History of Mexico · 2012-02-03 · based on what were believed to be ancient footprints discovered in the Valley of Mexico; but after further investigation using radiocarbon dating

History of MexicoFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The history of Mexico, a country located in the southern portion of North America, covers aperiod of more than two millennia. First populated more than 13,000 years ago, the countryproduced complex indigenous civilizations before being conquered by the Spanish in the 16thCentury.

Since the Spanish Conquest, Mexico has fused its long-established native civilizations withEuropean culture. Perhaps nothing better represents this hybrid background than Mexico'slanguages: the country is both the most populous Spanish-speaking country in the world andhome to the largest number of Native American language speakers on the continent.

In 1519, the first Spaniards arrived and absorbed the native peoples into Spain's vast colonialempire. For three centuries, Mexico was a colony, during which time its indigenous populationfell by more than half. After a protracted struggle, formal independence from Spain wasrecognized in 1821. In 1846, the Mexican American War broke out, ending two years later withMexico ceding almost half of its territory to the United States. Later in the 19th century, Franceinvaded Mexico (1861) and set Maximilian I on the Mexican throne, which lasted until 1867.The Mexican Revolution (1910–1929) resulted in the death of 10 percent of the nation'spopulation, but brought to an end the system of large landholdings that had originated with theSpanish Conquest.

Beginning in the 1990s, the one-party political system established during the Mexican Revolutionhas given way to a nascent democracy.

Prehistory and pre-Columbian civilizations

Main article: Pre-Columbian Mexico

Archaeological sites of Chichén-Itzá, one of the New Seven Wonders of the World

Sources

The pre-history of Mexico is known through the work of archaeologists and epigraphers.

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Accounts written by the Spanish at time of their conquest (the conquistadors) and by indigenouschroniclers of the post-conquest period constitute the principal source of information regardinga) Mexico at the time of the Spanish Conquest and b) the conquest itself.

While relatively few parchments (or codices) of the Mixtec and Aztec cultures of the Post-Classic period survive, progress has been made in the area of Mayan archaeology and epigraphy.

Beginnings

The presence of people in Mesoamerica was once thought to date back 40,000 years, an estimatebased on what were believed to be ancient footprints discovered in the Valley of Mexico; butafter further investigation using radiocarbon dating, it appears this date may not be accurate.[4] Itis currently unclear whether 21,000-year-old campfire remains found in the Valley of Mexico arethe earliest human remains uncovered so far in Mexico.

The first people to settle in Mexico encountered a climate far milder than the current one. Inparticular, the Valley of Mexico contained several large paleo-lakes surrounded by dense forest.Camels, bison, and deer roamed in large numbers. Such conditions encouraged the pursuit of ahunter-gatherer existence.

Corn, squash, and beans

The diet of ancient Mexico was varied, including corn (or maize), squashes such as pumpkin andbutternut squash, common or pinto beans, tomatoes, cassava, pineapples, chocolate, and tobacco.The Three Sisters (corn, squash, and beans) constituted the principle diet.[citation needed]

Indigenous peoples in western Mexico began to selectively breed maize (Zea mays) plants fromprecursor grasses (e.g., teosinte) around 8000 BC,[6] and intensive corn farming began between1800 and 1500 BC.[citation needed]

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The Cascajal Block, Possibly the Earliest Mesoamerican Writing Discovered.

Evidence shows a marked increase in pottery working by 2300 BC.] Between 1800 and 300 BC,complex cultures began to take form, many maturing into advanced pre-ColumbianMesoamerican civilizations such as the Olmec, Izapa, Teotihuacan, Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec,Huastec, Tarascan, "Toltec" and Aztec, which flourished for nearly 4,000 years.

During the course of their existence, these civilizations made significant technological, cultural,and scientific advances, including the construction of pyramid-temple complexes, thedevelopment of a sophisticated mathematics and astronomy, the compiling of a large body ofmedicine, and the elaboration of complex theologies. Perhaps most famous among their culturalachievements are the Mayan hieroglyphs, the Long Count Calendar and the practice of theMesoamerican Ball Game.

The great civilizations

During the pre-Columbian period, many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with oneanother for power and prestige. Ancient Mexico can be said to have produced five majorcivilizations: the Olmec, Maya, Teotihuacan,Toltec, and Aztec. Unlike other indigenousMexican societies, these civilizations (with the exception of the politically fragmented Maya)extended their political and cultural reach across Mexico and beyond. They consolidated powerand exercised influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and religion. Over a span of3,000 years, other regional powers made economic and political alliances with them; many madewar on them. But almost all found themselves within their spheres of influence.

The Olmec (1400-400 BC)

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A Jade Olmec Mask from Tabasco State.

The Olmec first appeared along the Atlantic coast (in Tabasco state) in the period 1500-900 BC.The Olmecs were the first Mesoamerican culture to produce an identifiable artistic and culturalstyle, and may also have the society that invented writing in Mesoamerica. By the MiddlePreclassic Period (900-300 BC), Olmec artistic styles had been adopted as far away as the Valleyof Mexico and Costa Rica.

The Maya

Mayan cultural characteristics, such as the rise of the ahau, or king, can be traced from 300 BConwards. During the centuries preceding the classical period, Mayan kingdoms sprang up in anarea stretching from the Pacific coasts of southern Mexico and Guatemala to the northernYucatán Peninsula. The egalitarian Mayan society of pre-royal centuries gradually gave way to asociety controlled by a wealthy elite that began building large ceremonial temples andcomplexes. The earliest known long-count date, 199 AD, heralds the classic period, duringwhich the Mayan kingdoms supported a population numbering in the millions. Tikal, the largestof the kingdoms, alone had 500,000 inhabitants (though the average population of a kingdomwas much smaller—somewhere under 50,000 people). ...

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The Mayan Glyph for "Cocoa."The TeotihuacanThe Toltec

The Aztec Empire (1325-1521 AD)

The Nahua peoples began to enter central Mexico in the 6th Century AD. By the 12th Century,they had established their center at Azcapotzalco, the city of the Tepanecs.

The Mexica people arrived in the Valley of Mexico in 1248 AD. They had migrated from thedeserts north of the Rio Grande over a period traditionally said to have been 100 years. Theymay have thought of themselves as the heirs to the prestigious civilizations that had precededthem.[citation needed] What the Aztec initially lacked in political power, however, they made up forwith ambition and military skill.

'Aztec religion was based on the belief that the universe required the constant offering of humanblood to continue functioning; to meet this need, the Aztec sacrificed thousands of people. Thisbelief is thought to have been common throughout Nahuatl people. To acquire captives in timesof peace, the Aztec resorted to a form of ritual warfare called flower war. The Tlaxcalteca,among other Nahuatl nations, were forced into such wars.

Aztec warriors as shown in the Florentine Codex.

In 1428, the Aztec led a war of liberation against their rulers from the city of Azcapotzalco,which had subjugated most of the Valley of Mexico's peoples. The revolt was successful, and theAztecs became the rulers of central Mexico as the leaders of the Triple Alliance. The alliancewas composed of the city-states of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan.

At their peak, 350,000 Aztec presided over a wealthy tribute-empire comprising 10 millionpeople, almost half of Mexico's estimated population of 24 million. Their empire stretched fromocean to ocean, and extended into Central America. The westward expansion of the empire washalted by a devastating military defeat at the hands of the Purepecha (who possessed weaponsmade of copper). The empire relied upon a system of taxation (of goods and services), whichwere collected through an elaborate bureaucracy of tax collectors, courts, civil servants, and localofficials who were installed as loyalists to the Triple Alliance.

By 1519, the Aztec capital, Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the site of modern-day Mexico City, was oneof the largest cities in the world, with a population of 30,000 (estimates range as high as 60,000).]

Part II: The Spanish Conquest

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Hernán Cortés

The Arrival of the Spanish

1. Cuba and the Early Explorers

Francisco Hernández de Córdoba, a Spanish explorer, reached the Atlantic shores of Mexico in1517, followed by Juan de Grijalva in 1518.

2. The First Expeditions

In 1517, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, Governor of Cuba, commissioned three ships, under thecommand of Hernández de Córdoba, to explore the Yucatán peninsula. After an initial landing atCape Catoche, during which the Spaniards took two prisoners to act as interpreters, theexpedition reached the western side of the Yucatán Peninsula. the Maya attacked the Spaniardsat night: twenty Spaniards were killed; Córdoba was mortally wounded; and only a remnant ofthe crew returned to Cuba. A year later, a second expedition, lead by Juan de Grijalva, sailedalong the Yucatán coast and reached the Tabasco region, a part of the Aztec empire.

The Third Expedition

1. The Commission

Even before Grijalva returned to Cuba, Velázquez decided to send another expedition to theMexican coast. Hernán Cortés, then one of Velázquez's favorites, was named commander.Cortés' commission limited him to initiating trade relations with the indigenous coastal peoples.

Cortés, well aware of the potential for riches that the unexplored mainland held, managed topersuade Velázquez to insert a clause that permitted Cortés to take measures on his own

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authority if such were "in the true interests of the realm." He then began assembling a fleet of 11ships, investing most of his fortune in the project. Velázquez also contributed substantially,paying half the expedition's cost.

2. Mutiny

As departure drew near, Velázquez began to suspect Cortés would try to commandeer theexpedition and establish himself as governor of a new colony, independent of Cuba. He thereforeissued orders to replace Cortés, but the messenger was intercepted and killed, and the ordersreached Cortés. Thus warned, Cortés set sail with dispatch, weighing anchor on the morning of18 February 1519. At his command were 11 ships carrying 100 sailors, 530 soldiers, a doctor,and a few hundred Cuban Natives.

3. The Maya

Cortés spent some time among the Maya, trying to convert people to Christianity. While withthem, Cortés had one of his strokes of good fortune. He acquired two translators, one a Spaniardfluent in Mayan, shipwrecked in 1511, and the other a young native woman known as "LaMalinche", who was fluent in Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs and thus the regional linguafranca. Without these translators, the expedition might well have been limited to the scope of itscommission.[8]

4. The Landing at Veracruz and the Destruction of the Ships

Cortés landed at a Totonac settlement in the modern state of Veracruz. Greeted by cheeringtownsfolk, Cortés quickly persuaded the town's chief to throw in his lot with the Spanish. Waryof his problems with Cuba's governor, Cortes established a new town (which has grown into themodern city of Veracruz)); the "town council" promptly offered Cortés the position ofadelantado, an action that legally freed him from Velásquez's authority. So important was thecreation of this office that several men returned to Spain to seek royal confirmation.

But the expedition's legal status was still unresolved. Learning that several men conspired toseize a ship and return to Cuba, Cortés scuttled the fleet, stranding his tiny expedition inunknown territory. Every Spaniard was now committed to Cortés and success.

5. The March Inland and Alliance with the Tlaxcalteca

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Map depicting Cortes' invasion route

Cortés led his force, augmented by 250 Totonacs, up out of the humid coastal plain and into themountains—a difficult march for all, but especially for the Totonacs, who were unprepared forthe bitter cold of high altitudes.

The expedition arrived at Tlaxcala, a confederacy of 200 towns. After a century of the FlowerWars, during which many of their warriors had ended as human sacrifices, the Tlaxcalans hatedthe Aztecs and soon recognized the Spanish as allies in their struggle. The expedition stayedthree weeks in the confederation, resting and building up its strength. Cortés won the truefriendship of the Tlaxcala leaders, who converted to Christianity.

6. A Difficult Decision

Meanwhile, Mocteczuma sent ambassadors to Cortés, asking him to go on to Cholula, an Aztecally. The Tlaxcaltecan leaders, in response, urged Cortés to go to Huexotzingo, one of theirallies.

Cortés faced a difficult decision: the Tlaxcaltecans were his allies, and their warriors constitutedthe bulk of his military strength. If he rejected their advice, they might end their alliance withhim or even attack the expedition. A journey to Huexotzingo, on the other hand, would be seenby the Aztecs as an act of war. Cortés decided to side with the Aztecs (the real military power,after all) and go to Cholula, but protected the Tlaxcaltecans with a practical compromise: heaccepted both gifts from the Mexica ambassadors and the porters and warriors offered byTlaxcalteca. In this way, he was travelling under Aztec auspices, but would be killed by hisTlaxcaltecan contingent if he moved against their people's interests.

As things turned out, Cortés was misinformed. He saw Cholula as a military center where hecould further strengthen his forces. In fact, Cholula was probably the most sacred city in theAztec Empire, and consequently had only a small army. However, in the middle of October, theexpedition, accompanied by 1,000 Tlaxcalteca, marched to Cholula.

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7. The Massacre at Cholula

Three different accounts of events at Cholula have survived: Cortés letters, a history written bythe Aztecs, and another written by the Tlaxcaltecans.

Cortes' Letters. After talking to the wife of a Cholulan lord, La Malinche told Cortés that theCholulans planned to murder the Spaniards in their sleep. Urged on by his Tlaxcaltecancontingent, Cortés ordered a preemptive attack—the Spaniards seized the city's leaders and setCholula on fire. Cortés claimed that the expedition killed 3,000 people; another Spanish witnessestimated the number of dead at 30,000.

The Tlaxcaltecan History. The Cholula tortured the Tlaxclatecan ambassador, forcing Cortés tocarry out the attack in revenge.

The Aztec History. The Tlaxcalteca contingent, frightened by Cortés' decision to go to Cholula,started the massacre.

Whichever version is correct, the massacre terrified the Mexica and inclined their allies to submitto Cortés' demands. Cortés himself sent a message to Moctezuma explaining the massacre—thepeople of Cholula had treated him with disrespect—and reassuring the Emperor that the Aztecsneed not fear his wrath, provided that Moctezuma treat him with respect and offer gifts of gold.

8. The Expedition Reaches Tenochtitlan

In early November, nearly three months after leaving the coast, the expedition reached the GreatCauseway on the outskirts of Tenochtitlan, where Cortés was greeted with flowers and speeches.Afterwards, the expedition, which by this point included 3,000 native warriors, was housed in thepalace of Moctezuma's father.

Cortés proved to be an ungrateful guest: he demanded that a) the Emperor to provide gifts ofgold as a sign of fealty; b) the two large idols be removed from the main temple pyramid and thehuman blood be scrubbed off them; and c) Christian shrines be set up in their place. When thesedemands were met, Cortés made Moctezuma prisoner in his own palace and demanded anenormous ransom in gold, which was paid.

9. Unexpected Reinforcements

At this point, Cortés received news that a large Spanish expedition (including 900 soldiers) hadarrived on the coast. The new expedition had orders to arrest Cortés and bring him back to Cubafor trial and possible execution. In response, Cortés showed his mettle: Leaving a small garrisonbehind, he returned to the coast with 260 men and defeated the new arrivals in a night attack,taking their commander prisoner. This victory was followed by a brilliant move: Cortés told thedefeated soldiers about a city of gold farther inland, and they agreed to join him. The combinedforces then marched quickly back to Tenochtitlan.

10. The Aztec Revolt

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On his return to Tenochtitlan, Cortés found that the garrison had attacked and killed many of theAztec nobility (see The Massacre in the Main Temple) during a festival. The garrison leaderexplained that the Aztecs were planning to attack the garrison once the festival was over, and sohe had struck first. (Considerable doubt has been cast on this explanation.) After the massacre,the city population rose up en masse.

Aztec troops were besieging the palace. Following orders from Cortés, Moctezuma spoke from abalcony, asking his people to let the Spanish return to the coast—but the audience jeered andthrew stones at him, injuring him badly. Moctezuma died a few days later. (Once again, we haveconflicting accounts; some Aztecs insisted that Cortés had Mocteczuma killed.) After his death,Cuitláhuac was elected Emperor.

Cortés decided to flee by night, but could not prevent his men from loading themselves downwith gold. Knowing that the Aztecs had removed sections of the causeways, Cortes hadreplacement sections brought along. Their departure veiled by rain, the expedition set out on thecauseway to Tlacopan.

But this time luck abandoned Cortés. As the expedition fit the first bridge unit in place, theAztecs attacked. Unable to remove the first bridge unit, the expedition had to fight warriors onthe causeway and from canoes on the lake. Beset on all sides, the retreat turned into a rout. TheSpanish infantry had to cut their way through massed Aztec forces. Many who managed to eludethe Aztecs drowned in the causeway gaps, weighed down by gold. The expedition suffered heavycasualties—probably more than 600 Spanish and several thousand Tlaxcalteca—and lost most ofits gold.

11. Otumba and Refuge in Tlaxcala

The Aztecs pursued and harassed the expedition, which moved around Lake Zumpango towardsanctuary in Tlaxcala. The Aztecs attacked once again (Battle of Otumba), but this time theSpanish were able to use their cavalry. Although the Aztec forces enjoyed great numericalsuperiority, the Spanish cavalry charged through the enemy ranks time and again, enabling theSpanish infantry to continue their retreat. When one of the Aztec leaders fell in battle, the Aztecsleft the field, and the expedition reached the safety of Tlaxcala. Almost every expedition memberwas wounded, and only 20 horses survived. The Aztecs sent emissaries asking the Tlaxcalteca toturn the Spaniards over to them, but were refused.

12. War and the Siege of Tenochtitlan

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Site of Tenochtitlán, according to Lienzo de Tlaxcala.

The Tlaxcalteca knew it was just a matter of time before the Aztec Empire conquered them.Cortés in turn knew that without the Tlaxcalteca, the Spanish had little chance of surviving.Therefore, when Cortés proposed the conquest of the empire, the Tlaxcalan leaders agreed,though with significant conditions: the Tlaxcalteca would a) not be required to pay tribute to theSpanish, b) receive the city of Cholula, c) take control of Tenochtitlan, and d) receive a share ofany booty.

The Tlaxcalteca-Spanish Alliance proved formidable. One by one, the cities of the Azteca fell,some in battle, others through diplomacy. At the end, only Tenochtitlan and the neighboring cityof Tlatelolco held out.

But Tenochtitlan was not to surrender without a fight. Surrounded by water and populated by awarrior society that thoroughly hated the Spanish, the city could defeat any direct assault. So theAlliance mounted a siege, destroying the causeways from the mainland and the aqueduct thatprovided drinking water. The alliance completed its encirclement by building a fleet ofbrigantines, which gave control of the lake to the Spanish.

The siege of Tenochtitlan lasted eight months. Already weakened by lack of food and potablewater, the inhabitants were ravaged by smallpox. Cannons and horse cavalry did the rest. Despitevaliant resistance, Tenochtitlan and Tlatelolco fell on 13 August 1521.

The Aftermath

1. Tenochtitlan, the Aztecs, and the Tlaxcalteca

Tenochtitlan had been almost totally destroyed by fire and cannon shot. Those Aztecs whosurvived were forbidden to live in the city and the surrounding isles, and they went to live inTlatelolco.

Cortés imprisoned the royal families of the valley. To prevent another revolt, he personallytortured and killed Cuauhtémoc, the last Aztec Emperor; Coanacoch, the King of Texcoco, andTetlepanquetzal, King of Tlacopan.

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The Spanish had no intentions of turning over Tenochtitlan to the Tlaxcalteca. While Tlaxcaltecatroops continued to help the Spaniards, and Tlaxcala received better treatment than otherindigeneous nations, the Spanish eventually disowned the treaty. Forty years after the conquest,the Tlaxcalteca had to pay the same tribute as any other indigenous community.

a) Political. Apparently, Cortes favored maintaining the political structure of the Aztecs, subjectto relatively minor changes.

b) Religious. Cortes immediately banned human sacrifice throughout the conquered empire.Evangelization began in the mid-1520s and continued in the 1530s. Many of the evangelistslearned the native languages and recorded aspects of native culture, providing a principal sourcefor our knowledge about them. By 1560, more than 800 clergy were working to convert Indiansin New Spain. By 1580, the number grew to 1,500 in 1580 and by 1650, to 3,000.

c) Economic. ...

2. Analysis of the Defeat

Military Tactics. The Alliance's use of ambush during indigenous ceremonies allowed theSpanish to avoid fighting the best Aztec warriors in direct armed battle, such as during The Feastof Huitzilopochtli.

Smallpox and its Toll. Smallpox (Variola major and Variola minor) began to spread inMesoamerica immediately after the arrival of Europeans. The indigenous peoples, who had noimmunity to it, eventually died in the hundreds of thousands. A third of all the natives of theValley of Mexico succumbed to it within six months of the arrival of the Spanish.

Part III: The Colonial Period (1521-1810)

Main article: Colonial Mexico

New Spain in 1803.

The capture of Tenochtitlan marked the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial period, duringwhich Mexico was known as "New Spain".

1. Period of the Conquest (1521–1650)

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Contrary to a widespread misconception, Spain did not conquer all of the Aztec Empire whenCortes took Tenochtitlan. It required another two centuries to complete the conquest: rebellionsbroke out within the old Empire and wars continued with other native peoples.

After the fall of Tenochtitlan, it took decades of sporadic warfare to subdue the rest ofMesoamerica. Particularly fierce was the Chichimeca War (1576–1606) in the north.

Economics. The Council of Indies and the mendicant establishments, which arose inMesoamerica as early as 1524, labored to generate capital for the crown of Spain and convert theIndian populations to Catholicism. During this period and the following Colonial periods thesponsorship of mendicant friars and a process of religious syncretism combined the Pre-Hispaniccultures with Spanish socio-religious tradition. The resulting hodgepodge of culture was apluriethnic State that relied on the "repartimiento", a system of peasant "Republic of Indians"labor that carried out any necessary work. Thus, the existing feudal system of pre-HispanicMesoamerican culture was replaced by the encomienda feudal-style system of Spain, probablyadapted to the pre-Hispanic tradition. This in turn was finally replaced by a debt-basedinscription of labor that led to widespread revitalization movements and prompted the revolutionthat ended colonial New Spain.

Evolution of the Race. During the three centuries of colonial rule, less than 700,000 Spaniards,most of them men, settled in Mexico. The settlers intermarried with indigenous women, fatheringthe mixed race (mestizo) descendents who today constitute the majority of Mexico's population.

2. The Colonial Period (1650–1810)

During this period, Mexico was part of the much larger Viceroyalty of New Spain, whichincluded Cuba and Puerto Rico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, the southwesternUnited States, and the Philippines. Spain during the 16th Century focused its energies on areaswith dense populations that had produced Pre-Columbian civilizations, since these areas couldprovide the settlers with a disciplined labor force and a population to catechize. Territoriespopulated by nomadic peoples were harder to conquer, and though the Spanish did explore agood part of North America, seeking the fabled "El Dorado", they made no concerted effort tosettle the northern desert regions in what is now the United States until the 17th Century.

Colonial law was in many ways destructive. No administrative office was open to any Mexicannative, even those of pure Spanish blood. From an economic point of view, New Spain wasadministered principally for the benefit of Spain. For instance, the cultivation of grapes andolives, which grew particularly well in certain areas of the country, was banned out of fear thatthe harvest would compete with Spain's. Only two ports, morever, were open to foreign trade—Vera Cruz on the Atlantic and Acapulco on the Pacific. In fact, foreigners had to obtain a specialpermit from the Royal government to enter Mexico, and few Mexicans were permitted to travelabroad. Education was discouraged, and few books were available.

In defense of the Spanish, it may be said that human sacrifice and cannibalism, practices theyfound utterly repugnant and contrary to God's intention, stood at the center of Mesoamerican

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religion and culture, and rooting them out of the society was an arduous, protracted, andsometimes heartbreaking process. Neither did the Spanish tolerate slavery; although Indianslived in serfdom, as Catholics they were spared genocide. Thus, many Indian languages andcustoms have survived down to the present—for example, in Oaxaca State alone, there are nearlyhalf a million speakers of Zapotec.

3. The System of Land Tenure and Indian Rights

The Encomienda.

Part IV: Mexican Independence and the 19th Century (1807-1910)

Main article: Mexican War of Independence

Map from 1829 showing Mexico and Guatemala

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Map of Mexico, 1847

The Struggle for Independence (1807-1821)

1. The Political Background

In 1807, Napoleon I invaded Spain and installed his brother on the Spanish throne. MexicanConservatives and rich landowners, who supported Spain's Bourbon royal family, objected to thecomparatively liberal Napoleonic policies. Thus an unlikely alliance was formed: Liberals, whofavored a democratic Mexico, and Conservatives, who favored a Mexico ruled by a Bourbonmonarch who would restore the status quo ante. These two elements agreed only that Mexicomust achieve independence.

2. Grito de Dolores (16 September 1810)

Taking advantage of the Napoleonic occupation, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest ofprogressive ideas, declared Mexican independence in the small town of Dolores on 16 September1810, with a proclamation known as the "grito de Dolores".

Hidalgo y Costilla's declaration sparked the drawn-out war. The first legal declaration ofindependence was the Solemn Act of the Declaration of Independence of Northern America,signed in 1813 by the Congress of Anáhuac. Eventually led to the official recognition ofindependence from Spain in 1821 and the creation of the First Mexican Empire. As with manyearly leaders in the movement for Mexican independence, Hidalgo was captured by opposingforces and executed.

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Miguel Hidalgo.

3. The Course of the War

Prominent figures in Mexico's war for independence included Father José María Morelos,Vicente Guerrero, and General Agustín de Iturbide.

The war for independence lasted 11 years; the troops of the liberating army entered Mexico Cityin 1821. Thus, although independence from Spain was first proclaimed in 1810, it was notachieved until 1821, by the Treaty of Córdoba, which was signed on 24 August in Córdoba,Veracruz, by the Spanish viceroy Juan de O'Donojú and Agustín de Iturbide, ratifying the Plande Iguala.

4. Independence, the First Mexican Empire, and the United States of Mexico

In 1821, Agustín de Iturbide, a Mexican general who switched sides to fight for independence,proclaimed himself emperor –-officially only as a temporary measure (see Mexican Empire). Hisgovernment lasted only 18 months; a revolt in 1823, led by Antonio López de Santa Anna,established the United Mexican States. In 1824, "Guadalupe Victoria" became the first Presidentof Mexico.

After Independence (1821-1846)

1. Empire or Republic?

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Vicente Guerrero

The first Mexican Republic adopted a liberal constitution modeled closely on that of the UnitedStates. However, most of the population largely ignored it. When Guadalupe Victoria wasfollowed in office by Vicente Guerrero, who won the electoral but lost the popular vote, theConservative Party saw an opportunity to seize control and led a coup under AnastasioBustamante, who served as president from 1830 to 1832, and again from 1837 to 1841.

This coup set the pattern for Mexican politics during the 19th Century. Many governments roseand fell during a period of instability caused by factors including 1) the control of the economicsystem by the large landowners, 2) the struggle over the status of Mexico's northern territories,which issued in a devastating defeat at the end of the Mexican American War; and 3) the gulf inwealth and power between the Spanish-descended elite and the mixed-race majority.

The main political parties during this era were the Conservatives (favoring the Catholic Church,the landowners, and a monarchy) and the Liberals (favoring secular government, the landlessmajority, and a republic).

Also, while the form of Mexican government fluctuated considerably during these years, threemen dominate 19th Century Mexican history: 1) Antonio López de Santa Anna (fromindependence until 1855); 2) Benito Juárez (during the 1850s and 1860s); and 3) Porfirio Diaz(during the final quarter of the century).

2. Santa Anna

The federalists asked Gen. Antonio López de Santa Anna to overthrow Bustamante; he did,declaring General Manuel Gómez Pedraza (who won the electoral vote in 1828) as president.Elections were held, and Santa Anna took office in 1832.

Constantly changing political beliefs, as president (he served as president 11 times),[11] in 1834,Santa Anna abrogated the federal constitution, causing insurgencies in the southeastern state of

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Yucatán and the northernmost portion of the northern state of Coahuila y Tejas. Both areassought independence from the central government. Negotiations and the presence of SantaAnna's army brought Yucatán to recognize Mexican sovereignty, Santa Anna's army turned tothe northern rebellion. The inhabitants of Tejas, calling themselves Texans and led mainly byrelatively recently arrived English-speaking settlers, declared independence from Mexico atWashington-on-the-Brazos on 2 March 1836, giving birth to the Republic of Texas. At the Battleof San Jacinto on April 21, 1836, Texan militias defeated the Mexican army and capturedGeneral Santa Anna.

In 1845, the U.S. Congress ratified Texas' petition for statehood.

3. Political Developments in the South and North

Central America, which at the time of Independence was still part of the Viceroyalty, broke awayfreely and in a pacific way from Mexico during 1822 and 1823 and formed the short-livedUnited Provinces of Central America.

The northern states grew increasingly isolated, economically and politically, due to prolongedComanche raids and attacks. New Mexico in particular had been gravitating towardComancheria. In the 1820s, when the United States began to exert influence over the region,New Mexico had already begun to question its loyalty to Mexico. By the time of the Mexican-American War, the Comanches had raided and pillaged large portions of northern Mexico,resulting in sustained impoverishment, political fragmentation, and general frustration at theinability—or unwillingness—of the Mexican government to discipline the Comanches.

War with the United States (1836-1853)

Antonio López de Santa Anna

1. Santa Ana, Again

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Santa Anna was Mexico's leader during the conflict with Texas. Santa Anna was in and out ofpower again during the Mexican-American War. After Texas joined the Union in 1846, the U.S.government sent troops to Texas to secure the territory, subsequently ignoring Mexico's demandsfor withdrawal. Mexico saw this as intervention in its internal affairs.

2. Texas

Soon after achieving independence, the Mexican government, in an effort to populate itsnorthern territories, awarded extensive land grants in Coahuila y Tejas to thousands of familiesfrom the United States, on condition that the settlers convert to Catholicism and becomeMexican citizens. The Mexican government also forbade the importation of slaves. Theseconditions were largely ignored. A key factor in the decision to allow Americans in was thebelief that they would a) protect northern Mexico from Comanche attacks and b) buffer thenorthern states against U.S. westward expansion. The policy failed on both counts: theAmericans tended to settle far from the Comanche raiding zones and used the Mexicangovernment's failure to suppress the raids as a pretext for declaring independence.

3. The Mexican-American War (1846–1848)

In response to a Mexican attack on Fort Texas (subsequently renamed Fort Brown), the U.S.Congress declared war on 13 May 1846; Mexico followed suit on 23 May. Thus began theMexican–American War, which took place in two phases: the western (aimed at securingCalifornia) and Central Mexico (aimed at capturing Mexico City) campaigns. The Californiacampaign was brief and involved mostly skirmishes: the main Mexican resistance came from theCalifornios, and no side fielded more than 700 men in any fighting. The United States completedits occupation of California by January 1847.

4. The Mexico City Campaign

In March 1847, U.S. President James K. Polk sent an army of 12,000 volunteer and regularsoldiers under General Winfield Scott to the port of Veracruz. The 70 ships of the invadingforces arrived at the city on 7 March and began a naval bombombardment. After landing hismen, horses, and supplies, Scott began the Siege of Veracruz. The city (at that time still walled)was defended by Mexican General Juan Morales with 3,400 men. Veracruz replied as best itcould with artillery to the bombardment from land and sea, but the city walls were reduced. After12 days, the Mexicans surrendered. By far the greatest number of casualties on the U.S. side wasdue to yellow fever, which significantly reduced the number of active American troops.]

Scott marched west with 8,500 men, while Santa Anna entrenched with artillery and 12,000troops on the main road halfway to Mexico City (the Battle of Cerro Gordo). Santa Anna's gunswere trained on the road, but Scott sent 2,600 mounted dragoons ahead, and Mexican artilleryprematurely fired on them, revealing their positions. Armed with this vital information, Scottordered his troops to trek through the rough terrain to the north, setting up his artillery on thehigh ground and flanking Santa Anna. Although aware of the positions of U.S. troops, theMexican army was unprepared for the ensuing onslaught and was routed.

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Scott pushed on to Puebla, Mexico's second largest city, which capitulated without resistance on1 May—the citizens were hostile to Santa Anna. After the Battle of Chapultepec (13 September1847), Mexico City was occupied; Scott became its military governor. Many other parts ofMexico were also occupied.

Some Mexican units fought with distinction. One of the justly commemorated units was a groupof six young Military College cadets (now considered Mexican national heroes). These cadetsfought to the death defending their college during the Battle of Chapultepec. Another grouprevered by Mexicans was the Batallón de San Patricio, a unit composed of hundreds of mostlyIrish-born American deserters who fought under Mexican command until the overwhelmingdefeat at the Battle of Churubusco (20 August 1847). Most of the San Patricios were killed;many of those taken prisoner were court-martialled as traitors and executed at Chapultepec.

5. The Terms of Surrender

The war ended with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which stipulated that a) Mexico must sellits northern territories to the United States for US $15 million; b) the United States would protectthe property rights of Mexicans living in the ceded territories; and c) the United States wouldassume $3.25 million in debt owed by Mexico to U.S. citizens.

Battle of Chapultepec

6. Analysis of the Defeat

The Mexican-American War was independent Mexico's first encounter with a large, well-organized and -equipped army. Its soldiers had little reason to fight for their country: they werepoorly paid.

The primary reason for Mexico's defeat was its problematic internal situation, which led to a lackof unity and organization for a successful defense.

7. The Gadsen Purchase

The United States had not realized when it was negotiating the Treaty of Hidalgo that a mucheasier railroad route to California lay slightly south of the Gila River, which the treaty designatedpart of the border between the two countries. In 1853, President Santa Anna, needing to pay hisarmy, sold this territory to the United States for US $15 million—a transaction now known as theGadsen Purchase. Santa Anna personally profited from the sale. The Southern Pacific Railroad,the second transcontinental railroad to California, was built through this purchased land in 1881.

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The Struggle for Liberal Reform (1855-1861)

Main article: La Reforma

1. Santa Ana and Benito Juarez

In 1855, the Liberal Party overthrew Santa Anna during the Revolution of Ayutla. The moderateLiberal Ignacio Comonfort became president. The Moderados tried to find a middle groundbetween the nation's liberals and conservatives.

2. The 1857 Constitution

During Comonfort's presidency, the Constitution of 1857 was drafted. The new constitutionretained most of the Roman Catholic Church's Colonial-era privileges and revenues. Unlike theConstitution of 1824, however, it did not mandate that the Catholic Church be the nation'sexclusive religion. Such reforms were unacceptable to the leadership of the clergy and theconservatives. Comonfort and members of his administration were excommunicated, and a revoltbroke out.

3. The War of Reform

The revolt led to the War of Reform (December 1857 to January 1861), which grew increasinglybloody as it progressed and polarized the nation's politics. Many Moderates, convinced that theCatholic Church's political power had to be curbed, came over to the side of the Liberals. Forsome time, the Liberals and Conservatives simultaneously administered separate governments,the Conservatives from Mexico City and the Liberals from Veracruz. The war ended with aLiberal victory, and liberal President Benito Juárez moved his administration to Mexico City.

French Intervention and the Second Mexican Empire (1861-1867)

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Portrait of Maximilian I of Mexico, by Franz Xaver Winterhalter

In the 1860s, the country was again invaded, this time by France, which installed the HabsburgArchduke Ferdinand Maximilian of Austria as Emperor Maximilian I of Mexico, with supportfrom the Roman Catholic clergy, conservative elements of the upper class, and some indigenouscommunities. Although the French suffered an initial defeat (the Battle of Puebla--nowcommemorated as the Cinco de Mayo holiday), they eventually defeated the Mexican army andset Maximilian on the throne.

Benito Juárez, President of Mexico (1861–1863 and 1867–1872)

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The Mexican-French monarchy set up administration in Mexico City, governing from theNational Palace. Maximilian's consort was Empress Carlota of Mexico. The Imperial couplechose as their home Chapultepec Castle.

The Imperial couple noticed how the people of Mexico (and especially the Indians) were treated,and wanted to ensure their human rights. They were interested in a Mexico for the Mexicans, anddid not share the views of Napoleon III, who was interested in exploiting the rich mines in thenorthwest of the country.

Maximilian was a liberal: he favored the establishment of a limited monarchy, one that wouldshare its powers with a democratically elected congress. This was too liberal to please Mexico'sConservatives, while the liberals refused to accept a monarch, leaving Maximilian with fewenthusiastic allies within Mexico. President Benito Juárez kept the federal governmentfunctioning during the French intervention that put Maximilian in power.

In mid-1867, following repeated losses in battle to the Republican Army and ever decreasingsupport from Napoleon III, Maximilian was captured and executed by Juárez's soldiers. Fromthen on, Juárez remained in office until his death in 1872.

Benito Juarez and the Restoration of the Republic (1867-1872)

In 1867, the republic was restored and Juárez reelected; he continued to implement his reforms.In 1871, he was elected a second time, much to the dismay of his opponents within the Liberalparty, who considered reelection to be somewhat undemocratic. Juárez died one year later andwas succeeded by Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada.

The Porfiriato: Order, Progress, and Dictatorship (1876-1911)

In 1876, Lerdo was reelected, defeating Porfirio Díaz. Díaz rebelled against the government withthe proclamation of the Plan de Tuxtepec, in which he opposed reelection, in 1876. Díazmanaged to overthrow Lerdo, who fled the country, and was named president.

Díaz became the new president. Thus began a period of more than 30 years (1876–1911) duringwhich Díaz was Mexico's strong man. This period of relative prosperity and peace is known asthe Porfiriato. During this period, the country's infrastructure improved greatly, thanks toincreased foreign investment. However, the period was also characterized by social inequalityand discontent among the working classes.

Part V: The Mexican Revolution (1910-1929)

See also: Mexican Revolution

First Phase: The Constitution of 1917 (1910-1921)

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Porfirio Díaz, President of Mexico, (1876-1911)

1. The Election of 1910

In 1910, the 80-year-old Díaz decided to hold an election for another term; he thought he hadlong since eliminated any serious opposition. However, Francisco I. Madero, an academic from arich family, decided to run against him and quickly gathered popular support, despite his arrestand imprisonment by Díaz.

When the official election results were announced, it was declared that Díaz had won reelectionalmost unanimously, with Madero receiving only a few hundred votes in the entire country. Thisfraud by the Porfiriato was too blatant for the public to swallow, and riots broke out. OnNovember 20, 1910, Madero prepared a document known as the Plan de San Luis Potosí, inwhich he called the Mexican people to take up weapons and fight against the Díaz government.Madero managed to flee prison, escaping to San Antonio, Texas, where he began preparationsfor the overthrow of Díaz—an action today regarded as the start of the Mexican Revolution.

Revolutionary force—led by, among others, Emiliano Zapata in the South, Pancho Villa andPascual Orozco in the North, and Venustiano Carranza--defeated the Federal Army, and Díazresigned in 1911 for the "sake of the peace of the nation." He went into exile in France, where hedied in 1915.

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Pancho Villa and Emiliano Zapata. Villa is sitting in the presidential throne in the PalacioNacional at the left.

2. Violent Disagreements (1911–1920)

The revolutionary leaders had many different objectives; revolutionary figures varied fromliberals such as Madero to radicals such as Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. As a consequence,it proved impossible to reach agreement on how to organize the government that emerged fromthe triumphant first phase of the revolution. This standoff over political principles lead quickly toa struggle for control of the government, a violent conflict that lasted more than 20 years.Although this period is usually referred to as part of the Mexican Revolution, it might also betermed a civil war. Presidents Francisco I. Madero (1913), Venustiano Carranza (1920), andformer revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata (1919) and Pancho Villa (1923) all wereassassinated during this period.

Following the resignation of Díaz and a brief reactionary interlude, Madero was elected presidentin 1911, only to be ousted and killed in 1913 by Victoriano Huerta, one of Diaz' generals. Thiscoup had the support of the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Henry Lane Wilson, but not that of U.S.President-elect Woodrow Wilson. Huerta's brutality soon lost him domestic support, and theWilson Administration actively opposed his regime, for example by the naval bombardment ofVeracruz.

In 1915, Huerta was overthrown by Venustiano Carranza, a former revolutionary general.Carranza promulgated a new constitution on February 5, 1917. The Mexican Constitution of1917 still governs Mexico.

On 19 January 1917, a telegram was forwarded from Germany to Mexico proposing militaryaction should the United States declare war against Germany. The offer included material aid toMexico to assist in the reclamation of territory lost during the Mexican-American War,specifically the American states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Carranza formally declinedZimmermann's proposals on 14 April, by which time the United States had declared war onGermany.

Carranza was assassinated in 1919 during an internal feud among his former supporters over whowould replace him as president.

Mexican civilians revolt against the Federal Government.

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3. Obregon and Liberalization (1921–1926)

In 1920, Álvaro Obregón, one of Carranza's allies who had plotted against him, becamepresident. His government managed to accommodate all elements of Mexican society except themost reactionary clergy and landlords; as a result, he was able to successfully catalyze socialliberalization, particularly in curbing the role of the Catholic Church, improving education, andtaking steps toward instituting women's civil rights.

While the Mexican Revolution may have subsided after 1920, armed struggle continued. Themost widespread conflict was the fight between those favoring separation of Church and Stateand those favoring supremacy of the Roman Catholic Church. This fight developed into anarmed uprising by supporters of the Church--"la Guerra Cristera."

It is estimated that between 1910 and 1921, 900,000 people died.

Second Phase: The Cristero War (1926-1929)

Main article: Cristero War

1. Secular/Religious

In 1926, an armed conflict in the form of a popular uprising broke out against the anti-Catholic\anti-clerical Mexican government, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions ofthe Mexican Constitution of 1917. Discontent over the provisions had been simmering for years.The conflict is known as the Cristero War. A number of articles of the 1917 Constitution were atissue: a) Article 5 (outlawing monastic religious orders); b) Article 24 (forbidding publicworship outside of church buildings); and c) Article 27 (restricting religious organizations' rightsto own property). Finally, Article 130 took away basic civil rights of the clergy: priests andreligious leaders were prevented from wearing their habits, were denied the right to vote, andwere not permitted to comment on public affairs in the press.

The Cristero War was eventually resolved diplomatically, largely with the help of the U.S.Ambassador, Dwight Whitney Morrow. The conflict claimed 90,000 lives: 56,882 on the federalside, 30,000 Cristeros, and civilians and Cristeros killed in anticlerical raids after the war's end.As promised in the diplomatic resolution, the laws considered offensive by the Cristerosremained on the books, but the federal government made no organized attempt to enforce them.Nonetheless, persecution of Catholic priests continued in several localities, fueled by localofficials' interpretation of the law.[13]

Part VI: The PRI and the Rise of Contemporary Mexico(1929-present)

The Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) (1929-2000)

1. One-Party Rule

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In 1929, the National Mexican Party (PNM) was formed by the president, General Plutarco ElíasCalles. The PNM convinced most of the remaining revolutionary generals to hand over theirpersonal armies to the Mexican Army; the party's foundation is thus considered by some the endof the Revolution.

Later renamed the Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI), the new party ruled Mexico for therest of the 20th century.

The PRI set up a new type of system, led by a caudillo.

The party is typically referred to as the three-legged stool, in reference to Mexican workers,peasants, and bureaucrats.

After its establishment as the ruling party, the PRI monopolized all the political branches: it didnot lose a senate seat until 1988 or a gubernatorial race until 1989.[14] It wasn't until July 2, 2000,that Vicente Fox of the opposition "Alliance for Change" coalition, headed by the NationalAction Party (PAN), was elected president. His victory ended the PRI's 71-year hold on thepresidency.

2. President Lázaro Cárdenas

President Lázaro Cárdenas came to power in 1934 and transformed Mexico. On April 1, 1936, heexiled Calles, the last general with dictatorial ambitions, thereby removing the army from power.

Cárdenas managed to unite the different forces in the PRI and set the rules that allowed his partyto rule unchallenged for decades to come without internal fights. He nationalized the oil industry(on 18 March 1938), the electricity industry, created the National Polytechnic Institute, grantedasylum to Spanish expatriates fleeing the Spanish Civil War, and started land reform and thedistribution of free textbooks to children.

3. President Manuel Ávila Camacho

Manuel Ávila Camacho, Cárdenas's successor, presided over a "bridge" between therevolutionary era and the era of machine politics under PRI that lasted until 2000. Ávila, movingaway from nationalistic autarchy, proposed to create a favorable climate for internationalinvestment, favored nearly two generations earlier by Madero. Ávila's regime froze wages,repressed strikes, and persecuted dissidents with a law prohibiting the "crime of socialdissolution." During this period, the PRI regime thus betrayed the legacy of land reform. MiguelAlemán Valdés, Ávila's successor, even had Article 27 amended to protect elite landowners.During his government, Manuel Ávila Camacho had to deal with the start of World War II, whenMexican ships (the Potrero del Llano and Faja de Oro) were sunk by German submarines (U-564and U-106 respectively); as result, the Mexican governmment declared war on the Axis powerson 22 May 1942, and the Mexican Air Force's Escuadron Aéreo de Pelea 201 (201st FighterSquadron) was sent to fight during the liberation of the Philippines, working with the U.S. FifthAir Force in the last year of the war.

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The Mexican Economic Miracle (1930-1970)

During the next four decades, Mexico experienced impressive economic growth (albeit from alow baseline), an achievement historians call "El Milagro Mexicano," the Mexican EconomicMiracle. Annual economic growth during this period averaged 3–4 percent, with a modest 3-percent annual rate of inflation. The miracle, moreover, was solidly rooted in government policy:1) an emphasis on primary education that tripled the enrollment rate between 1929 and 1949; 2)high tariffs on imported domestic goods; and 3) public investment in agriculture, energy, andtransportation infrastructure. Starting in the 1940s, immigration into the cities swelled thecountry's urban population.

The economic growth occurred in spite of falling foreign investment during the GreatDepression. The assumption of mineral rights and subsequent nationalisation of the oil industryinto Pemex during the presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas del Río was a popular move.

The Economic Collapse (1970-1994)

A meeting of the UNAM council that organized the student movement and demonstrations thatculminating in the Tlatelolco massacre.

Although PRI administrations achieved economic growth and relative prosperity for almost threedecades after World War II, the party's management of the economy led to several crises, andpolitical unrest grew in the late 1960s, culminating in the Tlatelolco massacre in 1968. Economiccrises swept the country in 1976 and 1982, leading to the nationalization of Mexico's banks,which were blamed for the economic problems (La Década Perdida). On both occasions, theMexican peso was devalued, and, until 2000, it was normal to expect a big devaluation andrecession at the end of each presidential term. The "December Mistake" crisis threw Mexico intoeconomic turmoil—the worst recession in over half a century.

The end of the PRI's rule

Accused many times of blatant fraud, the PRI held almost all public offices until the end of the20th Century. Not until the 1980s did the PRI lose its first state governorship, an event thatmarked the beginning of the party's loss of hegemony.

1. 1985 Earthquake

Apartment Complex Pino Suárez, 1985 Mexico City earthquake

On 19 September 1985, an earthquake (8.1 on the Richter scale) struck Michoacán, inflictingsevere damage on Mexico City. Estimates of the number of dead range from 6,500 to 30,000.(See 1985 Mexico City earthquake.) Public anger at the PRI's mishandling of relief effortscombined with the ongoing economic crisis led to a substantial weakening of the PRI. As aresult, for the first time since the 1930s, the PRI began to face serious electoral challenges.

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1. President Ernesto Zedillo (in office, 1994–2000)

In 1995, President Ernesto Zedillo faced the "December Mistake" economic crisis, triggered by asudden devaluation of the peso. There were public demonstrations in Mexico City and a constantmilitary presence after the 1994 rising of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Chiapas.

The United States intervened rapidly to stem the economic crisis, first by buying pesos in theopen market, and then by granting assistance in the form of $50 billion in loan guarantees. Thepeso stabilized at 6 pesos per dollar. By 1996, the economy was growing, and in 1997, Mexicorepaid, ahead of schedule, all U.S. Treasury loans.

Zedillo oversaw political and electoral reforms that reduced the PRI's hold on power. After the1988 election, which was strongly disputed and arguably lost by the government, the IFE(Instituto Federal Electoral – Federal Electoral Institute) was created in the early 1990s. Run byordinary citizens, the IFE oversees elections with the aim of ensuring that they are conductedlegally and impartially.

2. President Vicente Fox Quesada (in office, 2000–2006)

Emphasizing the need to upgrade infrastructure, modernize the tax system and labor laws, andallow private investment in the energy sector, Vicente Fox Quesada, the candidate of theNational Action Party (PAN), was elected the 69th president of Mexico on 2 July 2000, endingPRI's 71-year-long control of the office. Though Fox's victory was due in part to populardiscontent with decades of unchallenged PRI hegemony, also, Fox's opponent, president Zedillo,conceded defeat on the night of the election—a first in Mexican history. A further sign of thequickening of Mexican democracy was the fact that PAN failed to win a majority in bothchambers of Congress—a situation that prevented Fox from implementing his reform pledges.Nonetheless, the transfer of power in 2000 was quick and peaceful.

3. President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa (incumbent president)

President Felipe Calderón Hinojosa (of PAN) took office after one of the most hotly contested inrecent Mexican history; Calderón won by such a small margin that the runner-up, AndrésManuel López Obrador of the leftist Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD), claimed theelection was stolen. Obrador toured the country as the "legitimate president", and still claims thatthe election was a fraud[citation needed]. Nevertheless, on 5 September 2006, the Federal ElectoralTribunal (TEPJF) determined that Calderón had met the constitutional requirements for electionand declared him president-elect.

Part VII: Mexico Today

NAFTA and Economic Resurgence (1994-present)

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Logo of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

On 1 January 1994, Mexico became a full member of the North American Free Trade Agreement(NAFTA), joining the United States of America and Canada. In 2005, North American economicintegration was further strengthened by the signing of the Security and Prosperity Partnership ofNorth America.

Mexico has a free market economy that recently entered the trillion-dollar class.[15] It contains amixture of modern and outmoded industry and agriculture, increasingly dominated by the privatesector. Recent administrations have expanded competition in sea ports, railroads,telecommunications, electricity generation, natural gas distribution, and airports. Per capitaincome is one-quarter that of the United States; income distribution remains highly unequal.Trade with the United States and Canada has tripled since the implementation of NAFTA.Mexico has free-trade agreements with more than 40 countries, governing 90% of its foreigncommerce.

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