HISTORY - GBVD. Relief Against Seal and Record 320 1. Obligations Under Seal 321 2. Double Suit on a Sealed Instrument (1343) 323 3. Chancery Intervention 323 4. Contracts of Record

ASPEN PUBLISHERS

HISTORYof the

COMMON LAWThe Development of

Anglo-American Legal Institutions

JOHN H. LANGBEINSterling Professor of Law and Legal History

Tale Law School

RENEE LETTOW LERNERAssociate Professor of Law

George Washington University Law School

BRUCE P. SMITHDean

Guy Raymond Jones Faculty ScholarCo-Director, Illinois Legal History Program

University of Illinois College of Law

Wolters KluwerLaw & Business

AUSTIN BOSTON CHICAGO NEW YORK THE NETHERLANDS

CONTENTS

Preface xxv

PART I

THE ENGLISH COMMON LAW:MEDIEVAL ORIGINS

CHAPTER 1CRIMINAL PROCEDURE AND THE ORIGINS OF THE JURY SYSTEM 3

I. Kingship and Law 5A. Anglo-Saxon Kingship and Law 5B. Customary Law 7C. Norman Feudalism 10

II. Local Society and Governance 13A. The Open Field System 13B. The Social Relations of the Open Fields 16C. Local Courts: County and Hundred 18D. Walter v. William Thomas (1247) 20E. Policing Before Police: The Hue and Cry 21F. Babington v. Yellow Taxi Corp. (1928) 23G. The Frankpledge System 27

III. The Appeal of Felony 29A. Jordan v. Simon (1219) 30B. Appeal Procedure 30C. Thomas v. Alan Harvester (1202) 34

TV. The Jury of Accusation 35A. The Assize of Clarendon (1166) 35B. The Presentment System 37

V. The Ordeals 43A. Practice and Theory 44B. Avoiding the Ordeals: Sanctuary and Abjuration 46

1. Fleta's Account 462. A Bedfordshire Case (1276) 47

C. Elective Jury Trial 481. The Willingham Fire Case (1202) 482. Maitland's Account 49

D. Abolition of the Ordeals 571. Fourth Lateran Council, Canon 18 (1215) 572. The Critique of the Ordeals 57

ix

History of the Common Law

VI. Replacing God in the Judgment Seat: European andEnglish Responses to the Abolition of the Ordeals 54A. Europe: Professional Judges, the Roman-Canon Law

of Proof, and the Law of Torture 54B. Jury Trial: The English Response to the Abolition of

the Ordeals 581. The Decree of 1219 592. The Consensual Basis of Jury Trial 593. de la Hethe's Case (1221) 604. Compelling Jury Trial: Peine forte et dure 615. The Overlap of Presentment and Trial Juries 62

«• THE LIVING LAW: Torture and the Law Today 63

VII. The Jury System at Work in the Eyre Court 64A. The General Eyre 64B. The Revenue Dimension 66C. Wiltshire Eyre Roll Excerpts (1249) 67D. Separating the Juries of Accusation and Trial 77Why Group Inquest? 72

A. Beyond Witnessing 72

'p THE LIVING LAW: Jury Unanimity Today 75

B. Judicial Economy 76C. The Timing Thesis 77

CHAPTER 2CIVIL JUSTICE

I. The Writ SystemA. Illustrative Writs

1. Praecipe2. Praecipe/ostensurus quare3. Ostensurus quare

B. Origins and Development of the Writ SystemC. Chancery: The "Writ Shop"D. The Forms of ActionE. Writ of Right

1. Protecting Landholding2. Trial by Battle3. Jury Trial and Jurisdictional Expansion

F. The Assize of Novel Disseisin1. Glanvill's Exemplar2. Protecting Quiet Possession

G. The Writ of Trespass1. Vi et armis2. "Case"3. The Cessation of Writ Creation

II. Procedure Without Writ at Common Law: Instigation byBill or PetitionA. Bills in Eyre

1. Shropshire Eyre Bills (1292)2. Expanding the Common Law

B. King's Bench Bills

#5

8787878888889396979898

100101101101103103104105

105105106109110

III. Parliamentary PetitionsA. The High Court of ParliamentB. Case of the Disappearing Highway (1305)

1. Petition2. Response

C. Responses to Petitions (1305)1. Oxford University2. John of Bradley3. John of Crofton

D. The Changing Role of ParliamentIV. The Common Law Courts

A. Formation of the Central Courts1. Common Pleas2. King's Bench3. Exchequer

B. The Nisi Prius SystemC. Magna Carta and the Common Law

V. The Path Not TakenA. Ecclesiastical JurisdictionB. Pledge of Faith

1. Barbour v. Lynche (1420)2. Wood v. Lyford (U64)

C. Roman-Canon Civil Procedure1. Witness Testimony: Examination of John de Draycote2. Contrasting Roman-Canon and English Procedure

D. The Legacy from Roman Law

Contents

77J772114114115115115116116117117118119119120122123125126131131132132134136137

CHAPTER 3SHAPING THE LEGAL PROFESSIONS: B A R , B E N C H , A N D BOOKS 145

I. The Legal Professions: Pleading and Pleaders 747A. Pleading 147

1. St. George v. Prioress of Easebourne (1293) 1492. Pleading to Issue 150

B. Law French 7521. Origins and Character 7522. Mandating English: The Act of 1731 153

C. Bench and Bar 7551. Fortescue on the Serjeants' Order (c. 1470) 7552. Judicial Recruitment from the Bar 1583. The Decline of the Serjeants' Order 1614. Bifurcation and the Impoverishment of the Judicial Role 767

D. Attorneys 7621. The Attorney's Role in Litigation 1622. Attorney and Solicitor 163

II. Legal Education 164A. Before the Inns: A London Law School? 164B. The Inns of Court 770

III. Early Legal Literature 177A. The Medieval Law Books 777

1. Glanvill 1782. Bracton 178

xi


B. The Year Books: The Origins of Law Reporting 7791. Content and Character 1802. Who Wrote the Year Books and Why? 1813. The End of the Year Books 185

C. The Abridgments 187D. Littleton 189

IV. The Civilians: England's Other Legal Profession 790A. Careers and Venues 7 92B. Doctors'Commons 797

PART II

THE SECOND ENGLISH LEGAL SYSTEM

CHAPTER 4T H E TRANSFORMATION OF THE JURIES AND THERECONSTRUCTION OF CRIMINAL AND CIVIL JUSTICE 207

I. The Jury of Accusation: From Presentment to Indictment 210A. The End of the Eyres 277

1. Obtaining Jurors 2722. The County-Wide Grand Jury 213

B. Indictment 275C. Indictment as Safeguard 216

1. The Statute of 1352 2172. The Statute of 1368 2183. Ending Lynch Justice 279

D. Procedure Without Indictment 2271. Criminal Information 2272. Qui Tarn Actions 222

'p- THE LIVING LAW: Qui Tarn Actions Today 223

II. The Black Death (1348-1349) 224III. Rebuilding Criminal Justice in the Localities 227

A. Policing 2271. The Decline of Frankpledge 2272. The Constable 229

B. The Justices of the Peace 2291. The Origins of the Commission of the Peace 2302. An Act Concerning Justices of the Peace (1361) 2333. The Parish: Staffing Local Government 236

IV. Toward the Instructional Trial: Proof by Witnesses 238A. Transitioning from the Self-Informing Jury 238

1. Supplementing Jurors'Knowledge at Trial 2382. Informing Jurors Out of Court 2403. Courtroom Testimony 242

B. Fortescue's Account of Civil Jury Trial (c. 1470) 244C. Compulsory Process 246

1. The Elizabethan Statute of Perjury (1563) 2462. Overcoming the Litigation Torts 2473. Silencing the Parties: Disqualification for Interest 247

Contents

V. Civil Justice in the Central Courts 248A. The Rise of King's Bench 248

1. The Bill of Middlesex 2502. Legal Fictions 257

B. From Oral to Written Pleading 2531. Cessation of the Year Book Pattern of Litigation 2532. From Pleading to Adjudication 2553. From Year Books to Nominate Reports 256

CHAPTER 5T H E R I S E O F E Q U I T Y 267

I. Emergence of the Court of Chancery 277A. Origins 277

1. Deficiencies of the Medieval Common Law 2772. Returning to the Fount of Justice 274

B. Formation of the Court of Chancery from the Council 2761. Caseloads 2782. The Chancellors 279

C. Early Petitions to the Chancellor 2801. Petition of Edward Bokelond (1394) 2802. The Writ of Subpoena 2823. Petition of Margaret Grimsby(c. 1401-1403) 2834. Chancery's In-Basket 284

D. Jurisdictional Theory 2861. "Equity Acts in Personam" 2862. "Equity Follows the Law" 287

E. Resistance to Early Chancery 2881. Parliament Roll (1377) 2882. Parliament Roll (1421) 288

II. Chancery Procedure 289A. Bill and Answer 290B. Discovering Documents 290C. Obtaining Witness Testimony 297

1. Commissions to Examine 2922. Cook v. Fountain (1676) 292

a. Defendant's Interrogatories (1674) 293b. Deposition of Sir John Hobart (1674) 295

3. Secrecy as Safeguard: The "Publication" Rule andIts Rationale 296

4. The Defects of Chancery's Evidence-Gathering Process 297D. Promoting Settlement 298E. Hearing and Decree 299

III. The Use (Trust) 299A. Early Practice 299B. Ecclesiastical Origins? 300C. Petition of Thomas and Joan Godwin (c. 1396-1399) 302D. The Uses of the Use 304E. Common Pleas Refuses to Recognize the Use (1464) 306

gr THE LIVING LAW: The Rise of the Management Trust 309

XIII


IV. Contract 311A. Enforcing a Promise in Chancery (1468) 311B. Conscience 313

1. The Case of the Released Executor (1489) 3132. Saving the Soul of the Wrongdoer 3753. John Selden, "The Chancellor's Foot" 3164. Theorizing Equity 3175. The Lesser Courts of Equity 319

C. Provoking Assumpsit? 320D. Relief Against Seal and Record 320

1. Obligations Under Seal 3212. Double Suit on a Sealed Instrument (1343) 3233. Chancery Intervention 3234. Contracts of Record 3245. Dialogue in Exchequer Chamber: Double Suit on a

Statute Merchant (1482) 325

THE LIVING LAW: Confessed Judgments in Modern Law 328

IV. Chancery Supremacy 329A. The Relations of Chancery and the Common Law Courts 329B. The Battle of the Courts: Bacon, Coke, and Ellesmere 329

1. Using Habeas Corpus to Control the Scope of Remedyin Chancery 330

2. The Statute of Praemunire (1353) 3313. The Resjudicata Statute (1403) 332

C. Glanvile's Case (1615) 333D. Decree of King James (1616) 334

CHAPTER 6THE MATURATION AND REFORM OF CHANCERY, AND THEFUSION OF LAW AND EQUITY 345

I. Regularizing Equity 348A. Chancery's Brush with Extinction 348

1. Parliamentary Maneuvers for Abolition in the Interregnum 3482. The Survival of Chancery 349

B. Doctrinalization 3511. The Great Chancellors: Nottingham, Hardwicke, Eldon 3572. Chancery Law Reports 3533. The Changing Patterns of Subject-Matter Jurisdiction 3544. Protecting Married Women's Property 355

C. Appellate Review 358D. Parliament Assumes the Initiative in Law Reform 359

1. The Triennial Act of 1694 3602. Implications for Chancery 360

E. The Relations of Law and Equity 361II. Reforming Chancery 362

A. Jarndyce v. Jarndyce, Bleak House (1853) 362B. Chancery's Staff 366

1. The Unreformed Court 3662. Bentham's Reminiscence of Corruption in Chancery 368

XIV

Contents

3. "The Masters in Chancery": Editorial (1832) 3694. Ending the "Old Corruption" 3695. Creating a Chancery Bench 370

C. Chancery Procedure: A Failed System of Fact-Finding 3711. Commissions to Examine 3722. Delegating Fact-Finding 3753. The Chancery Commission and the Procedure Acts

of the 1850s 376III. Fusing Law and Equity: A Transatlantic Project in

Law Reform 377A. The Elements of Fusion 377B. Equity Courts in America 378

1. Colonial Origins 3782. State and Federal Equity 381

C. The Field Code in New York 382D. Fusion in England: The Influence of the Field Code 384E. The Federal Rules of Civil Procedure (1938) 386

1. "How Equity Conquered Common Law" 3862. The Drafting and the Drafters 3893. The Discovery Revolution 392

!• THE LIVING LAW: Clinton v. Jones 396

4. Pleading and Discovery 3985. The Vanishing Trial: Reorienting Civil Procedure to

the Pretrial 399

PART III

RESHAPING THE JURYCHAPTER 7CONTROLLING, REVIEWING, AND SUPPRESSING JURIESIN ENGLAND 475

I. Reversing a Medieval Jury: Attaint 417A. Blackstone's Account 477B. The Failings of Attaint 418

II. Fining Jurors 419A. Juror Misconduct 419B. Fining Jurors in Star Chamber 421C. Proceedings Against the Throckmorton Jury (1554) 422D. Bushell's Case (1670) 424E. Vaughan's Opinion 426

III. Influencing the Jury's Verdict 431A. Judicial Comment 431B. Requiring Disclosure and Redeliberation of a

Proffered Verdict 433C. Arrowsmith's Case (1678) 434D. Weakening Trial-Level Jury Controls 438

IV. Reviewing Verdicts: The Motion for New Trial 439A. Wood v. Gunston (1655) 439B. The Emergence of New Trial 440

xv


C. Bright v.Enyon (1757) 445D. Chancery 446

1. Coddrington v. Webb (1691) 4462. The Threat from Equity 446

E. The Grounds for New Trial (1794) 447F. Fact into Law: The Increasing Detail of Jury Instructions 448

V. Formation of the Law of Evidence 450A. Origins 451B. Cross-Examination 453C. Ending the Disqualification for Interest 454D. The Exclusionary Principle 455

VI. The Suppression of Civil Jury Trial in England 458A. Blackstone on the Civil Jury 458B. The Demise of Civil Jury Trial 459

CHAPTER 8JUDGE/JURY RELATIONS IN AMERICA 473

I. Enshrining the Jury in State and Federal Constitutions 475A. Colonial Experience with the Jury 475

1. The Criminal Jury: The Zenger Case (1735) 475a. The Background 475b. The Trial Report 477

2. The Civil Jury: Erving v. Cradock (1761) 480B. Juries and Popular Government in Revolutionary Ideology 483C. Jury Law Finding 484D. Constitutional Rights to Jury Trial in Criminal Cases 485

1. The Federalist No. 83(1788) 4852. Jurors' Duty to Follow Judicial Instructions on Law

in Criminal Cases 486a. Sparf '&Hansen v. United States (1895) 486b. Law Nullifying in Criminal Cases 490c. United States v. Thomas (1997) 491

E. Constitutional Rights to Jury Trial in Civil Cases 4921. Before the Bill of Rights 4922. The Seventh Amendment 493

II. Shaping the American Bench 495A. The Struggle for Learned Law 496B. Building the State Trial and Appellate Bench 500C. The Elective Judiciary 503

1. Inception 5042. Criticism of Judicial Elections After the Civil War 5063. Nominating Dan Breezy 507

4. Efforts to Moderate the Effects of Elective Judiciaries 509^ THE LIVING LAW: Campaign Contributions to Judicial Candidates 570D. Separating Trial and Appellate Courts 577

III. Judicial Comment on the Evidence 573A. Judicial Comment in the Early Nineteenth Century 514B. Lawyers' Rhetoric 576C. The Political Movement to Restrict Comment 520] • THE LIVING LAW: Pattern Instruction on Judicial Opinion on Facts 522

XVI

Contents

IV. The Emergence of New Trial 522A. Juror Affidavits 522B. State v. Freeman (1824) 524

fs THE LIVING LAW: Juror Affidavits Today 526

C. New Trial for Verdict Against Evidence 527D. Later Developments in Jury Control 529

V. The Composition of the Jury 532A. Abandoning Property' Qualifications for Jurors 532B. Extending Jury Service to African Americans and Women 534

1. African Americans 5342. Women 5363. The Fair Cross Section Requirement 538

p THE LIVING LAW: Jury Service Reforms 539

C. Expanding Voir Dire 540

• THE LIVING LAW: Jury Selection in the O.J. Simpson Murder Case 542

PART IV

CRIMINAL JUSTICECHAPTER 9REBUILDING CRIMINAL PROCEDURE: T H E MARIANPRETRIAL AND THE ALTERCATION TRIAL 559

I. The Rise and Fall of the Court of Star Chamber 562A. Origins and Jurisdiction 562

1. Long's Case (1607) 5652. Coke's Account of the Court (c. 1630) 566

B. Star Chamber Procedure 5691. The Main Elements 5692. The Chancery Model 5703. Smith's Case (1586) 573

C. The Fall of Star Chamber 5741. Enforcing the "Personal Rule" of Charles I 5742. The Act of 1641 576

II. Investigating Crime and Preparing for Trial: TheMarian Pretrial 578A. Reinforcing the Private Prosecutor 579

1. The Marian Committal Statute (1555) 5792. Background and Purpose 580

B. The Marian Pretrial in Operation 5831. Sir Thomas Smith's Account (c. 1565) 5832. Binding Over: A Recognizance to Give Evidence at

Assizes (1561) 5853. An Indictment for Burglary (1567) 5884. The Grand Jury 588

III. The Altercation Trial 589A. Sir Thomas Smith's Account (c. 1565) 590

1. The Court 5922. The Trial 595

XVII


B. R. v. John Baltee (1678) 5981. The Sessions Papers 5982. The Rapidity of Trial 599

C. The Absence of Plea Bargaining 607D. The Rule Against Defense Counsel 602

1. Hawkins'Account (1721) 6032. The Rationale and Scope of the Rule 603

E. The State Trials 6061. Proceedings 6062. Sanctions for Treason 609

F. Stephen's Assessment of the Early-Modern Criminal Trial 670IV. Trial as a Sentencing Proceeding 613

A. Discretion in the Administration of Criminal Justice 673B. Capital Punishment 674

1. The Death Penalty: Administration at Tyburn 6742. The Blood Sanctions and the "Bloody Code" 675

C. Mitigation and Alternative Sanctions 6181. Benefit of Clergy and Transportation 6182. Partial Verdicts 6223. R. v. Elizabeth Wooly (1686) 6244. The Sentencing Role of the Jury 6245. Acquittal Rates 6256. Whipping 6257. Clemency: Trial-Based Administration of the

Pardon Process 626

•* THE LIVING LAW: Jury Sentencing Today 627

V. The Jury-Free Realm of Summary Jurisdiction 628A. Blackstone's Account (1769) 629B. Courts, Offenses, Sanctions 637

CHAPTER 10T H E GROWTH OF DEFENSIVE SAFEGUARD 647

I. Reforming Criminal Procedure After the GloriousRevolution 649A. The Treason Trials of the Later Stuarts 649B. Toward Judicial Independence 655

%• THE LIVING LAW: Terms of Office for Judges 657

C. Confronting the Disadvantages of the Treason Defendant 658D. The Treason Trials Act of 1696 659

1. A Charter of Defensive Safeguard 6602. The Restriction to High Treason 663

II. The Challenge of Urban Law Enforcement 665A. Adapting the Marian Pretrial to the Metropolis 666

1. The Court JP: Henry and John Fielding at Bow Street 6672. The City: The Sitting Alderman 670

B. Policing 677C. The Reward System 674

1. An Act for Encouraging the Apprehending ofHighwaymen (1692) 675

2. The Thieftakers and the Reward Scandals 677

xviii

Contents

B. The Crown Witnesses System 682C. Lawyers for the Prosecution 686

III. The Emergence of Adversary Criminal Procedure 689A. Defense Counsel 690B. Silencing the Accused 693

1. Sequencing Prosecution and Defense "Cases" 6932. Preparing Defendants and Defense Witnesses 6953. R. v. Olander Boston (1696) 6964. The Beyond-Reasonable-Doubt Standard of Proof 6965. The Privilege Against Self-Incrimination 698

C. The Law of Criminal Evidence 700D. The Nineteenth-Century Legislation 700

1. Full Defense of Counsel: The Prisoner's CounselAct(1836) 700

2. Competency to Testify: The Criminal Evidence Act (1898) 702E. Appellate Review 702

1. Resisting New Trial 7032. The Court of Criminal Appeal 705

TV. The Atrophy of Criminal Jury Trial 706A. Professionalizing the Magistracy 706B. The Grand Jury: Obsolescence and Abolition 707C. Plea Bargaining 708D. Summary Jurisdiction 770

1. Why Summary Proceedings? 7102. Public Prosecution 772

CHAPTER 11AMERICAN CRIMINAL JUSTICE 729

I. Criminal Justice in Colonial British North America 737A. Reception 737B. Policing 733C. Prosecution 734D. Pretrial Procedure 734

1. Marian Pretrial Procedure in the Colonies 7342. The Salem Witchcraft Proceedings (1692) 735

E. Criminal Jury Trial and Its Alternatives 7371. Adversary Criminal Trial in the Colonies 7372. Summary Proceedings 739

F. Sanctions 740II. Policing 747

A. The Rise of Urban Police Forces 747B. State Police 744C. Federal Law Enforcement 744

J THE LIVING LAW: Forensic Science 745

I I I . Prosecution 746A. The Public Prosecutor 746B. The Persistence of Private Prosecution 747

TV. Pretrial Procedure 749A. Preliminary Examination 749B. Charging 750

XIX


C. Bail 750V. Criminal Jury Trial and Its Alternatives 757

A. Adversary Criminal Trial in the Early Republic 757B. Plea Bargaining 755C. Bench Trial 758

VI. Sanctions 758A. The Death Penalty 758

1. Anatomization 7582. The Abolition Movement 7603. Modes of Execution 762

B. Imprisonment 7641. "Reformed" Jails and Houses of Correction 7642. The Penitentiary 766

C. Progressive Era Initiatives 7771. Parole and Indeterminate Sentencing 7772. The Juvenile Court 773

D. The Collapse of the Reformative Ideal 776VII. Constitutionalizing Criminal Procedure in the United States 779

A. The Framers' Constitution 780B. Original Understandings 780

1. Search and Seizure 7802. Cruel and Unusual Punishment: Weemsv. United

States (1910) 7853. Confrontation: Crawford v. Washington (2004) 7884. Habeas Corpus: Boumediene v. Bush (2008) 790

C. Extending Federal Criminal Procedure Standards to theStates: The Formative Era 792

D. Criminal Procedure in the Warren Court 796E. The Long Shadow of English Criminal Procedure 798

1. Atwater v. Lago-Vista (2001) 7982. Criticizing Originalism 801

F. The Limits of Constitutional Criminal Procedure 802

PART V

AMERICAN INITIATIVES INTHE COMMON LAW

CHAPTER 12LEGAL LITERATURE 815

I. Law Reporting in England #77A. The Nominate Reports 817

1. The Formative Period 8172. Plowden's Commentaries 8193. Coke's Reports 820

B. Burrow's Reports 822C. The Authorized and Quasi-Official Reports 824

II. Law Reporting in the United States 824A. Official Reports: Chancellor Kent and the New York Reports 824B. The United States Reports 829

1. Happenstance Origins 829

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Contents

2. Justice Story Intervenes #37C. The Profusion of Law Reports 832D. The West System: Regional and Federal Reports 833E. Electronic Law Reporting 836F. Case Law and the Theory of Precedent 837

III. Blackstone's Commentaries (1765-1769) 838A. The Institutionalist Tradition 838B. Blackstone's Influence in America 841C. Kent's Commentaries on American Law (1826-1830) 843

TV. Treatises, Codes, and Restatements 845A. English and American Legal Treatises 845B. The Decline of Academic Treatise-Writing in the

United States 849C. Treatises and Codes 851D. The American Restatements #57

1. Restatement of Conflict of Laws § 325 (1934) 8542. Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws §§ 6,

188(1971) 854V. Periodical Literature 856

A. Emergence of a Nineteenth-Century Genre 856B. Student-Edited Law Reviews in the United States 859

1. Origins 8592. Traits 8623. The Role of the University 863

CHAPTER 13THE RECEPTION AND RECASTING OF ENGLISH LAW 873

I. Law in Colonial British North AmericaA. English Law in the American ColoniesB. American Departures

II. Property LawA. English BackgroundB. American Developments

1. Inheritance2. Alienability3. Trespass

[II. Contract LawA. English BackgroundB. American Developments

1. The Will Theorv of Contract2. Third-Party Beneficiary Contracts3. Remedies

IV. Tort LawA. English BackgroundB. American Developments

1. The Rise of Negligence2. The Fellow Servant Rule and the Assumption-of-Risk

Doctrine3. Contributor)- Negligence4. Proximate Cause

875875879881881881881881882884884884884886887888888889889

890891892

XXI


5. The Erosion of the Common Law Bars 8946. Strict Liability 8967. The Industrial Accident Crisis 8988. Workers' Compensation 9009. The Litigation "Explosion" 902

V. The Law of Slavery 903A. English Background 903B. American Developments 903

1. Slave Sales 9032. The Master/Slave Relationship 905

VI. Conflict of Laws 908A. Scott v. Emerson (1852) 909B. Conflicts Questions and American Federalism 914

1. Kent and Story on Comity 9742. The Quest for Consensus in American Conflicts Law 976

VII. Family Law 977A. English Background 977B. American Developments 918

1. Marriage 9182. Divorce 9203. Adoption 927

CHAPTER 14LEGAL EDUCATION 929

I. Legal Education in England in the Seventeenth andEighteenth Centuries 933A. The Cessation of Organized Legal Education at the

Inns of Court 933B. Reading the Law 934

II. Legal Education in Colonial America 936A. An Apprenticeship Agreement (1723) 937B. The Complaints of "Tyro Philolegis" (1745) 939C. Restricting Entry: "Agreement of the Bar of New York

City" (1756) 940

THE LIVING LAW: Legal Education as an Antitrust Problem 942

III. Legal Education in the Early Republic 942A. Law in the Colleges 942B. The Proprietary Law Schools 944

1. The Litchfield Law School 9442. Law Office Law Schools 9493. The Demise of Litchfield 950

TV. The Emergence of University Law Schools 953A. The First University Law Schools 953B. The "Text-and-Recitation" Method of Instruction 956C. Legal Education and the Legal Profession 957D. Legal Education at Wisconsin in the 1860s 958

V. The Langdellian Revolution at Harvard 960A. Absorbing the Lessons of the German Research University 960B. Langdell's Account of His Systemic Reforms (1886) 962

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Contents

C. The Case Method 964D. The Relations of Law School and Law Firm 966

VI. Expanding Access to Legal Education 968A. Evening and Part-Time Law Schools 968B. Gleason Archer's Suffolk Law School 970C. Law Schools for Women 974D. African Americans and Legal Education 976E. Regulatory Standards: Which, Why, and By Whom? 977

THE LIVING LAW: Unaccredited Law Schools 981

VII. Twentieth-Century Legal Theory 982A. Sociological Jurisprudence 982B. Legal Realism 983C. Law and Economics 988D. Critical Legal Studies 990

VIII. Recent Developments 997A. Mission 997B. Clinical Legal Education 992C. The LSAT 992D. The U.S. News Rankings 993E. The "Globalization" of U.S. Legal Education 994F. Faith-Based Law Schools 994

It- THE LIVING LAW: The Carnegie Foundation Report (2007) 995

G. Online Legal Education 995

CHAPTER 15T H E L E G A L P R O F E S S I O N 7005

I. The Antecedents 7007A. The Profession in the Colonies 1007B. The Legal Profession in the Early Republic 7009

1. Status and Organization 7 0092. Hostility to Lawyers 7077

C. The Antebellum Legal Profession 70731. Admission to the Bar 70732. Lincoln's Law Office 70743. Collection Work 70764. Circuit Riding 7076

D. The Sole Practitioner 70771. The Country Lawyer 70772. Gleason Archer's Advice to Beginning Lawyers 7079

II. The Corporate Bar 7027A. Railroad Lawyers 7027

1. Cross v. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Co. (1897) 10212. Retainer Agreements 7023

B. The Rise of the Large Law Firm 10251. The Demand for Legal Services 70252. The Cravath System 702#

j * THE LIVING LAW: The Am Law Survey of Large Law Firms 7036

C. The Billable Hour 1038D. The Transformation of the Large Law Firm 1041

XXIII


THE LIVING LAW: Specialization Today 7045

E. The Growth of In-House Counsel 7047III. The Plaintiffs' Bar 1048

A. Fee Structure: Allocating Litigation Costs 10481. The English Rule 10482. The Development of the American Rule 7049

B. The Contingency Fee 70531. Major's Executor v. Gibson (1855) 7 0532. The Spread of Contingency Fees 7054

C. The Tort Explosion 7056D. Melvin Belli and ATLA 705#

|» THE LIVING LAW: ATLA "Litigation Groups" 7062

TV. Organizing the Profession 7062A. Bar Associations 7062

1. Samuel Tilden's Address (1870) 70622. Exclusive or Inclusive? 7063

B. Legal Ethics 70671. The ABA Canons of Ethics (1908): Selected Provisions 7 0672. Envisioning the Canons 706#THE LIVING LAW: Computer Software and Legal Self-Help 7077

V. Lawyers and the Administrative State 7072A. The New Dealers: Government Lawyers 7073B. The Rise of the Washington Bar 1076

VI. Access to the Profession 707#A. Women 707S

1. In re Application of Bradwell (1876) 10782. Admission to the Bar 70793. Criminal Practice 1080

B. African Americans 70&2C. Immigrants 70#4

Epilogue: Tomorrow's Legal History 1086

Illustrated Timeline 1097Table of English Regnal Tears 1105Image Acknowledgments 1107Text Acknowledgments 1113Index 1119

xxiv