History Final II

8/12/2019 History Final II

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Group members

526Sidhantha Jain

528Anubhav Dahiya

529Rachit Arora

531Saloni Bhardwaj

533Saumya Bhutani

859Jatin Kumar

860Prachi Arora

861Sushmita Sehwag


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Meaning of superstition

Why superstition?

Etymological History ofSuperstition

Introduction


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DEFINITION-

Superstition is the belief in supernatural causality thatone event leads to the cause of another without any

natural process linking the two events- such as

astrology, religion, omens, witchcraft, etc- that

contradicts natural science.


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IMPACTS OF SUPERSTITION

No matter how sophisticated our society becomes,superstitions persist in having an impact on success or

failure. There seems to be part of the human mind that

thrives on creating little anchors of "magic" that lift us up

or bring us down independent of rationality.

Uncontrolled belief in superstitions can have a negative

impact on how people conduct their lives. When applied

in extremes, such thoughts can become destructive.


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Some people prefer to practice more subtle formsof superstitious behaviors. Many professional athletes use

a particular article of clothing to set their minds on

creating a winning edge in competition. Similarly,

average people use articles of clothing like a "lucky tie"or "lucky shirt" they wear whenever going out for a job

interview or participating in some other event like

gambling.


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As unbelievable as they are, superstitions could have

massive impact on the life of people.

Believing that something powerful and unpredictable is

holding control of our own lives has some advantages. It

makes people shift responsibility and feel ok whenever

failures occur. After all, nothing is dependent on our ownefforts, right? It was the fault of the black cat.


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INDIAS FAVOURITE SUPERSTITIONS

How far will you go to avoid bad luck? Do you avoidwalking under ladders, carry lucky charms, or perhaps

instead perform special rituals before important

meetings or sporting events?

Here are some evergreen Indian superstitions


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In India, the traditional gift to give at weddings and other

auspicious occasions in money. However, the amount of

money presented should always end in 1. It should not be an

even number. It is considered auspicious to add one rupee to

the amount you want to present.

It is so common to find a string of lemons and chilies

hanging on the doorway of shops, offices and homes. Doingthis is supposed to ward off the evil eye and bring in good

luck.


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A dog howling at night chills the blooda portent ofapproaching death.

A lot of superstitious beliefs in our country are centeredaround various trees and plants. One such superstition is

that peepal trees are the abode of ghosts and spirits. To

avoid these malevolent ghosts and spirits, one must avoidresting under a peepal tree at night.


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Menstruating women are regarded unclean and areisolated. They cannot enter the kitchen till they are clean

again.

Widows are considered unlucky. Widows are not

allowed to remarry, they must always wear white, they

must not wear jewelry, not participate in festivities and soon and so forth. It is even considered unlucky to see a

widow while going out- it might signify that the work you

are going out for will not be completed successfully.


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Astrology, Omens, Witchcraft

Magic, Supernatural means,

Religious practicesMiracles, Beliefs and practices,

Spiritual beings

Various perceptions


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W hat is your favorite superstition Do you believe in anyof the ones w e listed herePERCEPTIONS OF SUPERSTITION

SUPERNATURAL BEINGS

1) WEREWOLVESSo, what actually is werewolf? Is it a fact based on concrete

evidences? Is it a myth, fabrication of feeble minds? Is it an

exaggeration of some other things? Well, all these questionshave been puzzling mankind for last 5 centuries.


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Though many ingenious hypotheses have

been suggested as possible explanations,

definite conclusion can't be drawn. Someexperts have tried to observe it as purely

supernatural phenomena while others

have relied on scientific observations.

Contradictions and debates still persist

and will continue till any single theorysolves the jigsaw which seems unlikely

considering complexity and diversity of

the topic.


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Nonetheless, the werewolf phenomenon has not perished yet;

recent werewolf sightings are still reported.

The word werewolfis most likely to derive from two old-Saxon

words, wer(meaning man) and wolf. he popular definition ofwerewolf is a man who transforms himself.

Greek mythology contains the story of a king named Lycaon,

who was transformed into a wolf after serving a bowl of humanflesh to Zeus; another version of the story tells of Lycaons

transformation into a wolf as punishment for sacrificing a child

to Zeus. This tale resulted in the belief that from that point on,

one man was turned into a wolf at the annual sacrifice to Zeus,

but would be able to regain his human form after abstaining from

human flesh for ten years.


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In ancient China, people believed that eclipses of the

sun were caused by a great sky-wolf eating up the sun.

People beat drums and shot arrow sat the sun to drive

the animal away.

The Romans thought it was lucky to see a wolf. The

animal was sacred to Mars, god of war andprotector of Rome.

MYTHS REGARDING WEREWOLVES


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The hour of the wolf occurs between 3 and 5 in the morning.

Anyone who's a night owl has probably noticed that the silence

seems deeper during this hour and has perhaps even had theeerie feeling that they're not alone despite the silence. It's called

the Hour of the Wolf because it's when a wolf supposedly lurks

outside the door of your home. Like the witching hour which

occurs at midnight, spirits are said to abound during this time.

You must use a silver bullet to kill a werewolfYou can become a werewolf by performing a magic ritual


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2) VAMPIRES

Vampires are mythological or folkloric beings who subsist byfeeding on the life essence (generally in the form of blood) of

living creatures, regardless of whether they are undead or a living

person.

They wore shrouds and were often

described as bloated and of ruddy or

dark countenance, markedly different

from today's gaunt, pale vampire

D i b i f h ld d l f ld


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Despite being one of the oldest and most prevalent creatures of world

mythology, the origin of vampires has remained unknown for

thousands of years. It wasn't until the scriptures of Delphi were found

that we were given a glimpse into the early vampire history.

HISTORY OF VAMPIRES

Only a vampire can create another vampire, so logic tells us that the

history of vampires begins with a single vampire who created the

others. . Logically, if there was no vampire to make the first vampire,

how was the first vampire made?

The answer lies in the scriptures of Delphi, specifically in the

collection of writings known as "The Vampire Bible".

The first vampire started out as not a vampire at all, but as a human

man named Ambrogio. He was an Italian-born adventurer who fate

brought to Delphi, in Greece.

A t h ll f i f bl i d t f d thi


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A nutshell of series of blessings and curses transformed this young

man into history's first vampire.

Specifically, it began with the sun god Apollo (Greek mythology), who

in a fit of rage cursed Ambrogio so that his skin would burn should it

ever touch sunlight again.

Ambrogio's bad luck followed when he ended up gambling away his

soul to Hades (Greek mythology), the god of the underworld. The nextcurse came via Apollo's sister Artemis (Greek mythology), the goddess

of the moon and hunting, who made it so that Ambrogio's skin would

burn if he touched silver.

The blessings came soon after when Artemis, taking pity on the poor

young man, gave him the gift of immortality. He would carry his curses

- his skin burning by sunlight or silver, but he would live forever in his

current form. Not only that, but Artemis also gave him the speed andstren th to become a hunter whose skills were second onl to her own.


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Blood-sucking is also included in this "blessing". In the vampire

origin story, Ambrogio hunts swans and uses their blood as ink to

write love poems to his lady Selene. While this may be

considered a little creepy by our standards, it wasn't all thatunusual in ancient Greece to make do with what you hunted.

MYTHS ABOUT VAMPIRES

Vampires are repelled by garlic

Vampires can be warded off by the crossVampires can turn into batsVampires dont have a reflectionVampires heal very fast


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3) VOODOO

Voodoo) is a religion combining Roman Catholicism and native

African religion .Voodoo started in Haiti-a little island in the

Caribbean. It was conquered by the Spanish in 1492.All the

blacks were made slaves and kept in poor condition and were

not given enough food. The only thing that they had was their

religion and their rituals. The slaves would practice dark rituals,voodoo, witchcraft and a lot of other things.


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Christianity brought into voodoo a lot more then it could be expected.

Voodooist ants believe it The Godbut, in fact, he's not the only one.Except from god , there are lwa, some kind of spirits Their main

function is to connect the ordinary people with the God. They're spirits

of nature and voodooist ants believe that you could see them anywhere

if you look properly. Lwa could be considerably divided into threegroups: angels, saints and demons Moreover, Devil (in Christian

context) is acknowledged in voodoo too, although people don't

consider him badmostly like just another being they can make an

arrangement or achieve an agreement with.


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RITUALS AND TRADITIONS

Voodoo is a very difficult religion with a great amount of old and

somehow confusing a modern rituals.

Dead people could be a great help to their living family (as a simplestexample) and Voodooist ants consider that dead men might in some

sort of way change course of events in the upper world. So, death

isn't the thing to fearit's a mighty cult. Even in the early times the

runaway slaves, who were overtook, could easily commit a suicide.They thought it did them good, because their immortal soul reached

peace.


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Black magic was great part of voodoo .Voodooist ants think

they' re able (or maybe they really are) to appeal supernatural

powers There even exists special rituals to call a vicious spirit,

who might defend the family.

Voodoo also involves sacrifice of food and other things.

Voodoo involves demon possession, animal and human

sacrifice, voodoo dolls, spirit possessed dancing and several

other practices.


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WITCHCRAFT

Witchcraft means

The practices and the cult of the witches; the power or art of evoking

supernatural forces or spirits to control or change the natural course of

events

PRACTICES USED BY WITCHES

Spell casting

Spells were cast by witches by various way such using the elements ofearth to cast a spell or by making use of gemstones.

Conjuring the dead


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WITHCRAFT IN ANCIENT TIMES

Witchcraft of some sort has probably existed since humans first banded

together in groups. Simple sorcery such as setting out offerings to

helpful spirits or using charms, can be found in almost all traditional

societies. Prehistoric art depicts magical rites to ensure successful

hunting, and also seems to depict religious rituals involving people

dancing in animal costumes. Shamanism, the practice of contacting

spirits through dream work and meditative trances, is probably the

oldest religion.

There was a belief that the world was full of spirits and that most of these


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There was a belief that the world was full of spirits and that most of these

spirits were hostile. Each person was supposed to have their own spirit

which would protect them from demons and enemies, which could can

only be fought by the use of magic (including amulets, incantations and

exorcisms).Western beliefs about witchcraft grew largely out of the mythologies and

folklore of ancient peoples, especially the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks

and Romans. Witches in ancient Egypt purportedly used their wisdom and

knowledge of amulets, spells, formulas and figures to bend the cosmicpowers to their purpose or that of their clients.

The Greeks had their own form of magic, which was close to a religion,

known as Theurgy (the practice of rituals, often seen as magical in nature,

performed with the intention of invoking the action of the gods, especially

with the goal of uniting with the divine and perfecting oneself). Another

lower form of magic was mageia, which was closer to sorcery, and was

practiced by individuals who claimed to have knowledge and powers to

help their clients, or to harm their clients enemies, by performing rites or

supplying certain formulas.

ORIGIN


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ORIGIN

Some argue that the real roots of witchcraft and magic as we known it come

from the Celts, a diverse group of Iron Age tribal societies which flourished

between about 700 BC and 100 AD in northern Europe (especially the British

Isles). Believed to be descendants of Indo-Europeans, the Celts were a

brilliant and dynamic people, gifted artists, musicians, storytellers, and

metalworkers, as well as expert farmers and fierce warriors.

They were also a deeply spiritual people, who worshipped both a god andgoddess. Their religion was pantheistic, meaning they worshipped many

aspects of the "One Creative Life Source" and honoured the presence of the

"Divine Creator" in all of nature. They believed in reincarnation and that after

death they went to the Summerland for rest and renewal while awaiting

rebirth. By about 350 BC, a priestly class known as the Druids had developed,who became the priests of the Celtic religion as well as teachers, judges,

astrologers, healers, midwives and bards.

The religious beliefs and practices of the Celts, their love for the land, and

their veneration of trees (the oak in particular) grew into what later becameknown as Paganism.


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MODERN DAY WITHCRAFT

Contemporary(modern day) Witchcraft is largely a subset of

greater Paganism. Its practice involves varying degreesof magic, shamanism, folk medicine, spiritual healing, calling spirits.

Current Wiccans are commonly accused of diabolism, when in fact

they believe in neither the Devil nor Hell.

Followers of Wicca worship gods and goddesses Typically, Wiccansworship one supreme Goddess, and the Horned God. Wiccans believe

in evil, but not a supreme - demonic figure such as the Devil.

Their main religious symbol is the pentacle, a five pointed star with

one point facing up, which stands for the four elements: fire, air, water,

and earth, with the last point signifying spirits.


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This same symbol is often inverted and used as a satanic symbol,

which adds to the correlations often seen between the religion Wicca

and diabolism.

A Wiccan communion consists of eating or drinking foods in thename of a deity, as a way to celebrate and thank them Wiccans believe

that whatever you do, good or bad, will come back to you threefold,

and refuse to do any spells, rituals, or actions that may cause harm to

themselves or others. They will dispel negativity, sending it to bedispersed, or back to the person that it came from, but never to harm a

particular person, or affect a person's free will.

In Wiccan spell craft, puppets are used mainly to bind a person, or

stop them, from doing harm to themselves or others by wrapping thepoppet in ribbon, or placing protective oils or powders on it. In ancient

times these puppets were used in the same manner as in present day

witchcraft, except without rules or morals for usage.


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The rules of Wicca prevent followers from using such practices

that are commonly referred to as malefic such as

using poisons or human flesh in spells.

Witches were put to trial and executed while modern witchesare persecuted socially and often have to take legal defense for

their rights. . Wicca has been acknowledged as an actual

religion by the United States government.

OMENS


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OMENS

An omenis a phenomenon that is believed to foretell the future, oftensignifying the advent of change .Though the word "omen" is usually

devoid of reference to the change's nature, hence being possibly either

"good" or "bad," the term is more often used in a foreboding sense.

OMENS IN ANCIENT TIME

No official state business was every really held without the taking of

omens and auspices. For this purpose an augur would be present. He

would mark out a square on the ground with his staff, from where the

omens should be observed.

Significantly though he was not the man to actually took the sighting


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Significantly though, he was not the man to actually took the sighting.

This was left to a state official.

The augur acted as his advisor. So, if the official would make out for

example some birds flying by, then he could call upon the augur to

help interpret their meaning.For this many things would be of importance. What type of birds were

they, where had they been, how high were they flying, how fast were

they flying and where were they flying to ? Even the army resorted to

taking auspices.They carried with them cages with sacred chicken. State business was

fraught with difficulties, regarding omens. New laws might even have

to be declared invalid if the omens hadn't been observed. Naturally this

also offered reason to manifold possibilities purposes.If a a bad omen had been observed then one could raise this matter at

the beginning of the meeting of the senate or other political assembly

and house might well decide to close for business for the day.

Aware of the cynical way in which politicians might exploit omens


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Aware of the cynical way in which politicians might exploit omens,

which they would report to the house, there was a clear distinction

made between omens reported by others and such which revealed

themselves suddenly. For example a sudden bolt of lighting in the sky,

or an epileptic fit by someone in the assembly. These could indeed beseen as grave matters. If lighting was observed during the taking of the

auspices, then it was in fact deemed a good sign. But thereafter it was

seen as bad.

Epileptic fits were always seen as serious. So much so that somemembers might actually pretend to have one in order to hinder political

plans of their opposition during these meetings.

Omens existed even today


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Omens existed even today.

Signs of good omen:Anchor, angel, bee, bird, bridge, circle, corn,crown, eagle, elephant, fish, flowers, ship, swan.

Signs of bad omen:Arc, bat, coffin, cross, dagger, gun, monkey, owl,rat, snake, square, sword.

A black cat crossing a road right in front of you is considered a bad

omen.

Sneezing right before leaving the house is considered a bad omen

If an owl comes and sits in your balcony or in you house, it isconsidered a good omen and wealth will come your way.

DEVIL


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DEVIL

The Devil is believed in many religions, myths and cultures to bea supernatural entity that is the personification of evil and the enemyof God and humankind.

In mainstream Christianity the Devil is known as Satan and

sometimes as Lucifer. Some modern Christians consider the Devil to

be an angel who, along with one-third of the angelic host (the demons)rebelled against God and has consequently been condemned to the

Lake of fire.

He is described as hating all humanity, or more

accurately creation, opposing God, spreading liesand wreaking havoc on the souls of mankind. Other

Christians consider the devil in the Bible to refer

figuratively to human sin and temptation and to any

human system in opposition to God.

Christian tradition has frequently identified pagan religions


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Christian tradition has frequently identified pagan religions

and witchcraft with the influence of Satan. In the Early Modern Period,

the Church accused alleged witches of consorting and conspiring with

Satan.

INTERPRETATION OF DEVIL

Islam

In Islam the Devil is referred to as Iblis or sometimes the Shaytan.

According to the Qur'an , God created Iblis, along with all of the

other jinn, out of "smokeless fire". The primary characteristic of theDevil, besides hubris, is that he has no power other than the power to

cast evil suggestions into the hearts of men and women.

Satanism


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Satanism

Some religions worship the Devil. This can be in a polytheistic sense

where "God", Satan, and others are all deities with Satan as the

preferred patron; or it can be from a different viewpoint, where God isregarded as a true god, but is nevertheless defied.

Some variants deny the existence of God and the Devil altogether, but

still call themselves Satanists.

Hinduism

In contrast to Christianity and Islam, Hinduism does not recognize any

central evil force or entity such as the Devil opposing God and man.

Hinduism does recognize that different beings (e.g., asuras) and entities

can perform evil acts.

According to some myths you can get anything that you want from


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cco d g to so e yt s you ca get a yt g t at you a t o

the devil in exchange of your soul.

LUCK

Luck means success or failure apparently brought by chance rather

than through one's own actions.

INTERPRETATION

As a fallacy

Another view holds that luck is probability. ." A rationalist approach to

luck includes the application of the rules of probability and anavoidance of unscientific beliefs. The rationalist feels the belief in luck

is a result of poor reasoning or wishful thinking

In the rationalist perspective, probability is only affected by confirmed

causal connections. As an essence


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There is also a series of spiritual, or supernatural beliefs regarding

fortune. These beliefs vary widely from one to another, but most agree

that luck can be influenced through spiritual means by performing

certain rituals or by avoiding certain circumstances.Luck can also be a belief in an organization of fortunate and

unfortunate events. Luck is a form of superstition which is interpreted

differently by different individuals.

Christianity, in its early development, accommodated many traditional

practices which at different times, accepted omens and practiced forms

of ritual sacrifice in order to divine the will of their supreme being or to

influence divine favoritism. The concepts of "Divine Grace" or"Blessing" as they are described by believers closely resemble what is

referred to as "luck" by others.

As a self fulfilling prophecy


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Some encourage the belief in luck as a false idea, but which may

produce positive thinking, and alter one's responses for the better.

Others feel a belief in luck has more to do with a locus of control for

events in one's life, and the subsequent escape from personalresponsibility. . In personality psychology, people reliably differ from

each other depending on four key aspects: beliefs in luck, rejection of

luck, being lucky, and being unlucky. People who believe in good luck

are more optimistic, more satisfied with their lives, and have bettermoods. If "good" and "bad" events occur at random to everyone,

believers in good luck will experience a net gain in their fortunes,

and vice versafor believers in bad luck.


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GAMESA game may depend on luck rather than skill or effort. For

example, Chess does not involve any random factors such as throwing

dice, while Dominoes has the "luck of the draw" when selecting tiles.

In Poker, especially games with a communal board, pure luck may

decide a winning hand.

Luck is positive (good luck) if the player's position is improved and

negative (bad luck) if it is worsened.

LotteriesMany countries have a national lottery. Individual views of the chance

of winning, and what it might mean to win, are largely expressed by

statements about luck. For example, the winner was "just lucky"

meaning they contributed no skill or effort.


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ASTROLOGY

The subject of Astrology is as huge as the whole of Universe. In thisgreat field there are three major aspects known as Western and

Chinese astrology. The basis for all these three are the study of the

movement of Sun, Moon, Planets and the Stars and their influence on

the earth and its beings. Only the mode of application differs' one

aspect from the other.

Western astrology is very popular among the Europeans mainly

because it is concerned more on the horoscope which is prepared by

astrologers' according to the movements of celestial bodies at the time

of a person's birth. There were times when the kings and rulers in

Europe used to consult astrologers prior to taking important political

and military decisions. They had strong belief in astrology and often'

they used it for making personal decisions as well.


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With the fast advancement of science

and technology the respect placed on

astrology diminished gradually in

the West. But even to this date thereare many Westerners who still

believe in astrology as the most

accurate and authentic science. They

consider it as the criteria that definesone's personality' character and

behavior throughout life. They also

treat it as the decisive factor in

important events of one's life.


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In Western astrology there are twelve zodiac signs namely: Aries,

Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius,Capricorn, Aquarius and Pisces. These signs are considered to be the

basis for Western astrology. According to the Western Astrology there

are nine main planets namely : Mercury -. Venus - Mars - Earth

Jupiter- Saturn - Uranus - NeptunePluto.Western astrology often helps people to find a proper direction in life

and paves the way for man to be comfortable and meaningful. When

given the proper directive it also shows the people to construct a strong

personality while eliminating certain improper elements in day to day

life.

Astrology Through Time


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gy g

6000 years ago, in the top of an old Chaldean watchtower priests studied

the skies. This is basically the earliest known practice of astrology, but

it is a safe bet that it has been around much longer then this. Astrologyand Astronomy used to be considered the same thing. As time passed

and "astronomy" became more "exact" and less about predictions and

other esoteric things, astrology separated from astronomy.

WHAT IS A ZODIAC

The zodiacis a circle of twelve 30divisions of celestial longitude thatare centered upon the ecliptic: the apparent path of the Sun across

the celestial sphere over the course of the year. These twelve divisionsare called signs. The zodiac signs are- Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer,

Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius and

Pisces.


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Astrological Elements

In astrology there are four elements: Fire, Earth, Air and Water.

The Fire Signs are Aries, Leo and Sagittarius. Because of this these

people tend to be self motivated, inspirational and always mindful of

the future.

The Earth Signs are Taurus, Virgo and Capricorn. The earth element's

influence makes these folks materialistic (in a good way mostly)

practical and conservative.

The Air Signs are Gemini, Libra and Aquarius. These people are very

"people" oriented and get along well with others. They also tend to be

highly intelligent and communicative.

The Water Signs are Cancer, Scorpio and Pisces. The water element

makes people under this sign intuitive, emotional and sensitive to the

world around them.


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Astrological Quadruplicates

There is still more dividing factors. One of these is known as

"qualities" or "quadruplicates. The zodiac are also divided into threegroups of four (four signs to each group). These are known as Cardinal,

Fixed and Mutable. These also have an effect on the life and

personality under who's sign they fall.

Cardinal Signs are Aries, Cancer, Leo and Capricorn. The qualitiesbeing "cardinal" lends is that it tends to make them initiating, restless

and goal-oriented.

Fixed Signs are Taurus, Leo, Scorpio and Aquarius. This means that

these people, because of this, will have good powers of concentrationand be somewhat stubborn and persistent.

Mutable Signs are Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius and Pisces. These people

are very adaptable and tend to have very strong mental abilities.


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The Cardinal signs begin each season of each year. They are the

primary force behind each season. The fixed signs then follow

and consolidate and make permanent that which the Cardinal

signs began. The Mutable signs follow and are signs of change.

The mark the end of the old and the beginning of the new.


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MIRACLE

A miracleis an event not ascribable to human power orthe laws of nature and consequently attributed toa supernatural, especially divine, agency.

Such an event may be attributed to a miracle worker, saint, or

religious leader. A miracle is sometimes thought of as aperceptible interruption of the laws of nature.

Others suggest that God may

work with the laws of nature

to perform what are

considered miracles.


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Explanations for miraclesSupernatural actsEvents planned by GodThe Miracle of the Sun

The Miracle of the Sun is an alleged miraculous event witnessed by as many as 100,000

people on 13 October 1917 in the Cova da Iria fields near Ftima, Portugal. Those in

attendance had assembled to observe what the Portuguese secular newspapers had beenridiculing for months as the absurd claim of three shepherd children that a miracle was

going to occur at high-noon in the Cova da Iria on October 13, 1917. According to many

witness statements, after a downfall of rain, the dark clouds broke and the sun appeared

as an opaque, spinning disk in the sky. It was said to be significantly less bright than

normal, and cast multicolored lights across the landscape, the shadows on the landscape,the people, and the surrounding clouds. Some witnesses reported that their previously

wet clothes became suddenly and completely dry.

MAGIC


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Magicor sorceryis an attempt to understand, experience and influencethe world using rituals, symbols, actions, gestures and language.

Modern Western magicians generally state magic's primary purpose tobe personal spiritual growth. Modern theories of magic may see it as

the result of a universal sympathy where some act can produce a result

somewhere else, or as a collaboration with spirits who cause the effect.

The belief in and the practice of magic has been present since theearliest human cultures and continues to have an important religious

and medicinal role in many cultures today.Magic is often viewed with

suspicion by the wider community, and is sometimes practiced in

isolation and secrecy.

Common features of magical practice


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RitualsMagical symbols

Magical language

Magicians

Witchcraft


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Superstition and religion

Hi t i l d P t I t t ti f


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Historical and Present Interpretation of

Superstition and Religion

WHAT IS RELIGION?


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WHAT IS RELIGION?

Religion is basically a specific fundamental set of

beliefs and practices generally agreed upon by a number of persons.Many religions have narratives, symbols, and sacred histories that

relate humanity to an order of existence.

According to some estimates, there are roughly 4,200 religions in the

world.The word religionis sometimes used interchangeably

with faith, belief systemor sometimes set of duties.

For example: the Christian religion, the Buddhist religion and many

more.


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HISTORY OF RELIGION IN INDIA

Pre historic religionIndus Valley CivilizationEvolution of Hinduism in IndiaHinduism is often regarded as the oldest religion in the world,

with roots tracing back to prehistoric times, over 5,000 years ago.Over time, Brahmanism gradually became Hinduism. Hinduism

spread through parts of South-eastern Asia, China, Korea, and

Japan. Hindus worship a single god with different forms.


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Rise of Shramana ReligionsMahavirs teachings are included in this. He was the 24thJain in

his clan.

IslamThough Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the

advent of Arab traders, it started to become a major religion

during the Muslim conquest in the Indian sub-continent.Islam's spread in India mostly took place under the Delhi

Sultanate (12061526) and the Mughal Empire (1526-1858), greatly

aided by the mystic Sufi tradition.


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Bhakti MovementDuring the 14th17thcenturies, when North India was under Muslim

rule, the Bhakti movement swept through Central and Northern India.

The Bhakti movement was initiated by a loosely associated group ofteachers or saints (sants).

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Surdas, Meera Bai,

Kabir, Tulsidas, Ravidas, Namdeo, Tukaram and other mystics were

some of the sants in the North.They taught that people could cast aside the heavy burdens of ritual

and caste, and the subtle complexities of philosophy, and simply

express their overwhelming love for God.

This period was also characterized by an abundance of devotional

literature in vernacular prose and poetry in the ethnic languages of the

various Indian states or provinces.

The Bhakti movement gave rise to several different movements

throughout India.

SikhismG N k th f d f Sikhi Th G


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Guru Nanak (14691539) was the founder of Sikhism. The Guru

Granth Sahib was first compiled by the fifth Sikh guru, Guru

Arjan Dev, from the writings of the first five Sikh gurus and

others saints who preached the concept of universal brotherhood,including those of the Hindu and Muslim faith.

Before the death of Guru Gobind Singh, the Guru Granth

Sahib was declared the eternal guru.

Sikhism recognises all humans as equal

before Waheguru, regardless of color, caste or lineage. Sikhism

rejects the beliefs of idol worship and circumcision.


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JudaismJews first arrived as traders from Judea in the city of Kochi, Kerala, in

562 BCE.

Christianity

CommunalismCommunalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history

of modern India.

Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale

violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its

majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities.That is why, the Republic of India is secular; its government

recognizes no official religion.


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S i R li i d S titi


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Science, Religion and Superstition

Science without religion is dangerous;Religion without science is superstition.

Science and Religion face problem of co-existence.

God is beyond science to comprehend.

Without uncertainties and mystique, the majesty of the Lord may be lost

in a debate which Darwin may win.

Eminent scientist Paul Davies says both can co-exist, for, science

provides a surer path than religion in search of God.

There is no verifiable evidence of God being there, but He is the ultimate

truth.


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Hinduism is eternal.Praying to a saint brings the worshipper close to the truths of the

religion by provoking religious emotion with a conceivable and real

human object, rather than a distant abstraction. Comte says God has

nothing to do with religion.

Clash between faith and science is quite old.

God does not play dice. There is a cosmic order as a consequence of

which the world exists. Man has accepted the Almighty, whatever Hisshape, colour or creed.

Paul Davies, a professor of theoretical physics says: Modern science

offers a surer path than religion in the search of God.

In support he quotes modern cosmology, quantum theory and particlephysics.


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Sources of conflict.Hinduism has historically embraced reason and empiricism, holdingthat science brings legitimate, but incomplete knowledge of the world.

Confucian thought has held different views of science, so also

Buddhists who say science is complementary to their beliefs.

Many theologians and philosophers have found no conflict between

faith and science.

Theologians hold that religion and science address the same question

differentlyscience does it through fundamental knowledge and

religion does it through faith.

To be or not to be is the question.Religions were instituted in those primitive ages when ethics and

morals, devoid of any common sense, were imposed on us in those

ancient days.


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Human values, religious practices and ethical principleshave now undergone a radical change.

Nietzsche and since.


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Superstition and Folklore

INTERPRETATION OF SUPERSTITION AND


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INTERPRETATION OF SUPERSTITION AND

FOLKLOREWhat is Folklore?The term folklore is generally used to refer to the traditional beliefs,

myths, tales, and practices of a people which have been disseminated in an

informal manner -- usually via word of mouth, although in modern timesthe Internet has become a pivotal source for folklore. The term folklore

may also be used to define the comparative study of folk knowledge and

culture.


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Folklore(or lore) consists of legends, music,oral history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs,

fairy tales, stories, tall tales, and customs

included in the traditions of a

culture, subculture, or group. It also includes

the set of practices through which those

expressive genres are shared.

The folklore of Indiacompasses the folkloreof the nationof India and the Indian subcontinent.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore


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of Indiaand the Indian subcontinent.

The subcontinent of India contains a wide diversityof ethnic, linguistic, and religiousgroups. Given this diversity, itis difficult to generalize widely about the folklore of India as aunit.

Hinduism, the religion of the majority of the citizens of India, is aheterogeneous faith whose local manifestations are diverse. Folkreligionin Hinduism may explain the rationale behind local

religious practices, and contain local mythsthat explain theexistence of local religious customs or the location of temples.These sorts of local variation have a higher status in Hinduismthan comparable customs would have in religions suchas ChristianityorIslam. Some have claimed[who?]that the very

concept of a "folklore of India" represents a colonialimpositionthat disparages the Hindu religion.[citation needed]However, folkloreas currently understood goes beyond religious or supernatural

beliefs and practices, and compasses the entire body of socialtradition whose chief vehicle of transmission is oral or outsideinstitutional channels.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_wordshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_religionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languages_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_subcontinenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India


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Folktales of India[edit] India possesses a large body of heroic balladsand epic poetrypreserved in oral tradition, both inSanskritand the various vernacular languages of India. One such oral epic, telling

the story ofPabuji, has been collected by Dr. John Smith from Rajasthan; it is a long poem in t heRajasthani language, traditionally told by professional story tellers, knownasBhopas, who deliver it in front of a tapestrythat depicts the characters of the story, and functions as a portable temple, accompanied by a ravanhatthofiddle. The title characterwas a historical figure, a Rajputprince, who has been deified in Rajasthan. [1]

Other noteworthy collections of Indian traditional stories include the Panchatantra, a collection of traditional narratives made by Vishnu Sarmain the second century BC.TheHitopadeshaof Narayana is a collection ofanthropomorphicfabliaux, animal fables, in Sanskrit, compiled in the ninth century.

See also[edit] Birbal

Bidpai

List of Folktales of Chhattisgarh

Indian folklorists since last thirty years have substantially contributed to the study of folklore. De vendra Satyarthi, Krishna Dev Upadyhayaya, Prafulla Dutta Goswam i, KunjaBihari Dash, Ashutosh Bhatacharya and many more seni or folklorists have contributed for the study of folklore. But it is during the 1970s that some folkl orists studied in USuniversities and trained up themselves with the modern theories and methods of folklore research and set a new trend of folklore study in India. Especially, south Indianuniversities advocated for folklore as a discipline in the universities and hundreds of scholars trained up on folklore. AK Ramanjuan was the noted folkl orist to analyse folklorefrom Indian context.

Study of folklore was strengthened by two stremas (sicsic); one is Finnish folklorist Lauri Honkoand another is Peter J. Claus of American folklore. These two folkloristsconducted their field work on Epic of Siriand led the Indian folklorists to the new folklore study. The Central Institute of Indian Languages has played a major role in promotingfolklore studies in India to explore the another reality of Indian culture.

Recently scholars such as Chitrasen Pasayat, M. D. Muthukumaraswamy, Vivek Rai, Jawaharlal Handoo, Birendranath Dutta, P. C. Pattanaik, B. Reddy, Sadhana Naithani, PSubachary, Molly Kaushal, Shyam Sundar Mahapatra, Bhabagrahi Mishra and many new folklorists have contributed in their respective field for shaping folklore study as a strongdiscipline in representing the people's memory and people's voice. Recently the National Folklore Support Center in Chennai has taken the initiative to promote folklore in publicdomain and bridging the gap of academic domain and community domain.

Indian folk heroes, villains, and tricksters[edit]

This section requiresexpansion.(January 2007)Indian folk heroes in Sanskrit epics and history and also in freedom movement are well known to every one. They have found a placein written literature. But in Indian cultural sub-system, Indian folk heroes are most popular. The castes and tribes of India have maintained their diversities of culture through theirlanguage and religion and customs. So in addition to national heroes, regional heroes and local folk and tribal heroes are alive in the collective memory of the people. Let's takeexamples of the Santals or the Gonds. The Santals have their cultu re hero "Beer kherwal" and "Bidu Chandan". Gonds have the ir folk hero "Chital Singh Chatri". Banjara folk herois "Lakha Banjara" or "Raja Isalu". But not only h eroes, the heroines of Indian folklore have also significant contribution in shap ing the culture of India. Banjara epics are heroine-centric. These epics reflect the "sati" cult. Oral epics with heroic actions of heroes and heroines produce a "counter texts" as opposed to the written texts. Therefore the youngerbrother becomes hero and kill his elder brother in an oral epic, which is forbidden in classical epics. Folk heroes are some times deified and are worshipped in the village. There is athin difference of a mythic hero and roman tic hero in Indian folklore. In Ka lahandi oral epics are available among the et hnic singers performed in ritual context and social conte xt.Dr Mahendra Mishra, a folklorist has conducted research on oral epics in kalahandi taking seven ethnic groups. Dr. Chitrasen Pasayat has made an extensive study of di fferent folkand tribal forms of Yatra like Dhanu yatra, Kandhen-budhi yatra, Chuda-khai yatra, Sulia yatra, Patkhanda yatra, Budha-dangar yatra, Khandabasa yatra, Chhatar yatra, Sital-sasthiyatra and examined the 'hero characters' of the local deities. Indian oral epics are found abundantly everywhere there are caste based culture. Prof. Lauri Honko from Turku,Finland with Prof. Vivek Rai and Dr K Chinnapa Gawda have conducted extensive field work and research on Siri Epic and have come out with three volumes on Siri Epic.Similarly Prof. Peter J Claus has done intensive work on Tulu epics. Aditya Mallick on Devnarayan Epic, Pulikonda Subbachary on jambupurana, Dr JD Smith on Pabuji epic aresome of the commendable work that have been drawn attention of the wider readership.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabujihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabujihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthani_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthani_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapestryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapestryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ravanhattho&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ravanhattho&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajputhttp://bombay.oriental.cam.ac.uk/john/pabuji/statement.htmlhttp://bombay.oriental.cam.ac.uk/john/pabuji/statement.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchatantrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu_Sarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitopadeshahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitopadeshahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabliauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabliauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birbalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidpaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Folktales_of_Chhattisgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri_Honkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri_Honkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Sirihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Sirihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Sirihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri_Honkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri_Honkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauri_Honkohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Folktales_of_Chhattisgarhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidpaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birbalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabliauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropomorphismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitopadeshahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu_Sarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu_Sarmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panchatantrahttp://bombay.oriental.cam.ac.uk/john/pabuji/statement.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajputhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ravanhattho&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapestryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhopahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthani_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthani_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthani_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajasthanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pabujihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balladhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Folklore_of_India&action=edit&section=2


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Superstition and psychology


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In order to understand superstition and psychology in a better way I

would like to discuss an article published by psychologist B.F. Skinner

in the Journal of Experimental Psychology :

In this article he described his pigeons exhibiting what appeared to be

superstitious behavior. One pigeon was making turns in its cage,

another would swing its head in a pendulum motion, while others also

displayed a variety of other behaviors.

Because these behaviors were all done ritualistically in an


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Because these behaviors were all done ritualistically in an

attempt to receive food from a dispenser, even though the

dispenser had already been programmed to release food at set

time intervals regardless of the pigeons' actions, Skinnerbelieved that the pigeons were trying to influence their feeding

schedule by performing these actions. He then extended this as a

proposition regarding the nature of superstitious behavior in

humans.Skinner's theory regarding superstition being the nature of the

pigeons' behavior has been challenged by other psychologists

such as Staddon and Simmelhag, who theorized an alternative

explanation for the pigeons' behavior.

Challenges to Skinner's interpretationof the root of his pigeons' superstitious


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of the root of his pigeons superstitious

behavior, his conception of

the reinforcement schedule has been

used to explain superstitious behaviorin humans. Originally, in Skinner's

animal research, "some pigeons

responded up to 10,000 times without

reinforcement when they hadoriginally been conditioned on

an intermittent reinforcementbasis."

Compared to the other reinforcement

schedules (e.g., fixed ratio, fixedinterval), these behaviors were also the

most resistant to extinction. This is

called thepartial reinforcement effect,

and this has been used to explain

su erstitious behavior in humans.

To be more precise, this effectmeans that whenever an


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means that, whenever an

individual performs an action

expecting a reinforcement, and

none seems forthcoming, itactually creates a sense of

persistence within the individual.

This strongly parallels

superstitious behavior in humansbecause the individual feels that,

by continuing this action,

reinforcement will happen; or that

reinforcement has come at certaintimes in the past as a result of this

action, although not all the time,

but this may be one of those

times.

From a simpler perspective natural selection will tend to


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From a simpler perspective, natural selection will tend to

reinforce a tendency to generate weak associations. If there is

a strong survival advantage to making correct associations,

then this will outweigh the negatives of making manyincorrect, "superstitious" associations.

CONCLUSION


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CONCLUSION

There are few people in the world who approach life in acompletely rational fashion. Each person carries around their

own little bag of tricks that seems to serve them well over time.

In general, everyone should use whatever positive edge they can

find to enable their success, even if the methods are seemingly

little more than smoke and mirrors. However, when these little

bits of magic fail to help us achieve what we set out to do, it is

essential for us to examine our approach as rationally as possible

to change the things that may be contributing to our failures. One

consistent fact about life is that things are constantly changing. Ifa current situation is unsatisfactory, this too will change when we

take the right approach.


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Positive change is difficult to achieve, but it is certain thatsuccess will not be due to anything other than performing the

right actions at the right time. Whatever we do in preparation

for that appropriate timing should be practiced with a clear

eye for cause and effect. Though our spiritual practices can

provide us with comfort during difficult times and provide

inspiration, it is how we interact with others and apply our

inspirations which will carry us forward to beneficial results


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History Final II

Documents