1 HISTORICAL GEOLOGY UNIT 3 LECTURE AND STUDY GUIDE OUR UNIVERSE (Revised 1/15) UNIT 3 HOMEWORK WEB HIT HOMEWORK – answer questions with a minimum of four complete sentences For any Unit Web Hits and Unit Web Videos, go to the “DMC HOME” website; in Search box –type “Geology”, select “Vernon Kramer”, scroll down to GEOL 1404 or 1304, select “Syllabus”, select “ Web Hit”, click on icon for web site OR: go to DMC Home website, select “Degrees, Certificates, Courses”, scroll down to Natural Sciences and select “Geology”, select “Faculty Listings”, select “Walter Vernon Kramer”, find “Geol 1404 or 1304”, select “Syllabus”, and there you can find the Web hit”, click on icon of interest for web site [IF NONE OF THE WEB SITES COME UP, YOUR COMPUTER PROBABLY NEEDS TO BE REBOOTED (RESTARTED) APPS OF POSSIBLE INTEREST: To locate stars, planets: For Android users, Google “skymap” and find lots of apps – some are free; For Apple (iPhone, etc.) users, Goggle “sky walk” or “iPhone astronomy app” some are free Our Universe -A collection of matter, time and energy The Big Bang -The dominant scientific theory about the origin of the Universe -Big Bang: At the beginning of this event 13.7 billion years ago, all of the observable matter, energy, space and time were concentrated in one point. What happened before the Big Bang is only conjecture because at the beginning of time, all matter, and energy was contained in that single point - a. With quantum physics, we have not been able to go back further in time than 10 -43 second; at that time all known matter and anti-matter in our universe would have been collected in a mass smaller than a proton - b. At 10 -43 second, the point source instantaneously “inflated” from the size of a proton to the size of a grapefruit and this is known as the “period of inflation”; there was no visible light - c. At 10 -34 second, quarks and other subatomic particles began to form after almost all antimatter was eliminated; there still was no visible light and space is expanding - d. At 10 -10 second, larger subatomic particles began to form (still no light) and space continues to expand - e. At 10 -5 second, protons and neutrons began to form (still no light) and space is very large - f. During 1 – 3 minutes, atomic nuclei of hydrogen, helium nuclei and some lithium nuclei formed from protons and neutrons, but still no light. After three minutes, the distance that space itself expanded is almost unbelievable! - g. ~ At 300,000 years, nuclei of (H) hydrogen, some (He) helium and a little (Li) lithium captured electrons and atoms were formed; light became visible for the first time throughout the known universe - h. With the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, we have been able to find small galaxies only a few million years old - i. – At one billion years; matter is clumping to form the large galaxies and many stars; galaxies began to form pairs, groups, clusters and superclusters - j. – Within 2-5 billion years; our own Milky Way Galaxy would form, but our sun and Earth would have to wait another 8-10 billion years to be created - k. Now our universe is about 13.7 billion years old and here you are at Del Mar College
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HISTORICAL GEOLOGY UNIT 3 LECTURE AND STUDY GUIDE
OUR UNIVERSE (Revised 1/15)
UNIT 3 HOMEWORK WEB HIT HOMEWORK – answer questions with a minimum of four complete sentences
For any Unit Web Hits and Unit Web Videos, go to the “DMC HOME” website; in Search box –type “Geology”,
select “Vernon Kramer”, scroll down to GEOL 1404 or 1304, select “Syllabus”, select “ Web Hit”, click on icon for web
site
OR: go to DMC Home website, select “Degrees, Certificates, Courses”, scroll down to Natural Sciences and select
“Geology”, select “Faculty Listings”, select “Walter Vernon Kramer”, find “Geol 1404 or 1304”, select “Syllabus”, and
there you can find the Web hit”, click on icon of interest for web site
[IF NONE OF THE WEB SITES COME UP, YOUR COMPUTER PROBABLY NEEDS TO BE REBOOTED (RESTARTED)
APPS OF POSSIBLE INTEREST: To locate stars, planets: For Android users, Google “skymap”
and find lots of apps – some are free; For Apple (iPhone, etc.) users, Goggle “sky walk” or “iPhone
astronomy app” some are free
Our Universe
-A collection of matter, time and energy
The Big Bang
-The dominant scientific theory about the origin of the Universe
-Big Bang: At the beginning of this event 13.7 billion years ago, all of the observable matter, energy,
space and time were concentrated in one point. What happened before the Big Bang is only
conjecture because at the beginning of time, all matter, and energy was contained in that single point
- a. With quantum physics, we have not been able to go back further in time than 10-43 second; at that
time all known matter and anti-matter in our universe would have been collected in a mass smaller
than a proton
- b. At 10-43 second, the point source instantaneously “inflated” from the size of a proton to the size of
a grapefruit and this is known as the “period of inflation”; there was no visible light
- c. At 10-34 second, quarks and other subatomic particles began to form after almost all antimatter was
eliminated; there still was no visible light and space is expanding
- d. At 10-10 second, larger subatomic particles began to form (still no light) and space continues to
expand
- e. At 10-5 second, protons and neutrons began to form (still no light) and space is very large
- f. During 1 – 3 minutes, atomic nuclei of hydrogen, helium nuclei and some lithium nuclei formed
from protons and neutrons, but still no light. After three minutes, the distance that space itself
expanded is almost unbelievable!
- g. ~ At 300,000 years, nuclei of (H) hydrogen, some (He) helium and a little (Li) lithium captured
electrons and atoms were formed; light became visible for the first time throughout the known
universe
- h. With the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, we have been able to find small galaxies only a few million
years old
- i. – At one billion years; matter is clumping to form the large galaxies and many stars; galaxies began
to form pairs, groups, clusters and superclusters
- j. – Within 2-5 billion years; our own Milky Way Galaxy would form, but our sun and Earth would
have to wait another 8-10 billion years to be created
- k. Now our universe is about 13.7 billion years old and here you are at Del Mar College
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-The universe was not concentrated in a point at the time of the Big Bang, but the observable universe
was concentrated in a point. Then space itself expanded, not the galaxies. There is no center of our
universe because all positions are equivalent.
If I accept you as you are, I will make you worse; however if I treat you as though you are what you
are capable of becoming, I help you become that.
Evidence for the Big Bang
-1. Physics predicted that, with a Big Bang event, the cosmic abundances of atoms in space should be
mostly H, some He and a little Li. – and this is what we have detected!
-[cosmic = universe or universal]
-2. With a Big Bang, we should see indications that the universe is expanding with large “red shifts of
cosmological light” from distant galaxies. With a special instrument attached to a telescope, we can
see the visible colors or “spectra” of light colors (resembles rainbow colors). Here we will see many
black lines on the spectra that are caused by absorption of light by hydrogen gas within the stars and
galaxies. With stars and galaxies moving away from us, we will see the black lines move toward the
red end of the rainbow colors (or red shifted). The further the movement of the black lines toward the
red, the larger the red shift. This large shift would mean the universe is expanding faster
Thus the universe is expanding and the speed of expansion increases with distance away from us as
determined by the red shifts. In fact, the further a galaxy is away from us, the faster the galaxy is
moving away from us. Our universe has been expanding for billions of years.
A star or galaxy moving toward us shows a blue shift with the hydrogen absorption lines.
Picture showing red shift caused by expansion
-3. The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB) is the temperature or energy left over from
the Big Bang (the temperature of space itself has been cooling ever since the Big Bank)
- [kelvin – temperatures commonly used for space; absolute zero -459 0F represents minimal atomic
movement]
-The WMAP satellite studies show that the CMB temperature is really at 2.7 kelvin, and a picture of
this temperature shows that the CMB is “lumpy”. The remaining heat is not evenly distributed
within our universe. It was because of this uneven distribution of heat that allowed for formation of
galaxies.
- About 1% of TV static comes from the Big Bang (actually from the CMB)
The tragedy of life doesn't lie in not reaching your goal. The tragedy lies in having no goals to
reach. Benjamin Mays
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Microwave radiation left over from Big Bang
Expanding Space
- Space itself is expanding in all directions.
- Space can be compared to raisins (galaxies) in bread dough (space); the raisins (galaxies) stay the
same size as the bread dough (space) rises and expands to form bread
- How long will space continue to expand? We can observe that at one time, the expansion of space
was beginning to slow down.
- Space can either expand forever or come back into a “Big Crunch”
- But latest evidence suggests that rate of expansion for our universe is increasing and will probably
expand forever
“Concept Test” about space expansion
What Makes Up the Known Universe
- Visible and detectable matter and energy make up 4%- 5% of our known universe
- Undetectable “dark matter” forms about 25% of our universe
- Undetectable “dark energy” forms about 70% of our universe
- Dark energy is opposite of gravity and apparently forces bodies apart
Light Speed
- Light travels at 186,000 miles per second
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- Light year: the distance that light travels in one year (6 trillion miles)
- Nothing can travel faster than light
- Light takes 8.3 minutes to travel from the sun to Earth
Galaxies
- Edwin Hubble (1929) was the first to prove that galaxies were generally star systems that were
located outside of our own galaxy; later our space telescope would be named after him
- Galaxy: a vast collection of stars, dust, gas and black holes
- Some galaxies formed directly from dust and stars in a few hundred million years
-Other galaxies formed from mergers of star groups or smaller galaxies
Hubble galaxy tuning fork diagram
Galaxy Types
- Uses Hubble “tuning fork” classification (remember there are lots of classifications
- 1. Elliptical Galaxy: (E above) massive, featureless galaxy that form 13% of all galaxies; has billions
to trillions of stars; + 100,000 light years across; these galaxies generally represent a collect of old
stars in a very crowded neighborhood.
- M87 elliptical galaxy, about 120,000 light years across, is largest known galaxy with more than 2.7
trillion stars
- 2. Spiral Galaxies (Spiral: S above and Barred Spiral: SB above); 34% of all galaxies; barred spiral
galaxies have a central “bar”;spiral appearance, + 100,000 light years across and a 1,000 light years
thick; contains hundreds of billions of stars; spirals commonly have a central region of old yellow
stars, with younger blue stars and dust along the spiral arms
- 3. Irregular Galaxies: 54% of all galaxies; averages 1,500 light-years across; a few hundred million
stars; since they are so relatively small, irregulars are difficult to observe over the vast reaches of
space.
Collisions
- Telescopic observation show that galaxies can collide and pass through one another. Galactic
collisions are fairly common in our Universe
Grouping of Galaxies
- Galaxies often form pairs and groups and will be gravitationally bound to one another
- Cluster: large, gravitationally bound “structure” formed by a collection of hundreds to thousands of
galaxies
- Large galaxy clusters can cause the light from other galaxies far behind them to “bend”
- Einstein Cross: galactic phenomena of a single distant galaxy appearing to be multiple galaxies
because of the frontal galaxy’s gravity bending light
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- Einstein Ring: galactic phenomena of one galaxy appearing to be a ring because of the frontal
galaxy’s gravity bending of its light
- Superclusters: groups of cluster of gravitationally bound galaxies that could involve millions of
galaxies
- There are probably more than (+) 350 billion galaxies
- There are probably more than 300 billion trillion stars
- Most of the visible universe is empty space; the largest structure of our visible universe is empty
space
- As a footnote: There is a feature call the “great wall of galaxies” that we do not understand. This
“wall” is 500 million light years long, 200 million light years wide and about 15 million light years
thick.
Great walls (super-clusters) of galaxies
- Video of millions of galaxies
-Concept exam about seeing a galaxy
Nebula
- Nebula: Gas and dust collected in galaxies that can block visible starlight, and we can find this will
all spiral galaxies
- A famous example is the Eagle Nebula more than 7,000 light years away
- This nebula contains more than 150 know molecules including water, ammonia, cyanide, amino
acids, minerals, methanol, formaldehyde, etc.
- Often called molecular clouds
- Our solar system may have evolved from such a cloud.
- Famous nebula include the Carina Nebula, Lagoon Nebula and the Horse head Nebula
Horse head nebula
Milky Way Galaxy
- Our Milky Way Galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy that is more than 100,000 light years wide, with 200-
400 billion stars and lots of molecular clouds
- It takes our solar system about 250 million years to make one orbit about the galaxy; so we have been
around our galaxy at least 16 times.
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- The disk of the Milky Way is about 1,000 light years thick
- There is a massive “black hole” at our galactic center, called Sagittarius A* (star) with a mass of
more than four millions suns
Milky Way Galaxy
Components of Typical Barred Spiral Galaxy (like the Milky Way)
- Earth is located about 28,000 light years from the center of our galaxy
- Has a halo of globular clusters
- Has a flat disk with dust and gas lanes
- Has a central bulge of old stars
- Has a central black hole
Our galaxy and globular clusters
The surest way not to fail is to determine to succeed.
Globular Clusters
- Globular Cluster: vast collection of stars (some have a million stars) that orbits in and out the galactic
disk
- All galaxies have globular clusters that orbit in and out of the parent galaxy; some galaxies have
thousands of globular clusters.
- Milky Way has 146 globular clusters
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Large Magellanic Cloud
Magellanic Clouds
- Small and Large Magellanic Clouds: Two dwarf, irregular galaxies being captured by the Milky Way
Galaxy. These are only visible from the southern hemisphere
Andromeda Galaxy
Andromeda Galaxy
- Neighboring galaxy that is twice the size of the Milky Way, about 2.5 million light years from the
Milky Way
- Andromeda is moving toward the Milky Way Galaxy at a speed of 300,000 miles per hour and will
collide with the Milky Way in about 5 billion years. Even though more than 450 billion stars will be
involved with the collision, only four or five stars will actually collide.
-Video simulation of the Milky Way and Andromeda Galaxy colliding
Raw Materials for a Solar System
- The original universe was composed of only 3 elements (H, He, Li) yet our sun is composed of 92%
H, 7.8% He and 0.2% of other elements.
- Our sun (star) is so hot that over its lifetime, the sun will create at least 10 elements including carbon,
oxygen, neon, magnesium, silicon, sodium, aluminum and sulfur.
- The remaining 90 elements are created from giant exploding stars called supernovas
- It is these elements that collect in space as molecular clouds or nebula that will eventually form solar
systems and us
- Concept exam about elements
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Solar Systems - General
- Presented a brief explanation of the formation of our solar system
- Star and planetary systems that form from collapsing gas and dust clouds, within a galaxy
- Planetesimal: any of the innumerable small bodies that orbit a star
- Protoplanet: a planet in the process of accretion
- Planet: (one example) an object that has a total mass between that of Mercury and 10 Jupiter masses
- Solar System: a series of planetary bodies that orbit a central star
Shape and Motion of Our Solar Systems
- Our Solar systems represent disk-shaped systems with a sun at the center
- All planets orbit our star in a counterclockwise direction (as viewed from top)
- Almost all our solar system moons also revolve and rotate in a counterclockwise direction (from top)
Our Sun
- Our nearest star is the sun
- Diameter is 865,000 miles (109 times that of Earth)
- The sun contains 99.8% of the mass of the solar system
- Energy source is nuclear fusion, changing 700 million tons of hydrogen to helium every second
- Surface temperature is about 11,000 0F with its interior at 27 million degrees
- The sun is 4.6 billion years old
- Distance from the Earth is 93 million miles
- It takes light 8.3 minutes to reach Earth
- Video of our Sun
Classification of Stars
- Stars are classified according to the Russell-Hertzsprung Chart, starting with the main sequence
“dwarf” stars like our sun
- Small red and brown stars can have 1/100th the mass of our Sun’s mass
- Smallest stars include white dwarfs which are burned-out stars that become the size of Earth
- Based on temperature and brightness, our sun is an average size yellow star
- Red giant star are old age suns
- There are two types of super-giant stars: the blue super-giant stars that can have the mass of 100 suns;
they are so massive that their life times are measured in millions of years instead of billions of years.
- The red super-giants such as Betelgeuse have a size that would envelope Jupiter’s orbit.
Russell-Hertzsprung diagram
Fate of Stars
- If star mass –s (less tan) < ~ 4 times the mass of the sun; the star will become a red giant whose size
will envelope Earth’s orbit, afterwards the star will become a white dwarf
- In another 5 billion years, the sun will become a red giant and envelope Earth’s orbit
- If star mass is (greater than) > ~ 4 times the mass of the sun, may eventually explode in a supernova
and become a neutron star or a black hole
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Nearest Star Other Than the Sun
-Proxima Centura: located four light years away
Other Planets Not in Our Solar System (Exoplanets)
- There are more than 909 known exoplanets (Feb. 2013), surrounding more than 700 stars and 2,740
candidate planets for a total of 3,649 planets (this number increases almost every month). We do
have a few telescope pictures of exoplanets (star HR 8977).
- Many of these planets were detected by “star wobbles”. Wobble uses the Doppler shift of light which
is bluish when moving toward us and reddish when moving away from us.
- Also, we are locating planets with the Kepler Space Telescope (KST) launched in 2010. The KST
uses using the “transit method” which measures the dimming of star light by a passing planet. So far,
the Kepler Space Telescope has found over 2,700 candidates for exoplanets (Feb. 2013).
- The number of possible planets in our galaxy may exceed 160 billion.
- Almost all planets discovered to date, are larger than Jupiter with 2 possible Earth-size planets.
Concept exam about exoplanets
Our Solar System of Planets
Take a Quick Tour of Our Solar System of Planets (Pages 14-16)
The Four Inner Rocky Planets Orbiting Our Sun
Inner rocky planets
Mercury: Smallest rocky planet, lies 138 million miles at its closest point; one year = 87 Earth days,
no atmosphere, it is cratered like our moon; there are signs of old volcanic activity; it is 40%
larger than Earth’s moon, and is the only planet without a gaseous atmosphere. The Messenger
Space Probe passed by Mercury in 2009 and took detailed pictures. Messenger began orbiting
the planet in March 2011 with amazing pictures. We see evidence of recent impacts and the
mysterious “spider-web crater”. We also see evidence of faulting, indicating that Mercury still
has a liquid interior like Earth. Mercury has no moon.
Venus: Earth size diameter but only 0.8 Earth’s mass; it is the nearest planet to Earth at 25 million
miles at its closest point, one year = 244 Earth days and 1 day = 244 Earth Days (retrograde axis
of rotation); has no known surface water, has an acid and CO2 atmosphere that is 90 times
Earth’s atmospheric pressure; has a surface temperature of 800 oF. (hotter than Mercury). Its
surface is not visible in normal light but has been mapped with satellite radar. In the 1970s
Russia landed several probes that were able to take a few pictures. The surface resembles a
rocky desert. The Venus Express Space Probe is currently orbiting and studying Venus and has
discovered water coming from the planet. Venus is the only planet that spins clockwise with its
orbit. Venus has no moon.
Two videos of Venus
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Earth: Dominated by blue oceans and white clouds – to be discussed in detail later this semester
Mars: This planet is 91 million miles from Earth at its closest orbit. ½ size of Earth but only 1/10 of
Earth’s mass; 1 year = 686 Earth days and 1 day = 1 Earth day; has extinct volcanoes, sand
dunes, and ancient river valleys; a thin atmosphere of CO2; a cold surface temperatures (23
degrees to -123 degrees F) with glaciers on the North and South Poles. An active US mobile
probe - Opportunity that landed in 2004, is still actively touring and exploring the actual surface
of Mars. The Spirit probe, on the opposite side of the planet ceased operations in 2010. The two
aforementioned probes discovered evidence of past liquid water on Mars. The Phoenix Mars
Lander (5/2008) landed near the Mars North Pole and discovered water ice below the Martian
soil. There are several satellites currently orbiting Mars and taking pictures and surveying for
minerals. The mobile probe Curiosity arrived to Mars in August 2012. You can tour Mars with
Google Mars. Mars has two tiny moons. (You can view Kramer’s Science Seminar of January 15, 2008 for more information about minerals and mining on Mars)
- Videos of the landing of the probes on Mars
Outer gas giants
The Outer Giant Gas Planets – or The Jovian Planets
Outer giant gaseous planets (which may have rocky cores possibly larger than Earth and all these
giants have atmospheres thousands of miles thick).
Jupiter: (435 million miles from Earth) is larger (has more mass) than all other solar system planets
combined; and could be considered a failed star. Some suggest that Jupiter could have a rocky
core maybe 10 times the mass of Earth. Jupiter is 11 times the diameter of Earth (could hold
1,000 Earths) and has 318 times more mass; one year = 12 Earth years and one day = 9 Earth
hours. The Galileo Space Probe ended 9/2003 with much data and many pictures of the planet
and all of its moons. A thin ring system circles the planet; massive storms dominate its
atmosphere
When I hear somebody sigh that life is hard, I am always tempted to ask, Compared to what?
Saturn: (2.7 billion miles from Earth) with its famous rings is 10 times larger and 95 times heavier
than Earth; one year = 29 Earth years and one day = 10 Earth hours. We will discuss some of its
moons later. The Cassini Space Probe is currently orbiting this planet and studying its many
moons and rings. There are years in which the Saturn rings are not visible from Earth, because of
the “swaying” of Saturn.
Uranus: (5.4 billion miles from Earth) rotates on its side; is 4 times larger and 86 times heavier
than Earth; 1 year = 84 Earth years and 1 day = 17 Earth hours. Uranus was visited by the
Voyager 2 Space Probe in 1986. This planet also has a set of rings circling the planet.
Neptune: (10 billion miles from Earth) is 4 times larger than Earth and 17 times heavier; 1 year =
165 Earth years and 1 day = 16 Earth hours. Neptune was visited by the Voyager 2 Space Probe
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in 1989. Neptune was discovered in 1846 will complete its first orbit in 2011 (since discovery).
Neptune also has a set of rings orbiting the planet.
some plutoids
Plutoids
The discovery of 2003 UB 313 (now called Eris) changed our definition of planets. Plutoid Eris is
larger than Pluto, and has a 560 year orbit. More than 200 other classified Plutoids have been
discovered. This is why Pluto was reclassified!
As of June 2008, large “heavenly bodies” beyond the general orbit path of Neptune will be
classified as Plutoids.
- Pluto (whose diameter is ½ the width of the US) was first reclassified as a dwarf planet, as well as its
largest moon Charon and two smaller moon Hydra and Nix and two smaller moons. Pluto is now
classified as a Plutoid. The New Horizons Space Probe should reach Pluto in 2015 for our first
close-up view of that demoted planet.
Dwarf Planets
- On June 2008, large “heavenly bodies” within the orbit of Neptune will be reclassified as Dwarf
Planets.
- The large asteroid Ceres is now classified as a dwarf planet. The Dawn Space Probe reached the
giant asteroid Vestra July 2011 and taken incredible pictures of the asteroid. Dawn should reach
Ceres by 2015 for our first close up view of that asteroid.
larger moons
Moons of the Solar System
- Our solar system of (8) planets probably have more than 169 moons. (Mercury = 0; Venus = 0;