History and Anthology of American Literature Part I. The Literature of Colonial America Part II. The Literature of Reason and Revolution Part III. The.

History and Anthology of American Literature

Part I. The Literature of Colonial AmericaPart II. The Literature of Reason and

RevolutionPart III. The Literature of Romanticism

How to define American LiteratureAnylytical approachThematic approachHistorical approach

Part I. The Literature of Colonial America

Historical Introduction Early American

writers and Poets Puritan Puritanism

Part I. Historical Introduction

I. The native American and their culture– Indians

II. The historical background of the colonial Time

Christopher Columbus discovered the American continent in 1491. Captain Christopher Newport reached Virginia in 1607. Puritans came the New England area, by Mayflower in 1619. The first settlement was established in Plymouth in 1620.

Early American Writers and Poets

South, Jamestown, Virginia: Captain John Smith---first American writer 8 works Contributions: his description of America were filled with themes,

myths, images, scenes, characters and events that were a foundation for the nation’s literature. He lured the Pilgrims into fleeing here and creating a New land.

North, New England, Puritan Writers William Bradford: first governor of Plymouth, The History of

Plymouth Plantation, simplicity, earnestness, direct reporting, readable, moving.

John Winthrop: first governor of Boston, The History of New England, candid simplicity, honesty

Two Poets: Anne Bradstreet, Edward Taylor

Puritans One division of English Protestant. They regarded the

reformation of the church under Elizabeth as incomplete, and called for further purification from what they considered to be unscriptural and corrupt forms and ceremonies retained from the unreformed church.

The 17th century American Puritans included two parts: Separatists and Massachusetts Bay Group

Their Religious Doctrines: original sin, total depravity, predestination and limited atonement through a special infusion of grace from God.

They regarded themselves as chosen people of God. They embraced hardships, industry and frugality. They favored a disciplined, hard, somber, ascetic and harsh life. They opposed arts and pleasure. They suspect joy and laughter as symptoms of sin.

Puritanism A religious and political movement. Through it,

one sees emerging the right of the individual to political and religious independence.

Their religious doctrines: original sin, total depravity, predestination, limited atonement.

Their attitudes toward entertainment: joy and laughter are symptoms of sin.

Their attitudes toward work: work itself is a good in addition to what it achieves, that time saved by efficiency or good fortune should be spent in doing further work.

Puritanism’s influence on American literature

Purpose: pragmaticContents: practical matter-of-fact accounts

of life in the new world; highly theoretical discussions of religious questions.

Form: diary, autobiography, sermon, letterStyle: tight and logic structure, precise and

compact expression, avoidance of rhetorical decoration, adoption of homely imagery, simplicity of diction.

Part II. The Literature of Reason and Revolution

Historical Introduction Benjamin Franklin Thomas Paine Thomas Jefferson Philip Freneau

Part II. Historical Introduction(1)

Industrial Revolution: spurred the economy in American colonies.

Independence War: the industrial growth led to intense strain with Britain. The British government tried to suppress their growth economically, and ruled them from abroad politically and levied heavy tax on them. these aroused bitter resentment in colonies. Constant conflicts resulted in American revolutionary war.

Part II. Historical Introduction (2)

Spiritual life of the colonies—Enlightenment. Philosophical and intellectual movement. Advocated reason or rationality, the scientific

method, equality and human beings’ability to perfect themselves and their society.

Agreed on faith in human rationality and existence of discoverable and universally valid principles governing human beings, nature and society.

Opposed intolerance, restraint, spiritual authority and revealed religion

Benjamin Franklin (1)

The only good writer of the colonial period.

Printer, enlightener, inventor, scientist, statesman, diplomat

Aid Jefferson in writing The Declaration of Independence.

Seeking help from France in American Independent War.

Benjamin Franklin (2)

Main Works: Poor Richard’s AlmanacIt contains many proverbsAutobiographyWith it he set the form for autobiography as

a genre.

Style: he developed an utilitarian and didactic style.

His style is characterized by simplicity, frankness, wit, clarity, logic and order.

Benjamin Franklin (3)

Autobiography: inspiring account of a poor boy’s rise to a high position. It is a how-to-do-it book, one on the art of self-improvement.

Contents: It covered Franklin’s life only until 1757 when he was 51 years old. It described his life as a shrewd and industrious businessman and narrates how he owned the constant felicity of his life, his long-continued health and acquisition of fortune.

Significance: It presents a prototype of American success which inspired generations of Americans. It is an embodiment of Puritanism and enlightening spirits.

Benjamin Franklin (4) Analysis of Selected Parts A. 3 paras a. He was interested in reading as a child. b. Being an apprentice to his brother, he began writing. c. How he improved his argumentation. Summary: Franklin was thirsty for knowledge and improved his

writing with practical methods. How he gained success through one’s consistent effort and hard working. (self-improvement/education)

B. 5 paras a. The way of learning language. b. Practice makes perfect---a piece of advice on how to teach

language. c/d. Relations with his relatives. Life experience. e. Learning Club: devoted on the improvement of young man,

influence public opinion. Summary: Franklin was a practical, diligent man. In learning

language, he had a great power of endurance and clever mind. He always tried his best to achieve his goal, no matter in life or study. (self-reliance)

Why Franklin is admired and read widely?

He is a typical American, model of the self-made man, a cultural hero whose life exemplified the American dream of the poor boy who made good.

He stressed the importance of working hard to make money, happiness depending in the first place on economic success and optimistically believed that every American could do so.

He was convinced that no man could be virtuous or happy unless he did his best to improve the life of his society and his own life.

Why say Franklin is the representative of

American Enlightenment? 1.He believed in reason or rationality, the

scientific method, equality and human beings’ ability to perfect themselves and their society.

2. He opposed intolerance, restraint, spiritual authority and revealed religion. Deist

3. He favored the education. Self-education, educating and disseminating knowledge among people by his newspaper and Autobiography, establishing learning club, college and library.

4. He favored freedom of thoughts. He set up the ideas of democracy in the USA.

Thomas Paine (1)

Propagandist, pamphleteer, a master of persuasion who understands the power of language to move a man to action.

Main works: The American Crisis Common Sense The rights of man The Age of Reason

Thomas Paine (2) Study of the Selected Part 1. In what sense does Paine use the verb “try” in the first

sentence of the essay? Paine used the word in the sense of “test to the limit”,

“subject to great hardships”. 2. To what 3 types of criminal does Paine indirectly

compare George III? What is Paine’s attitude toward the British troops?

3. What does the writer think of the Tories? 4. What does Paine mean by an offensive war? What

reasons does he give for not supporting such a war? 5. What kind of war does he believe the American

revolution to be? 6. How do you understand the title of the essay?

Thomas Jefferson (1)

Enlightener, planter, aristocrat, lawyer, a symbol of American democracy.

Man of many talents: scientist, inventor, musician, linguist, architect, diplomat and writer.

Thomas Jefferson (2) Political Career: He served his country as Minister to

France(1784-1789), Secretary of State(1789-1793), Vice President(1791-1801) and third President(1801-1809).

Thoughts: Jeffersonian Democracy, which includes faith in the individual and common man, dislike an overly strong government, and emphasis on the importance of education and on agrarianism and land ownership as they brought responsibility and true judgment. Politically, he is considered the father of the democratic spirit in his country. The society he thought of as ideal was one where landowning farmers could live under as little government as possible.

Style: dignity, flexibility, clarity, command of generalization

Thomas Jefferson (3)

The Declaration of Independence: The essay, adopted July 4, 1776, not only announced the birth of a new nation, but also set forth a philosophy of human freedom which

served as unimportant force in the western world. It is a statement of American principles and a review of the

Causes of the quarrel with Britain, presented the American view to the world with classic dignity.

It instilled among the common people a sense of their own importance and inspired struggle for personal freedom, self government and a dignified place in society.

Philip Freneau (1)

Father of American PoetryTeacher, political journalist, seaman,

humanitarian, polemist, propagandist, satirist, loyal follower of Jefferson

Main Works: The Rising Glory of America (1772)The British Prison Ship (1781) The Wild Honey Suckle (1786)The Indian Burying Ground (1788)

Part III. The Literature of Romanticism

Historical IntroductionWashington IrvingJames Fenimore CooperWilliam Cullen BryantEdgar Allan PoeRalph Waldo Emerson

Henry David ThoreauNathaniel HawthorneHerman MelvilleHenry Wadsworth Longfellow

Part III. Historical Introduction

Stability, Prosperity, FreedomGeographically, America expanded its

frontier. Economically, it began the industrialization and urbanization. Politically, people enjoyed more freedom. Culturally, cultural business prospered.

Literary Ideas:Romanticism and Transcendentalism

Romanticism (1)

2 stages: pre-romanticism (1770s-1830)

post-romanticism(1830-60,65-75)

Rise of Romanticism: appeared in England in the 18th century. Reaction against the prevailing neoclassical spirit and rationalism during the Age of Reason.

Romanticism (2)

Moral enthusiasm: passion, emotion, fancy and imagination.

Faith in the value of individualism and intuitive perception: display personalities, express feelings and ideas, stress men’s rights for freedom and happiness. Human nature is of good will. Man can know the world through his own ability/conscience/intuition.

Nature was a source of goodness and man’s societies a source of corruption.

Romanticism (3)

The literary works of romanticism mostly reflected the fantastic and thrilling stories taking place long ago and far away, rich in mystic color. The romantic had a persistent interest in the primitive literature, in which he found inspiration of various kind.

The romantic showed a profound admiration and love for nature. The beauty and perfection of nature could produce in him unspeakable joy and exaltation.

Transcendentalism (1) Appeared in 1830, marked the maturity of

American romanticism and the first renaissance in the American literary history.

The term was derived from the Latin verb transcendere: to rise above , to pass beyond the limits.

Rise of Transcendentalism: the product of combination of foreign influence (German idealistic philosopher, neo-Platonism, Oriental mysticism, Confucius and Mencius) and American native Puritan tradition.

Transcendentalism(2) romantic idealism, philosophical romanticism

Spirit or Oversoul: the universe is composed of Nature and Soul. Spirit is everywhere.

Individualism: the most important element in society, the divinity of individual.

Nature: is a connecting link between God and man. It is a symbol of the Spirit.

Community living and dignity of manual labor. Relying on Intuition and Conscience, man can transcend

the limits of the senses and of logic and directly receive higher truths and greater knowledge denied to more mundane methods of knowing.

Ralph Waldo Emerson(1)

Transcendentalist Bring Transcendentalism to New England

Believe in individualism, independence of mind, self-reliance

Prose, poetry, speech

Reading Nature

Para 1: Nature has a restorative, comforting, purifying influence on Men.

Para 2: Nature is sublime, respectable, kind, profound and inspiring.

Para 3: The definition of Nature. Para 4/5: Men always feel delightful and young in

Nature. Para 6: The power of delight resides in men or in a

harmony of both.

Washington Irving (1)Father of American Short StoriesFirst American author to make a living by

his pen, first great prose stylist of American romanticism,.

author of the first American short stories and familiar essays.

the first American author of imaginative literature to achieve international distinction

Washington Irving (2)

Main Works: The Sketch Book Tales of a Traveler, The Life of George Washington

Style: simplicity, lucidity, poise and ease flow, discursive and leisurely, slow, graceful presentation, careful phrases and cadences.

Washington Irving (3) Significance: his literary innovations 1)author of first modern American short stories and the

first great American juvenile literature. It was him who introduced the familiar essay from Europe to America.

2)He ranked among the first of the modern men of letters to write history and biography as literary entertainment.

3)He was the leaders of the world-wide Romantic Movement.

4)His humor, which gave an impetus to the growth and popularity of American indigenous humor. His humor was always well-meaning, mild and prone to be accepted.

5) Irving’s genial writing also improved the feeling of American toward the British.

Washington Irving (4)

The Legend of Sleepy Hollow: tells a miraculous story about the unsuccessful love affair of Ichabod Crane, a country teacher, which is combined with the legend of a headless horseman. The two stories share legendary elements, which the critics either interpret as an expression of the author’s conservative attitude toward the American Revolution and his nostalgia for the life before the Revolution, or doubt for their credibility.

James Fenimore Cooper(1789-1851)

Cooper’s life experiences: Cooper town Yale college sailor Precation(1820) The Spy(1821) The Pioneers （ 1823 ）

His literary achievements: thirty two novels social critic—conservative themes in his novels are wildness vs civilization, freedom vs law, order vs change, aristocratic vs democrat, and natural rights vs legal rights.

He developed three kind of novels: 1. novels about revolutionary past. The Spy. 2. sea novels: The Pilot(1824) 3. Novels about American frontier

Leatherstocking series: Natty bumppo—an ideal, innocence and purity ， wildness and the frontier for the first time

William Cullen Bryant(1794-1878)

Life Experence: born on a farm at Cummington, Massachusetts,loved nature, translated Homer’s Iliad and Odessey, his first poem The Enbargo(1808) published when he was 14; editor in chief in New York Evening Post;

Main works

Thanatopsis (1811)The Fountain(1842)The White-Footed(1844)The Food of Years(1878)Library of Poetry

and Song(1871-1872)Translation:Iliad(1870) and

Odeyssey(1871)

Thanatopsis Look up the word thantopsis in a dictionary and explain its origion and

meaning. Bryant divides his poem into three parts. Discuss why you think he

made these particular divisions. What advice does the speaker give those who shudder at the thought

of death? What does the speaker mean when he ways that the person who dies

does not retire alone? Why does he choose the “retire”? Interpret the following passag:”each one as before will chase/His

favorite phantom…” Explain how the person addressed as “thou” gains in stature and

importance as the poem progress. What is the “message” of the poet?

Edgar Allan Poe

Poet, editor, critic, first writer of the detective story, writer of fiction, a pioneer in poetic and fictional techniques

Life story: disastrous Artistic principles

Poe’s Artistic theories Poe argued for the creation of beauty and intensity

of emotion, against the didactic motive for literature.

Poe felt that literature should have no social function or responsibility but should be an expression of the isolated artist.

Poe thought that the artist should be concerned solely with beauty, of imagination. The real world is cruel, ugly and fast into decaying. The artist’s life is lonely, painful and hopeless. The only happiness arose out of the creation and contemplation of beauty.

Poe’s theories on Fiction

A good fiction should only tells one event, which can be finished once.

Fiction should stimulate readers and impress them deeply. It should have a consistent effect throughout the whole text.

He showed in his fiction the impulse to self-destruction, the fascination with horrible catastrophe, whimsical and abnormal psychology.

He depicted the inner world or psychology of his characters.

To Helen

1. Although the poem is about a real person , Poe addressed it to Helen, why might he have done this?

2 ． In the final stanza, Helen is addressed as Psyche the Greek word for “ breath” or “soul”. How do you reconcile this with the earlier references to Helen of Troy, whose legendary beauty led to the Trojan War?

Beauty---to truth---to soul 3. Note that all three stanzas end with a reference to a place---native

shore, Greece and Rome, and Holy land. How are these related to each other? To the meaning of the poem as a whole?

Beauty is truth and leads to spiritual oneness and artistic integrity Lines written in passionate boyhood to the first purely and ideal

woman in my soul.

Stanza 1

The poet first mentioned Helen, the most famous beauty in Great mythology. Then Poe compared himself to Odysseus, who wandered for ten years over the sea to get home. As Odysseus, Edgar Allan Poe was persistent in his chasing after fine arts with the sincere belief that art, or beauty and truth, is the ultimate aim, the home, for the wandering poet; while Helen, the embodiment of ancient beauty, is the guider to that dreamland.

Stanza 2

All the art and literature originated from one thing---beauty. Having taken Helen as the embodiment of beauty, the poet was confident that once he saw Helen, he was sure to be led by Helen to the home of beauty---fine and pure literature. Poe insisted that Greece and Rome are the homes of beauty, the treasure houses of fine art and literature.

Stanza 3

The speaker sees Helen standing in the bright niche and holding in her hand an agate lamp. She is quite similar to goddess Psyche from Greek Myth. Through his description of his passion to Helen, Poe expressed his pursuit and sincere devotion to beauty.

In the poem, three beauties in ancient Greek mythology—Helen, Naiad and Psyche---are mentioned just to show that beauty is something that existed; it is very holy but it is hard to reach.

The Raven’s symbolic meaning

A. it symbolizes disaster and misfortune.B. it may symbolize the soul of the radiant

maiden, the “lost Lenore.”C. it may symbolize the sub-consciousness

of the poet.D. it is the symbol of modern reality.

Annabel Lee

Stanza 1. The pretty young girl Annabel Lee used to live in a kingdom by the seaside. Before her death, the only thing in her heart was to love or to be loved by me.

Stanza 2. Our love was so strong and beautiful that angels in heaven, who are with wings and living in heaven and likely to be freer and abler than any human beings, envied us. Seldom did any angels envy anything of the human world. If they did, there must be something spectacular in the object of their admiration.

Stanza 3.My Annabel Lee was taken away from me. The faithful lovers were mercilessly separated by a superpower. Poe was indicating that Annabel Lee might be an angel from heaven, because she was “brought back(and taken away”) to heaven and she had some “highborn kinsmen” up there.

Stanza 4: The poet was quite clear about the reason of Annabel Lee’s being taken away from him. The evil wind came out by night and Annabel Lee was taken away by night, that indicates that somebody may appear as angels in daytime, but as devils during night.

Stanza 5. Though the evil wind and the highborn kinsmen are very powerful to take my beautiful Annabel lee away from me, they are not so powful as to take her soul away from me. Our love is more powerful than death. After the dath of one, our souls are still together.

Stanza 6

My Annabel Lee had gone to heaven. She reminds me of her bright face by the moon, so that I can see her in my dream; hen I see the stars in the sky, I see her bright eyes, too. We are together and nothing can separate us;, neither the human power nor the God of death is possible.

Poe’s theories on Poetry His poetry express the same deep hopelessness

and rejection of the world as his prose, but in a different way.

He avoids the intrusion of ugliness and tries to create a vision of beauty and a melodious sound. The basic tone is melancholy.

The function f poetry is not to summarize and interpret earthly experience, but to create a mood in which the soul soars toward supernal beauty.

The creation of work of art requires the utmost concentration and unity, as well as the most scrupulous use of words.

Nathaniel Hawthorne(1804-1864)

Romantic novelist, short-story writer.

Advanced the art of short story and gave to the form qualities that are uniquely American.

First great American writer of fiction to work in the moralistic tradition. Combined the American romanticism with puritan moralism

Romances: an imaginative fictional projection of moral

life.Contents: sensational material, poisoning,

murder, adultery, crime.Methods: the New England Past, theocratic

society, puritan, witchcraft, the Indian life, symbolic and allegorical form.

Themes: explore the human soul/ nature of man, deal with moral or ethical problems, study the effects of sin on man.

Purpose: to show the inner world of man is the source of evil in society, to criticize the present age.

Reasons for Hawthorne’s creation

1. His exploration of the soul resulted from his skeptical attitude toward the social reality and from his ambition to probe into the nature of man.

2. His selection of themes and skillful use of the historical materials resulted from his personal life and family history. reclusion, judge ancestor.

3. His concentration on the human mind and character on conscious and unconscious desires, is an outgrowth of the Puritan emphasis on the individual conscience. He scolded the harshness of Puritans, yet took the Puritanism as his living criteria. Freedom of will, a conscious choice between good and evil.

Hawthorne’s Style

Rich imagination, well-woven structure, psychological analysis, various symbols, delicate imageries, ambiguity, mystery.

Wide and well-controlled vocabulary, formal words with pleasant sound, long and complex sentences, fresh and effective metaphors and similes, summarized historical narrative, but links scenes dramatically.

Main Works

Twice-Told Tales, 1837Mosses from an old Manse, 1846The Scarlet Letter, 1850The House of the Seven Gables, 1851

Blithedale Romance, 1852The Marble Faun, 1860Our Old Home, 1863

The Scarlet Letter (1850)

The Scarlet Letter is a complex story of guilt/sin, its moral, emotional and psychological effects on various persons, and how deliverance is obtained for some of them.

In the fiction, Hawthorne approached the question of evil more profoundly. He considered the effect on an individual’s character of enforced penance, of hypocrisy, and of hatred.

What sin, how to deal with, Hawthorne’s attitudes

Hester: disloyalty, betrayal, deception, sexual desire, adultery. Face, correct, redeem, purify. Praise, content, conform.

Dimmesdale:adultery, cowardice, hypocrisy, dishonesty, selfishness, too coward to confess, tortured by his conscience. Sympathetic, disfavor his hesitation, indecisiveness and cowardice.

Chillingworth: revenge. Tortured by the desire of revenge, twisted and reduced to nothing. disgusted, think he committed greater crime.

Puritanism in The Scarlet Letter

Puritan background: setting, events, characters, thoughts, behaviors.

Puritan doctrines: original sin, total depravity, predestination, limited atonement.

The novel expresses Hawthorne’s attitudes toward Puritanism. Like puritans who concerned themselves with the original sin and developed it into their beliefs, Hawthorne concerns the novel with the same theme, and tries to establish his doctrines around it.

Puritanism in The Scarlet Letter

Through challenging Puritanism, Hawthorne establishes his own “Puritanism”:

1. Their religious doctrines. Conclusion: he believes in men’s ability to redeem themselves or advocates individuality.

2. Their rigid, inhuman attitude toward life and enjoyment: suppress men’s all desires, live a hard, disciplined and ascetic life, discriminate men’s rights for happiness. Conclusion: stress men’s rights and desires for pleasure.

3. Their hypocrisy: clergymen commit crimes against their preaching and beliefs.

Through challenging Puritanism, Hawthorne aims to

1. Explore the source of evils: unreasonable and inhuman social system; men’s inner world, defects in men’s nature: strong desire, dishonesty, cowardice, revenge.

2. Explore the influences on different characters: To brave men: gain moral rebirth, redeem their

sin, win respect/ love again. To coward men: torment of conscience, suffer in

hell fire. To vicious and vengeful men: reduce them to

demons, make them deteriorated, malicious, mean. 3. Explore ways of redeeming sin: brave to

confess and face it, correct it through love, devotion, generosity and forgiveness.

Hweman Melville(1819-1891)

Life experience:born in New York City, his father died and left large debts and his mother lived with her family. He dropped school early and went to work as a bank clerk, salesman farmhand school teacher and a seaman; in 1841 he signed on a whaling cruise to the South seas.

After three years of sea life, he returned to Boston.These experience provided him materials for his writings.

Literary career

Main works:Typee(1846) Omoo(1847)Mardi(1849) Redburn(1849)White-Jacket(1850) Moby Dick (1851)Some poems and short stories

Moby Dick(1851) Chapter 54

This chapter contains two aspects of events. It is gone through the narration of boatman. He told the story happened on a whaling ship.

1. theconflict between lakeman—Stilkilt and his rebels and the mate.

2. the conflict between the mate and the white whale. In both cases, Lakeman failed in the stuggle against the

unfair treatment and the mate died in the mouth of a whale. Though the tory, we got to know the life of boatman in whaling industry and the fieresness of the white whale.

The Town-Ho’s story

The watery region around the cape of Good Hope is a place where you meet more travelers than in any other part of the oceans. Soon after speaking to the Albatross, the Pequod encounters another whaler called the Town_ho. Ahab relents and there is a regular gam. The ship is manned mainly by Polynesians and the treason is found in this story secretly bbrought aboard the Pequod and never told to Captain Ahab.

As the Town-Ho was sailing in the Pacific the ship sprung a leak. Forced labor at the pumps as the ship headed for the nearest island created a mutiny which was interrupted by the appearance of Moby Dick. The boats were lowered but the harpooner on the boat nearest him was devoured by the Great White Whalte. The ship made harbor and most of the crew deserted for fear of encountering Moby Dick. Polynesians agreed to help sail the ship the rest of its voyage.

The novel can be understood from three levels

1. It is a novel of journey and whale catching.

2. It is a conflict between Catain Ahab and Moby Dick.

It is a story of Ishmael, his thought about human body’sego realization, the relationship between man and nature, mand and God, man and man, etc.

The style of Moby Dick

1.His writing is consciously literary. 2. There is a threefold quality in his writing; the

style of fact, the style of oratory celebrating the fact, and the style of meditation.

3. His style is highly symbolic and metaphorical. 4.The novel has many non-narrative chapters, and

this is how Melville changed an adventural story into a philosophical novel.

5. He used the technique of multiple views to achieve the effect of ambiguity.

Henry Wordworth Longfellow(1807-1882)

His life: born in Porland, Maine, studied at Bowdoin College, published his poems at the age of 13, went to Europe to study language, after 4 years and returned to be a professor in Boweoin College. In his poems, the themes like love of nature, love for the past, his poems is famous for spiritual aspiration, simple piety, homely affection, love of beauty, refined of thought and manners. He always took active attitude towards life. He adopted European ideas in American subject, and always in European styles. In his lyrics he drew on the techniques of European poetry as well as on his own native creativity, and acquired a mastery of rhyme and rhythm. The ideas he expressed are generally simple ones and his techniques display them to advantage. He expressed his ideas musically and powerfully. His works are highly spiritual. He emphasized the mysteries of birth, death, and love. Most of his works are simple and easily read so that even children can understand them.

A Psalm of Life

It was first published in Voices of the Night In the September edition of New York Monthly in

1839. It is very influential in China, because it is said to be the first English poem translated into chinese.

The poem was written in 1838 when Longfellow was struck with great dismay : his wife died in 1835, and his courtship of a young woman was unrequited. However, despite all the frustrations, Longfellow tried to encourage himself by writing a piece of optimistic word