Historical Orgins of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration

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Historical Origins of the



Historical Origins of the N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s an d Space A d -min i s t r a t ion was prepared by the N A S A His to r i ca l Staff of the Office

of Ed uc at ion al Program s and Services. A s a pre l im ina ry r s -ay .it is a response to repeated reques ts for genera l h i s to r ica l in form at ionconcerning the creation, mission, and ear ly efforts of the N a t i o n a lA eronau t ics and Space A dm inis t r a t ion . The s to ry of NA S A ' s b i r t hand y o u n g l i fe t ime m eri ts re te l l ing .

T h e swif t pace , th e technological and scientific complexi t ies , and

the in te l lec tual chal lenge of NASA's explora t ion of space for its own

sake—these prompt a need fo r histor ical perspective on w h a t h as

a l r eady happen ed . Reader s w h o m a y b e interested or cu r ious fo r

more deta i l m ay consult th e f o l l owing pu b l i c a t i ons of the N A S A

Histor ical Staff :

• AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS: AN A M E R -

ICAN CHRONOLOGY OF SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGY IN THE EXPLORATION OFSPACE, 1915-1960

• AERONAUTICAL AND ASTRONAUTICAL EVENTS

O F 1961

• ASTRONAUTICAL AND AERONAUTICAL EVENTS

O F 1962

• A CHRONOLOGY OF MAJOR N A S A LAUNCH-

INGS (1958-62)

F u l l histor ies of NASA, i ts programs, as well as the excit ing impact

of space e x p l o r a t i o n upon sc ience, technology, and soc ie ty , mus t

a w a i t deta i led ana lys is and prepara t ion.

G E O R G E L . SIMPSON, Jr.,Assis tant A d m i n i s t r a t o r fo r Tec h no logy ,

Utilization a nd Policy P lan ning .

N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c s a n d S pa ce A d m i n i s t ra t i o n .

vnt of D o o u i n n i K l .8. l i o M T i m u M i t I ' r i i i t i n c Office

l i n t - t o n D . r . , - J 0 1 0 2 - 1 ' r i c c I ' M -





specialists sough t to de t e rmine our na-t iona l object ives and requirements inspace. I t sought also to r ecommenda bas ic f ramework in w h i c h the roleof science and technology would pro-vide assured long-term success in this

new area of obvious future impor-tance. Af t e r extensive del iberat ionsand study, the Kil l ian Com m ittee sub-mi t ted it s report to President Eisen-hower in March 1958. I ts recom-menda t ions for the creation of acivi l ian agency to conduct an aggres-sive space exploration program for itsow n sake was endorsed by the Presi-den t and submi t ted to trie Congress

on A p r i l 2, 1958. Afte r lengthy in -vestigation and del ibera t ion , the Na-t ional A eron au t ics and Space A ct of1958 w as passed b y the Congress,bec oming law on July 29, 1958, whenit w as signed by the President.

T H E C R E A T I O N O F N A S A

I t w as thus that the National Aero-nau t i c s and Space Adminis t rat ion(NASA) came into being on October1, 1958. Under th e Space Act, Con-

gress declared that "it is the policyof the United States tha t activities inspace should be devoted to peacefu lpurposes for the benefi t of all m a n -kind." Activit ies in space associatedwith th e deve lopmen t of w eapon s sys-tems and military operations in thedefense of the United States to helpkeep th e peace were clearly reservedto the Department of Defense and the

mil i t a ry services.A m o n g the tasks set up u n d e r theSpace A ct were cooperation with othernat ions in aeronaut ical and space ac-tivities and in peaceful appl icat ion ofthe resul ts, such as com m un icat ion and

The First Admin is t ra to rs of NA S A

D r. T . Ke i t h G l e n n a n ( c e n t e r ) , f i rst NA S A A d m i n i s t r a t o r (1958-60); D r. H u g h L .D r y d r n ( l e f t ) , D e p u t y A d m i n i s t r a t o r (1958- ) ; a n d M r . R i c h a r d E . H o r n e r ( r i g h t ) ,Assoc ia te A d m i n i s t r a t o r (1959-60).



wea the r observing satell i tes. Th eSpace A ct stated tha t "the aeronau-tical and space activit ies of the UnitedStates shal l be conduc t ed so as to con-t r i bu t e mate r ia l ly to . . . cooperat ion b ythe United States wi th other nat ionsand groups of na t ions in work donep u r s u a n t to this Act and in the peace-f u l app l i ca t i on of the resul ts there-of. . . ." Th e widest pract icable andappropriate disseminat ion of i n fo rma-tion concern ing the activit ies of thenew civil ian agency and the scientificand technical resul ts it achieved w asalso specified.

T he National Aeronaut ics andSpace Act of 1958 was a declarat ionof th e national objectives of theUni te d States in the exploration ofspace. The U.S. space program w asdirected towards four major nat ionalobjectives. Inhe ren t l y i n t e r r e l a t ed ,these objectives are:

(1) To cond uc t the scient if ic ex-ploration of space for theUnited States (a func t ion of

N A S A )(2 ) To begin the exploration ofspace and the solar system bym an himself (a funct ion ofN A S A )

(3 ) To apply space science andtechnology to the developmentof ear th satel l i tes for peace fu lpurposes to p r o m o t e h u m a nwelfare (a func t ion of N A S A )

(4) And, to apply space scienceand technology to m il i tary pu r-poses fo r na t iona l defense andsecurity (a responsibil i ty of theDOD)

From its first day , NASA pur sued it sassigned object ives in the na t iona lspace program. Dr. T . Kei th Glen-nan, president of Case In s t i t u t e ofTechnology, w as named the first Ad-

minis t ra to r of N A S A . D r. H u g h L.Dryden , Direc tor of N A C A , b e c a m ethe f i rs t De pu ty Ad m inis t ra tor , a posi-t ion he still hold

1;

T H E N A C A N U C L E U S

The short history of NASA since 1958w as at first a story of consol idat ing anotional space program out of Gov-e r n m e n t agencies, the aerospace in-

dus t r y , and the scientific c o m m u n i t y ,some of whose people and programshad long roots in the historical con-q ues t of space. No other new agencyo f the Exe cu t ive B ranch of the FederalGovernment has been created by thet ransfer of as many un i t s and programsof other depar tments or agencies asw as N A S A .

The nu c leus of NASA un der theSpace Act was the Na t ional AdvisoryCommi t t ee fo r A e r o n au t ic s ( N A C A )organization. In April 1958, Dr. AbeSilverstein had been cal led to Wash-ington by Dr . Dryden from th e LewisLabora tory to help organize the newcivi l ian space agency. B efore NA SA 'sfirst day of business , D r. Silversteinhad pul led together a small, selectgroup of NACA's space-orientedpeople.

For 43 years NACA had helped en-sure Amer ican supremacy in ae ronau-tical research and technology. NACA'stechnical reports and pioneering windt u n n e l research h ad t i m e and againrevolut ionized basic a i rc ra f t design.NACA's research and its appl icat ionshe lp ed create the world's greatest airtransportation system before World

W ar I I as wel l as the world's greatesta ir fo rce du r ing t ha t conflict . N A C A ' sresearch had also led to rocket propul -sion and the t h r esho ld of space by theend of World War I I . This w as d e m -ons t ra ted by the X-series of rocket re-search a i rcraf t , a program w hich beganin 1944.

He adl ine achievements of the record-

b re ak ing X-15 are th e la t ter-day off-spr ing of the NA CA t rad i ti on of f u n d a -m e n t a l research in the prob lems ofm a n n e d flight. A s a research tool con-



T h r e e W e i l - K n o w n M e m b e r s of the N A C AS h o w n h e r e at a N A C A l u n ch e o n on Apr i l 18 , 1940, are Orvi l l e Wr igh t , MajorGeneral Henry H . "Hap" Arnold (Chief of the A r m y A ir Forces), and JeromeC . Hu nsaker . Orv i ll e W r igh t was an a c t i v e m e m b e r of the N A C A f rom 1920un t i l his death in 1948. Genera l Arno ld was an ac t ive member o f the NACAf rom 1938 u n t i l his r e t i r e m e n t in 1946, and was i n s t r u m e n t a l in p u s h i n g th erocke t r esea rch a i rp lane and o ther p rograms dur ing and a f t e r W o r l d W a r I I .Dr. H u n s a k e r of M.I.T. was one of the des igners of the histor ic U.S.N a v y flyingboa t ( N C — 4 ) w h i c h fi rst flew the A t l a n t i c in 1919, was a l ong- s t and ing memberof th e N A C A (1922-23, 1938-58), and served as Chai rman of the N A C A f r o m1941 to 1956. Dr. Hu nsaker was succeeded a s Ch a i rm an of the NA CA by Dr .J a m e s H . Dool i t t le , w h o served un t i l NASA w as created in 1958.

X—15 R e se a r c h A i r p l a n e L a n d i n g

Designed from i t s beginning in 1952 tofly to speeds of 4,000 m.p .h . and at alt i-t ud e s b e t w e e n 50 and 100 miles, th e X-15is shown ( r igh t ) l and ing a f t e r l aunch f roma B — 5 2 "mother aircraft ," a rocke t -powered research f l ight , and a glide tolanding on a dry lake bed near Edwards,Calif .

T h e N A C A "Stable" of Research Air-planes—7956

Flying regular ly a t t ransonic and super-sonic speeds, th e ( l e f t ) research a i rplanesexplored new f ie lds for da ta required to de-sign m il i tary and c ivil a i rplanes. In cente ris th e Douglas X-3; at l ower left, th e BellX-1A f lown late in 1953 at a record 1,650m.p.h. or 2.5 times th e speed of sound.Cont inu ing c lockwise from the X — 1 A areth e Douglas D-558-I "Skyst reak"; Convair

XF-92A; Bell X-5 with variable sweepbackwings; Douglas D-558—II "Skyrocket , " firstpiloted airplane to f ly at tw ice the speed ofsound: and the Northrop X—4. The Na-t iona l A dvi sory Com m i tt ee fo r A e r o n a u t i c s ,the U.S. A ir Force, th e U.S. Navy , and thea i rc ra f t m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n d u s t r y j o i n e d todesign , b u i l d , and fly these and other ad-vanced a i rplanes in the high-speed f l ightresearch program wh ich l ed to the X— 15and space. This program began in 1944.



Scou t Lau nch ing From Wal lops S ta tion

L a u n c h i n g of E X P L O R E R X I I I on A u g u s t 25, 1961, by NA SA -develop ed four-stage solidprope l l an t Scou t l aunch veh ic l e f rom W a l l o p s S t a t i o n , V a . E X P L O R E R XIII w a s t h e50th sa te l l i te successfu l ly lau nc he d by the U.S . Wal lops has been si te for over 6,000r o c k e t l a u n c h i n g s s ince 1945.

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t r ibu t ing to aeronaut ics an d m a n n e dspace f light, the X-15 program spansa f u l l decade f rom ini t ia l concept ionin 1952 u n t i l it achieved its designeda l t i t u d e and speed object ives . Fu r th er

scientific and technological contr ibu-tions of the X — 1 5 are in prospect.Immedia te ly t ransfer red to NASA in

October 1958 'were 8 ,040 NACA per-sonnel . ^NA CA 's excel len t l abora tor iesbecam e NA SA research centers , includ -ing th e f o l lo win g :

Langley Research Center , Hampton,Virginia (establ ished 191 7)

A m e s Research Center , MofFettField, Cal i fornia (establ ished1940)

Lewis Research Center , Cleveland,Oh io (established 1941)

Fl ight Research Center , Edwards ,Cal i forn ia (established 1945)

T h e NA CA rocke t l aunch ing facil i ty a tWallops Is lan d, Va., used extensivelyas a "flying wind t unne l " for ball ist ic

missile and aeronautical research atsupersonic speeds, also came to N A S A .

D e d i c a t i o n of G o d d a r d Space Flight C e n t e r

Mrs. Robert H. Goddard and N A S A Ad-mini s t r a to r James E . W e b b a r e a d m i r i n gth e b u s t of Dr . Robert H . Goddard f o l l owingth e d e d i c a t i o n c e r e m o n i e s of the GoddardSpace Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md., onMarch 1 6 , 1961, 35 y e a r s to the d a t e a f t e rth e l a u n c h i n g of the world's f i rs t l i q u i d - f u e lrocke t . B u s t of Dr . Goddard w as done b yJoseph A n t h o n y A t c h i s o n .

Dedicat ion o f Marshall Space Flight C e n t e r

Mrs . George C. Marshall and Pres identD w i g h t D . E i s e n h o w e r u n v e i l th e bus t o fGeneral Marsha l l a t Hunt sv i l l e , A la . , o nSeptember 8 , 1960. Marshall h as been th eonly profess ional sold ie r ever awarded th eNobe l Peace Prize. This b u s t w as d o n e b yth e F i n n i s h s c u l p t o r , Kalervo Kal l i o .

Each of the N A C A facilities con t r i b -u t e d m u c h to A m e r i c a n civil ian andmili tary aeronautics and missilery overth e years. T h e b read th and inter-discipl inary n a t u r e of space researchand explora t ion requi red a w ide var i-ety of skills and a vast accumulat ion of

facilities and equ ipmen t . Many facili-ties, personnel, and programs were tobe added to the N A C A n u c l e u s ofN A S A in gearing u p a national spaceprogram.

I N T E G R A T I O N O F A N A T I O N A L

P R O G R A M

Transferred to NASA immedia t e ly byExecut ive Order of the President inOctober 1958 were various space proj-ects from DOD's Advanced ResearchPro jec ts Agency (A R PA ) and f rom themili tary services. This mass transferinc luded five space probes, three satel-lite projects, and several rocket engineprograms, w hich m ade N A SA responsi-ble for projec t s begun under A ir Force

an d Army di rec t ion . T h e Sa tu rnlaunch vehicle came from ARPA, t heCentaur f rom the Air Force, and theTiros meteorological satel l i te f rom theA r m y Signal Corps. These initial stepswere i l lus t rat ive of act ions which wereto cont inue gear ing America 's ta lent ,resources, and programs into a singlem a n a ge m e n t s t r u c t u r e for the scientific



exploration of space and peaceful ap-pl icat ion of the newly developed spacetechnology.

The IGY Project Vanguard scien-tific satell i te program w as t ransferredto N A SA , inc lu ding some 200 highly

qualified scientific and t echnica l per -sonnel from the Naval Research Lab-o r a t o r y ( N R L ) . This inc luded 157m e m b e r s of the Project Vanguardt eam under D r. John P . Hagen and 46members of the NRL Upper Atmos-phere Sounding Rocket group underDr . John W . Townsend , Jr . Key m e m -bers of these program s are today fo u ndin NASA Headqua r t e r s and t he God-

dard Space Flight Center at Greenbel t ,M d . T he Goddard Center operatedfrom it s naval quar ters for almost 2years befo re m ov ing to its new facilitiesat Greenbel t , opened officially inMarch 1961.

I n December 1958, the Jet Propul -sion Labora tory ( JPL) of the Cal i -fornia Ins t i tu te of Technology, with2,800 employees, w as brought under

N A S A ' s direction. Founded in 1936 byD r. Theodore von K a r m a n and a sma l lgroup of dedicated colleagues who be-gan a series of rocket developmentstudies, C al Tech had received the firstFederal contract for rocket studies in1938 . In JPL M em orand um No. 1 ofNovember 20, 1943, von K a r m a n ,H. S . Tsien, and Frank J. Malina sum-marized th e possibil i t ies of long-range

rocket projecti les. Jet Propuls ion Lab-oratory developed Jato and the Cor-poral as well as var ious solid-fuelrockets dur ing Wor ld W a r I I . I m -por tant ly , JP L con t r i bu t ed th e u p p e rstages, payloads, and t e lemet ry for theearly Explorer satell i tes of the A r m yprogram. A t t he s ame t i m e tha t JPLbecame a cont rac tor of N A S A , theA r m y Ballistic Missi le Agency( A B M A )

was made responsive toN A S A ' s space requirements .Eighteen months la ter , on Ju ly 1 .

I960, th e NASA George C . Marsha l lSpace Fl ight Center (M SF C) cam ein to b e i n g at Hu ntsvi ll e , Ala . , and wasdedica ted b y Pres ident Eisenhow er . I tconsisted of A B M A ' s D e v e l o p m e n t

First A m e r i c a n In to Space

L a u n c h i n g of C o m d r . A l a n B . Shepard , J r . ,as pilot of FREEDOM 7 by Mercury-R e d s t o n e f rom Cape Ca n a v e ra l , Ma y 5 ,1961. Flight to an alt i tu de of 115.7 m ilesand a range of 302 miles demons t ra ted in -t eg r i ty of Mercury spacecra f t and tha t ana s t r o n a u t ca n con t ro l a veh ic le dur ingweight lessness .



P ro j e c t Me rc u ry A s t r o n a u t s

First official pho to of the seven engineer-test pilots selected for the f irst U.S.m a n n e d space flight program in t h e i r Me rc u ry s p a c e sui ts. Fron t row (lef t tor i g h t ) , W a l t e r M . Schirra , J r . ( L t . Co m d r . U S N ) , Do n a l d K . Slayton (Cap t .U S A F ) , J o h n H . Glenn , Jr . ( L t . C o l . U S M C ) , a n d M . Sco t t Carpen te r (L t .U S N ) . B a c k ro w ( l ef t to r i g h t ) , A l a n B . Shepard , J r . ( L t . C o m d r . U S N ) ,Virgil I . G r i s s o m ( Ca p t . US A F ) , a nd Leroy G . Cooper, Jr. ( C a p t . U S A F ) .

Operat ions Div is ion , under D r. W e r -nher von B r a u n , m a n y of whose 4,600people had been active in pioneeringrocket d e v e l o p m e n t fo r over tw o dec-ades (V-2, Redstone, Jupiter, Per-s h i n g ) . In the history of rocket tech-nology, the V-2 had been a major stepin the d e v e l o p m e n t of large l iquid-fuelrockets. Explorer I had been launchedby A B M A a Jupiter-C.

The f i rs t U.S. manned space f lightof C o m m a n d e r A l a n B . Shepard( U S N ) on Mercu ry -Reds tone 3 on

May 5 , 1961, th e flight of Capt. VirgilI . Grissom on J u l y 21, 1961, as well asthe first of f o u r successful flights of thegiant Saturn on October 27, 1961 —these w ere ma jor m ilestones in the U.S.space effort growing out of the con-t r ibu t ion of MSFC rocketry to thegrowing space p rog ram un de r NA SA .

N A S A M e r c u r y C o n t r o l C e n t e r

Mo n i t o r i n g and contro l of m a n n e d o rb i t a lf l ights w as performed at the N A S A M e r -c u r y Co n t ro l Ce n t e r a t Cape Canaveral .Center p lo t board p i c t u r e s th e p lann ed s ix-o rb i t MA - 8 f l ight of A s t ro n a u t S c h i r r a ,w h i c h took place on October 3, 1962.



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ALOUETTE(S27)

AR I E L

V A N G U A R D I

P I O N E E R V - E X P L O R E R V

i t P - 2 1 V A N G U A R D III

N E R V

E X P L O R E R VIIIP - 1 4

E X P L O R E R X E X P L O R E

TIROS

I ThroughVI EXPLORER"!^

E X P L O R E R XIV

' R E R X V

Histor ic Scientific Spacecraf t

Portrayed here are most but not all of the U . S . scientific satellites and payloads f lown.Not shown are al l of the early U . S . IG Y sate l l i t es , R a n g e r s and Mariners of Jet Propulsion"Labora tory , and D e p a r t m e n t of Defense satell i tes.

E X P L O R E R I C o u n t d o w n

First U.S. satell i te, E X P L O R E R I , wasl a u n c h e d b y modi f i e d A B M A - J P L J u p i t e rC booster , w i t h U . S . - I . G . Y . scientific ex-p i - i i i n c n t of J a m e s A. Van Al len , on J a n -u a r y 31, 1958.

the flight of EXPLORER I. Scien-tists are enthusiastic about the revolu-t ions in bas ic sc ience promised b y

pro jec t ing t h e i r i n s t r u m e n t s and ex-p e r i m e n t s into the previous ly inacces-sible reaches of the extra ter res t r ia le n v i r o n m e n t . A l r e a d y EXPLORERXI has d i s p r ovc n the m a t t e r - a n t im a t -ter theory of steady-state cosmology,u h i l e th e d iscovery of t he h e l i u m l ay e rby E X P L O R E R VIII and the P-21pr ob e has r ev i sed concepts concern ingthe composi t ion prof i le of the earth's

u p p e r a tm os ph e r e .I t is a cha rac te r i s t i c of scient i f icspace ac t ivi t ies that they cease to be

f r o n t - p a g e n e w s as soon as they arel a u n c h e d , e v e n t h o u g h t h i s i s the v e r ym om e nt t h a t t h e i r c on t r i b u t i on tok n o w l e d g e begins. T h e d i f f i cu l t taskof piec ing toge the r th e "cosmic j igsawpuzzle" of the space e nv i r onm e n t e n -

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gages many highly skil led personst h r o u g h o u t th e scientif ic c o m m u n i t y .It is a t i m e - c o n s u m i n g and exact ingjob wh i ch only rare ly meri ts news-paper at tent ion. Y et scient is ts arel ea rn ing about the basic nature of the

u n ive r s e ; ear th -sun re la t ionsh ips ; thes h ^ j v of the ear th and the s t r u c t u r eof it s atmosphere; th e history of theea r th , th e solar system, and the uni-verse ; and the scientific in format ion onthe space environment basic to thedesign of new spacecraf t that can ex-plore the solar system both by ins t ru -m e n t s and b y m an h i m se l f .

Progres' ' in the space sciences is a

cha in- reac t ion p r o c e s s . V A N G U A R DI, for example , has been t ransmi t t ingin orbi t for m ore than fou r years . I tmade accura te t racking obse rva t ionspossible b u t also posed new prob l e m s

. for the solar physicist interested in theradiat ion pressure from the sun aswell as for the geophy sic is t s tud y in g thet e m pe ra t u re and composit ion of theearth's upper atmosphere. The flight

of ECHO I, the 100-foot-diameterbal loon-sa te l l i te l a u n c h e d o n A u g u s t12, 1960, c o n f i r m e d solar-pressure datap r o d u c e d b y V A N G U A R D I , pro-vided a m an- m ad e sa te l l it e v i s ib le toth e nake d e y e a rou nd t h e wor l d , andproved to be a very successful passivecom m u ni ca t i ons experiment. Otherpieces of the cosmic j igsaw puzzle areb eg in n in g to fi t new pat t e rns ofunderstanding.

Under the Space Act of 1958, NASAbegan ear ly to w o r k out a coherent va-riety of scientific space projects. It isnot feasibile here to r e cou n t thed e t a i l e d scientif ic c o n t r i b u t i o n s ofN A S A ' s sa te l li te s f rom EX PL O R ERVI to XVII. A v a s t a m o u n t of basicda ta on h u n d r e d s of m i l e s of t e l e m e t r ytape remains to be fu l ly assessed. Thenotable space probe PIONEER V,

w h i c h provided the firsthand data on

in t e rp lane tary space in the s u m m e r of1960, established a c o m m u n i c a t i o n srecord of 22.5 mill ion miles frome a r t h . T h i s r eco rd w as b roke n w i th

i>ectacular f light of M A R I M . KI I . \ \ h i c h passed V e n u s o n December

14, 1962. On April 26, 1962, ARIELI, the first international satel l i te , wasl a u n c h e d by t he United States an dthe United Ki ngd om . It opened upa new chapte r in in te rna t ional sc i encea l r e ad y e v i d e n t in global tracking e f-

forts in both th e scientific and them an- i n - space programs.

First I n t e r n a t i o n a l S a t e l l i t e — A R I E L I

Thor -Del ta boos te r launches j o i n t U n i t e dK i n g d o m - U n i t e d S t a t e s A R I E L I sate l l i te(S-51 ) in to o rb i l f rom C a p e C a n a v e r a l onA p r i l 26 , 1962. Firs t sa tel l i te o the r t hanU. S . o r U . S . S . R . w as A L O U E T T E ( S - 2 7 ) ,l a un c h e d f rom the Pacific Missile R a n g einto polar orbi t for Canada by N A S A onS e p t e m b e r 2 8 , 1962.

11



N A S A Track ing S ta t ion at K a n o , Nigeria

O ne station of the globe-circling t rackinga n d c o m m un i c a t i o n s y ste m r e q u i r e d f o rm a n n e d a n d scientific satel l i tes, p ic turedhe re w i th a more t im e-hono red fo rm o ft ranspor ta t ion .

I n t e r n a t i o n a l Meteorological Sate l l i teW o r k s h o p

Represen ta t ives of 28 nat ions spent 10 daysa t NA S A - U. S . W e a t h e r B u re a u wo rk s h o pcalled to give meteorologists from o the rcount r i es i n c r e a s e d un d e r s t a n d i n g of tech-niques for us ing sa te l l i t e in fo rmat ion .W o r k sh o p was held in Washington, D.C. ,No v e m be r 13-21, 1961.

M a n y of N A S A ' s scientific pro-grams have been logical outgrowths ofthe in terna t iona l scientific cooperation

established by the Internat ional Geo-physical Year (1957-58). By the endof 1962, m ore than 61 nat ions ( inc lu d -in g the U.S.S.R.) were cooperatingwith N A S A in the peaceful explorationof ou te r space, thus including com-

petent foreign scientists in the attain-m e n t of common scientific goals aswell as meeting the realist ic need forglobal stations fo r t r acking and dataacquisi t ion. NASA's space coopera-tion program has been largely one ofhelping other nat ions help themselvesto the scientific benefits of space ex-plorat ion in a t ru ly jo in t effort, noexchange of f un ds being involved on

cooperative program s. B eyond th ejoint satell i te projects, sounding rocketprograms, .ground-based tracking ef-forts, and educational activities,N A S A ' s internat ion al program also in-cludes close working relations with theIn terna t iona l Commit tee on Space Re-search ( C O S P A R ) and the UnitedStates participation in the delibera-tions of the Uni ted Nat ions Commit-

tee for the Peaceful Uses of O u t e rSpace.

In the United States report toCO SPA R in M ay 1962, i t w as reportedthat during 1961 th e United Stateshad l aunched a total of 300 high-al t i -t ude research balloons, 8 66 wea the rrockets, 70 larger so un ding rockets, and31 inst rumented satel l i tes and deep-space probes (all NASA, DOD, and

Weather Bureau space programs com-bin ed ) . D u ring 1962 alone, the U nitedStates launched over 50 satellites anddeep-space probes.

T H E E X P A N D E D S P A C E

P R O G R A M

W h i l e the basic goals of the UnitedStates in space exploration remainvalid as origina lly stated in the SpaceAct , th e expansion of the level of effortto be so invested came about in 1961.D u ring the e ar ly m onth s of 1961, ananalysis and evaluat ion of the Nation'sspace program had been und er t aken atthe direct ion of the White House.

12



Upon complet ion of this s tudy , Presi-den t John F. Kennedy told the Con-gress in his historic address of May 25,1961:

N ow is the t ime to take longerstrides—time for a greater new

American enterpr ise—time for thisNation to take a clearly leading rolein space achievemen t w hich in m anyways may hold the key to our futureon ear th. . . .

Space is open to us n o w ; and oureagerness to share its mean ing is notgoverned by the efforts of others.\Ve go into space because whatever

ma nk ind must under take , f ree m enm u s t fully share. . . .I bel ieve that this Na t ion shou ld

commi t itself to achieving the goal,before this decade is out , of landinga man on the moon and r e t u rn ingh im safely to earth.

Space exploration w as thus declaredto be a major inst rument of nat ionalpolicy, one which to date has the sup-port of the Congress and the Amer i canpubl ic .

This new impetus behind the na-

t ional space program' expanded thescope and increased fu r t he r the paceof NASA' s program. I n particular, itresul ted in the requirement for addi-t ional facilities. I t led to the fol lowingdecisions:

• To expand and move the SpaceTask Group to Houston, Tex.,wh ere wou ld be located the centerfo r Projects Gemini and Apol lo

and the m anned lunar m iss ions .• To expand fivefold the At lan t i c

Missile Range to accommoda tethe enormo us new laun ch vehic lescoming into the U.S. space pro-gram.

• To create the spacecraft fabrica-tion facility at the Michoud Ord-nance Plant near N ew Orleans fo rth e construct ion of the Saturnboosters.

• To acquire and develop a site insouthwestern Mississ ippi for thestatic testing of Sa tu rn - and Nova-class vehicles.

N A S A Headqua r t e r s w as given anew organizational structure effectiveNovember 1, 1961, to realign its m a n -agement for the exp and ed U.S. c ivi l ian

space program. M ajor program officeswere created w i th pro jec t m anagem entclearly ident i f i ed , the respective roles

J o h n G l e n n R e p o r t s to the Congress

F i r s t A m e r i c a n to orbi t around th e earthin Mercury spacecra f t gave a 20 -minuteaddress to a jo i n t session of the Congresson F e b r u a r y 26 , 1962. A f t e r paying t r ibu te

to the Project Mercury team, AstronautG l e n n sa id : "We are j u s t probing the sur -face of the g re a t e s t a d v a n c e m e n t in man 'sknowledge of h is sur round ings tha t hasever been made . . . . There are bene f i t s toscience across the board. A ny major ef-for t such as this results in research by som a n y d i f f e r e n t special t ies that i t ' s hard toeven envision th e benef i ts that wi l l accruein m a n y fields."

13



national space exploration effort overthe long hau l . It also continued its

efforts to ensure effect ive in t e r re la t ion-ships between the N A S A space pro-gram and the vital interests of the De-partment of Defense.

Pres iden t I n s p e c t s M a n n e d Spacecra f tC e n t e r

Pres iden t John F . Ke nn ed y and D r . R. Gi l -ru th , Di rec tor of N A S A M a n n e d S p a c ec ra f tCenter at Houston, Tex., inspect smallm o d e l of A pol lo lun ar spacecraf t on S e p t e m -ber 18 , 1962 . Speaking at Rice U n iv e r s i t yla te r in the day , P res iden t K en ne dy s ta tedthat the U ni te d Sta tes m eans " to become theworld ' s l e ad in g sp ace fa r in g n a t io n . W e

sail on th i s new sea because there is newk n o w l e d g e to be g a in e d , and new r i g h t s tobe w o n , and t h e y m u s t be won and usedfo r th e progress of all people."

of t he fi e ld cente rs and sup por t ing ac t i-vities w e l l de f ined . Revi sed Prog ramEva l u a t i on and Re vi e w T e ch n i qu e s( N A S A ' s PERT) a n d a n age ncy wi d eQual i ty Assurance sys tem were inst i-

tu ted . B asic contracts w ere developedwi th i n d u s t r y as soon as they cou ld beprecisely d e f i ne d u nd e r t h e e xpand e dprogram . NA SA a lso set about estab-l i sh ing a long- range program for effec-t ive working re la t ions wi th th e aca-d e m i c an d scientific c o m m u n i t i e s ,w h i c h h a v e m u c h to c o n t r i b u t e to the

I N R E T R O S P E C T

It is of ten diff icul t to realize that inless than 5 years NA SA has grown fromsome 9,000 to over 27,000 people, notcou n t i ng th e 3 ,200 employees ofNASA-sponsore d Jet Propu l s ion Lab-oratory . Of the 27,000 civi l servants

of NASA, approximate ly 16 ,000 wereconnected wi th organizations t rans-ferred intact to NASA. Bu d ge t w i se ,N A S A b e g a n in October 1958 with ana n n u a l budget for FY 1958 of $338.9mil l ion . For FY 1962, NASA receivedan ini t ia l appropriation of $1,671.8mil l ion , a lmost $3,800 mil l ion for FY1963 and is request ing $5,700 mi l l ionfor FY 1964. Of the m il lions of dollars

spe n t b y N A S A o n research and de-ve lopment , over 90 pe rce n t is spent onou t s i d e cont rac t s wi th indus t r i a l o r-gan iza t ions , colleges and universi t ies,and research centers . It is N A S A 's ta s kto join all Government agencies, theaerospace indus t ry , and the academican d scientific c o m m u n i t y into a coher-ent nat ion al program of space explora-t ion. It is a complex and d y n a m i c

business, one which at all t imes mustbe carried out in the f u l l glare of exact -ing scr u t iny by the Congress, the scien-tific c o m m u n i t y , and the very interestedgenera l pub l i c .

While th e fu l l administ rat ive , organi-zat ional , and program history of theNa t i ona l Ae ronau t i c s a n d Space A d -min i s t r a t io n r e m a i n s to be w ri t t en , th isbrief essay has a t t e m pt e d to t race the

d y n a m i c pace and cha l l enging effortnow un der way . F ive years ago , NA SAdid not exist . N ow NASA cons i s t s ofover 27,000 em ployees, 10 m ajo r f ie ldcenters, and an annu a l b u d ge t . ap -proach ing the $6 bi l lion mark .

From its first 10-year plan fo r spacee xp l o ra t i on fo rm u l a t e d i n Janu a ry

14



(/I

15



N ASA M a n a g e m e n t T e a m

Seventh M anage m e n t Con f e re nce of N A S A w as he ld at Langley Research Center onO ctob er 4-5, 1962. Se ated in f ron t row ( le f t to r i g h t ) are James E . We b b , N A S A A d -min i s t r a to r ; Rober t C . Se am ans, Jr ., A s s oci at e NA SA A dm i n i s t r a t o r ; and H u g h L . Dryden ,D e p u t y N A S A A d m i n i s t r a t o r . Back row ( l e f t to r i g h t ) , Floyd L . Thompson, Directoro f Langley Research Cente r ; Eug e n e J. M anganiel lo , A ssociate Director of Lew is ResearchC e n t e r ; B rian Sparks , Je t Propuls ion La boratory ; W crnher von Bra u n, Director of Mar-

shall Space Fl ight Center; Harry J . Goet t , Director of Goddard Space Fl ight Center;Smi th J. DeFrance, Director of Ames Research Cente r ; Rober t R . Gilruth, Directorof M a n n e d Spacecra f t Cente r ; Paul F. Bikle, Director of Fl ight Research Cente r ; Kur tDebus, Director of Launch Opera tions C enter ; and Robert L. Krieger, Director of WallopsStat ion. N ot shown here are the Directors of Headquarters ' Program Offices.

1959, N A SA , un der Dr. T. Keith Glen-nan as fi rs t A dm inistrator , looked wellahead w ith a broad-based program of

advanced research, technological de-ve lopmen t , scientific explorat ion,peacefu l exploitation of space tech-nology, and m ann ed space f ligh t.

Unde r James E . W e b b , w h o w a sn a m e d A d m i n i s t r a t o r of N A S A on Jan-ua ry 30, 1961 , NASA's organiza t ion ,planning , and programing have beentargeted for the decade ahead.

M A N I F O L D A P P L I C A T I O N S

A N D I M P L I C A T I O N S

The great effort by Amer ican eng i -neers, scien tists, and techn icians incarrying fo rward ou r entire space pro-gram wil l do much more than p lacea man on the moon . T he vast effortnow u nde r way could p rovide the basisfor the greatest technological harvestm an has ever kno w n. A ccurate g lobal

16



weather forecasting ai well as reliablein te rcont inen ta l TV can be foreseen,while the scientific and engineeringbreak throug hs inev i tab ly ahead pre -sage profound economic, social, andmater ia l benefits for all of ear th-boundmank ind . Wi th the l a u n c h i n g ofTELSTAR on July 10, 1962, the im-pact of l ive transatlantic televisiondem onstrated vividly the rapidity oftechnological change in in ternat ionalcommunicat ions . TELSTAR w as alsothe f i rs t pr ivate ly f inanc ed earth sate l-lite. A lso in 1962, Congress au thorize dthe creat ion of the Communicat ionsSatellite Corporat ion to manage theU.S. portion of a global operational

communica t i ons system.M a n y payoffs for society on earth

f rom the space program will come inareas which cannot now be foreseen.The applicat ion of the newly deve l -oped knowledge and technology deriv-in g from th e space program also offersgreat possibilities to m il i tary space sys-tems, which remain a responsibili ty ofthe D epartm ent of Defense. The fu l l

explorat ion of space for its own sake

by NASA seems to offer addit ionaltechnological insurance agains t thehazards of military surprise for thelong-range fu tu re . T h e u n k n o w n s i nspace awaiting discovery and evalua-tion, and sub seque nt app l ica t ion of thenewly acquired extraterrestr ial knowl-

edge and nascent space t ransportat iontechnology to the pursu i t s of society onearth, foretell f u t u r e i nnova t ionswhich-are not wholly predictable at the pres-ent t ime.

In a little less than 5 short andbreathless years, th e NA SA p rog ram aswell as the space efforts of the Depar t -m e n t of Defense have achieved many"firsts" and m ilestones in m an 's con-

ques t of space. These clearly docu-m e n t th e United States ' f u l l accep tanceof th e basic chal leng e of space explora-t ion. B ut one fact appears c e r t a i n :N A S A ' s effort to m e e t this historicchal lenge has ju st begun. In thet hou gh t f u l words of Ast ronau t JohnG l e n n : "We are just probing the sur-face of the greates t advancement inman 's jcnowledge of his su r round ings

tha t has ever been made."

17



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Sullivan, Walter, A ssau l t on the U n k n o w n : The International Geophysical Year . NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1961.

Thomas, Shirley, Men of Space (12 vols. of biographic-s). Philadelphia: Chilton, I960-.

Tregaskis, Richard W., X-15 D i a r y . New York: Button, 1961.

U.S. Air Force Systems Command, The R o c k e t R e se a rch A i r c r a f t Program, 1946-1962.Edwards AFB: AFFTC, 1962.

U.S. Congress, House, Select Committee on Astronautics and Space Exploration, TheNext Ten Years in Space, 7959-7960 (House Doc. No. 115). Washington: GPO, 1959.

U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, The Practical Values ofSpace Exploration (House Report No. 1276). Washington: GPO, 1961.

U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Science and Astronautics, P r o j ec t Mer c u r y , First andSecond Interim Reports (House Report No. 1228, No. 671). Washington: GPO, 1960,1961.

von Braun, Wernher, et al., Project Satellite. New York: British Book Centre, 1958.

von Braun. Wernher, "The U.S. Space Carrier Vehicle Program," presentation to the IAF,Stockholm, August 16, 1960.

von Braun, Wernher, "Where Are We in Space?" This We e k (January 1, 1961).

Webb, James E., "Interview: Why Spend $20 Billion to go to the Moon?" U.S. N e w sand World Report (July 3, 1961), pp 58-63.

Webb, James E., "International Relations and Space," Vi t a l Speeches (October 1, 1961),pp 762-68.

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Webb, James E., "Administration and the Conquest of Space," address to the American

Society for Public A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , Detroit, April 13, 1962.Webb, James E., "1963—The Greatest Year in Space," Aer o s p a c e (March 1963), pp 2 7

Weil , Joseph, R e v i e w of the X-15 Program (TN D-1278). Washington: NASA, 1962.

W h i t e House, U.S. A e r o n a u t i c a l and Space A c t iv i t i e s , annual report with message f romthe President to the Congress. Washington: NASC, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962.

20 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1964—O-729-338



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