (1958) and Brown Pavilion (1974) additions, Museum of Fine Art,

Houston• Richard King Mellon Building (1968) at Duquesne University, Pittsburgh• American Life Building - Louisville, Kentucky (1973; completed after Mies's death by Bruno Conterato)

ReferencesNotes[1] "Mies van der Rohe Dies at 83; Leader of Modern Architecture" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ learning/ general/ onthisday/ bday/ 0327. html).

The New York Times. August 17, 1969. . Retrieved 2007-07-21. "Mies van der Rohe, one of the great figures of 20th-century architecture, diedin Wesley Memorial Hospital here late last night. He was 83 years old."

[2] "German Embassy Building" (http:/ / www. encspb. ru/ en/ article. php?kod=2804004653). Encyclopaedia of Saint Petersburg. . Retrieved2008-08-11.

[3] Compare Arthur Lubow's "The Contextualizer," (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2008/ 04/ 06/ magazine/ 06nouvel. html?pagewanted=4&sq=grande arche& st=nyt& scp=10) New York Times. April 6, 2008, p. 4; excerpt, "...a skyscraper that Nouvel (adapting a term from the artistBrancusi) called the “tour sans fins,” or endless tower. Conceived as a kind of minaret alongside the squat, monumental Grande Arche de LaDéfense, the endless tower has taken on some of the mystique of Mies van der Rohe’s unbuilt Friedrichstrasse glass skyscraper of 1921. Toobscure its lower end, the tower was designed to sit within a crater. Its facade, appearing to vanish in the sky, changed as it rose, fromcharcoal-colored granite to paler stone, then to aluminum and finally to glass that became increasingly reflective, all to enhance the illusionof dematerialization."

[4] The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston Law Building (http:/ / mfah. org/ destination. asp?par1=1& par2=1& par3=1& par4=1& par5=1&par6=1& par7=& lgc=3& eid=& currentPage=)

[5] Vitullo-Martin, Julio, . The Biggest Mies Collection: His Lafayette Park residential development thrives in Detroit (http:/ / online. wsj. com/article/ SB119827404882045751. html).The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved on April 21, 2007.

Further reading• Puente, Moisés (2008). Conversations with Mies Van Der Rohe. New York: Princeton Architectural Press. pp. 96.

ISBN 9781568987538.• Schulze, Franz (1985). Mies Van Der Rohe, a Critical Biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

ISBN 0226740595.• Sharp, Dennis (1991). The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture. New York: Whitney Library

of Design. p. 109. ISBN 082302539X.• Spaeth, David (1985). Mies Van Der Rohe. New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc..

ISBN 0847805638.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 66

External links• Mies van der Rohe Society (http:/ / www. mies. iit. edu/ )• Great Buildings Architects (http:/ / www. greatbuildings. com/ architects/ Ludwig_Mies_van_der_Rohe. html)• Mies in Berlin-Mies in America (http:/ / www. moma. org/ mies/ )• MoMA Architecture & Design Study Center (http:/ / moma. org/ research/ studycenters/ index. html/ )• Ludwig Mies van der Rohe YouTube (http:/ / www. nou-sera. com/ architect/ mies. html#Anchor-14553)• Mies van der Rohe Photo Gallery (http:/ / www. danda. be/ gallery/ architect/ mies-van-der-rohe/ )• Mies van der Rohe Foundation (http:/ / www. miesbcn. com/ en/ foundation. html)• Elmhurst Art Museum, featuring McCormick House (http:/ / www. elmhurstartmuseum. org)• Barcelona chair (http:/ / www. miesbarcelonachair. com)• Richard King Mellon Hall, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA (http:/ / www. bluffton. edu/ ~sullivanm/ mies/

miespitt. html)• The Farnsworth House, a property of the National Trust for Historic Preservation (http:/ / www. farnsworthhouse.

org)• Mies, IIT, and the Second Chicago School (http:/ / www. artic. edu/ aic/ libraries/ research/ specialcollections/

subject/ mies. html)• Mies in America exhibition (http:/ / cca. qc. ca/ en/ exhibitions/ 20-mies-in-america)• Photo Pool on Flickr (http:/ / www. flickr. com/ groups/ miesvanderrohe/ pool)• Travel guide to Mies Buildings (http:/ / www. galinsky. com/ buildings/ lemke/ index. htm)

Le Corbusier 67

Le Corbusier

Charles-Édouard JeanneretLe Corbusier

Le Corbusier (1933)

Personal information

Nationality Swiss / French

Born October 6, 1887La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland

Died August 27, 1965 (aged 77)Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France

Work

Buildings Villa Savoye, FranceNotre Dame du Haut, FranceBuildings in Chandigarh, India

Charles-Édouard Jeanneret, who chose to be known as Le Corbusier (French pronunciation: [lə kɔʁbyzje]; October6, 1887 – August 27, 1965), was a Swiss architect, designer, urbanist, writer and painter, famous for being one of thepioneers of what now is called Modern architecture or the International style. He was born in Switzerland andbecame a French citizen in his thirties.He was a pioneer in studies of modern high design and was dedicated to providing better living conditions for theresidents of crowded cities. Later commentators have criticized Le Corbusier's monoliths as soulless and expressiveof his arrogance in pioneering his form of architecture.[1]

His career spanned five decades, with his buildings constructed throughout central Europe, India, Russia, and oneeach in North and South America. He was also an urban planner, painter, sculptor, writer, and modern furnituredesigner.Le Corbusier adopted his pseudonym in the 1920s, allegedly deriving it in part from the name of a distant ancestor,"Lecorbésier." However, it appears to have been an earlier (and somewhat unkind) nickname, which he simplydecided to keep. It stems from the French for "the crow-like one".[2] In the absence of a first name, some have alsosuggested it suggests "a physical force as much as a human being," and brings to mind the French verb courber, tobend.[1]

He was awarded the Frank P. Brown Medal in 1961.

Le Corbusier 68

Life

Early life and education, 1887–1913He was born as Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris in La Chaux-de-Fonds, a small city in Neuchâtel canton innorth-western Switzerland, in the Jura mountains, which is just five kilometres across the border from France. Heattended a kindergarten that used Fröbelian methods.Le Corbusier was attracted to the visual arts and studied at the La-Chaux-de-Fonds Art School under CharlesL'Eplattenier, who had studied in Budapest and Paris. His architecture teacher in the Art School was the architectRené Chapallaz, who had a large influence on Le Corbusier's earliest houses.In his early years he would frequently escape the somewhat provincial atmosphere of his hometown by travelingaround Europe. About 1907, he traveled to Paris, where he found work in the office of Auguste Perret, the Frenchpioneer of reinforced concrete. In 1908, He studied architecture in Vienna with Josef Hoffmann. Between October1910 and March 1911, he worked near Berlin for the renowned architect Peter Behrens, where he might have metLudwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius. He became fluent in German. Both of these experiences provedinfluential in his later career.Later in 1911, he journeyed to the Balkans and visited Greece and Turkey, filling sketchbooks with renderings ofwhat he saw, including many famous sketches of the Parthenon, whose forms he would later praise in his work Versune architecture (1923) ("Towards an Architecture," but usually translated into English as "Towards a NewArchitecture").

Early career: the villas, 1914–1930Le Corbusier taught at his old school in La-Chaux-de-Fonds during World War I, not returning to Paris until the warwas over. During these four years in Switzerland, he worked on theoretical architectural studies using moderntechniques.[3] Among these was his project for the "Dom-ino" House (1914–1915). This model proposed an openfloor plan consisting of concrete slabs supported by a minimal number of thin, reinforced concrete columns aroundthe edges, with a stairway providing access to each level on one side of the floor plan.This design became the foundation for most of his architecture for the next ten years. Soon he would begin his ownarchitectural practice with his cousin, Pierre Jeanneret (1896–1967), a partnership that would last until 1940.In 1918, Le Corbusier met the Cubist painter, Amédée Ozenfant, in whom he recognized a kindred spirit. Ozenfantencouraged him to paint, and the two began a period of collaboration. Rejecting Cubism as irrational and "romantic,"the pair jointly published their manifesto, Après le cubisme and established a new artistic movement, Purism.Ozenfant and Le Corbusier established the Purist journal L'Esprit nouveau. He was good friends with the Cubistartist Fernand Léger.

Pseudonym Adopted, 1920In the first issue of the journal, in 1920, Charles-Edouard Jeanneret adopted Le Corbusier, an altered form of hismaternal grandfather's name, "Lecorbésier", as a pseudonym, reflecting his belief that anyone could reinvent himself.Some architectural historians claim that this pseudonym translates as "the raven-like one."[4] Adopting a single nameto identify oneself was in vogue by artists in many fields during that era, especially among those in Paris.(The name "Le Corbusier" is today a registered trademark (US Reg. 2073285) owned by the Fondation Le Corbusierand licensed for the production of designs created by Charles Jeanneret alone and with his co-authors CharlottePerriand and Pierre Jeanneret.)Between 1918 and 1922, Le Corbusier built nothing, concentrating his efforts on Purist theory and painting. In 1922,Le Corbusier and Ozenfant opened a studio in Paris at 35 rue de Sèvres.[3]

Le Corbusier 69

His theoretical studies soon advanced into several different single-family house models. Among these was theMaison "Citrohan", a pun on the name of the French Citroën automaker, for the modern industrial methods andmaterials Le Corbusier advocated using for the house. Here, Le Corbusier proposed a three-floor structure, with adouble-height living room, bedrooms on the second floor, and a kitchen on the third floor. The roof would beoccupied by a sun terrace. On the exterior Le Corbusier installed a stairway to provide second-floor access fromground level. Here, as in other projects from this period, he also designed the façades to include large expanses ofuninterrupted banks of windows. The house used a rectangular plan, with exterior walls that were not filled bywindows, left as white, stuccoed spaces. Le Corbusier and Jeanneret left the interior aesthetically spare, with anymovable furniture made of tubular metal frames. Light fixtures usually comprised single, bare bulbs. Interior wallsalso were left white. Between 1922 and 1927, Le Corbusier and Pierre Jeanneret designed many of these privatehouses for clients around Paris. In Boulogne-sur-Seine and the 16th arrondissement of Paris, Le Corbusier and PierreJeanneret designed and built the Villa Lipschitz, Maison Cook (see William Edwards Cook), Maison Planeix, andthe Maison La Roche/Albert Jeanneret, which now houses the Fondation Le Corbusier.

Personal RelationshipsWhile returning in 1929 from South America to Europe, Le Corbusier met entertainer and actress Josephine Bakeron board the ocean liner Lutétia. Le Corbusier made several nude sketches of Baker. Soon after his return to France,Le Corbusier married Yvonne Gallis, a dressmaker and fashion model. She died in 1957. Le Corbusier also had along extramarital affair with Swedish-American heiress Marguerite Tjader Harris.Le Corbusier took French citizenship in 1930.[3]

Portrait on Swiss ten francs banknote

Forays into urbanism

For a number of years French officials had been unsuccessful in dealingwith the squalor of the growing Parisian slums, and Le Corbusier soughtefficient ways to house large numbers of people in response to the urbanhousing crisis. He believed that his new, modern architectural forms wouldprovide a new organizational solution that would raise the quality of life forthe lower classes. His Immeubles Villas (1922) was such a project thatcalled for large blocks of cell-like individual apartments stacked one on topof the other, with plans that included a living room, bedrooms and kitchen,as well as a garden terrace.Not merely content with designs for a few housing blocks, soon LeCorbusier moved into studies for entire cities. In 1922, he presented hisscheme for a "Contemporary City" for three million inhabitants (VilleContemporaine). The centerpiece of this plan was the group of sixty-story,cruciform skyscrapers; steel-framed office buildings encased in huge curtainwalls of glass. These skyscrapers were set within large, rectangularpark-like green spaces. At the center was a huge transportation hub, that ondifferent levels included depots for buses and trains, as well as highwayintersections, and at the top, an airport. He had the fanciful notion that commercial airliners would land between thehuge skyscrapers. Le Corbusier segregated pedestrian circulation paths from the roadways and glorified the use ofthe automobile as a means of transportation. As one moved out from the central skyscrapers, smaller low-story,zigzag apartment blocks (set far back from the street amid green space), housed the inhabitants. Le Corbusier hopedthat politically-minded industrialists in France would lead the way with their efficient Taylorist and Fordist strategies

adopted from American industrial models to reorganize society. As Norma Evenson has put it, "the proposed city appeared to some an audacious and compelling vision of a brave new world, and to others a frigid megalomaniacally

Le Corbusier 70

scaled negation of the familiar urban ambient."[5]

In this new industrial spirit, Le Corbusier contributed to a new journal called L'Esprit Nouveau that advocated theuse of modern industrial techniques and strategies to transform society into a more efficient environment with ahigher standard of living on all socioeconomic levels. He forcefully argued that this transformation was necessary toavoid the spectre of revolution that would otherwise shake society. His dictum, "Architecture or Revolution,"developed in his articles in this journal, became his rallying cry for the book Vers une architecture (Toward anArchitecture, previously mistranslated into English as Towards a New Architecture), which comprised selectedarticles he contributed to L'Esprit Nouveau between 1920 and 1923. In this book, Le Corbusier followed theinfluence of Walter Gropius and reprinted several photographs of North American factories and grain elevators.[6]

Theoretical urban schemes continued to occupy Le Corbusier. He exhibited his "Plan Voisin," sponsored by anotherfamous automobile manufacturer, in 1925. In it, he proposed to bulldoze most of central Paris north of the Seine, andreplace it with his sixty-story cruciform towers from the Contemporary City, placed in an orthogonal street grid andpark-like green space. His scheme was met with criticism and scorn from French politicians and industrialists,although they were favorable to the ideas of Taylorism and Fordism underlying Le Corbusier designs. Nonetheless,it did provoke discussion concerning how to deal with the cramped, dirty conditions that enveloped much of the city.In the 1930s, Le Corbusier expanded and reformulated his ideas on urbanism, eventually publishing them in La Villeradieuse (The Radiant City) of 1935. Perhaps the most significant difference between the Contemporary City and theRadiant City is that the latter abandons the class-based stratification of the former; housing is now assignedaccording to family size, not economic position.[7] Some have read dark overtones into The Radiant City: from the"astonishingly beautiful assemblage of buildings" that was Stockholm, for example, Le Corbusier saw only“frightening chaos and saddening monotony.”[1] He dreamed of "cleaning and purging" the city, bringing "a calm andpowerful architecture"—referring to steel, plate glass, and reinforced concrete. Though Le Corbusier's designs forStockholm did not succeed, later architects took his ideas and partly "destroyed" the city with them.[1]

La Ville radieuse also marks Le Corbusier's increasing dissatisfaction with capitalism and his turn to the right-wingsyndicalism of Hubert Lagardelle. During the Vichy regime, Le Corbusier received a position on a planningcommittee and made designs for Algiers and other cities. The central government ultimately rejected his plans, andafter 1942 Le Corbusier withdrew from political activity.[8]

High Court in Chandigarh, India

After World War II, Le Corbusier attempted to realize his urbanplanning schemes on a small scale by constructing a series of "unités"(the housing block unit of the Radiant City) around France. The mostfamous of these was the Unité d'Habitation of Marseilles (1946–1952).In the 1950s, a unique opportunity to translate the Radiant City on agrand scale presented itself in the construction of the Union TerritoryChandigarh, the new capital for the Indian states of Punjab andHaryana and the first planned city in India. Le Corbusier designedmany administration buildings including a courthouse, parliamentbuilding and a university. He also designed the general layout of thecity dividing it into sectors. Le Corbusier was brought on to developthe plan of Albert Mayer.

Le Corbusier 71

DeathAgainst his doctor's orders, on August 27, 1965, Le Corbusier went for a swim in the Mediterranean Sea atRoquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. His body was found by bathers and he was pronounced dead at 11 a.m. It wasassumed that he suffered a heart attack, at the age of seventy-seven. His death rites took place at the courtyard of theLouvre Palace on September 1, 1965 under the direction of writer and thinker André Malraux, who was at the timeFrance's Minister of Culture. He was buried alongside his wife in the grave he had designated at Roquebrune.Le Corbusier's death had a strong impact on the cultural and political world. Homages were paid worldwide and evensome of Le Corbusier's worst artistic enemies, such as the painter Salvador Dalí, recognised his importance (Dalísent a floral tribute). The President of the United States Lyndon B. Johnson said: "His influence was universal andhis works are invested with a permanent quality possessed by those of very few artists in our history". The SovietUnion added, "Modern architecture has lost its greatest master". Japanese TV channels decided to broadcast,simultaneously to the ceremony, his Museum in Tokyo, in what was at the time a unique media homage.Visitors may find his grave site in the cemetery above Roquebrune-Cap-Martin in between Menton and Monaco insouthern France.The Fondation Le Corbusier (or FLC) functions as his official Estate.[9] The U.S. copyright representative for theFondation Le Corbusier is the Artists Rights Society.[10]

Ideas

Five points of architectureIt was Le Corbusier's Villa Savoye (1929–1931) that most succinctly summed up his five points of architecture thathe had elucidated in the journal L'Esprit Nouveau and his book Vers une architecture, which he had been developingthroughout the 1920s. First, Le Corbusier lifted the bulk of the structure off the ground, supporting it by pilotis –reinforced concrete stilts. These pilotis, in providing the structural support for the house, allowed him to elucidate hisnext two points: a free façade, meaning non-supporting walls that could be designed as the architect wished, and anopen floor plan, meaning that the floor space was free to be configured into rooms without concern for supportingwalls. The second floor of the Villa Savoye includes long strips of ribbon windows that allow unencumbered viewsof the large surrounding yard, and which constitute the fourth point of his system. The fifth point was the roof gardento compensate for the green area consumed by the building and replacing it on the roof. A ramp rising from groundlevel to the third floor roof terrace allows for an architectural promenade through the structure. The white tubularrailing recalls the industrial "ocean-liner" aesthetic that Le Corbusier much admired. As if to put an exclamationmark after Le Corbusier's homage to modern industry, the driveway around the ground floor, with its semicircularpath, measures the exact turning radius of a 1927 Citroën automobile.

The Modulor

Cover of Modulor and Modulor 2

Le Corbusier explicitly used the golden ratio in his Modulor system forthe scale of architectural proportion. He saw this system as acontinuation of the long tradition of Vitruvius, Leonardo da Vinci's"Vitruvian Man", the work of Leon Battista Alberti, and others whoused the proportions of the human body to improve the appearance andfunction of architecture. In addition to the golden ratio, Le Corbusierbased the system on human measurements, Fibonacci numbers, and thedouble unit.

He took Leonardo's suggestion of the golden ratio in human proportions to an extreme: he sectioned his model human body's height at the navel with the two sections in golden ratio, then subdivided those sections in golden ratio

Le Corbusier 72

at the knees and throat; he used these golden ratio proportions in the Modulor system.Le Corbusier's 1927 Villa Stein in Garches exemplified the Modulor system's application. The villa's rectangularground plan, elevation, and inner structure closely approximate golden rectangles.[11]

Le Corbusier placed systems of harmony and proportion at the centre of his design philosophy, and his faith in themathematical order of the universe was closely bound to the golden section and the Fibonacci series, which hedescribed as "rhythms apparent to the eye and clear in their relations with one another. And these rhythms are at thevery root of human activities. They resound in Man by an organic inevitability, the same fine inevitability whichcauses the tracing out of the Golden Section by children, old men, savages, and the learned."[12]

FurnitureCorbusier said: "Chairs are architecture, sofas are bourgeois."Le Corbusier began experimenting with furniture design in 1928 after inviting the architect, Charlotte Perriand, tojoin his studio. His cousin, Pierre Jeanneret, also collaborated on many of the designs. Before the arrival of Perriand,Le Corbusier relied on ready-made furniture to furnish his projects, such as the simple pieces manufactured byThonet, the company that manufactured his designs in the 1930s.In 1928, Le Corbusier and Perriand began to put the expectations for furniture Le Corbusier outlined in his 1925book L'Art Décoratif d'aujourd'hui into practice. In the book he defined three different furniture types: type-needs,type-furniture, and human-limb objects. He defined human-limb objects as: "Extensions of our limbs and adapted tohuman functions that are type-needs and type-functions, therefore type-objects and type-furniture. The human-limbobject is a docile servant. A good servant is discreet and self-effacing in order to leave his master free. Certainly,works of art are tools, beautiful tools. And long live the good taste manifested by choice, subtlety, proportion, andharmony".The first results of the collaboration were three chrome-plated tubular steel chairs designed for two of his projects,The Maison la Roche in Paris and a pavilion for Barbara and Henry Church. The line of furniture was expanded forLe Corbusier's 1929 Salon d'Automne installation, Equipment for the Home.The most famous of these chairs are the now-iconic LC-1, LC-2, LC-3, and LC-4, originally titled "Basculant"(LC-1), "Fauteuil grand confort, petit modèle" (LC-2, "great comfort sofa, small model"), "Fauteil grand confort,grand modèle" (LC-3, "great comfort sofa, large model"), and "Chaise longue" (LC-4, "Long chair", English: "chaiselounge").[13] The LC-2 and LC-3 are more colloquially referred to as the petit confort and grand confort(abbreviation of full title, and due to respective sizes). The LC-2 (and similar LC-3) have been featured in a varietyof media, notably the Maxell "blown away" advertisement.[14]

In the year 1964, while Le Corbusier was still alive, Cassina S.p.A. of Milan acquired the exclusive worldwide rightsto manufacture his furniture designs. Today many copies exist, but Cassina is still the only manufacturer authorizedby the Fondation Le Corbusier; see US page [15].

PoliticsLe Corbusier moved increasingly to the far right of French politics in the 1930s.[16] He associated with GeorgesValois and Hubert Lagardelle and briefly edited the syndicalist journal Prélude. In 1934, he lectured in Rome onarchitecture, by invitation of Benito Mussolini. He sought out a position in urban planning in the Vichy regime andreceived an appointment on a committee studying urbanism. He drew up plans for the redesign of Algiers in whichhe criticized the perceived differences in living standards between Europeans and Africans in the city, describing asituation in which "the civilised live like rats in holes" yet "the barbarians live in solitude, in well-being."[17] Theseand plans for the redesign of other cities were ultimately ignored. After this defeat, Le Corbusier largely eschewedpolitics.

Le Corbusier 73

Although the politics of Lagardelle and Valois included elements of fascism, anti-semitism, and ultra-nationalism,Le Corbusier's own affiliation with these movements remains uncertain. In La Ville radieuse, he conceives anessentially apolitical society, in which the bureaucracy of economic administration effectively replaces the state.[18]

Le Corbusier was heavily indebted to the thought of the nineteenth-century French utopians Saint-Simon and CharlesFourier. There is a noteworthy resemblance between the concept of the unité and Fourier's phalanstery.[19] FromFourier, Le Corbusier adopted at least in part his notion of administrative, rather than political, government.

CriticismsSince his death, Le Corbusier's contribution has been hotly contested, as the architecture values and itsaccompanying aspects within modern architecture vary, both between different schools of thought and amongpractising architects.[20] At the level of building, his later works expressed a complex understanding of modernity'simpact, yet his urban designs have drawn scorn from critics. One social commentator writes that "Le Corbusier wasto architecture what Pol Pot was to social reform."[21]

Technological historian and architecture critic Lewis Mumford wrote in Yesterday's City of Tomorrow that theextravagant heights of Le Corbusier's skyscrapers had no reason for existence apart from the fact that they hadbecome technological possibilities. The open spaces in his central areas had no reason for existence either, Mumfordwrote, since on the scale he imagined there was no motive during the business day for pedestrian circulation in theoffice quarter. By "mating utilitarian and financial image of the skyscraper city to the romantic image of the organicenvironment, Le Corbusier had, in fact, produced a sterile hybrid."James Howard Kunstler, a member of the New Urbanism movement, has criticised Le Corbusier's approach to urbanplanning as destructive and wasteful:

Le Corbusier [was] ... the leading architectural hoodoo-meister of Early High Modernism, whose 1925 PlanVoisin for Paris proposed to knock down the entire Marais district on the Right Bank and replace it with rowsof identical towers set between freeways. Luckily for Paris, the city officials laughed at him every time hecame back with the scheme over the next forty years – and Corb was nothing if not a relentless self-promoter.Ironically and tragically, though, the Plan Voisin model was later adopted gleefully by post-World War TwoAmerican planners, and resulted in such urban monstrosities as the infamous Cabrini–Green housing projectsof Chicago and scores of things similar to it around the country.[22]

The public housing projects influenced by his ideas are seen by some as having had the effect of isolating poorcommunities in monolithic high-rises and breaking the social ties integral to a community's development. One of hismost influential detractors has been Jane Jacobs, who delivered a scathing critique of Le Corbusier's urban designtheories in her seminal work The Death and Life of Great American Cities.

InfluenceLe Corbusier was at his most influential in the sphere of urban planning, and was a founding member of the CongrèsInternational d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM).One of the first to realize how the automobile would change human agglomerations, Le Corbusier described the cityof the future as consisting of large apartment buildings isolated in a park-like setting on pilotis. Le Corbusier'stheories were adopted by the builders of public housing in Western Europe and the United States. For the design ofthe buildings themselves, Le Corbusier criticized any effort at ornamentation. The large spartan structures in cities,but not 'of' cities, have been widely criticized for being boring and unfriendly to pedestrians.Throughout the years, many architects worked for Le Corbusier in his studio, and a number of them became notable in their own right, including painter-architect Nadir Afonso, who absorbed Le Corbusier's ideas into his own aesthetics theory. Lúcio Costa's city plan of Brasília and the industrial city of Zlín planned by František Lydie Gahura in the Czech Republic are notable plans based on his ideas, while the architect himself produced the plan for

Le Corbusier 74

Chandigarh in India. Le Corbusier's thinking also had profound effects on the philosophy of city planning andarchitecture in the Soviet Union, particularly in the Constructivist era.Le Corbusier was heavily influenced by problems he saw in industrial cities at the turn of the century (that is, fromthe 19th to the 20th century). He thought that industrial housing techniques led to crowding, dirtiness, and a lack of amoral landscape. He was a leader of the modernist movement to create better living conditions and a better societythrough housing concepts. Ebenezer Howard's Garden Cities of Tomorrow heavily influenced Le Corbusier and hiscontemporaries.Le Corbusier also harmonized and lent credence to the idea of space as a set of destinations which mankind movedbetween, more or less continuously. He was therefore able to give credence and credibility to the automobile (as atransporter); and most importantly to freeways in urban spaces. His philosophies were useful to urban real estatedevelopment interests in the American Post World War II period because they justified and lent architectural andintellectual support to the desire to destroy traditional urban space for high density high profit urban concentration,both commercial and residential. Le Corbusier’s ideas also sanctioned further destruction of traditional urban spacesto build freeways that connected this new urbanism to low density, low cost (and highly profitable), suburban andrural locales which were free to be developed as middle class single-family (dormitory) housing.Notably missing from this scheme of movement were connectivity between isolated urban villages created forlower-middle and working classes and other destination points in Le Corbusier's plan: suburban and rural areas, andurban commercial centers. This was because as designed, the freeways traveled over, at, or beneath grade levels ofthe living spaces of the urban poor (one modern example: the Cabrini–Green housing project in Chicago). Suchprojects and their areas, having no freeway exit ramps, cut-off by freeway rights-of-way, became isolated from jobsand services concentrated at Le Corbusier’s nodal transportation end points. As jobs increasingly moved to thesuburban end points of the freeways, urban village dwellers found themselves without convenient freeway accesspoints in their communities and without public mass transit connectivity that could economically reach suburban jobcenters.Very late in the Post-War period, suburban job centers found this to be such a critical problem (labor shortages) thatthey, on their own, began sponsoring urban-to-suburban shuttle bus services between urban villages and suburbanjob centers, to fill working class and lower-middle class jobs which had gone wanting, and which did not normallypay the wages that car ownership required.Le Corbusier deliberately created a myth about himself and was revered in his lifetime, and after death, by ageneration of followers who believed Le Corbusier was a prophet who could do no wrong. But in the 1950s the firstdoubts began to appear, notably in some essays by his greatest admirers such as James Stirling and Colin Rowe, whodenounced as catastrophic his ideas on the city. Later critics revealed his technical incompetence as an architect. Inhis book Armée du Salut, Brian Brace Taylor went into great detail about Le Corbusier's Machiavellian activities tocreate this commission for himself, his many ill-judged design decisions about building technologies, and thesometimes absurd solutions he then proposed.

Fondation Le CorbusierThe Fondation Le Corbusier is a private foundation and archive honoring the work of architect Le Corbusier(1887–1965). It operates Maison La Roche, a museum located in the 16th arrondissement at 8-10, square du DrBlanche, Paris, France, which is open daily except Sunday. As of June 2008, the Maison La Roche is temporarilyclosed for renovation.The Fondation Le Corbusier was established in 1968. It now owns Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (whichform the foundation's headquarters), as well as the apartment occupied by Le Corbusier from 1933-1965 at rueNungesser et Coli in Paris 16e, and the "Small House" he built for his parents in Corseaux on the shores of LacLeman (1924).

Le Corbusier 75

Maison La Roche and Maison Jeanneret (1923–24), also known as the La Roche-Jeanneret house, is a pair ofsemi-detached houses that was Corbusier's third commission in Paris. They are laid out at right angles to each other,with iron, concrete, and blank, white facades setting off a curved two-story gallery space. Maison La Roche is now amuseum containing about 8,000 original drawings, studies and plans by Le Corbusier (in collaboration with PierreJeanneret from 1922–1940), as well as about 450 of his paintings, about 30 enamels, about 200 other works onpaper, and a sizable collection of written and photographic archives. It describes itself as the world's largestcollection of Le Corbusier drawings, studies, and plans.[23] [24]

Major buildings and projects

The Open Hand Monument is one of numerousprojects in Chandigarh, India designed by Le

Corbusier

National Museum of Western Art in Tokyo,Japan

• 1905: Villa Fallet, La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland• 1908: Stotzer House, 6, Chemin de Pouillerel, la Chaux-de-Fonds,

Switzerland.• 1912: Villa Jeanneret-Perret, La Chaux-de-Fonds [25]• 1916: Villa Schwob, La Chaux-de-Fonds• 1922: Villa Besnus (Ker-Ka-Ré), Vaucresson, Paris, France• 1922: Ozenfant House and Studio, Vaucresson, Paris. ( much

altered.)• 1923: Villa La Roche/Villa Jeanneret, Paris• 1924: Pavillon de L'Esprit Nouveau, Paris (destroyed)• 1924: Quartiers Modernes Frugès, Pessac, France• 1925: Villa Jeanneret, Paris• 1926: Villa Cook, Boulogne-sur-Seine, France• 1926: Villa Ternisien, 5, Allee des Pins, Boulogne-sur-Seine, Paris.

( Block of apartments built over the house.)• 1927: Villa Stein, Garches, Paris.• 1927: Pleinex House, 24, Bis Boulevard Massena, Paris 13e.• 1927: Villas at Weissenhof Estate, Stuttgart, Germany• 1928: Villa Savoye, Poissy-sur-Seine, France View on the map [26]

• 1929: Cité du Refuge, Armée du Salut, Paris, France• 1930: Pavillon Suisse, Cité Universitaire, Paris• 1930: Maison Errazuriz, Chile• 1930: Las Nubes, house of Uruguayan novelist Enrique Amorim

(Salto, Uruguay)• 1931: Palace of the Soviets, Moscow, USSR (project)• 1931: Immeuble Clarté, Geneva, Switzerland View on the map [27]

• 1933: Tsentrosoyuz, Moscow, USSR• 1936: Palace of Ministry of National Education and Public Health, Rio de Janeiro (as a consultant to Lucio Costa,

Oscar Niemeyer and others)• 1938: The "Cartesian" sky-scraper (project)• 1945: Usine Claude et Duval, Saint-Dié-des-Vosges, France• 1947–1952: Unité d'Habitation, Marseille, France View on the map [28], History of the Prefabricated Home [29]

• 1948: Curutchet House, La Plata, Argentina• 1949–1952: United Nations headquarters, New York City (Consultant)

Le Corbusier 76

Centre Le Corbusier (Heidi Weber Museum) inZürich-Seefeld (Zürichhorn)

A governmental building, Chandigarh, India

Villa Savoye

• 1950–1954: Chapelle Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, FranceView on the map [30]

• 1951: Cabanon de vacances, Roquebrune-Cap-Martin• 1951: Maisons Jaoul, Neuilly-sur-Seine, France• 1951: Mill Owners' Association Building, villa Sarabhai and villa

Schodan, Ahmedabad, India• 1952: Unité d'Habitation of Nantes-Rezé, Nantes, France View on

the map [31]

• 1952–1959: Buildings in Chandigarh, India• 1952: Palace of Justice (Chandigarh)• 1952: Museum and Gallery of Art (Chandigarh)• 1953: Secretariat Building (Chandigarh)• 1953: Governor's Palace (Chandigarh)• 1955: Palace of Assembly (Chandigarh)• 1959: Government College of Art (GCA) and the Chandigarh

College of Architecture(CCA) (Chandigarh)• 1956: Museum at Ahmedabad, Ahmedabad, India• 1956: Saddam Hussein Gymnasium, Baghdad, Iraq• 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Briey en Forêt, France• 1957: National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo• 1957: Maison du Brésil, Cité Universitaire, Paris• 1957–1960: Sainte Marie de La Tourette, near Lyon, France (with

Iannis Xenakis)• 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Berlin-Charlottenburg, Flatowallee 16,

Berlin View on the map [32]

• 1957: Unité d'Habitation of Meaux, France• 1958: Philips Pavilion, Brussels, Belgium (with Iannis Xenakis)

(destroyed) at the 1958 World Expositon• 1961: Center for Electronic Calculus, Olivetti, Milan, Italy• 1961: Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States• 1964–1969: Firminy-Vert

• 1964: Unité d'Habitation of Firminy, France• 1966: Stadium Firminy-Vert• 1965: Maison de la culture de Firminy-Vert• 1969: Church of Saint-Pierre, Firminy, France (built posthumously and completed under José Oubrerie's

guidance in 2006)• 1967: Heidi Weber Museum (Centre Le Corbusier), Zürich, Switzerland

Le Corbusier 77

Major written works• 1918: Après le cubisme (After Cubism), with Amédée Ozenfant• 1923: Vers une architecture (Towards an Architecture) (frequently mistranslated as "Towards a New

Architecture")• 1925: Urbanisme (Urbanism)• 1925: La Peinture moderne (Modern Painting), with Amédée Ozenfant• 1925: L'Art décoratif d'aujourd'hui (The Decorative Arts of Today)• 1931: Premier clavier de couleurs (First Color Keyboard)• 1935: Aircraft• 1935: La Ville radieuse (The Radiant City)• 1942: Charte d'Athènes (Athens Charter)• 1943: Entretien avec les étudiants des écoles d'architecture (A Conversation with Architecture Students)• 1945: Les Trios éstablishments Humains (The Three Human Establishments)• 1948: Le Modulor (The Modulor)• 1953: Le Poeme de l'Angle Droit (The Poem of the Right Angle)• 1955: Le Modulor 2 (The Modulor 2)• 1959: Deuxième clavier de couleurs (Second Colour Keyboard)• 1966: Le Voyage d'Orient (The Voyage to the East)

Quotations• "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you build houses and palaces: that is

construction. Ingenuity is at work. But suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: 'Thisis beautiful.' That is Architecture. Art enters in..." (Vers une architecture, 1923)

• "Architecture is the masterly, correct, and magnificent play of masses brought together in light."• "Space and light and order. Those are the things that men need just as much as they need bread or a place to

sleep."• "The house is a machine for living in." (Vers une architecture, 1923)• "It is a question of building which is at the root of the social unrest of today: architecture or revolution." (Vers une

architecture, 1923)• "Modern life demands, and is waiting for, a new kind of plan, both for the house and the city." (Vers une

architecture, 1923)• "The 'Styles' are a lie." (Vers une architecture, 1923)• "Architecture or revolution. Revolution can be avoided." (Vers une architecture, 1923)

MemorialsLe Corbusier's portrait was featured on the 10 Swiss francs banknote, pictured with his distinctive eyeglasses.The following place-names carry his name:• Place Le Corbusier, Paris, near the site of his atelier on the Rue de Sèvres.• Le Corbusier Boulevard, Laval, Quebec, Canada.• Place Le Corbusier in his hometown of La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland.• Le Corbusier Street in the partido of Malvinas Argentinas, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina.• Le Corbusier Street in Le Village Parisien of Brossard, Quebec, Canada.• Le Corbusier Promenade, a promenade along the water at Roquebrune-Cap-Martin.

Le Corbusier 78

See also• Category:Le Corbusier buildings – thumbnail images of buildings and articles• Modernism

References[1] Dalrymple, Theodore. 'The Architect as Totalitarian:Le Corbusier’s baleful influence', City Journal, Autumn 2009, vol. 19, no. 4[2] Brewers Dictionary of 20th Century Phrase and Fable[3] Choay, Françoise, le corbusier (1960), pp. 10-11. George Braziller, Inc. ISBN 0-8076-0104-7.[4] Gans, Deborah, The Le Corbusier Guide (2006), p. 31. Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 1-56898-539-8.[5] Evenson, Norma. Le Corbusier: The Machine and the Grand Design. George Braziller, Pub: New York, 1969 (p.7).[6] "American Colossus: the Grain Elevator 1843-1943" (http:/ / www. american-colossus. com/ ). Colossus Books. 2009. .[7] Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Le Corbusier (Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press, 1982), 231.[8] Fishman, 244-246[9] "Fondation Le Corbusier's English Version Website" (http:/ / www. fondationlecorbusier. asso. fr/ fondationlc_us. htm). .[10] "Most frequently requested artists list of the Artists Rights Society" (http:/ / arsny. com/ requested. html). .[11] Le Corbusier, The Modulor, p. 35, as cited in Padovan, Richard, Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture (1999), p. 320. Taylor &

Francis. ISBN 0-419-22780-6: "Both the paintings and the architectural designs make use of the golden section."[12] Ibid. The Modulor pp.25, as cited in Padovan's Proportion: Science, Philosophy, Architecture pp.316[13] Le Corbusier Classics LC2, LC3 and LC4 Get Colorful, Courtesy Of Cassina. (http:/ / ifitshipitshere. blogspot. com/ 2010/ 06/

le-corbusier-classics-lc2-lc3-and-lc4. html) 2010-07-27[14] Lc2 Chair in famous "blown away" Maxell Advertisment (http:/ / corbustier. com/ lc2-chair-in-famous-blown-away-maxell-advertisment/ )[15] http:/ / www. cassinausa. com/ corbusier. html[16] Antliff, Mark, Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 1909–1939. Duke University Press, 2007, p.

111.[17] Celik, Zeynep, Urban Forms and Colonial Confrontations: Algiers under French Rule, University of California Press, 1997, p. 4.[18] Fishman, 228[19] Peter Serenyi, “Le Corbusier, Fourier, and the Monastery of Ema.” The Art Bulletin 49, no. 4 (1967): 282.[20] Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape

the build environment. Oslo School of Architecture and Design. ISBN 8254701741.[21] Dalrymple 2009[22] "Kunstler on Cities of the Future" (http:/ / www. kunstler. com/ mags_cities_of_the_future. html). Kunstler.com. . Retrieved 2010-03-10.[23] Fondation Le Corbusier (http:/ / www. fondationlecorbusier. asso. fr/ )[24] Paris.org entry (http:/ / www. paris. org/ Musees/ Corbusier/ info. html)[25] http:/ / www. maisonblanche. ch[26] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=48.

924256,2. 02841& spn=0. 001472,0. 002414& t=h& z=19[27] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=46.

200229,6. 156464& spn=0. 0031,0. 004828& t=h& z=18[28] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=43.

261183,5. 396401& spn=0,359. 995172& t=h& z=18& layer=c& cbll=43. 26125,5. 397412& panoid=gSIrayV3K7aTziB_K1KGZQ&cbp=12,270. 87750318263215,,0,-5. 777772317930098

[29] http:/ / www. housing. com/ categories/ homes/ history-prefabricated-home/ unit%C3%A9-dhabitation-le-corbusier. html[30] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=47.

705849,6. 62143& spn=0. 012057,0. 019312& z=16[31] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=47.

188515,-1. 568384& spn=0. 001522,0. 002414& t=h& z=19[32] http:/ / maps. google. com/ maps/ ms?ie=UTF8& hl=en& msa=0& msid=103295916315134076315. 00045eab933932056ccb4& ll=52.

510096,13. 244179& spn=0. 002726,0. 004828& t=h& z=18

Le Corbusier 79

Further reading• Weber, Nicholas Fox, Le Corbusier: A Life, Alfred A. Knopf, 2008, ISBN 0375410430• Marco Venturi, Le Corbusier Algiers Plans, research available on planum.net (http:/ / www. planum. net/ archive/

lec. htm)• Behrens, Roy R. (2005). COOK BOOK: Gertrude Stein, William Cook and Le Corbusier. Dysart, Iowa: Bobolink

Books. ISBN 0-9713244-1-7.• Naïma Jornod and Jean-Pierre Jornod, Le Corbusier (Charles Edouard Jeanneret), catalogue raisonné de l’oeuvre

peint, Skira, 2005, ISBN 8876242031• Eliel, Carol S. (2002). L'Esprit Nouveau: Purism in Paris, 1918 - 1925. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN

0-8109-6727-8• Frampton, Kenneth. (2001). Le Corbusier. London, Thames and Hudson.• H. Allen Brooks: Le Corbusier's Formative Years: Charles-Edouard Jeanneret at La Chaux-de-Fonds, Paperback

Edition, University of Chicago Press, 1999, ISBN 0226075826

External links• Fondation Le Corbusier (http:/ / www. fondationlecorbusier. asso. fr/ ) - Official website• The Architect as Totalitarian, City Journal, Autumn 2009 (http:/ / www. city-journal. org/ 2009/

19_4_otbie-le-corbusier. html)• Le Corbusier and Villa Cook (http:/ / www. bobolinkbooks. com/ BALLAST/ CookStein. html)• Reflections on Brutalist Architecture in East London (http:/ / thethirdestate. net/ 2009/ 05/ brutal-but-true)• Podcast: Kenneth Frampton on Le Corbusier (http:/ / simplycharly. com/ podcasts/

kenneth-frampton-on-le-corbusier)• Resource site for furniture designs (http:/ / www. corbustier. com/ )• Images of the Ministry of National Education and Public Health, Rio de Janeiro (http:/ / www. fredcamper. com/

A/ Accretions/ AC005/ index. html)• Le Corbusier's projects in a map (http:/ / proyecto. localizarq. es/ etiquetas/ corbusier-le/ )• The Shape Of Things That Came: Tim Benton's Analysis Of Le Corbusier's Audacious Designs (http:/ /

simplycharly. com/ lecorbusier/ tim_benton_interview. htm)• Le Corbusier in Artfacts.Net (http:/ / www. artfacts. net/ index. php/ pageType/ artistInfo/ artist/ 2312)• Corbusier's Working Lifestyle: 'Working with Corbusier' (http:/ / www. archsociety. com/ e107_plugins/ content/

content. php?content. 24)• Video: Sector 1 Chandigarh, India (http:/ / es. youtube. com/ watch?v=iq8T_BzXTPE)• Artists Rights Society, Le Corbusier's U.S. Copyright Representatives (http:/ / www. arsny. com)• Model for the Villa Chimanbhai (http:/ / cca. qc. ca/ en/ collection/ 9-le-corbusier-villa-chimanbhai)• Proportional Systems in the architecture of Le Corbusier (http:/ / www. benflatman. com/ Le Corbusier/ Le

Corbusier. html)

Hafeez Contractor 80

Hafeez Contractor

Contractor has built several residential buildingssuch as this 25 story residential building called

Buckley Court in Colaba, Mumbai

Hafeez Contractor (born 1950) is an Indian architect. He did hisGraduate Diploma in architecture from Academy of Architecture,Mumbai in 1975 and completed his graduation from ColumbiaUniversity in New York City on a Tata scholarship. He has alsodesigned The Imperial I and II, the tallest buildings in India.

The Imperial Towers

Hafeez Contractor commenced his career in 1968 as an apprenticewith T. Khareghat and in 1977 he became the associate partner inthe firm. Between 1977 and 1980 Hafeez was a visiting faculty atthe Academy of Architecture, Mumbai. He is a member of theBombay Heritage Committee and New Delhi Lutyens BungalowZone Review Committee.

His practice started in 1983 with a staff of two. Today the firm hasover 350 employees including senior associates, architects, interiordesigners, draftsmen, civil engineering team and architecturalsupport staff. The firm has conceptualized ,designed and executeda wide range of architectural projects like bungalows; residentialdevelopments; hospitals; hotels; corporate offices; banking andfinancial institutions; commercial complexes; shopping malls;educational institutions; recreational and sports facilities;townships; airports; railway stations, urban planning and civicredevelopment projects.

Projects

DY Patil Stadium in Nerul, Navi Mumbai

• DY Patil Stadium in Nerul, Navi Mumbai• Seawoods Estate (also known as NRI complex) in Nerul,

Navi Mumbai is one of the residential complexes/ townships• One Indiabulls Center, Mumbai, India (Ongoing)• Morya Regency [1] in Bandra, Mumbai• Rodas- An ecotel in hiranandani gardens,powai• Hiranandani Gardens• Multiple Buildings , DLF City , Gurgaon• Mumbai Airport redesign• Infosys - Bangalore , Mangalore , Mysore , Trivandrum• AV Brila Training centre• Aditya Birla Corporate Head Quarters

Hafeez Contractor 81

• Russi Modi Centre of Excellence , Jamshedpur• Rajneesh Osho Ashram , Pune• NICMAR , Pune• ONGC Green Buildings- Multiple Locations• Turbe Railway Station, Navi mumbai• Low Income housing schemes , Navi Mumbai• MP Mill Slum Redevelopment Project• Thapar House , Worli , Mumbai• ITC Grand Central , Mumbai• Hyatt Regency , Mumbai• Sarla Birla Academy , Bangalore• ILFS Building , Bandra Kurla Compex, Mumbai• Vidarbha Cricket Association stadium , Jamtha , Nagpur

External links• Official website [2]

• Book: Architect Hafeez Contractor : Select works (1982-2005) [3]

• Architect Hafeez Contractor's Blog [4]

References[1] http:/ / www. emporis. com/ en/ wm/ bu/ ?id=191424[2] http:/ / www. hafeezcontractor. com/[3] http:/ / books. google. co. in/ books?id=IG85li6h8_0C& client=firefox-a& source=gbs_navlinks_s[4] http:/ / www. theurbanvision. com/ blogs/ ?author=8

Antoni Gaudí 82

Antoni Gaudí

Antoni Gaudí

Antoni Gaudí by Pau Audouard

Personal information

Born 25 June 1852Reus, or Riudoms (Catalonia, Spain)[1] [2]

Died 10 June 1926 (aged 73)Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain

Work

Buildings Sagrada Família, Casa Milà, Casa Batlló

Projects Parc Güell, Colònia Güell

Antoni Plàcid Guillem Gaudí i Cornet (Catalan pronunciation: [ənˈtɔni gəwˈði]; 25 June 1852 – 10 June 1926) was aSpanish[3] architect who worked during the Modernisme (Art Nouveau) period but became famous for his uniqueand highly individualistic designs regarded as beyond the scope of Modernisme.[4] He is sometimes referred to, inEnglish, by the Spanish translation of his name, Antonio Gaudí.[5] [6] [7]

Life

ChildhoodAntoni Gaudí was born in the province of Tarragona in southern Catalonia, Spain on 25 June 1852. While there issome dispute as to his birthplace – official documents state that he was born in the town of Reus, whereas othersclaim he was born in Riudoms, a small village 3 miles (5 km) from Reus,[2] – it is certain that he was baptized inReus a day after his birth. The artist's parents, Francesc Gaudí Serra and Antònia Cornet Bertran, both came fromfamilies of coppersmiths.During his youth, Gaudí suffered many times from the rheumatic fevers that were common at the time. This illnesscaused him to spend much time in isolation, and it also allowed him to spend lots of time alone with nature.[8]

It was this exposure to nature at an early age which is thought to have inspired him to incorporate natural shapes andthemes into his later work.[9]

Antoni Gaudí 83

Early career• 1878–1879: Lampposts for the Plaça Reial at Barcelona• 1878: Showcase for glove manufacturer Comella. Via this work, used at the World's Fair in Paris, Eusebi Güell

came to know the architect.[10]

• 1878–1882: Several designs for the Obrera Mataronense at Mataró. Only a very small part of these plans wasbuilt, but it shows Gaudí's first use of parabolic arches, here in a wooden structure

• 1883–1885: Casa Vicens• 1883–1885: Villa "El Capricho" at Comillas (Cantabria)• 1884: Finca Güell: Entrance pavilion and stables for the palace at Pedralbes (first completed building for Eusebi

Güell);• 1885–1889: Palau Güell• 1884–1891: Completion of the crypt of the Sagrada Família (the crypt had been started by the architect Francisco

del Villar in 1882, who had to abandon the project in 1883)• 1887–1893: Episcopal Palace at Astorga• 1892–1893: Casa de los Botines at León

Later years

The Casa Milà, in the Eixample, Barcelona.

Gaudí was a devout Catholic, to the point that in his later years heabandoned secular work and devoted his life to Catholicism and hisSagrada Família. He designed it to have 18 towers, 12 for the 12apostles, 4 for the 4 evangelists, one for Mary and one for Jesus. Oneof his closest family members – his niece Rosa Egea – died in 1912,only to be followed by a "faithful collaborator", Francesc BerenguerMestres, two years later. After these tragedies, Barcelona fell on hardtimes economically. The construction of La Sagrada Família slowed;the construction of La Colonia Güell ceased altogether. Four yearslater in 1918, Eusebi Güell, his patron, died.[11]

Perhaps it was because of this unfortunate sequence of events thatGaudí changed. He became reluctant to talk with reporters or have hispicture taken and solely concentrated on his masterpiece, La Sagrada Família.[11] He spent the last few years of hislife living in the crypt of the "Sagrada Familia".

On 7 June 1926[12] Gaudí was hit by a tram. Because of his ragged attire and empty pockets, many cab driversrefused to pick him up for fear that he would be unable to pay the fare. He was eventually taken to a paupers'hospital in Barcelona. Nobody recognized the injured artist until his friends found him the next day. When they triedto move him into a nicer hospital, Gaudí refused, reportedly saying "I belong here among the poor." [13] He diedthree days later on 10 June 1926, at age 73, with half of Barcelona mourning his death. He was buried in the midst ofLa Sagrada Família.[11]

Although Gaudí was constantly changing his mind and recreating his blueprints, the only existing copy of his lastrecorded blueprints was destroyed by the anarchists in 1938 during the Spanish Civil War. This has made it verydifficult for his workers to complete the church in the fashion Gaudí most likely would have wished. It is for this thatGaudí is known to many as "God's Architect". La Sagrada Família is now being completed, but differences betweenhis work and the new additions can be seen.As of 2007, completion of the Sagrada Familía is planned for 2026, which would be the 100th anniversary of Gaudí's death. It is currently at the center of a row over the proposed route of a high-speed rail tunnel that would pass near the church, approximately thirty meters below.[14] [15] [16] [17] Supporters of the tunnel point to many successful

Antoni Gaudí 84

tunneling projects under city centers. Detractors cite a metro tunnel in Barcelona’s Carmel district that collapsed anddestroyed an entire city block on February 1, 2005.[18] The route passes near some of Gaudí's other works, CasaBatlló and Casa Milà, although deep underground.

Artistic style

Gaudí's unfinished masterpiece, Sagrada Família,under construction since 1882.

Gaudí's first works were designed in the style of gothic architectureand traditional Catalan architectural modes, but he soon developed hisown distinct sculptural style. French architect Eugene Viollet-le-Duc,who promoted an evolved form of gothic architecture, proved a majorinfluence on Gaudí. The student went on to contrive highly originaldesigns – irregular and fantastically intricate. Some of his greatestworks, most notably La Sagrada Família, have an almost hallucinatorypower.

He once said on the subject of gothic architecture:Gothic art is imperfect, it means to solve; it is the style ofthe compass, the formula of industrial repetition. Itsstability is based on the permanent propping of abutments:it is a defective body that holds with support… gothicworks produce maximum emotion when they aremutilated, covered with ivy and illuminated by themoon.[19]

The same expressive power of Gaudí's monumental works exists in his oddly graceful chairs and tables. Gaudí'sarchitecture is a total integration of materials, processes and poetics. His approach to furniture design exceededstructural expression and continued with the overall architectural idea.[20]

InterestsGaudí, throughout his life, studied nature's angles and curves and incorporated them into his designs and mosaics.Instead of relying on geometric shapes, he mimicked the way men stand upright. The hyperboloids and paraboloidshe borrowed from nature were easily reinforced by steel rods and allowed his designs to resemble elements from theenvironment.Gaudí was so inspired by nature, he says, because:

Those who look for the laws of Nature as a support for their new works collaborate with the creator.[21]

Because of his rheumatism, the artist observed a strict vegetarian diet, used homeopathic drug therapy, underwentwater therapy, and hiked regularly. Long walks, besides suppressing his rheumatism, further allowed him toexperience nature.

Antoni Gaudí 85

PopularityGaudí's originality was at first ridiculed by his peers. Indeed, he was first only supported by the rich industrialistEusebi Güell. His fellow citizens referred to the Casa Milà as La Pedrera ("the quarry"), and George Orwell, whostayed in Barcelona during the Spanish Civil War, admittedly loathed his work. As time passed, though, his workbecame more famous. He stands as one of history's most original architects.

Social and political influencesThe opportunities afforded by Catalonia's socioeconomic and political influences were endless. Catalans such asAntoni Gaudí often showcased the country's diverse art techniques in their works. By mimicking nature, such artistssymbolically pushed back the ever-increasing industrial society. Gaudí, among others, promoted the Catalanmovement for regaining sovereignty from Spain by incorporating elements of Catalan culture in his designs.[22]

Gaudí was involved in politics since he supported the Catalanist political party Regionalist League. For example, in1924 Spanish authorities (ruled by the dictator Primo de Rivera) closed Barcelona's churches in order to prevent anationalist celebration (11 September, National Day of Catalonia), Gaudí attended to Saints Justus and Pastor'schurch and was arrested by the Spanish police for answering in Catalan.[23]

In popular cultureThe Alan Parsons Project released Gaudi, an album based on the life of Antoni Gaudí, in 1987. Eric Woolfson in1993 re-engineered the album as a musical, Gaudi.U.S. ambient musician Robert Rich released an album, also named Gaudí, in 1991.

Major works

View of the Park Güell, El Carmel, Barcelona.

• Casa Vicens (1884–1885)• Palau Güell (1885–1889)• College of the Teresianas (1888–1890)• Crypt of the Church of Colònia Güell (1898–1916)• Casa Calvet (1899–1904)• Casa Batlló (1905–1907)• Casa Milà (La Pedrera) (1905–1907)• Park Güell (1900–1914)• Sagrada Família Nativity façade and Crypt of the Sagrada Família church (1884 until his death in 1926, although

still under construction as of 2010)

Notes[1] See, in Catalan, Juan Bergós Massó, Gaudí, l'home i la obra ("Gaudí: The Man and his Work"), Universitat Politècnica de Barcelona (Càtedra

Gaudí), 1974 – ISBN 84-600-6248-1, section "Nacimiento" (Birth), pp. 17–18.[2] "Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 1" (http:/ / www. gaudiclub. com/ ingles/ i_vida/ i_vida. asp). . Retrieved 2005-11-05.[3] "Antoni Gaudi" (http:/ / www. archiplanet. org/ architects/ Antoni_Gaudi. html). . Retrieved 2008-10-02.[4] C. Vragel. "History of Architecture: Art Nouveau." Newschool of Architecture, San Diego, CA, April 30, 2010[5] Gaudí, living under Spanish dictatorship, was not allowed to register his name in his native Catalan. The imposed Spanish translation of his

name was popularized and spread during the nationalistic Francoist period. Many publications from this period, including English references,use the Spanish translation. His native Catalan name, Antoni, is now preferred and widely used.

[6] "Gaudí, Antonio" (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 7/ G0060700. html). The AWTmerFSFican Heritage Dictionary of the English Language:Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. 2000. . Retrieved 2008-11-11.

[7] "Gaudí, Antonio" (http:/ / www. RTWRTdictionary. reference. com/ browse/ gaudi). Random House Unabridged Dictionary. Random House,Inc.. 2006. . Retrieved 2008-11-11.

[8] (http:/ / www. ezmuseum. com/ Gaudi. htm)

Antoni Gaudí 86

[9] "Biography at ArteHistoria" (http:/ / www. artehistoria. com/ arte/ personajes/ 6764. htm) (in German). . Retrieved 2005-11-09.[10] "Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club, page 4" (http:/ / www. gaudiclub. com/ ingles/ i_vida/ i_vida4. asp). .[11] "Biography at Gaudí and Barcelona Club" (http:/ / www. gaudiclub. com/ ingles/ i_vida/ i_vida5. asp). p. 5. . Retrieved 2005-11-09.[12] Antoni Gaudí, Catalan Modernist Architect – Life of Antoni Gaudí (http:/ / architecture. about. com/ library/ blgaudi. htm)[13] Antoni Gaudí, Biography (http:/ / www. barcelona-life. com/ barcelona/ gaudi)[14] "Video produced by SOS Sagrada Familia (http:/ / www. sossagradafamilia. org)" (http:/ / www. elperiodico. com/ default.

asp?idpublicacio_PK=46& idioma=CAS& idnoticia_PK=425520& idseccio_PK=1022). .[15] Video produced by SOS Sagrada Familia (http:/ / www. elperiodico. com/ default. asp?idpublicacio_PK=46& idioma=CAS&

idnoticia_PK=425520& idseccio_PK=1022)[16] Sossagradafamilia.org (http:/ / www. sossagradafamilia. org)[17] SOSSAGRADAFAMILIA.ORG-(radio-english) (http:/ / it. youtube. com/ watch?v=aKJW-mN_kmo) YouTube[18] Carmel Tunnel Collapse in Barcelona (http:/ / geographyfieldwork. com/ CarmelTunnel. htm)[19] Carlos Flores, Les lliçons de Gaudí, p. 89[20] Dalisi, R., (1979), Gaudí, mobili e oggetti, Milan: Gruppo Editoriale Electa S.p.A.[21] Brainyquote.com (http:/ / www. brainyquote. com/ quotes/ authors/ a/ antonio_gaudi. html)[22] Roth, Leland M. (1993). Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning (First ed.). Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

pp. 452–454. ISBN 0-06-430158-3.[23] Gaudi and Art Nouveau in Catalonia (http:/ / www. gaudiallgaudi. com/ AA002crono. htm)

References• Cèsar Martinell. Antoni Gaudí. Barcelona, 1975 (English edition).

External links• Gallery of Gaudi's works (http:/ / itiscreation. com/ 2010/ 08/ 25/ antoni-gaudi/ )• Casa Batlló (http:/ / www. casabatllo. es/ ) (multilingual; requires Adobe Flash)• Sagrada Família (http:/ / www. sagradafamilia. org/ ) (multilingual)• La Pedrera (http:/ / www. lapedreraeducacio. org/ ) (multilingual; requires Adobe Flash)• Other Gaudi works (http:/ / www. gaudisagradafamilia. com/ lesser-known-gaudi-works/ )• Gaudi: Designer (http:/ / www. gaudidesigner. com/ uk/ index. html) (English), (French), (Spanish)

• Hyperboloid structures by Gaudí (http:/ / www. business. otago. ac. nz/ SIRC05/ conferences/ 2001/ 05_burry.pdf)PDF (420 KiB)

• Antoni Plàcid Gaudí i Cornet (http:/ / en. structurae. de/ persons/ data/ index. cfm?ID=d000014) information atStructurae

• Antoni Gaudí (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Arts/ Architecture/ History/ Architects/ G/ Gaudí,_Antoni/ / ) at theOpen Directory Project

• Antoni Gaudí i Cornet (http:/ / www. gaudiallgaudi. com/ AA002. htm)• Gaudí's arrest (http:/ / webs. racocatala. cat/ cat1714/ d/ gaudi. pdf)PDF (142 KiB) (Catalan)

• Guell Palace Site (http:/ / www. palauguell. cat) (multilingual)• Church of Colònia Güell virtual visit (http:/ / guell. vrama. net) (multilingual; requires Adobe Flash)• Gaudí Tours (http:/ / www. barcelonaguidebureau. com/ index. php) (English)

• Gaudí Center Reus (http:/ / www. gaudicentre. cat/ eng/ index. html)

Achyut Kanvinde 87

Achyut Kanvinde

PK Kelkar Library, IIT Kanpur, designed by Achyut Kanvinde

Padma Shri Achyut P. Kanvinde (1916–28December 2002) is considered as one offorefathers of modern Indian architecture.[1]

Early life and education

He was born in Achara, in the Konkan region ofMaharashtra, in 1916 in a large family. His motherdied when he was two and his father was an artsteacher in Bombay. Kanvinde entered the Sir J.J.School of Art (University of Mumbai) in 1935, tostudy architecture under Claude Batley. He laterstudied design at Harvard in 1945 and wasinfluenced by the works of Walter Gropius.

Career

The University of AgriculturalSciences, Bangalore campus

designed by Kanvinde and Rai

Along with his partner S. Rai, he opened a firm Kanvinde, Rai and Chowdhuryin New Delhi (which is currently run by Mr. Sanjay Kanvinde, Mrs. B.K. Tanujaand Mr. Murad Chaudhury). The firm has been responsible for IIT Kanpur,National Science Centre, Delhi, NII Pune, numerous dairy buildings underNDDB and many other great buildings.[2] .

References[1] Jon T. Lang 2002 A Concise History of Modern Architecture in India. Orient Blackswan.[2] An Architecture of Independence: The Making of Modern South Asia (http:/ / www. upenn. edu/

ARG/ archive/ architecture/ architecture. html) University of Pennsylvania.

External links

• http:/ / www. angelfire. com/ tx/ deenu2/ alofsin. html• http:/ / www. iianc. org/ vs/ novdec2002. pdf

Joseph Allen Stein 88

Joseph Allen Stein

Joseph Allen Stein in 1986

Joseph Stein, (April 10, 1912 – October 14, 2001) wasan American architect. He is noted for designingseveral important buildings in India.[1]

Biography

Joseph Allen Stein was born on April 10, 1912, inOmaha, Nebraska. He studied architecture at theUniversity of Illinois, the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Parisand the Cranbrook Academy of Art.[2] He apprenticedwith Richard Neutra in Los Angeles, and after that heestablished a practice in San Francisco.

In 1952 he moved to India, and became head of thedepartment of architecture at the Bengal EngineeringCollege in Calcutta. He worked in New Delhi from1955 onwards, starting with another Americanarchitect, Benjamin Polk [3] and even after retirement in1995, continued to design for the architecture firm he founded.

He was awarded the Padma Shri, India's fourth highest civilian honor, in 1992. He married the late Margaret Suydamin 1938. He died on October 14, 2001, at age 89 in Raleigh, North Carolina [4] . He is survived by their sons Davidand Ethan.

Selected projects

India Habitat Centre (IHC), Lodhi Road, New Delhi, intypical Stein architecture

• 1940: "One Family Defense House" (with Gregory Ain),unbuilt[5]

• 1940: "Low-Cost House", unbuilt[6]

• 1947: Ladera Cooperative (with John Funk; landscapearchitect: Garrett Eckbo), Palo Alto, CA

• 1968: Indian Express Tower, Nariman Point, Mumbai [7] ,relandscaping of Lodhi Gardens, along with Garrett Eckbo [8]

.• Several buildings in Lodi Estate, New Delhi, including the

headquarters of the Ford Foundation, Unicef and the WorldWide Fund for Nature, a conference center called the IndiaInternational Center (1959–62), and the India Habitat Centerfor housing and environmental studies.

• Indian Institute of Management Kozhikode campus, Kerala.• Triveni Kala Sangam arts center, New Delhi• Several factories with roofs inspired by the domes used in

traditional Indian architecture• Kashmir Conference Center

Joseph Allen Stein 89

Notes[1] Lewis, Paul (October 14, 2001), "Joseph Stein, 89, Architect Noted for Work in India, Is Dead" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage.

html?res=9A07E1DB103FF937A25753C1A9679C8B63), New York Times.,[2] Weinstein, Dave (April 7, 2007), "Architectural idealist: Modernist Joseph Allen Stein preferred to design public housing and finished his

career in India" (http:/ / www. sfgate. com/ cgi-bin/ article. cgi?f=/ c/ a/ 2007/ 04/ 07/ HOGHVP2AAP1. DTL), San Francisco Chronicle.,[3] A Concise History of Modern Architecture in India, by Jon T. Lang, Orient Blackswan, 2002. ISBN 8178240173. Page 45.[4] OBITUARY - A built legacy - Joseph Allen Stein, 1912-2001 (http:/ / www. hinduonnet. com/ fline/ fl1823/ 18230810. htm) Frontline, The

Hindu, Volume 18 - Issue 23, Nov. 10 - 23, 2001.[5] "One Family Defense House Project, Designed by Gregory Ain", Architectural Forum 73, November 1940[6] "Low-Cost House", Architectural Forum 73, October 1940[7] among the first skyscrapers to be constructed in India.. (http:/ / www. telegraphindia. com/ 1060519/ asp/ propertt/ story_6242627. asp) The

Telegraph, May 19, 2006.[8] Eicher: City Guide - Delhi, Eicher Goodearth Publication. 1998. ISBN 8190060120. Page 117.

Other sources• White, Stephen (1993), Building in the Garden: The Architecture of Joseph Allen Stein in India and California,

Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195629248• The architecture of Joseph Allen Stein in India and California, by Stephen White, Oxford University Press, 1993.• The responsibility for environment: First address, 9 October 1962, by Joseph Allen Stein. University of

California, College of Environmental Design, 1962.

External links• Stein’s gone but his works live on (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/ 185451132. cms) at Times

of India.

Raj Rewal 90

Raj Rewal

Raj RewalPersonal information

Nationality Indian

Work

Buildings Asiad Village, Parliament Library, New Delhi

Raj Rewal is a leading Indian architect.[1]

Early lifeRaj Rewal was born in 1934 in Hoshiarpur, Punjab, India. He created a revolution in geometric design systems.Creation of geometric systems and responding visual imageries are apparent in Raj Rewal’s architectural works.He even went to School of Art in Delhi for six months before joining the School of Architecture. He chiselled his artin London's Architectural Association School[2]

CareerHe lived in Delhi and Shimla for a couple of years in his childhood that is from 1939 – 1951. He attended HarcourtButler higher secondary school. In 1951-1954, he attended Delhi School of Architecture in New Delhi.He was very imaginative and a creative person. His imaginative perception helped him go a long way. He believed ingaining knowledge and then applied his knowledge mingled with creativity in his projects.After completing the post graduation in Architecture; in 1955-1961, he moved to London and attended thearchitectural association of architecture for one year. He completed his formal professional training at the Brixtonschool of building, London.Raj Rewal took up his first job as an assistant stage manager for several avante grade theatre production in London.He became an associate of the Royal Institute of British Architects, London.Raj Rewal worked with Michel Ecochards’s office in Paris before starting his practice in New Delhi. He designeddesigned the Asiad Village and the Parliament Library in New Delhi. He got married to a Lady named Helene fromFrance in 1962.He set up his own architectural practice in 1962 when he returned back to Delhi. In 1963-72, he taught at the DelhiSchool of Architecture. He opened his second Architectural Office at Tehran, Iran in 1974. Ram Sharma was hisassociate in the foundation of the Architectural Research Cell in 1985. In 1986, he became the curator of theexhibition “Traditional Architecture in India” for the festival of India in Paris.Raj Rewal worked with Michel Ecochards's office in Paris before starting his practice in New Delhi.He designed designed the Asiad Village and the Parliament Library in New Delhi.He was assigned a Project of thedesign of a Parliament Library which he designed beautifully with lot of grace and also adding majestic qualities tothe structure.

Raj Rewal 91

Awards• Gold Medal from Indian Institute of Architects• Robert Mathew Award from the Commonwealth Associations of Architects.

References[1] http:/ / www. architectureweek. com/ 2003/ 1022/ design_1-1. html[2] http:/ / beta. thehindu. com/ life-and-style/ metroplus/ article77671. ece

External links• Official site (http:/ / www. rajrewal. in/ index_1024. htm)• The Designer of Secular India (http:/ / beta. thehindu. com/ life-and-style/ metroplus/ article77671. ece)

Philip Johnson 92

Philip Johnson

Philip Johnson

Philip Johnson at age 95 with his model of a 30' by 60' sculpture created for a Qatari collector.

Personal information

Nationality American

Born July 8, 1906Cleveland, Ohio, United States

Died January 25, 2005 (aged 98)New Canaan, Connecticut, United States

Alma mater Harvard Graduate School of Design

Work

Buildings IDS Tower, PPG Place, Crystal Cathedral

Design Buildings clad entirely in glass

Awards Pritzker Prize (1979)

Philip Cortelyou Johnson (July 8, 1906 – January 25, 2005) was an influential American architect. With his thick,round-framed glasses, Johnson was the most recognizable figure in American architecture for decades.In 1930, he founded the Department of Architecture and Design at the Museum of Modern Art in New York Cityand later (1978), as a trustee, he was awarded an American Institute of Architects Gold Medal and the first PritzkerArchitecture Prize, in 1979. He was a student at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. When Johnson died inJanuary 2005, he was survived by his long-time life partner, David Whitney, [1] [2] who died only a few months later,on June 12, 2005.

Philip Johnson 93

Early life

Chapel of St. Basil on the Academic Mall at theUniversity of St. Thomas in Houston, Texas.

Johnson was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He was descended from theJansen (a.k.a. Johnson) family of New Amsterdam, and includedamong his ancestors the Huguenot Jacques Cortelyou, who laid out thefirst town plan of New Amsterdam for Peter Stuyvesant. He attendedthe Hackley School, in Tarrytown, New York, and then studied atHarvard University as an undergraduate, where he focused on historyand philosophy, particularly the work of the Pre-Socratic philosophers.Johnson interrupted his education with several extended trips toEurope.[3] These trips became the pivotal moment of his education; hevisited Chartres, the Parthenon, and many other ancient monuments,becoming increasingly fascinated with architecture.

In 1928 Johnson met with architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, who was at the time designing the German Pavilionfor the 1929 Barcelona International Exposition. The meeting was a revelation for Johnson and formed the basis fora lifelong relationship of both collaboration and competition.

Johnson returned from Germany as a proselytizer for the new architecture. Touring Europe more comprehensivelywith his friends Alfred H. Barr, Jr. and Henry-Russell Hitchcock to examine firsthand recent trends in architecture,the three assembled their discoveries as the landmark show "The International Style: Architecture Since 1922" at theMuseum of Modern Art, in 1932. The show was profoundly influential and is seen as the introduction of modernarchitecture to the American public. It introduced such pivotal architects as Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius, and Miesvan der Rohe. The exhibition was also notable for a controversy: architect Frank Lloyd Wright withdrew his entriesin pique that he was not more prominently featured.As critic Peter Blake has stated, the importance of this show in shaping American architecture in the century "cannotbe overstated." In the book accompanying the show, coauthored with Hitchcock, Johnson argued that the newmodern style maintained three formal principles: 1. an emphasis on architectural volume over mass (planes ratherthan solidity) 2. a rejection of symmetry and 3. rejection of applied decoration. The definition of the movement as a"style" with distinct formal characteristics has been seen by some critics as downplaying the social and political bentthat many of the European practitioners shared.

Puerta de Europa in Madrid

Johnson continued to work as a proponent of modern architecture,using the Museum of Modern Art as a bully pulpit. He arranged for LeCorbusier's first visit to the United States in 1935, then worked to bringMies and Marcel Breuer to the US as emigres.

In the 1930s Johnson sympathized with Nazism, and expressedantisemitic ideas.[4] Regarding this period in his life, he later said, "Ihave no excuse (for) such unbelievable stupidity... I don't know howyou expiate guilt."[5]

During the Great Depression, Johnson resigned his post at MoMA totry his hand at journalism and agrarian populist politics. Hisenthusiasm centered on the critique of the liberal welfare state, whose "failure" seemed to be much in evidenceduring the 1930s. As a correspondent, Johnson observed the Nuremberg Rallies in Germany and covered theinvasion of Poland in 1939. The invasion proved the breaking point in Johnson's interest in journalism or politics –he returned to enlist in the US Army. After a couple of self-admittedly undistinguished years in uniform, Johnsonreturned to the Harvard Graduate School of Design to finally pursue his ultimate career of architect.

Philip Johnson 94

The Glass House

A model of the Glass House on display at theMuseum of Modern Art in New York City

Johnson's early influence as a practicing architect was his use of glass;his masterpiece was the Glass House (1949) he designed as his ownresidence in New Canaan, Connecticut, a profoundly influential work.The concept of a Glass House set in a landscape with views as its real“walls” had been developed by many authors in the GermanGlasarchitektur drawings of the 1920s, and already sketched in initialform by Johnson's mentor Mies. The building is an essay in minimalstructure, geometry, proportion, and the effects of transparency andreflection.

The house sits at the edge of a crest on Johnson’s estate overlooking apond. The building's sides are glass and charcoal-painted steel; thefloor, of brick, is not flush with the ground but sits 10 inches above. The interior is an open space divided by lowwalnut cabinets; a brick cylinder contains the bathroom and is the only object to reach floor to ceiling.

Johnson continued to build structures on his estate as architectural essays. Offset obliquely fifty feet from the GlassHouse is a guest house, echoing the proportions of the Glass House and completely enclosed in brick (except forsmall round windows at the rear). It contains a bathroom, library, and single bedroom with a gilt vaulted ceiling andshag carpet. It was built at the same time as the Glass House and can be seen as its formal counterpart. Johnsonstated that he deliberately designed it to be less than perfectly comfortable, as "guests are like fish, they should onlylast three days at most".Later, Johnson added a painting gallery with an innovative viewing mechanism of rotating walls to hold paintings(influenced by the Hogarth displays at Sir John Soane's house), followed by a sky-lit sculpture gallery. The laststructures Johnson built on the estate were a library and a reception building, the latter, red and black in color and ofcurving walls. Johnson viewed the ensemble of one-room buildings as a total work of art, claiming that it was hisbest and only "landscape project."The Philip Johnson Glass House is a site of the National Trust for Historic Preservation and now open to the publicfor tours.

The Seagram BuildingAfter completing several houses in the idiom of Mies and Breuer, Johnson joined Mies van der Rohe as the NewYork associate architect for the 39-story Seagram Building (1956). Johnson was pivotal in steering the commissiontowards Mies, working with Phyllis Lambert, the daughter of the CEO of Seagram. This collaboration of architectsand client resulted in the bronze-and-glass tower on Park Avenue.Completing the Seagram Building with Mies also decisively marked a shift in Johnson's career. After thisaccomplishment, Johnson's practice grew as projects came in from the public realm, including coordinating themaster plan of Lincoln Center and designing that complex's New York State Theater. Meanwhile, Johnson began togrow bored with the orthodoxies of the International Style he had championed.

Philip Johnson 95

Later buildings

The postmodern AT&T Building,now the Sony Building

Although startling when constructed, the glass and steel tower (indeed manyidioms of the modern movement) had by the 1960s become commonplace theworld over. He eventually rejected much of the metallic appearance of earlierInternational Style buildings, and began designing spectacular, crystallinestructures uniformly sheathed in glass. Many of these became instant icons, suchas PPG Place in Pittsburgh and the Crystal Cathedral in Garden Grove,California.

The Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, Californiain 2007.

Johnson's architectural work is a balancing act between two dominanttrends in post-war American art: the more "serious" movement ofMinimalism, and the more populist movement of Pop Art. His bestwork has aspects of both movements. Johnson's personal collectionsreflected this dichotomy, as he introduced artists such as Mark Rothkoto the Museum of Modern Art as well as Andy Warhol. Straddlingbetween these two camps, his work was seen by purists of either sideas always too contaminated or influenced by the other.

From 1967 to 1991 Johnson collaborated with John Burgee. This wasby far Johnson's most productive period — certainly by the measure ofscale — he became known at this time as builder of iconic office

towers, including Minneapolis's IDS Tower. That building's distinctive stepbacks (called "zogs" by the architect)created an appearance that has since become one of Minneapolis's trademarks and the crown jewel of its skyline. In1980, the Crystal Cathedral was completed for Rev. Robert H. Schuller's famed megachurch, which became aSouthern California landmark.

Atrium of the New York State Theater at LincolnCenter.

The AT&T Building in Manhattan, now the Sony Building, wascompleted in 1984 and was immediately controversial for itsneo-Georgian pediment (Chippendale top). At the time, it was seen asprovocation on a grand scale: crowning a Manhattan skyscraper with ashape echoing a historical wardrobe top defied every precept of themodernist aesthetic: historical pattern had been effectively outlawedamong architects for years. In retrospect other critics have seen theAT&T Building as the first Postmodernist statement, necessary in thecontext of modernism's aesthetic cul-de-sac. In 1987, Johnson wasawarded an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Houston.The institution's Hines College of Architecture is also housed in one ofJohnson's buildings.

Johnson's publicly held archive, including architectural drawings, project records, and other papers up until 1964 areheld by the Drawings and Archives Department of Avery Architectural and Fine Arts Library at ColumbiaUniversity, the Getty, and the Museum of Modern Art.

Philip Johnson 96

Notable works

PPG Place in Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania, in 2007.

Hines College of Architecture at the University ofHouston, Houston, Texas, in 2007.

The Johnson Building at Boston Public Library,Boston, Massachusetts, in 2008.

1943–1980

• Johnson House at Cambridge, "The Arch Street House", Cambridge,Massachusetts (1942–1943)

• Booth (Damora) House, Bedford Village, New York (1946)• Johnson House, "The Glass House", New Canaan, Connecticut

(1949)• John de Menil House, Houston, Texas (1950)• Rockefeller Guest House for Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, New York

City, New York (1950)• Seagram Building, New York City, New York (in collaboration

with Mies van der Rohe; 1956)• The Four Seasons Restaurant, New York City, New York (1959)• Expansion of St. Anselm's Abbey, Washington, D.C. (1960)• Museum of Art at Munson-Williams-Proctor Arts Institute, Utica,

New York (1960)• Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Sculpture Garden at The Museum of

Modern Art, New York City, New York• Sheldon Museum of Art, Lincoln, Nebraska (1963)• New York State Theater (renamed David H. Koch Theater) at

Lincoln Center, New York City, New York (with Richard Foster;1964)

• Amon Carter Museum, Fort Worth, Texas (1961; also expansion in2001)

• New York State Pavilion for the 1964 New York World's Fair, NewYork City, New York (1964)

• Kreeger Museum, Washington, D.C. (with Richard Foster; 1967)• Main campus mall at the University of Saint Thomas, Houston,

Texas• Elmer Holmes Bobst Library at New York University, New York

City, New York (1967–1973)• John Fitzgerald Kennedy Memorial, Dallas, Texas (1970)[6]

• IDS Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota (1972)• Art Museum of South Texas, Corpus Christi, Texas (1972)• Johnson Building at the Boston Public Library, Boston,

Massachusetts (1973)• Fort Worth Water Gardens, Fort Worth, Texas (1974)• Pennzoil Place, Houston, Texas (1975)• Dorothy and Dexter Baker Center for the Arts at Muhlenberg College, Allentown, Pennsylvania (1976)• Thanks-Giving Square, Dallas, Texas (1976)• 101 California Street, San Francisco, California (Johnson/Burgee Architects; 1979–1982)• Neuberger Museum of Art at the State University of New York at Purchase, Purchase, New York• Crystal Cathedral, Garden Grove, California (1980)• Tata Theatre, National Centre for the Performing Arts, Mumbai, India (1980)

Philip Johnson 97

1981–2010• Metro-Dade Cultural Center, Miami, Florida (1982)• Chapel of St. Basil and the Academic Mall at the University of St. Thomas, Houston, Texas• Republic Bank Center (renamed Bank of America Center), Houston, Texas (1983)• Transco Tower (renamed Williams Tower), Houston, Texas (1983)• Cleveland Play House, Cleveland, Ohio (extension; 1983)• Wells Fargo Center, Denver, Colorado (1983)• PPG Place, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (1984)• The Gerald D. Hines College of Architecture, University of Houston, Houston, Texas (1985)• Lipstick Building, New York City, New York (1986)• Comerica Bank Tower, Dallas, Texas (1987)• 190 South LaSalle Street, Chicago, Illinois (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1987)• Gate of Europe, Madrid, Spain (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1989–1996)• 191 Peachtree Tower, Atlanta, Georgia (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1990)• The Museum of Television & Radio (renamed Paley Center for Media), New York City, New York (1991)• Chapel of St. Basil at the University of St. Thomas, Houston, Texas (with John Manley, Architect; 1992)• Science and Engineering Library at Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (1992)• AEGON Center, Louisville, Kentucky (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1993)• One Detroit Center, Detroit, Michigan (John Burgee Architects, Philip Johnson Consultant; 1993)• Visitor's Pavilion, New Canaan, Connecticut (1994)• Turning Point at Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio (1996)• Philip-Johnson-Haus, Berlin, Germany (1997)• First Union Plaza, Boca Raton, Florida (2000)• Interfaith Peace Chapel on the Cathedral of Hope campus, Dallas, Texas (2010)

Johnson in popular cultureHe is mentioned in the song "Thru These Architect's Eyes" on the album Outside (1995) by David Bowie.

References[1] (subscription required) Kennedy, Randy (June 14, 2005). "David Whitney, 66, Renowned Art Collector, Dies" (http:/ / www. nytimes.

com/ 2005/ 06/ 14/ arts/ design/ 14whitney. html). The New York Times. . Retrieved May 11, 2009.[2] (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=m1UEAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA70& lpg=PA70& dq=Lyrical+ Abstraction+ Whitney+ catalog&

source=bl& ots=WBmFZkTZT3& sig=5Wgy2zOaoyJ39hI7sTAYccmJjCI& hl=en& ei=BZwNTKORF8SBlAf3rs2XDg& sa=X&oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CBQQ6AEwATgy#v=onepage& q& f=false) Bourdon, David (May 1970). "What's Up in Art,The Castelli Clan". Life. Accessed June 9, 2010.

[3] Saint, Andrew (January 29, 2005). "Philip Johnson — Flamboyant Postmodern Architect Whose Career Was Marred by a Flirtation withNazism" (http:/ / www. guardian. co. uk/ obituaries/ story/ 0,3604,1401260,00. html). The Guardian. . Retrieved August 12, 2010.

[4] Stern, Robert A. M. (May 2005). "Philip Johnson: An Essay by Robert A.M. Stern" (http:/ / archrecord. construction. com/ people/ profiles/archives/ 0505johnsonProfile_stern. asp). Architectural Record. . Retrieved August 12, 2010.

[5] Varnelis, Kazys (November 1994). "We Cannot Know History — Philip Johnson's Politics and Cynical Survival" (http:/ / varnelis. net/research/ johnson. html). Journal of Architectural Education. . Retrieved August 12, 2010.

[6] John F. Kennedy Memorial. Philip Johnson, Memorial Architect (http:/ / www. jfk. org/ Research/ Kennedy_Memorial/ Architect. htm)

Philip Johnson 98

Further reading• Schulze, Franz. Philip Johnson: Life and Work, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.• Lacayo, Richard (June 28, 2007). "Splendor in the Glass" (http:/ / www. time. com/ time/ magazine/ article/

0,9171,1638456,00. html). Time. Accessed August 12, 2010.• Philip Johnson: Diary of an Eccentric Architect, 1997 documentary.• "Extending the Legacy" (http:/ / www. metropolismag. com/ cda/ story. php?artid=2377) Alexandra Lange article

on the preservation of the Glass House, from the November 2006 issue of Metropolis magazine.• Philip Johnson article at Great Buildings Online (http:/ / www. greatbuildings. com/ architects/ Philip_Johnson.

html). Retrieved Sep. 27, 2003.• Philip Johnson bio on the Pritzker Architecture Prize website (http:/ / www. pritzkerprize. com/ pjohn. htm).

Retrieved Sep. 27, 2003.• Philip Johnson on NewsHour (1996) (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ newshour/ bb/ environment/ johnson_7-9a. html).

Retrieved Sep. 27, 2003.• Heyer, Paul, ed. (1966). Architects on Architecture: New Directions in America, p. 279. New York: Walker and

Company.• One hour interview with [[Charlie Rose (http:/ / video. google. com/ videoplay?docid=-1521371649740956773&

q=philip+ johnson+ architecture)] at Google Video (July 8, 1996)]• Other interviews with or about Phillip Johnson on Charlie Rose at Google Video (http:/ / video. google. com/

videosearch?q=philip+ johnson+ architecture& so=0)• Tompkins, Calvin (May 23, 1977). "Profile of Philip Johnson". The New Yorker.• Jenkins, Stover, et al. The Houses of Philip Johnson, New York: Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press,

Inc.), 2001.

External links• Obituary (http:/ / www. legacy. com/ Obituaries. asp?Page=LifeStory& PersonID=3087991)• Philip Johnson (http:/ / www. findagrave. com/ cgi-bin/ fg. cgi?page=gr& GRid=10379550) at Find a Grave• Philip Johnson speaks at the University of Houston (http:/ / www. researchchannel. org/ prog/ displayevent.

aspx?rID=3092& fID=345)• The Architecture of Philip Johnson (http:/ / www. bluffton. edu/ ~sullivanm/ index/ johnson/ johnsonindex. html)• (subscription required) Pogrebin, Robin (August 8, 2010). "The Hand of a Master Architect" (http:/ / www.

nytimes. com/ 2010/ 08/ 09/ arts/ design/ 09archive. html?ref=arts). The New York Times.

B. V. Doshi 99

B. V. Doshi

B. V. DoshiPersonal information

Nationality Indian

Born August 26, 1927

Work

Balkrishna Vithaldas Doshi (born 26 August 1927) is an Indian architect.

Early lifeB. V. Doshi was born in Pune, India. He studied at the J. J. School of Architecture, Mumbai.

CareerB. V. Doshi worked in London then for four years with Le Corbusier. He returned to Ahmedabad to supervise LeCorbusier's work. His studio, Vastu-Shilpa (environmental design), was established in 1955. Doshi worked closelywith Louis Kahn and Anant Raje, when Kahn designed the campus of the Indian Institute of Management,Ahmedabad. In 1958 he was a fellow at the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies in the Fine Arts. He thenstarted the School of Architecture (S.A) in 1962.Doshi is a Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects, and has been on the selection committee for thePritzker Prize, the Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, and the Aga Khan Award. He is also a Fellow of theIndian Institute of ArchitectsAfter initial study at the J J School of Architecture, Bombay, he worked for four years with Le Corbusier as SeniorDesigner (1951–54) in Paris and four more years in India to supervise his projects in Ahmedabad. His officeVastu-Shilpa (environmental design) was established in 1955.Dr Doshi has been a member of the Jury for several international and national competitions including the IndiraGandhi National Centre for Arts and Aga Khan Award for Architecture.Apart from his international fame as an architect, Dr. Doshi is equally known as educator and institution builder. Hehas been the first founder Director of School of Architecture, Ahmedabad (1962–72), first founder Director ofSchool of Planning (1972–79), first founder Dean of Centre for Environmental Planning and Technology (1972–81),founder member of Visual Arts Centre, Ahmedabad and first founder Director of Kanoria Centre for Arts,Ahmedabad. Dr. Doshi has been instrumental in establishing the nationally and internationally known researchinstitute Vastu-Shilpa Foundation for Studies and Research in Environmental Design. The institute has donepioneering work in low cost housing and city planning.As an academician, Dr. Doshi has been visiting the U.S.A. and Europe since 1958 and has held important chairs inAmerican Universities.In recognition of his distinguished contribution as a professional and as an academician, Dr. Doshi has receivedseveral international and national awards and honours.In 2008, 100hands director Prjmit Ramachandran released a documentary interviewing Doshi.Doshi was the teacher for contemporary designer and University of Pennsylvania professor Anuradha Mathur.

B. V. Doshi 100

Related links• Vastu Shilpa Consultants and Vastu Shilpa Foundation [1]

• Video: Interview of BV Doshi by Christopher Benninger [2]

Further reading• Curtis, William J. R., Balikrishna Doshi: An Architecture for India, Rizzoli, New York 1988, ISBN 0847809374• James Steel, The Complete Architecture of Balikrishna Doshi, Rethinking Modernism for the Developing World,

Thames and Hudson, London 1998, ISBN 0-500-28082-7

References[1] http:/ / www. sangath. org/[2] http:/ / aecworldxp. com/ edesign/ 361/ interviews/ conversation

Anant Raje 101

Anant Raje

AnantDamodar RajePersonal information

Nationality Indian

Work

Anant Damodar Raje (September 26 1929 - June 27, 2009) was an Indian architect and intellectual

Early lifeAnanth Raje was born in Mumbai, India. He studied at the Sir J. J. College of Architecture.

CareerHe worked with Louis Kahn in Philadelphia, where he also taught at the University of Pennsylvania. As Kahn'sstudent, he devoted his life to see the completion of the Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, which Kahndid not live to see completed.For over thirty years he has taught at the School of Architecture Ahmedabad. He also taught at the University ofNew Mexico, in The United States of America, and was a visiting professor at many universities in America andEurope.His well known works include the Executive Management Centre at the Indian Institute of Management inAhmedabad, India, the Forest Management Institute in Bhopal, India and the Institute of Statistics in New Delhi.

DeathRaje died on 27 June 2009.

References• "He was a teacher and an institution" [1]. The Times of India. 1 July 2009.

References[1] http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ city/ surat/ He-was-a-teacher-and-an-institution/ articleshow/ 4721898. cms

Walter Gropius 102

Walter Gropius

Walter Adolph Gropius

Walter Gropius (circa 1920). Photo by Louis Held.

Personal information

Nationality German / American

Born May 18, 1883Berlin, Germany

Died July 5, 1969 (aged 86)Cambridge, Massachusetts

Work

Practice Peter Behrens (1908–1910)The Architects' Collaborative (1945–1969)

Buildings Fagus FactoryFactory Buildings at the Werkbund Exhibition(1914)BauhausVillage CollegeGropius HouseHarvard Graduate CenterUniversity of BaghdadJohn F. Kennedy Federal Office BuildingPan Am BuildingInterbauWayland High SchoolEmbassy of the United States in Athens

Walter Adolph Georg Gropius (May 18, 1883 – July 5, 1969) was a German architect and founder of the BauhausSchool[1] who, along with Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Le Corbusier, is widely regarded as one of the pioneeringmasters of modern architecture.

Walter Gropius 103

Early lifeBorn in Berlin, Walter Gropius was the third child of Walter Adolph Gropius and Manon Auguste PaulineScharnweber. Gropius married Alma Mahler (1879–1964), widow of Gustav Mahler. Walter and Alma's daughter,named Manon after Walter's mother, was born in 1916. When Manon died of polio at age eighteen, composer AlbanBerg wrote his Violin Concerto in memory of her (it is inscribed "to the memory of an angel"). Gropius and Almadivorced in 1920. (Alma had by that time established a relationship with Franz Werfel, whom she later married.) In1923 Gropius married Ise (Ilse) Frank (d. 1983), and they remained together until his death. They adopted BeateGropius, also known as Ati.

Early careerWalter Gropius, like his father and his great-uncle Martin Gropius before him, became an architect. Gropius couldnot draw, and was dependent on collaborators and partner-interpreters throughout his career. In school he hired anassistant to complete his homework for him. In 1908 Gropius found employment with the firm of Peter Behrens, oneof the first members of the utilitarian school. His fellow employees at this time included Ludwig Mies van der Rohe,Le Corbusier, and Dietrich Marcks.In 1910 Gropius left the firm of Behrens and together with fellow employee Adolf Meyer established a practice inBerlin. Together they share credit for one of the seminal modernist buildings created during this period: theFaguswerk in Alfeld-an-der-Leine, Germany, a shoe last factory. Although Gropius and Meyer only designed thefacade, the glass curtain walls of this building demonstrated both the modernist principle that form reflects functionand Gropius's concern with providing healthful conditions for the working class. Other works of this early periodinclude the office and factory building for the Werkbund Exhibition (1914) in Cologne.In 1913, Gropius published an article about "The Development of Industrial Buildings," which included about adozen photographs of factories and grain elevators in North America. A very influential text, this article had a stronginfluence on other European modernists, including Le Corbusier and Erich Mendelsohn, both of whom reprintedGropius's grain elevator pictures between 1920 and 1930.[2]

Gropius's career was interrupted by the outbreak of World War I in 1914. Called up immediately as a reservist,Gropius served as a sergeant major at the Western front during the war years, and was wounded and almost killed.[3]

Bauhaus period

Bauhaus (built 1925–1926) in Dessau, Germany.

Gropius's career advanced in the postwar period. Henry van de Velde,the master of the Grand-Ducal Saxon School of Arts and Crafts inWeimar was asked to step down in 1915 due to his Belgian nationality.His recommendation for Gropius to succeed him led eventually toGropius's appointment as master of the school in 1919. It was thisacademy which Gropius transformed into the world famous Bauhaus,attracting a faculty that included Paul Klee, Johannes Itten, JosefAlbers, Herbert Bayer, László Moholy-Nagy, Otto Bartning andWassily Kandinsky. One example was the armchair F 51, designed forthe Bauhaus's directors room in 1920 - nowadays a re-edition in themarket, manufactured by the German company TECTA/Lauenfoerde.

In 1919, Gropius was involved in the Glass Chain utopian expressionist correspondence under the pseudonym"Mass." Usually

Walter Gropius 104

Walter Gropius's Monument to the March Dead(1921)

Gropius House (1938) in Lincoln, Massachusetts

Aluminum City Terrace (1944)

more notable for his functionalist approach, the "Monument to theMarch Dead," designed in 1919 and executed in 1920, indicates thatexpressionism was an influence on him at that time.

In 1923, Gropius designed his famous door handles, now considered anicon of 20th-century design and often listed as one of the mostinfluential designs to emerge from Bauhaus. He also designedlarge-scale housing projects in Berlin, Karlsruhe and Dessau in1926-32 that were major contributions to the New Objectivitymovement, including a contribution to the Siemensstadt project inBerlin.

After Bauhaus

With the help of the English architect Maxwell Fry, Gropius was ableto leave Nazi Germany in 1934, on the pretext of making a temporaryvisit to Britain. He lived and worked in Britain, as part of the Isokongroup with Fry and others and then, in 1937, moved on to the UnitedStates. The house he built for himself in Lincoln, Massachusetts, (nowknown as Gropius House) was influential in bringing InternationalModernism to the U.S. but Gropius disliked the term: "I made it a pointto absorb into my own conception those features of the New Englandarchitectural tradition that I found still alive and adequate."[4]

Gropius and his Bauhaus protégé Marcel Breuer both moved toCambridge, Massachusetts to teach at the Harvard Graduate School ofDesign and collaborate on the company-town Aluminum City Terraceproject in New Kensington, Pennsylvania, before their professionalsplit. In 1944, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States.

In 1945, Gropius founded The Architects' Collaborative (TAC) basedin Cambridge with a group of younger architects. The original partnersincluded Norman C. Fletcher, Jean B. Fletcher, John C. Harkness,Sarah P. Harkness, Robert S. MacMillan, Louis A. MacMillen, andBenjamin C. Thompson. TAC would become one of the most well-known and respected architectural firms in theworld. TAC went bankrupt in 1995.

Gropius died in 1969 in Boston, Massachusetts, aged 86. Today, he is remembered not only by his various buildingsbut also by the district of Gropiusstadt in Berlin.In the early 1990s, a series of books entitled The Walter Gropius Archive was published covering his entirearchitectural career.

Walter Gropius 105

Selected buildings• 1910–1911 the Fagus Factory, Alfeld an der Leine, Germany• 1914 Office and Factory Buildings at the Werkbund Exhibition, 1914, Cologne, Germany• 1921 Sommerfeld House, Berlin, Germany designed for Adolf Sommerfeld• 1922 competition entry for the Chicago Tribune Tower competition• 1925–1932 Bauhaus School and Faculty, Housin, Dessau, Germany• 1936 Village College, Impington, Cambridge, England• 1937 The Gropius House, Lincoln, Massachusetts, USA• 1942–1944 Aluminum City Terrace housing project, New Kensington, Pennsylvania, USA• 1949–1950 Harvard Graduate Center, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA (The Architects' Collaborative)[5]

• 1945–1959 Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago, Illinois, USA - Master planned 37-acre (150000 m2) site and ledthe design for at least 8 of the approx. 28 buildings.

• 1957–1960 University of Baghdad, Baghdad, Iraq• 1963–1966 John F. Kennedy Federal Office Building, Boston, Massachusetts, USA• 1948 Peter Thacher Junior High School,• 1958–1963 Pan Am Building (now the Metlife Building), New York, with Pietro Belluschi and project architects

Emery Roth & Sons• 1957 Interbau Apartment blocks, Hansaviertel, Berlin, Germany, with The Architects' Collaborative and Wils

Ebert• 1960 Temple Oheb Shalom (Baltimore, Maryland)• 1960 the Gropiusstadt building complex, Berlin, Germany• 1961 The award-winning Wayland High School, Wayland, Massachusetts, USA• 1959–1961 Embassy of the United States, Athens, Greece (The Architects' Collaborative and consulting architect

Pericles A. Sakellarios)• 1968 Glass Cathedral, Thomas Glassworks, Amberg• 1967– 69 Tower East Shaker Heights, Ohio, this was Gropius' last major project.The building in Niederkirchnerstraße, Berlin, known as the Gropius-Haus is named for Gropius' great-uncle, MartinGropius, and is not associated with Bauhaus.

See also• Walter Gropius buildings• Bauhaus

References[1] Bauhaus (http:/ / www. tate. org. uk/ collections/ glossary/ definition. jsp?entryId=40), The Tate Collection, retrieved 2008-05-18[2] American Colossus: the Grain Elevator 1843-1943 (http:/ / www. american-colossus. com/ ), Colossus Books, 2009. american-colossus.com[3] "Walter Adolph Gropius 1883 - 1969" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ bbcfour/ audiointerviews/ profilepages/ gropiusw1. shtml). British

Broadcasting Corporation. . Retrieved 2006-08-02.[4] Gropius House by Walter Gropius (http:/ / www. galinsky. com/ buildings/ gropiushouse/ )[5] Harvard Graduate Center - Walter Gropius - Great Buildings Online (http:/ / www. greatbuildings. com/ buildings/

Harvard_Graduate_Center. html)

Walter Gropius 106

Further reading• The New Architecture and the Bauhaus, Walter Gropius, 1955.• The Scope of Total Architecture, Walter Gropius, 1956.• From Bauhaus to Our House, Tom Wolfe, 1981.

External links• Walter Gropius' house, Lincoln, Massachusetts (http:/ / www. historicnewengland. org/ visit/ homes/ gropius.

htm)• Packaged House by Konrad Wachsmann and Walter Gropius (http:/ / www. housing. com/ categories/ homes/

history-prefabricated-home/ packaged-house-konrad-wachsmann-and-walter-gropius. html) - an overview withslideshow.

• On the Interbau apartments (http:/ / www. galinsky. com/ buildings/ gropiusinterbau/ )• Impington Village College (http:/ / www. infed. org/ schooling/ b-vilcol. htm) — only example of Gropius's work

in the UK• Fagus works (http:/ / www. fagus-gropius. com/ content/ home/ ) (German)

• Copper Houses by Walter Gropius (http:/ / www. housing. com/ categories/ homes/ history-prefabricated-home/copper-houses-walter-gropius. html) - an overview with slideshow

• Bauhaus in America (http:/ / www. mindspring. com/ ~cliofilm) is a documentary film made in 1995 that revealsthe influence of Gropius and others on American design and architecture.

• Designer portrait on rosenthalusa.com (http:/ / www. rosenthalusa. com/ 1288d872/ GROPIUS_Walter. htm)• More information on Gropius's early years at the Bauhaus (http:/ / content. cdlib. org/ view?docId=tf5779n7f0&

chunk. id=bioghist-1. 7. 3& brand=oac) can be found in his correspondence with Lily Hildebrandt, with whom hehad an affair between 1919-22: Getty Research Institute, California.

• Baukasten by Walter Gropius and Adolf Meyer (http:/ / www. housing. com/ categories/ homes/history-prefabricated-home/ baukasten-walter-gropius-and-adolf-meyer. html) - an overview with slideshow.

Modern architecture 107

Modern architecture

The Seagram Building, New York City, 1958. Regarded as one ofthe finest examples of the functionalist aesthetic and a masterpiece

of corporate modernism.

Modern architecture is characterized by simplificationof form and creation of ornament from the structure andtheme of the building. The first variants were conceivedearly in the 20th century. Modern architecture wasadopted by many influential architects and architecturaleducators, gained popularity after the Second WorldWar, and continues as a dominant architectural style forinstitutional and corporate buildings in the 21st century.

History

Origins

Some historians see the evolution of Modernarchitecture as a social matter, closely tied to the projectof Modernity and thus the Enlightenment. The Modernstyle developed, in their opinion, as a result of social andpolitical revolutions.[1]

Melnikov House near Arbat Street inMoscow by Konstantin Melnikov.

Others see Modern architecture as primarily driven by technological andengineering developments, and it is true that the availability of new buildingmaterials such as iron, steel, and glass drove the invention of new buildingtechniques as part of the Industrial Revolution. In 1796, Shrewsbury mill ownerCharles Bage first used his 'fireproof' design, which relied on cast iron and brickwith flag stone floors. Such construction greatly strengthened the structure ofmills, which enabled them to accommodate much bigger machines. Due to poorknowledge of iron's properties as a construction material, a number of early millscollapsed. It was not until the early 1830s that Eaton Hodgkinson introduced thesection beam, leading to widespread use of iron in construction, this kind ofaustere industrial architecture utterly transformed the landscape of northernBritain, leading to the description of places like Manchester and parts of WestYorkshire as "Dark satanic mills".

The Crystal Palace by Joseph Paxton at the Great Exhibition of 1851 was anearly example of iron and glass construction; possibly the best example is the development of the tall steel

skyscraper in Chicago around 1890 by William Le Baron Jenney and Louis Sullivan. Early structures to employ concrete as the chief means of architectural expression (rather than for purely utilitarian structure) include Frank

Modern architecture 108

Lloyd Wright's Unity Temple, built in 1906 near Chicago, and Rudolf Steiner's Second Goetheanum, built from1926 near Basel, Switzerland.Other historians regard Modernism as a matter of taste, a reaction against eclecticism and the lavish stylistic excessesof Victorian Era and Edwardian Art Nouveau. Note that the Russian word for Art Nouveau, "Модерн", and theSpanish word for Art Nouveau, "Modernismo" are cognates of the English word "Modern" though they carrydifferent meanings.Whatever the cause, around 1900 a number of architects around the world began developing new architecturalsolutions to integrate traditional precedents (Gothic, for instance) with new technological possibilities. The work ofLouis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright in Chicago, Victor Horta in Brussels, Antoni Gaudi in Barcelona, OttoWagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a commonstruggle between old and new. An early use of the term in print around this time, approaching its later meaning, wasin the title of a book by Otto Wagner.[2] [3]

A key organization that spans the ideals of the Arts and Crafts and Modernism as it developed in the 1920s was theDeutscher Werkbund (German Work Federation) a German association of architects, designers and industrialists. Itwas founded in 1907 in Munich at the instigation of Hermann Muthesius. Muthesius was the author of athree-volume "The English House" of 1905, a survey of the practical lessons of the English Arts and Craftsmovement and a leading political and cultural commentator.[4] The purpose of the Werkbund was to sponsor theattempt to integrate traditional crafts with the techniques of industrial mass production. The organization originallyincluded twelve architects and twelve business firms, but quickly expanded. The architects include Peter Behrens,Theodor Fischer (who served as its first president), Josef Hoffmann and Richard Riemerschmid. Joseph August Lux,an Austrian-born critic, helped formulate its agenda.[5]

Modernism as dominant styleBy the 1920s the most important figures in Modern architecture had established their reputations. The big three arecommonly recognized as Le Corbusier in France, and Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany.Mies van der Rohe and Gropius were both directors of the Bauhaus, one of a number of European schools andassociations concerned with reconciling craft tradition and industrial technology.Frank Lloyd Wright's career, in which he built more than Mies, Le Corbusier and Gropius combined, parallels andinfluences the work of the European modernists, particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to becategorized with them claiming that "they" copied his ideas. Wright was a major influence on both Gropius (founderof the Bauhaus) and van der Rohe, however, as well as on the whole of organic architecture. Gropius claimed that his"bible" for forming the Bauhaus was 100 Frank Lloyd Wright drawings that the architect shared with Germany overa decade prior to this point. Many architects in Germany believed that Wright's life would be wasted in the UnitedStates, since the US wasn't ready for his architecture. Just as many European architects saw Wright's Larkin Building(1904) in Buffalo, Unity Temple (1905) in Oak Park, and the Robie House (1910) in Chicago as some of the firstexamples of modern architecture in the 20th century. It would be two to three decades later before the Europeanarchitects would bring their version back to the United States.

Modern architecture 109

Marina City (left) and IBM Plaza(right) in Chicago.

In 1932 came the important MOMA exhibition, the International Exhibition ofModern Architecture, curated by Philip Johnson. Johnson and collaboratorHenry-Russell Hitchcock drew together many distinct threads and trends,identified them as stylistically similar and having a common purpose, andconsolidated them into the International style.

This was an important turning point. With World War II the important figures ofthe Bauhaus fled to the United States, to Chicago, to the Harvard GraduateSchool of Design, and to Black Mountain College. While Modern architecturaldesign never became a dominant style in single-dwelling residential buildings, ininstitutional and commercial architecture Modernism became the pre-eminent,and in the schools (for leaders of the profession) the only acceptable, designsolution from about 1932 to about 1984.

Architects who worked in the International style wanted to break witharchitectural tradition and design simple, unornamented buildings. The mostcommonly used materials are glass for the facade, steel for exterior support, andconcrete for the floors and interior supports; floor plans were functional andlogical. The style became most evident in the design of skyscrapers. Perhaps itsmost famous manifestations include the United Nations headquarters (LeCorbusier, Oscar Niemeyer, Sir Howard Robertson), the Seagram Building and the Toronto-Dominion Centre(Ludwig Mies van der Rohe), and Lever House (Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill). A prominent residential example isthe Lovell House (Richard Neutra) in Los Angeles.

Oscar Niemeyer's Casino da Madeira, Funchal, Portugal.

Le Corbusier once described buildings as"machines for living", but people are notmachines and it was suggested that they donot want to live in machines. Even PhilipJohnson admitted he was "bored with thebox". Since the early 1980s many architectshave deliberately sought to move away fromrectilinear designs, towards more eclecticstyles. During the middle of the century,some architects began experimenting inorganic forms that they felt were morehuman and accessible. Mid-centurymodernism, or organic modernism, was verypopular, due to its democratic and playfulnature. Oscar Niemeyer, Alvar Aalto andEero Saarinen were three of the most

prolific architects and designers in this movement, which has influenced contemporary modernism.

Modern architecture met with some criticism which began in the 1960s on the grounds that it seemed universal,elitist, and lacked meaning. Siegfried Giedion in the 1961 introduction to his evolving text, Space, Time andArchitecture (first written in 1941), could begin "At the moment a certain confusion exists in contemporaryarchitecture, as in painting; a kind of pause, even a kind of exhaustion." At the Metropolitan Museum of Art, a 1961symposium discussed the question "Modern Architecture: Death or Metamorphosis?" In New York, the coup d'état

appeared to materialize in controversy around the Pan Am Building that loomed over Grand Central Station, taking advantage of the modernist real estate concept of "air rights",[6] In criticism by Ada Louise Huxtable and Douglass

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Haskell it was seen to "sever" the Park Avenue streetscape and "tarnish" the reputations of its consortium ofarchitects: Walter Gropius, Pietro Belluschi and the builders Emery Roth & Sons.Architects explored Postmodern architecture which offered a blend of some pre-modern elements. By the 1980s,postmodern architecture appeared to trend over modernism; however, postmodern aesthetics lacked traction and bythe mid-1990s, a new surge of modern architecture once again established international pre-eminence. As part of thisrevival, much of the criticism of the modernists was re-evaluated; and a modernistic style once again dominates ininstitutional and commercial contemporary practice. Although modern and postmodern design compete with arevival of traditional architectural design in commercial and institutional architecture; residential design continues tobe dominated by a traditional aesthetic.

The Bailey House, Case Study House #21.

That is not to say that the residential sector in the UnitedStates is devoid of examples from the Modernistmovement. The Case Study Houses are prime examplesof this. Commissioned around the mid-twentieth century,the six homes that were built have had more than 350,000visitors since their completion, and have influenced manyarchitects over the years. These and other Modernresidences tend to focus on humanizing the otherwiseharsh ideal, making them more livable and ultimatelymore appealing to real people. Many of these designs usea similar tactic: blurring the line between indoor andoutdoor spaces. This is achieved by embracing "the box"while at the same time dissolving it into the backgroundwith minimal structure and large glass walls.[7] Some critics claim that these spaces remain too cold and static for theaverage person to function, however. The materials utilized in a large number of Modern homes are not hiddenbehind a softening facade. While this may make them somewhat less desirable for the general public, most modernistarchitects see this as a necessary and pivotal tenet of Modernism: uncluttered and purely Minimal design.

CharacteristicsModern architecture is usually characterized by:• an adoption of the principle that the materials and functional requirements determine the result• an adoption of the machine aesthetic• an emphasis of horizontal and vertical lines• a creation of ornament using the structure and theme of the building, or a rejection of ornamentation.• a simplification of form and elimination of "unnecessary detail"• an adoption of expressed structure• Form follows function