History Notes

History Notes

International Relations 1919-39

Were the peace treaties of 1919-23 fair?

What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles?

Georges Clemenceau (Prime Minister of France): Wanted revenge for the damage that France had suffered, losing over 1 million men – ‘hard justice’. Wanted to punish Germany who he believed to be responsible for the war. Wanted general humiliation of Germany, and German land. France had been humiliated in the Franco-

Prussian war with Alsace and a large part of Lorraine taken – wanted them back. Wanted Germany destroyed so cannot fight again. Wanted restrictions on the size of the German army to prevent it from being able to rise again. Wanted an independent Rhineland to act as a buffer state between Germany and France. Wanted strong reparations for the rebuilding of France. The war left 2 million homeless and 750,000 homes

destroyed. In short he wanted Germany to be treated very harshly.

David Lloyd George (Prime Minister of Britain): Wanted Germany to be punished, as Britain had lost almost 1 million men. This was partly due to political

pressure as there had been elections in Britain and MPs had been elected promising to ‘Make Germany Pay’ and ‘Hang the Kaiser’.

Britain hadn’t been invaded so he was more moderate and reasonable than Clemenceau. He wanted ‘justice’ but not revenge.

Had certain selfish priorities. One being that Germany was an important trading partner with Britain and Lloyd George didn’t want to prevent future trade with Germany due to a harsh treaty.

Also wanted to take a large share of Germany’s overseas colonies to add to the British Empire. All in all he wanted a compromise between France’s harsh idea of a treaty and the USA’s lenient idea.

Woodrow Wilson (President of the USA): USA had suffered relatively little and in fact the US economy had benefitted from the war through arms sales.

Therefore he wasn’t bitter or in want of revenge at all. Was idealistic and determined to secure world peace. Believed that crippling Germany would only result in revenge and another war. Believed that all powers were responsible for causing the war, so didn’t blame Germany for causing it. Wanted ‘national self-determination’ which was the idea that the people should decide on their own fate. He

argued that land shouldn’t be taken where German majorities were evident. Felt some pressure from millions of German-Americans who believed that Germany shouldn’t be punished. Wilson’s Fourteen Points (January 1918):

1. A ban on secret treaties between states2. Free movement of ships anywhere in the world3. Free trade between countries without import taxes4. General disarmament5. Greater independence for colonies6. Non-interference in Russia7. Germany to leave Belgium8. Alsace-Lorraine to be returned to France9. Italian borders to be settled10. Independence for the peoples of Austria-Hungary11. Invading armies to leave Balkans12. Independence for the non-Turkish people of the Turkish empire13. Independence for Poland14. An effective League of Nations to keep the peace

In short, he wanted what he believed to be a fair (not very harsh) treaty.

The Treaty of Versailles

The Big Three debated the terms of the Treaty for five months.

Germany had no involvement at all in the discussions and on 28 June 1919, in the Hall of Mirrors, in the Palace of Versailles, the two German delegates were only called into the room to sign the Treaty.

Clemenceau (who wanted a harsh treaty) and Wilson (who wanted a generous treaty) clashed over many issues due to their differences.

Lloyd George and Wilson disagreed over self-determination considering the British Empire ruled over millions of people.

The terms of the treaty: League of Nations:

o The first 26 articles set out the Covenant of the League.o This was an international organisation with the purpose of resolving disputes.

War guilt:o Article 231 stated that Germany had to accept the blame for ‘causing all the loss and damage’ of the

war. This was so important because it provided justification for… Reparations:

o Compensation could be demanded, now that Germany had accepted the blame for causing the war. This was a sum of £6.6 billion, finally decided in 1921.

Armaments:o Army reduced to 100,000 troops.o Conscription banned.o No tanks, submarines or military aircraft.o Navy limited to 12 destroyers, 6 battleships and 6 cruisers.o Rhineland (strip of land, 50 miles wide, next to France) demilitarised.

Territories:o Alsace-Lorraine to France.o Saar coalfields to France for 15 years.o Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium.o Northern Schleswig to Denmark.o West Prussia, Posen and Upper Silesia to Poland.o Memel to Lithuania.o Danzig was made a ‘free city’, run by the League of Nations.o German colonies became ‘mandates’. This was because Wilson wanted them to be controlled by the

League while Lloyd George and Clemenceau wanted to colonise them. Therefore they agreed to a compromise with Britain and France looking after them on behalf of the League.

Other points:o Anschluss (‘union’) with Austria was forbidden.o The Baltic States (Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia) were made independent.

Verdicts on the Treaty

Georges Clemenceau got: Reparations – to repair damage in France The German army dramatically reduced in size – to protect France The demilitarisation of the Rhineland – to protect France Alsace-Lorraine and German colonies

However, he was disappointed that: The Treaty wasn’t harsher Germany hadn’t been split up into lots of small states They only got the Saar for 15 years The Rhineland wasn’t made an independent ‘buffer’ state

David Lloyd George got: Germany was ‘made to pay’ as he had promised the British people Some German colonies – expanding the British Empire The reduction of German navy – helping Britain to continue to ‘rule the waves’

However he hated that: The Treaty was far too harsh and would ruin Germany It would cause another war in 25 years time (in his opinion) The Treaty was neither just nor wise

Woodrow Wilson got: A League of Nations Self-determination for the people of Eastern Europe

But, he was disappointed that: Some of his ‘Fourteen Points’ didn’t get into the Treaty When he returned to the US, the Senate refused to join the League and even refused to sign the Treaty The colonies were given no say in their future Only defeated powers were made to disarm Germany had to pay reparations and was blamed for the war

Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted?

Different victors wanted different things – They couldn’t all have what they wanted. Britain and France didn’t want a League of Nations, but Wilson insisted on little else. Clemenceau wanted crippling reparations while Wilson and Lloyd George didn’t. It is not even that the victors didn’t TRY to get everything they wanted – they pushed things to the point where in March 1919 the Conference was about to break up in failure, and Lloyd George had to step in and push through his Fontainebleau Memorandum (whereby he forced Wilson to accept reparations, and Clemenceau to accept the League of Nations). So the eventual Treaty of Versailles (it is rather obvious to say) had to be a COMPROMISE, and a compromise is by definition ‘not getting all you want’.

They had more than themselves to think about – Perhaps if they had gone to Versailles thinking only of themselves, some of the leaders could have got everything they wanted. But the leaders, as Wilson pointed out in his opening speech, had much more to do at Versailles than get something for themselves. The world was in ruins after the greatest war ever. In Eastern Europe three great empires had collapsed and there were literally no countries at all. The Big Three were very aware that it was their job, not just to get what they wanted but also to rebuild the world to make it ‘safe for democracy’. That was, especially, the vision behind Wilson’s Fourteen Points and the League of Nations; but Lloyd George, too, felt the need for ‘justice’ in the peace. So a second reason the victors didn’t get everything they wanted was because they didn’t even try – they had other, more noble, ambitions. Furthermore, even if they had wanted to, the Big Three weren’t allowed to only think of themselves. Thousands of lobbyists journeyed to Paris to try and get what they wanted, from the Queen of Romania, to 20 Ukrainian delegates wanting independence. They couldn’t possibly ignore these.

Complexity – It was always going to be impossible for the Big Three to come to an agreement about something like reparations. How do you put an accurate figure on reparations? Another is example is, how do you sort out the principle of self-determination in Hungary, which was evidently populated by Hungarians, but also peppered with small enclaves of Germans who had emigrated there centuries earlier? They ended up sanctioning plebiscites to let the people decide where they wanted to live, and set up a separate committee to make a decision on reparations. Once you hand over power in this way, you’re never going to get what you want.

What was the impact of the peace treaty on Germany up to 1923?

The Treaty greatly added to bitterness and the want for revenge in Germany; the war guilt clause was seen as unfair and the loss of colonies did not aid the balance of power, instead displaying the greed of the peacemakers.

The Treaty tipped Germany into utter chaos when Ebert signed it in 1919. He was seen as a ‘November Criminal’, making democracy in Germany a great struggle. This is because there were many right and left wing opponents that hated the treaty and attempted to stage revolutions.

The extent of the reparations meant that by 1922 Germany had fallen behind in payments. As a result, the French entered the Ruhr (German industrial area; heartland of the German economy) in 1923. The German workers went on strike so that nothing was produced for the French to take. This strike meant that Germany had no goods to trade with and no money to buy things with. Therefore, the government decided to start printing money, and when a government prints money that it doesn’t have, prices go up and value goes down. This led to the great hyperinflation crisis of 1923 and years of suffering for the German people.

German pride was damaged in the reduction of their armed forces, which they had been so proud of.

Why did the terms of the Treaty anger the Germans so much?

War guilt and reparations – The Germans felt that they weren’t the sole cause of the war; the imperialist struggle for overseas colonies and the European alliance system were more fundamental reasons. This unfair admission of guilt led to reparations, which the Germans argued were more than they were able to pay, and would result in poverty and suffering.

Diktat – The Germans weren’t allowed to participate in discussions, and only one written criticism was accepted. The Germans were simply presented with the treaty and told to sign it.

Disarmament – Germans argued that 100,000 men weren’t enough to merely maintain order in Germany, or to defend their country, so they felt defenceless. Germany was also the only country that was forced to disarm, which didn’t keep with Wilson’s Fourteen Points.

Loss of territory – Germany lost land that was both historically and culturally very German. Alsace and Lorraine were both states with a large German-speaking majority, and West Prussia was longstanding German territory. Loss of such land didn’t keep with Wilson’s Fourteen Points either and the idea of ‘self-determination’. Loss of colonies was also criticised, as they had little to do with the balance of power and Europe and displayed the greed of the conquering powers. The loss of land also made Germany poorer with the farmland of West Prussia and the industrial area of the Saar both taken.

Anschluss – The forbidding of Anschluss was totally against the principle of national self-determination. League of Nations – Was seen as an insult and meant that Germany couldn’t defend itself against the League.

Was the Treaty of Versailles fair?

Fair: The settlement had only removed limited amounts of land from Germany. In places like the Polish Corridor

most people weren’t German-speakers and saw themselves as Polish. Alsace-Lorraine had been traditionally French so was fairly returned.

The basic strength of the German economy wasn’t destroyed. Germany soon recovered to its position as the most successful economy in Europe.

Although the German Army was hugely reduced in size, the leaders weren’t removed. The army remained a powerful force in society. The generals were ready and able to rebuild German armed forces when the time was right.

Germany clearly wasn’t totally crushed. It wouldn’t prevent Germany from rising again as the economy recovered quickly and the state remained broadly intact.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that the Germans had enforced on Russia was far harsher than the Versailles Treaty, taking huge amounts of land, a quarter of the Russian Empire’s population, a quarter of its industry and nine-tenths of its coalmines. This perhaps helped to justify this treaty. The Germans were only interested in justice when they were the victims.

Unfair: It was wrong to put sole blame for the war on Germany. Other countries had been aggressive in the years

preceding 1914. One of the causes of the war was imperialism; many countries, including Britain and France, had tried to build world empires.

The treaty punished the people instead of the rulers of Germany. Reparations hit ordinary Germans who weren’t guilty.

Reparations were too high. It was believed that the figure of £6.6 billion was far more than what Germany could afford. It was argued that Germany could afford £2 billion, but £6.6 billion would cause a collapse of the German economy, resulting in the loss of a major European trading partner.

The Big Three hadn’t allowed Germany to have any part in the negotiations of the treaty; the Germans were simply given the treaty and forced to sign it. This lack of discussion or consultation was considered highly unfair.

Germany had been tricked, because her government had been offered justice and fairness by Wilson when he made his speech about the Fourteen Points. When the Germans stopped fighting they expected to be dealt with under Wilson’s terms. There was nothing about war guilt and reparations in the Fourteen Points.

The Treaty aimed to destroy the German economy, which was a mistake, as it would do no one any good. People throughout Europe would lose out if there were no successful German factories of businesses.

Alsace-Lorraine was lost despite having a large number of German-speakers.

The treaty did enough to anger Germany, but not enough to permanently weaken it. The treaty was a fatal compromise meaning that the German state remained broadly intact and the economy quickly recovered. But, Germans would soon be seeking revenge for the harshness of the treaty as they were aggrieved but soon in a position to challenge the outcome.

The other peace treaties

Treaty of St Germain – 1919 (Austria)

Austria and Hungary were split up and separate treaties were made with each. The old Austrian Empire had already collapsed by 1918, and this treaty was more about sorting out all territories into new states than punishing Austria. National self-determination was broadly used to determine where the territories should go.

Land was lost to Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Romania and Italy Army was limited to 30,000 and navy was dissolved ‘Anschluss’ with Germany was forbidden Reparations had to be paid

Treaty of Trianon – 1920 (Hungary)

Similarly to St Germain, the main terms of the treaty were territorial. As a result of the Treaty, Hungary was reduced so that it only included the Magyar people.

Land was lost to Romania, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Yugoslavia Army was limited to 35,000 men Population was reduced to 11 million Some of the richest agricultural land was lost Reparations had to be paid

Impact – The treaty created bitterness and instability in Hungary. Democracy was again impossible due to the treaties, and as in Germany, left-wing and right-wing militants tried to seize power. Before the First World War, Hungary had controlled a multi-national empire, but lost two-thirds of this territory in the Treaty. After 1920, foreign policy was dominated by a wish to ‘get back’ lost lands. To defend from Hungary, Romania, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia formed an alliance called the Little Entente.

Treaty of Neuilly – 1919 (Bulgaria)

Bulgaria had also fought on the losing side in the war.

Land was lost to Romania, Greece and Yugoslavia The army was limited to just 20,000 men Reparations of £100 million had to be paid

Treaty of Sèvres – 1920 (Turkey)

The Ottoman family had ruled over a powerful Turkish Empire for many centuries, but this had been in decline in the years before the war and the Turks fought on the losing side.

All land in Europe was lost to Greece Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco became independent Syria became a French mandate; Palestine, Jordan and Iraq became British mandates Control of the Straits into the Black Sea was lost

Turkey had to disarm Turkey had to pay reparations

Treaty of Lausanne – 1923 (Revising the Turkish Treaty)

The Turkish people responded powerfully to the terms of Sèvres. A general known as Atatürk led a revolution, overthrowing the Ottoman family in 1921. Once in power he used his armies to overturn the Treaty of Sèvres by force, recapturing Smyrna (land lost to Greece) and threatening to reoccupy the area around the Straits. As a result a new treaty was negotiated with Turkey:

Most land lost to Greece was given back to Turkey Reparations didn’t have to be paid Turkey could fortify Constantinople Turkey could close the Straits to enemy ships if at war

Impact of the treaties on Central and Eastern Europe

CzechoslovakiaThere was great tension between different ethnic groups in Czechoslovakia, the only new state in Eastern Europe that allowed free speech and democracy. Slovaks and Sudeten Germans claimed to not be treated fairly by the Czechs.

PolandThe new Polish state was immediately involved in a series of brief wars with its neighbours, as the Poles weren’t content with the borders set up in the peace treaties. Poland fought against Germany, Czechoslovakia, Lithuania and the Soviet Union. In 1920 Poland took over the Lithuanian city of Vilna, and by 1921 Poland had conquered a huge area of Belarus and Ukraine. It seemed impossible to form a stable government and the country was on the verge of civil war. Eventually the chaos came to an end in May 1926 when democracy was ended when Marshal Piłsudski seized power.

Self-Determination

This was the right to rule yourself and created many new states in Eastern Europe.

Problems: Areas were sometimes very mixed racially Caused small wars Didn’t apply to Germany Created many small weak states which could be easily conquered (as Hitler proved)

Successes: Nine nations were set up (Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Finland, Estonia,

Latvia, Lithuania) Alsace-Lorraine was given to France Plebiscites in Schleswig, Upper Silesia and the Saar were fair

To what extent was the League of Nations a success?

The League was an association of independent states, which promised to cooperate with each other in preserving international peace and security. It’s organisation and aims were set out in the 26 articles of the Covenant and the League came into being when the Versailles Treaty came into effect in January 1920. It was Woodrow Wilson’s most important objective at the Versailles Conference.

The organisation of the League

Membership

42 countries at the start which had risen to 60 by the 1930s The US Senate voted against Versailles in May 1920

The USSR didn’t join the League, instead setting up the Comintern to cause revolution Germany wasn’t allowed to join as a punishment for causing the First World War The leading members were Britain and France, helped by Italy and Japan

Structure

Assembly – Met once a year. Each member state had a representative and one vote on decisions. However, it had very little power and could only recommend certain actions. It voted on the League’s budget, and on the temporary members of the Council.

Council – The main source of power with four permanent members. It met four or five times a year and all decisions had to be unanimous; one country in disagreement could veto a decision. This was the part of the League that could enforce action by:

Moral condemnation Trade sanctions Use of force from member states

Secretariat – Civil service of the League. Carried out day-to-day business, prepared information on problems, monitored the implementation of League decisions and informed states of League policy. However, there were too few secretaries and it was very slow and inefficient.

Committees – Health Organisation – investigated the causes of epidemics and encouraged international cooperation against

major diseases International Labour Organisation – did much to establish standards in relation to working hours, wages,

sickness, unemployment benefit, and old age pensions Refugee Organisation – helped refugees and 400,000 prisoners of war to return to their countries Mandates Commission – supervised the former colonies of Germany and Turkey Minorities Commission – was active in protecting minority nationalities International Court of Justice – states were meant to submit disputes to this but decisions didn’t have to be

implemented and few states entrusted in the court’s ruling Disarmament Commission – had the near impossible task of persuading member states to reduce

armaments, though they had all concurred to do so when they agreed to the covenant, and unsurprisingly made no progress

Aims

To discourage aggression To encourage countries to cooperate, especially in business and trade To encourage disarmament To improve living and working conditions in all parts of the world To enforce the Treaty of Versailles

Strengths and weaknesses

Strengths: Membership – There were originally 42 members which grew to 60 by the 1930s. Britain and France were the

main members and were helped by Italy and Japan. These four were quite powerful countries. It had been set up by the Treaty of Versailles so had authority. It originally seemed to have the ability to seriously affect an aggressor, with moral condemnation, the ability

to collectively refuse to trade and the ability to send an army.Weaknesses:

Organisation – This was a huge muddle and in a crisis no one could agree. Decisions were very slow. Another example of this problem was the ability for a member of the Council to veto a decision.

Britain and France weren’t willing to use their armies as they had other priorities. They also often argued with each other, as they didn’t trust each other.

The absent powerful countries – The American Senates refusal to join the League was perhaps the biggest weakness. Americans didn’t want to get dragged into other countries’ problems, damaging the League hugely. It now didn’t have access to the prestige, influence, wealth or military power of the United States. It

now had to rely on Britain and France (two declining powers). Germany was another powerful country, which was originally banned from the League, as was the USSR.

The League had been set up by the Treaty of Versailles, so it was hated, because the treaty was hateful. Dictators weren’t going to be willing to compromise. Moral condemnation was weak, the League had no army and countries could find ways around sanctions.

How successful was the League in the 1920s?

Successes

The Åland Islands – 1920There was a dispute between Sweden and Finland about the possession of these islands, which had been traditionally Finnish, however the population was Swedish. The League ruled in favour of Finland and Sweden accepted this.

Silesia – 1921Germany and Poland had a dispute over Upper Silesia. The League recommended that the area should be divided between two powers and both countries accepted this.

Austrian economy – 1922The League successfully organized a rescue plan for the Austrian economy.

Mosul – 1924The Turks demanded possession of Mosul, which had been Turkish, but was given to Iraq in the Treaty of Sèvres. The League ruled in favour of Iraq and Turkey accepted this.

Bulgaria – 1925The Greeks invaded Bulgaria, which appealed for help. The League ruled that Greece was at fault. Both sides stopped fighting and Greece agreed to pay compensation.

Germany joins League – 1926Germany joined the League as part of the Locarno settlement.

Kellogg-Briand Pact – 192865 countries signed this, agreeing to never go to war with each other.

Danzig and the SaarThe League administered the Saarland area of Germany and the Baltic city of Danzig with great fairness throughout the 1920s.

DiseaseThe League worked well to prevent leprosy and malaria.

SlavesThe League attacked slave traders in Africa and Burma, freeing 200,000 slaves.

Prisoners of warThe League took home half a million World War One prisoners.

RefugeesThe League set up camps and fed Turkish refugees.

DrugsThe League closed down four big Swiss companies, which were selling drugs.

Failures

Poland – 1920Poland took land from Russia, breaking the Treaty of Versailles, and then ignored orders from the League to stop.

Vilna – 1920Poland seized Vilna, the Lithuanian capital. The League protested at the move and negotiated with Poland to leave, but Poland refused and in 1923 Vilna was formally recognised as Polish.

French invasion of the Ruhr – 1923When Germany fell behind with reparations, the French invaded the industrial area of the Ruhr and the League wasn’t even consulted. France was a member of the Council so the League couldn’t do anything even though Britain disagreed with this invasion.

Memel – 1923In response to the loss of Vilna, the Lithuanians seized the German port of Memel. Lithuania ignored League protests and it became recognised as Lithuanian.

Smyrna – 1923Turkey overturned the Treaty of Sèvres, pushing the Greeks out of Smyrna. The League was unable to take any action.

Corfu – 1923Greek bandits killed four Italians who were working for the League, so Mussolini ordered Italian ships to bombard Corfu, demanding compensation. The League couldn’t agree on what action to take because France didn’t want to annoy the Italian government. In the end an agreement was reached, but the League had no involvement in this.

Washington Treaty – 1922See below

Treaty of Rapallo – 1922See below

Geneva Protocol – 1924Britain refused to sign this French attempt to strengthen the military power of the League.

Dawes Plan – 1924This American loan gave Germany new strength as they built new factories and started to become a big power again.

DisarmamentBritain objected to the 1923 conference.

The spirit of Locarno

Discussion in Washington 1921-2The USA had refused to support the League and ignored it, organising conferences of its own in Washington in 1921 and 1922. These concentrated on trying to limit tensions in the Pacific (between Japan and the USA), which was precisely the sort of dispute the League was meant to sort out. These conferences showed the world the limits of the authority of the League. The Washington Treaty was signed in February 1922, when Britain and the US agreed to have equal size navies and the Japanese agreed to have three-fifths of the size of each.

Rapallo 1922There was an international conference organised by the British in Genoa. Lloyd George wanted to find a solution to the argument between the French and the Germans over reparations and disarmament. This was a disaster as the Americans refused to attend and the Germans and French continued to disagree. Meanwhile, German and Soviet delegates had discussions at the nearby town of Rapallo while the main conference was taking place. The Treaty of Rapallo was signed in April as the governments agreed to establish friendly relations and to secretly cooperate on military planning. News of the treaty and rumours of the secret military deal shocked the French government. The deal enabled Germany to get hold of most weapons that were banned under the Treaty of Versailles and as a result this treaty was a blow to the authority of the League.

Locarno 1925After the failure of the occupation of the Ruhr the French looked for a compromise with Germany. This search for a compromise continued in 1925 when a major conference took place at Locarno. The key players at Locarno were the Foreign Ministers of Britain, France and Germany. Under the main treaty at Locarno, Germany, France and Belgium

agreed to the borders set up by the Versailles Treaty and Germany agreed to join the League of Nations. Locarno was greeted with great enthusiasm and was seen by many as an end to the bitterness of the war and the start of a new period of peace.

How far did the Depression make the work of the League more difficult?

24 October 1929 was the day of the Wall Street Crash. The value of American shares collapsed and this was the start of an economic crisis that devastated the world. In the years before 1929 the American economy was by far the most important manufacturing power in the world. Many countries relied on the USA.

American foreign policy had been isolationist before the Great Depression, but after 1929 the US government became even more isolationist, as politicians were much more interested in rebuilding the American economy. This even more extreme isolationism meant that Britain and France were more cautious in dealing with dictators as they knew they didn’t have the military support of the US. Hitler and Mussolini were encouraged to think that they could be aggressive without the risk of war with the USA.

The great powers also became very selfish, as there was unrest at home. They raised customs duties on foreign goods entering their countries (this was called protectionism) and its aim was to boost the demand for their own goods. It was hoped that this would create more jobs. Some countries (such as Italy) made huge attempts to become self-sufficient. This ultimately weakened relations between countries and the great powers of the League weren’t so willing to take action (for example, in Abyssinia in 1935 Britain failed to enforce sanctions in Italy regarding fuel as they were worried it would harm their Welsh miners).

The Depression had a huge effect in Germany. The loans they had taken from the Americans were withdrawn and the economy collapsed. The people saw this as proof that democracy didn’t work and turned to more radical extremes. The two biggest parties in Germany became Hitler’s Nazi Party and the Communist Party. This eventually led to Hitler coming to power and Germany rearming.

The Depression also had a great impact in Britain and France. They both made cuts as the Germans rearmed and overtook the British in terms of arms. They were more concerned about their empires and weren’t so willing to support the League financially.

Crisis in Manchuria

Why did Japan invade Manchuria? Japan had been very hardly hit by the Great Depression, particularly because of the collapse in the price of

silk, their main export. It was believed that if the Japanese had an empire it would help them economically. Japan could exploit such an empire for trade, creating jobs for the Japanese people.

Although Japan was supposed to be a democracy, it was really a military dictatorship as the army had huge amounts of power. The army was out of control and rarely consulted the government. The army and navy desperately wanted an empire and to win military glory.

Japan wanted an empire for extra living space. Japan is a small country without much agricultural land, and when Manchuria was conquered, farmers were encouraged to colonise there.

The great European powers had empires and Japan was a developed country with an advanced industry and powerful army, so they saw no reason as to why they shouldn’t have an army.

What happened? September 1931 – An explosion occurred on the South Manchurian Railway (controlled by the Japanese –

they owned what was called a 'concession', the right to run the railway). The local Japanese army commander who was in charge of protecting the railway claimed the explosion was the result of Chinese sabotage (in fact the Japanese staged the whole incident). This was called the Mukden Incident and he used it as an excuse to take control of the whole of Manchuria (northern part of China).

February 1932 – The Japanese set up a new 'independent' government in what was now renamed Manchukuo with the last Chinese Emperor, Pu Yi, as its 'puppet' ruler. In fact he was closely controlled by the Japanese army.

Response of the League

The issue went before the League Council and the majority wanted the Japanese to concentrate their troops at one point only, however Japan was a permanent member and was therefore able to simply veto the proposal. This showed a huge flaw in the structure of the League. The Lytton Commission was sent to China (by boat!!!) to investigate and after a whole year (!!!) it was decided that it was Japan’s fault, by which time the Japanese were in total control. The League ‘morally condemned’ Japan, and that was it. Japan then walked out of the League.

Impact on the League This showed how the structure of the League was ineffective The League took far too long to act This showed that collective security was a failure An aggressor could simply walk out of the League, as Japan did here

Crisis in Abyssinia

Why did Italy invade Abyssinia? Like Japan, Italy wanted an empire. They looked at the great powers of Britain and France and they had

empires, so why shouldn’t Italy have one too? Abyssinia was one of the last remaining parts of Africa that hadn’t been colonised so offered a great opportunity for Italy. It would also be economically useful to Italy as it was a rich country with fertile lands. Furthermore, Mussolini had promised since 1922 to win significant territory and hadn’t done so yet.

Italy was a poor country and had been hit very hard by the Great Depression. Mussolini wanted to distract the people from the hardships at home with a short glorious war.

Mussolini desperately wanted to avenge the embarrassing defeat that the Italians had suffered at Adowa in 1896.

Italy knew that they would get away with it. The League of Nations had failed to act in Manchuria, so why would they act here? Also, Abyssinia was one of the few remaining places where slavery was still widely practiced, and it had been condemned by many for this. The League wasn’t going to act to defend a country like this. Mussolini also correctly realised that the British and French were much more concerned about the threat posed by Hitler in Europe than Italy in Africa. Italy had signed the Stresa Front in 1935 with Britain and France agreeing to contain the threat from Nazi Germany. Britain and France would not put this pact at risk by standing up to Italy over Abyssinia.

What happened? After a long build up of forces in neighbouring Eritrea and Libya (both Italian colonies), and after a 'border

dispute' over the Wal Wal Oasis, in October 1935 Italian forces attacked Abyssinia. It was expected that the war would be very short and glorious but in actual fact the Abyssinians put up an

unexpectedly tough resistance. Italy had over half a million men involved in the fighting with modern tanks and aircraft fighting against poorly equipped tribesmen, but they still suffered defeats. Mussolini used poisonous gas, to the horror of people around the world. But in May 1936 the Abyssinian capital Addis Ababa finally fell bringing the war to an end.

Response of the League The League quite simply had to act. Italy had quite clearly done exactly what the League was set up to stop; it

was an unprovoked attack on Abyssinia. It was agreed that sanctions were to be imposed, but these didn’t go far enough. While arms sales to Italy were restricted, there was no restriction at all on fuel sails to Italy. Italy totally relied on imports of coal and oil as they had no fuel reserves and if this had happened Italy might have been forced to abandon the war. However, the British didn’t want their Welsh miners to suffer economically and it was also known that whatever the League did, the USA would just trade with Italy. Sanctions weren’t effective with the US. The League could also have closed the Suez Canal, Italy’s main supply route to Abyssinia, which may also have brought the war to an end. All in all there were sanctions, but by no means were they comprehensive enough.

Even worse than this, Britain and France’s Foreign Ministers tried to reach a deal with Mussolini, as they didn’t want to fall out with him; they desperately needed him as an ally against Germany. They planned to secretly put a secret deal to Mussolini, giving him four-fifths of Abyssinia and most of the best agricultural land. This was to be called the Hoare-Laval Pact but was never presented to Mussolini as it got leaked to the press. Of course there was public outcry and Hoare and Laval both had to resign as people sympathised with Abyssinia. This further demonstrated the weakness of the League, showing how countries put selfish matters above the interests of the League.

ConsequencesAs a consequence it led to the development of a close alliance between Hitler and Mussolini. Before the Abyssinia crisis, in the Stresa Pact of 1935, Italy, Britain and France had agreed to cooperate to make sure that Germany did not become too powerful. However, British and French actions during the Abyssinian crisis (especially the sanctions) annoyed Mussolini enough to make him look towards Hitler as an ally. This resulted in the Rome-Berlin Axis signed in October 1936. This was an agreement between Italy and Germany to cooperate in international affairs. The alliance between Germany and Italy was further strengthened by the Spanish Civil War of 1936. During the Spanish Civil War, German and Italian forces (especially their air forces) helped Franco's army defeat the Republicans. Most famously in April 1937 the German Luftwaffe completely destroyed the Spanish town of Guernica.Japan, Italy and Germany also signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, a step towards an alliance between the three in the war. (The Comintern was the Soviet organisation whose job was to spread communism worldwide)

How successful was the League in the 1930s?

Successes

USSR joins League – 1934The Soviet Union became a member of the League in 1934.

Failures

Manchuria – 1931See above

Germany leaves LeagueHitler had despised the League since it was set up and withdrew Germany from it just a year after he came to power.

Abyssinia – 1935See above

Why did the League of Nations fail?

Britain and FranceThey were unwilling to use their armies and had other priorities. Also, as the two most powerful countries in the League, they didn’t trust each other and often disagreed. The rule that Council decisions had to be unanimous made decisions even more difficult to make.

Absent membersThe League was greatly weakened by the refusal of the USA to join. If America had joined, the League would’ve had more power and authority. Other powerful countries were either excluded or chose to leave. Germany didn’t join until 1926 and the USSR was excluded until 1934, by which time Germany had left the League.

OrganisationThis was cumbersome, making decisions very slow.

Set up by Treaty of VersaillesThe League had been set up by the hateful Treaty of Versailles meaning the League was to always be associated with the Treaty and therefore hated too.

Great DepressionCountries acted to save their own interests and ignored the League.

DictatorsHitler and Mussolini were not willing to compromise with the League.

UnsuccessfulThe reputation of the League was strongly damaged by the League’s failures. Eventually members ignored it and didn’t bother taking it into account.

PowerlessThe League had no army and moral condemnation was ignored by powerful nations. People also found ways around sanctions (often through the USA).

Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

What were the long-term consequences of the peace treaties?

VersaillesVersailles solved absolutely nothing. It left the people of the victorious nations feeling guilty, as the treaty was too harsh. The harshness and loss of land simply made Hitler’s aggression look justified, as other countries felt sympathetic. The large number of small states surrounding Germany, which had been created by self-determination, fell so easily as prey to Hitler. Most of all the Treaty made Germans angry and desperate for revenge.

League of Nations (created by treaties)Failed to achieve disarmament, eventually leading to an arms race. It was weak from the start with structural and other aforementioned problems. The spectacular failures of Manchuria and Abyssinia were inevitable due to this and it failed to prevent Hitler from breaking the Treaty of Versailles. Countries left the failing League realising that a war would have to be fought. Britain and France abandoned the collective security policy of the League, turning to appeasement.

What were the consequences of the failures of the League in the 1930s?

It proved that the members of the League were too selfish and that collective security would never work. Consequently countries didn’t take the League into account in future when considering and invasion of another country and many members left the League having lost faith in it.

Hitler’s Foreign Policy

Originally Destroy France Win British support Win Italian support Destroy Communist Russia

Ultimately To overturn the Treaty of Versailles – This included rearmament and recovering lost territories. He saw the

Treaty as unjust and as a betrayal of all the soldiers during the war. He believed that Germany had been ‘stabbed in the back’ by the politicians who were the ‘November Criminals’. He promised to overturn the Treaty and was determined to end reparations, rebuild Germany’s armed forces, reoccupy the Rhineland, and undo the territorial settlement of Versailles.

To expand – Hitler wanted to create a great German empire, which would unite all German-speaking people under his control. He wanted to win back areas lost such as West Prussia and he also wanted to unite with Austria and the Sudetenland of Czechoslovakia.

To expand to the East – This was to gain ‘lebensraum’ (living space) for the German people. He believed that Germany was overcrowded and didn’t possess sufficient natural resources or space to allow the German people to grow in numbers and wealth. He believed this space could be in Eastern Europe. Eastern Europe was rich in resources, home to the inferior Slavs who could be enslaved and were communists (who Hitler hated and saw as Jew-inspired). Hitler’s other option would have been to colonise but that would have brought Germany into conflict with Britain, a conflict Hitler desperately wanted to avoid.

Versailles was hugely helpful to Hitler. People in Germany were still furious about the way in which Germany had been treated and were prepared to support Hitler’s ambitious foreign policy, as they wanted revenge. It also helped internationally. People like Chamberlain (the British Prime Minister) were sympathetic towards Hitler’s policy as they felt the Treaty had been too harsh.

Rearmament

In 1933 Hitler withdrew Germany from the World Disarmament Conference, claiming that no country in Europe was prepared to disarm. He pulled Germany out of the League in 1933 and secretly rearmed for two years.

Hitler’s main aims with regards to disarmament were to treble the army to 300,000 men, build an air force (the Luftwaffe), and construct fortifications and airfields. During these two years German produced tanks, aeorplanes and warships.

Then in 1935, he openly defied the Treaty of Versailles announcing that conscription would be introduced. Later that year he signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which meant that Germany could now expand its navy, provided that it didn’t surpass 35% of the size of the British fleet.

By 1938 the German army had reached 800,000 men, while the navy had 21 warships and 50 submarines.

Saar Plebiscite – 1935

The Saar region of Germany was a massively industrial area, which had been transferred to the League (in actual fact France) under the Treaty of Versailles.

Now, after 15 years this period had expired and there was to be a plebiscite to see whether the people wanted to join Germany.

The result wasn’t obvious as many people in the Saar were working class (possibly hostile towards Hitler). A lot of people were also Catholic and they tended to not support Hitler.

Ultimately, as a result of a huge propaganda campaign, Hitler had a huge success here as 90% of people voted to rejoin Germany.

Remilitarisation of the Rhineland – 1936

Under the Treaty of Versailles the Rhineland, the area that bordered France, was demilitarised, meaning that no German troops could be stationed there and no defences could be built. This was done in order to prevent France from a surprise attack from Germany.

Hitler was determined to change this and on 7 March 1936 he ordered 32,000 German troops into the Rhineland. This was a huge risk to take, because if he had been forced to withdraw he would have faced complete and utter humiliation, losing the support of the German people. A war at this stage would have unquestionably resulted in defeat for Germany. In fact, the army was under strict orders to withdraw if they came up against any type of opposition.

However, the Allies did nothing for several reasons: Hitler combined his aggression with a pledge that he would never break the peace of Europe, and saying that

Germany had no territorial claims in Europe. Britain, France and the League of Nations were currently preoccupied with the Abyssinia Crisis. Britain was not prepared to risk war with Germany by standing up to Hitler and to an extent believed that

Germany should have the right to station troops in their own territory. Without British support France would not act.

Hitler got away with a major triumph here!

Germany learnt many lessons from this: The terms of the Treaty of Versailles could be ignored; the former allies were not prepared to use force to

uphold the Treaty. Hitler could achieve his aims using force rather than diplomacy. The French weren’t prepared to use force even to defend basic security interests on their eastern border.

They were therefore likely to be equally as unwilling when it came to other issues. The British were a bit sympathetic towards the Germans and their claims to alter the terms of the Treaty of

Versailles.

Spanish Civil War – 1936

After a civil war broke out between the communists and the right-wing rebels under General Franco in Spain, Hitler saw this as an opportunity to rise against communism and try out his armed forces. In 1937, German aircraft made devastating bombing raids on civilian populations in several Spanish cities. The destruction of Guernica was particularly terrible.

It also provided an opportunity for the German military to work closely alongside the Italian military, so soon after the signing of the Rome-Berlin Axis and the Anti-Comintern Pact. Italy was also in support of General Franco’s military uprising.

Rome-Berlin Axis – 1936

Mussolini was angered by the attacks (although mild) of Britain and France on his invasion of Abyssinia. Relations between Germany and Italy rapidly improved as the Stresa Front collapsed and in October 1936, Germany and Italy formed an alliance promising mutual support.

Anti-Comintern Pact

Mussolini was heavily involved in the Spanish Civil War when relations between Germany and Italy had become as strong as ever. At this point similarities were also noticed with the military dictatorship in Japan. In 1936 Germany and Japan signed the pact and in 1937 Italy signed it too. This pact means ‘Anti-Communist International’ as it was against the Comintern, a group of communist-led countries, led by the USSR, attempting to spread communism. The aim of the pact was to limit the communist influence around the world, particularly from Russia.

Anschluss – 1938

Anschluss means ‘union’ between Germany and Austria. It was strictly forbidden under the Treaty of Versailles but Hitler was determined to join the two countries together for several reasons:

Both countries were racially very similar and had largely 'Germanic' populations. Hitler believed that all Germans should live in one country. This was particularly the case, after all, as he had been born in Austria himself.

Austria was an industrialised country with a reasonably sized army. Hitler realised that Anschluss would make Germany a more powerful country. It would also demonstrate how he had been brave enough to defy the Treaty of Versailles.

The one country that could stand up to Hitler and prevent him taking control of Austria was probably Italy. Italy had a border with Austria and in the past had been particularly concerned to prevent Anschluss. In 1934, when Hitler had threatened to take control of Austria for the first time, Mussolini mobilised the Italian army to prevent him! But by 1936, Italy was prepared to allow Hitler to take control of Austria. It was angry about the way in which the League had treated it over Abyssinia, and in October 1936 Italy signed an alliance with Germany. So with Italy on his side, Hitler knew he could get away with invasion of Austria if necessary.

In fact invasion was not necessary as the Austrian government, placed under tremendous pressure by Hitler, was intimidated into agreeing to union with Germany. Schuschnigg, the Austrian Chancellor, tried to avoid union by organising a plebiscite (vote) in 1938 in the hope that the Austrian people would vote against union, but when Hitler reacted by mobilising the German army, thereby threatening Austria with war, Schuschnigg resigned. Seyss-Inquart, of the Austrian Nazi Party took his place and he invited the German army into the country to restore order. 80,000 opponents of union and the Nazi Party were imprisoned. Austrian Jews were made to scrub the streets of Vienna. Schuschnigg was imprisoned. But war had been avoided because Britain and France appeased Hitler and refused to stand up for Austrian independence.

The situation in Austria was regularised by a plebiscite, which Hitler held on 14 March 1938. Over 99% of Austrian voting agreed with union with Germany. In fact there was widespread intimidation at the ballot boxes.

Hitler had once again breached a key measure of the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and France were not prepared to face a war with Germany over Austria, considering that the Austrian people welcomed the move. The British considered it an application of the principle of national self-determination.

How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939?

To a great extent Hitler’s foreign policy caused the Second World War. Without it there would undoubtedly have been no war.

However, there were many other causes of the war… (See below)

Appeasement

What is appeasement?Appeasement can be defined as ‘giving a bully what he wants’ and was the approach taken towards Hitler’s aggression in the 1930s by Britain and France. The western powers were submissive and allowed Hitler to keep breaking promises in the hope that they could somehow avoid war.

The main steps of appeasement 1935 – Accepting German rearmament (including Anglo-German Naval Agreement) 1936 – Taking no action against German remilitarisation of the Rhineland 1937-9 – Allowing Hitler to use German bombers in Spanish Civil War 1938 – Taking no action over Anschluss 1938 – Giving in over the Sudetenland at Munich

Why did Britain follow the policy of appeasement (the French couldn’t act without British support)? Fear of another war – Unemployment had been high since the end of the war and the quality of British life

had remained poor. There was great desire from the people to avoid the ghastly scenes of the Great War reoccurring and there was also great fear of what they believed a war c0uld mean at this more advanced stage. Chamberlain would not have had enough public support to go to war.

Belief in the League – It was believed that the League of Nations could solve any problems so the British shouldn’t have to deal with Hitler individually.

Britain needed time – It was estimated that Britain would not be ready for war until 1940 and it was therefore necessary to avoid war until then in order to complete military preparations. Appeasement bought Britain a year to rearm.

Lack of allies – In the event of a war with Germany, strong allies would be needed and Britain lacked these. France was weak and unprepared, America was strongly isolationist and the British were reluctant to unite with communist Russia, as they believed communism was as bad as Nazism. It was important to avoid war, as they were too weak without allies.

Concern for the Empire – The British Empire covered about one-quarter of the globe and was vital to the government for strength. A war with Germany would threaten it as many colonies believed in appeasement and would break off in the event of war. Appeasement was necessary in order to avoid war and consequently the losses of colonies.

Sympathy – Many people sympathised with Hitler’s demands because the Treaty of Versailles had been so harsh.

Misjudgment of Hitler – Chamberlain misjudged Hitler and trusted him and his promises. For example, he believed that the Sudetenland would be Hitler’s final demand.

Fear of communism – People allowed Hitler to grow because they thought a strong Germany could stop Russia.

Criticisms of appeasement Appeasement against aggressors simply encouraged more aggression – They had not resisted Japan in

Manchuria, Italy in Abyssinia, Hitler reoccupying the Rhineland or Anschluss with Austria. Each time more aggression was encouraged as aggressors believed they could get way with it. If Hitler had been resisted from the beginning he might have been more cautious.

Loss of Czechoslovakia as an ally – Through appeasement an important ally was lost by Britain in Czechoslovakia. It had a large army and strong defences and Hitler was now in possession of all these benefits.

War was not prevented – The war began just a year after the Munich agreement. Germany was much better prepared by then than it had been in 1936 for war, when it could have first been stopped. Through appeasement, Germany was allowed to become much more powerful than Britain and France.

Results of appeasement Britain was given time to rearm Gave Britain moral high ground – when war came they knew they had done everything to avoid it Was a fine attempt to prevent millions of deaths at war Hitler grew stronger Britain was humiliated – no country in Central Europe ever trusted Britain again Millions of people were abandoned to the Nazis Caused the war – encouraged Hitler to think he could get away with anything Was never going to stop Hitler who was determined to go to war

Was the policy of appeasement justified?Justified:

People sympathised with Hitler after the harshness of Versailles and felt he had the right to expand It was an attempt to avoid another war after the horrors of World War One It was seen as a possible way of eliminating the communist threat posed by Russia Britain was not in a position to fight with a weak army and a distinct lack of strong allies

Not justified: They dealt with Hitler as a rational person and failed to realise that he was determined to go to war until it

was too late to avoid it They kept believing Hitler’s promises and he kept breaking them but they continued to believe A number of opportunities were missed to stand up and stop Hitler because of appeasement

Munich and the destruction of Czechoslovakia – 1938

Just weeks after Anschluss with Austria, Hitler turned his attention towards Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia had a very strong army with 34 divisions stationed in strong defensive positions in the Sudetenland. It also had the famous Skoda Works and large coal and mineral reserves. Hitler wanted to take over these valuable resources.

While the majority of the Czechoslovak population was made up of Czechs and Slovaks there were 3 million German-speaking people living in the Sudetenland (western part of the country, bordering Germany). Hitler wanted these people to be able to live as part of a new German Empire and, upon making his demands for territory, claimed that he was acting to protect the Sudeten Germans from persecution from the Czechoslovak government. The leader of the Czech Nazi Party was Konrad Henlein and he campaigned for the transfer of the Sudetenland to Germany.

Hitler also wanted Czechoslovakia as part of his policy of getting extra living space for what he believed was an over-populated Germany.

In April 1938, against the backdrop of ever-louder protest from Sudeten Germans, German troops began massing along the Czechoslovak border. In response the Czech government mobilised Czech army units. France was an ally of Czechoslovakia and Britain was morally committed to defending France so it seemed that Britain would be dragged into the war. Chamberlain tried to avoid war by putting pressure on President Beneš to grant extra rights to Sudeten Germans but this failed to satisfy Hitler.

In September 1938 Hitler told the Czech Germans that he would support their claims to join Germany and their response was to begin rioting in hope that the Czechoslovak government could give in to their demands. These riots were crushed by the Czech government, outraging Hitler and prompting him to threaten war.

Chamberlain held several meetings in an attempt to resolve the crisis. Initially Hitler demanded areas in the Sudetenland where Germans formed the majority, but then a week later he demanded that the whole of the Sudetenland be transferred to Germany. War now seemed very likely and trenches were being built in London.

On 29 September the Munich Conference, which had been organised by Mussolini, took place between Britain, Germany, France and Italy. There was no Czechoslovakian representation at Munich. Britain and France agreed to Hitler’s demands on the condition that this was the last time Hitler would demand extra territory for Germany. With no support the Czech government was forced to agree, with the President resigning. The Germans marched into the Sudetenland on 1 October.

Chamberlain flew back to Britain and on his arrival waved a piece of paper, which had been signed by Hitler, promising never to go to war with Britain. He was greeted as a hero by terrified Brits even though Czechoslovakia had been betrayed.

Six months later Hitler proceeded to take the remainder of Czechoslovakia. The country had been greatly weakened by the loss of the Sudetenland and many other minorities had attempted to break away too after the Germans had managed it. There was great unrest in Czechoslovakia with no order at all leaving it very vulnerable to attack. In March 1939 Hitler took the rest of Czechoslovakia.

Anglo-Soviet Talks – August 1939

The Soviet Union had been alarmed by the rise of Hitler and was aware of Hitler’s hatred of Russia. The USSR therefore aimed to build relations with the western powers against Germany.

However they made little progress for several reasons: Suspicion – Chamberlain didn’t trust Stalin, as he was a communist dictator. Stalin didn’t trust the British and

thought that they wanted to trick him into war with Germany. Poland didn’t trust the USSR but did trust Britain.

Choice – Britain didn’t have the ability to send troops into Poland, so if Stalin supported Britain, Russia would have ended up fighting in Poland on Britain’s behalf. On the other hand Hitler was promising him peace, half of Poland and a ‘sphere of influence’ over Eastern Europe.

Appeasement – Stalin didn’t believe that Britain would honour its promise to Poland and thought that Russia would end up fighting Germany alone.

Britain delayed talks – Initially Lord Halifax refused to hold talks with Russia; when an official was finally sent he couldn’t make any decisions and eventually Stalin got fed up.

Nazi-Soviet Pact – August 1939

After the collapse of negotiations with Britain and France, Stalin did a deal with Hitler. It was agreed that they would not attack each other, the USSR would remain neutral if Germany invaded Poland and, privately, they agreed to divide Poland between them.

Why did Hitler sign it? Hitler saw the advantage of Soviet neutrality when Germany invaded Poland. He was worried about the

potential Russian resistance. Without Russian support Britain would have to back down over Poland and Danzig.

Why did Stalin sign it? It gave Russia 18 months to prepare militarily for war It gave him hope that Britain, France and Germany would wear each other out in a long war He was promised land in Poland He felt insulted by the slowness in the negotiations with Britain and didn’t trust them, forcing him to turn to

Hitler He doubted that Britain and France would be strong enough allies against Hitler, especially as they had failed

over Czechoslovakia

This pact was instrumental in causing war. It freed up Hitler to invade Poland, as Russia would now not stop him. It ended British hopes of an alliance with Stalin meaning that the only way to stop Hitler now was to go to war.

Poland – 1939

In response to the invasion of Czechoslovakia Britain and France guaranteed Polish independence. This was a great change to British foreign policy as it was now Hitler who would decide whether there was to be a war or not.

However, after British action in Czechoslovakia, Hitler believed that the two countries were bluffing. Hitler wanted Poland in order to recover land lost in the Treaty of Versailles and wanted to eliminate the division between Germany and East Prussia. He also invaded for lebensraum as the superior German people could enslave the Poles and take the land.

He thought he could get away with it as he had so many times before where Britain and France had backed down. He now had Russia on his side, the only way in which he felt he could be stopped. The Polish army was also very weak in terms of equipment, although strong in terms of numbers.

1 September 1939 – Hitler invaded Poland

3 September 1939 – Britain and France declared war on Germany

Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939?

In February 1939 Franco won the Spanish Civil War so it seemed that Fascism was on the increase everywhere.

On 15 March 1939 Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia so people realised that only a war would stop him.

In March 1939 Chamberlain and Daladier promised to defend Poland, making war inevitable when Hitler did eventually invade Poland.

In April 1939 Mussolini invaded Albania demonstrating how Fascism was taking over and how Fascists wanted to take over the world.

In May 1939 Hitler and Mussolini signed the Pact of Steel demonstrating how Hitler was building up his forces for war.

The signing of the Nazi-Soviet Pact in August 1939 meant that Hitler was now free to invade Poland.

Hitler stirred up trouble in August 1939 demanding the Polish Corridor and eventually invaded Poland on 1 September.

Causes of World War Two

Treaty of VersaillesIt solved nothing. Reparations left the victorious nations feeling guilty and the defeated often were often left crippled. It made German aggression seem justified and self-determination left a collection of weak nations surrounding Germany, which fell easily. Most of all it left angry Germans who wanted revenge and therefore supported Hitler.

League of NationsIt was weak structurally and in terms of nations involved, from the start. It failed to deal with Hitler and had other embarrassing failures. It failed to achieve disarmament and countries left it realising that war was inevitable. Britain and France abandoned it and its principles by taken their own policy of appeasement towards Germany as opposed to collective security.

AppeasementIt encouraged aggression and hence war as Hitler thought that he would not be stopped. It also led to Stalin allying with Germany as opposed to Britain because he didn’t trust Chamberlain.

HitlerHe was determined to fight a war and to create a German Empire. He wanted a ‘rematch’ so to speak of the First World War, which he felt the Germans had unfairly lost.

Seven steps to warRearmament, remilitarisation of the Rhineland, Anschluss, Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia, Nazi-Soviet Pact, Poland