Historical Context For Farewell To Manzanar

Historical Context for Historical Context for Farewell to ManzanarFarewell to Manzanar

WWII, Japanese InternmentWWII, Japanese InternmentMs. A. RodriguezMs. A. Rodriguez

Belmont Preparatory HSBelmont Preparatory HS1010thth Grade ESL Advanced Grade ESL Advanced

Japanese American Japanese American internmentinternment

Japanese American internmentJapanese American internment refers to the forcible relocation and refers to the forcible relocation and internment of approximately 110,000 internment of approximately 110,000 Japanese nationals and Japanese Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans to housing facilities called Americans to housing facilities called "War Relocation Camps", in the wake "War Relocation Camps", in the wake of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.Harbor.

Unequal treatmentUnequal treatment The internment of Japanese Americans was The internment of Japanese Americans was

applied unequally throughout the United applied unequally throughout the United States. Japanese Americans residing on the States. Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast of the United States were all West Coast of the United States were all interned, whereas in Hawaii, where over interned, whereas in Hawaii, where over 150,000 Japanese Americans composed 150,000 Japanese Americans composed nearly a third of that territory's population, nearly a third of that territory's population, an additional 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese an additional 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese Americans were interned. Of those Americans were interned. Of those interned, 62 percent were United States interned, 62 percent were United States citizens.citizens.

What was Executive Order What was Executive Order 9066?9066?

President Franklin Roosevelt President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the internment authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066 on with Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, which February 19, 1942, which allowed local military allowed local military commanders to designate commanders to designate "military areas" as "exclusion "military areas" as "exclusion zones", from which "any or all zones", from which "any or all persons may be excluded." persons may be excluded."

This power was used to This power was used to declare that all people of declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire excluded from the entire Pacific coast, including all of Pacific coast, including all of California and most of Oregon California and most of Oregon and Washington, except for and Washington, except for those in internment camps.those in internment camps.

What about the Supreme What about the Supreme Court?Court?

In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion the constitutionality of the exclusion orders, while noting that the orders, while noting that the provisions that singled out people of provisions that singled out people of Japanese ancestry were a separate Japanese ancestry were a separate issue outside the scope of the issue outside the scope of the proceedings.proceedings.

How did laws supporting How did laws supporting racism play a part?racism play a part?

Over 90% of Japanese Over 90% of Japanese immigrants to the USA settled immigrants to the USA settled in California, where labor and in California, where labor and farm competition fed into farm competition fed into general anti-Japanese general anti-Japanese sentiment.sentiment.

In 1905, California's law was In 1905, California's law was amended to prohibit marriages amended to prohibit marriages between Caucasians and between Caucasians and "Mongolians" (an umbrella term "Mongolians" (an umbrella term which, at the time, was used in which, at the time, was used in reference to the Japanese, reference to the Japanese, among other ethnicities of East among other ethnicities of East Asian ancestry).Asian ancestry).

That anti-Japanese sentiment That anti-Japanese sentiment was maintained beyond this was maintained beyond this period is evidenced by the 1924 period is evidenced by the 1924 "Oriental Exclusion Law", which "Oriental Exclusion Law", which blocked Japanese immigrants blocked Japanese immigrants from attaining citizenship.from attaining citizenship.

In the years 1939–1941, the FBI In the years 1939–1941, the FBI compiled the Custodial compiled the Custodial Detention index ("CDI") on Detention index ("CDI") on citizens, "enemy" aliens and citizens, "enemy" aliens and foreign nationals, based foreign nationals, based principally on census records, in principally on census records, in the interest of national security. the interest of national security.

On June 28, 1940, the Alien On June 28, 1940, the Alien Registration Act was passed. Registration Act was passed. Among many other "loyalty" Among many other "loyalty" regulations, Section 31 required regulations, Section 31 required the registration and the registration and fingerprinting of all aliens fingerprinting of all aliens above the age of 14, and above the age of 14, and Section 35 required aliens to Section 35 required aliens to report any change of address report any change of address within 5 days. Nearly five within 5 days. Nearly five million foreign nationals million foreign nationals registered at post offices registered at post offices around the country, in the around the country, in the subsequent months.subsequent months.

After Pearl HarborAfter Pearl Harbor

The attack on Pearl Harbor The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941 led on December 7, 1941 led some to suspect the some to suspect the Japanese were preparing a Japanese were preparing a full-scale attack on the full-scale attack on the West Coast of the United West Coast of the United States. States.

Japan's rapid military Japan's rapid military conquest of a large portion conquest of a large portion of Asia and the Pacific of Asia and the Pacific between 1936 and 1942 between 1936 and 1942 made their military forces made their military forces seem unstoppable to some seem unstoppable to some Americans.Americans.

““A Jap’s a Jap”A Jap’s a Jap” Civilian and military officials had concerns about the loyalty Civilian and military officials had concerns about the loyalty

of the ethnic Japanese on the West Coast and considered of the ethnic Japanese on the West Coast and considered them to be potential security risks, although these concerns them to be potential security risks, although these concerns in some cases may have come more from racial bias than in some cases may have come more from racial bias than actual risk. Major Karl Bendetsen and Lieutenant General actual risk. Major Karl Bendetsen and Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt each questioned Japanese American loyalty.John L. DeWitt each questioned Japanese American loyalty.

DeWitt, who administered the internment program, DeWitt, who administered the internment program, repeatedly told newspapers that "A Jap's a Jap" and testified repeatedly told newspapers that "A Jap's a Jap" and testified to Congress,to Congress,

““I don't want any of them [persons of Japanese ancestry] I don't want any of them [persons of Japanese ancestry] here. They are a dangerous element. There is no way to here. They are a dangerous element. There is no way to determine their loyalty... It makes no difference whether he determine their loyalty... It makes no difference whether he is an American citizen, he is still a Japanese. American is an American citizen, he is still a Japanese. American citizenship does not necessarily determine loyalty... But we citizenship does not necessarily determine loyalty... But we must worry about the Japanese all the time until he is wiped must worry about the Japanese all the time until he is wiped off the map.”off the map.”

One drop rule?One drop rule?

Those that were as little as 1/16th Japanese Those that were as little as 1/16th Japanese could be placed in internment camps. could be placed in internment camps.

There is some evidence supporting the There is some evidence supporting the argument that the measures were racially argument that the measures were racially motivated, rather than a military necessity.motivated, rather than a military necessity.

For example, orphaned infants with "one For example, orphaned infants with "one drop of Japanese blood" (as explained in a drop of Japanese blood" (as explained in a letter by one official) were included in the letter by one official) were included in the program.program.

Who benefited from Japanese Who benefited from Japanese removal?removal?

Non-military advocates for exclusion, Non-military advocates for exclusion, removal, and detentionremoval, and detentionInternment was popular among many white farmers Internment was popular among many white farmers who resented the Japanese American farmers.who resented the Japanese American farmers.

Austin E. Anson, managing secretary of the Salinas Austin E. Anson, managing secretary of the Salinas Vegetable Grower-Shipper Association, told the Vegetable Grower-Shipper Association, told the Saturday Evening PostSaturday Evening Post in 1942: in 1942:"We're charged with wanting to get rid of the Japs "We're charged with wanting to get rid of the Japs for selfish reasons. We do. It's a question of for selfish reasons. We do. It's a question of whether the white man lives on the Pacific Coast or whether the white man lives on the Pacific Coast or the brown men… If all the Japs were removed the brown men… If all the Japs were removed tomorrow, we had never miss them in two weeks, tomorrow, we had never miss them in two weeks, because the white farmers can take over and because the white farmers can take over and produce everything the Jap grows. And we do not produce everything the Jap grows. And we do not want them back when the war ends, either."want them back when the war ends, either."

Where did the hate come Where did the hate come from? How was it supported?from? How was it supported?

"Fear, combined with prejudice, was also at work, aided "Fear, combined with prejudice, was also at work, aided by the January release of the Roberts Commission by the January release of the Roberts Commission Report, prepared at President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Report, prepared at President Franklin D. Roosevelt's request.request.

That report concluded that Japanese in America were That report concluded that Japanese in America were responsible for espionage, contributing to the Pearl responsible for espionage, contributing to the Pearl Harbor tragedy.Harbor tragedy.

Columnist Henry McLemore reflected growing public Columnist Henry McLemore reflected growing public sentiment fueled by this report:sentiment fueled by this report:"I am for the immediate removal of every Japanese on "I am for the immediate removal of every Japanese on the West Coast to a point deep in the interior. I don't the West Coast to a point deep in the interior. I don't mean a nice part of the interior either. Herd 'em up, mean a nice part of the interior either. Herd 'em up, pack 'em off and give 'em the inside room in the pack 'em off and give 'em the inside room in the badlands. Personally, I hate the Japanese. And that goes badlands. Personally, I hate the Japanese. And that goes for all of them."for all of them."

Further, California newspapers endorsed mass Further, California newspapers endorsed mass evacuation.evacuation.

Military necessity as justification Military necessity as justification for internment: Japan's wartime for internment: Japan's wartime

spy programspy program The case of Velvalee Dickinson, a nonethnic The case of Velvalee Dickinson, a nonethnic

Japanese woman who was involved in a Japanese woman who was involved in a Japanese spy ring, contributed to Japanese spy ring, contributed to heightening American apprehensions.heightening American apprehensions.

The Tachibana spy ring was a group of The Tachibana spy ring was a group of Japanese nationals who were arrested Japanese nationals who were arrested shortly shortly beforebefore the Pearl Harbor attack and the Pearl Harbor attack and were deported.were deported.

The Niihau Incident occurred just after the The Niihau Incident occurred just after the Pearl Harbor attack, when two Japanese Pearl Harbor attack, when two Japanese Americans on Niihau freed a captured Americans on Niihau freed a captured Japanese pilot and assisted him in his attack Japanese pilot and assisted him in his attack on Native Hawaiians there. on Native Hawaiians there.

United States District Court United States District Court opinionsopinions

In 1980, a copy of the original In 1980, a copy of the original Final ReportFinal Report was found in the was found in the National Archives, along with notes showing the numerous National Archives, along with notes showing the numerous differences between the two versions. differences between the two versions.

This earlier, racist and inflammatory version, as well as the This earlier, racist and inflammatory version, as well as the FBIFBI and and ONIONI reports, led to the reports, led to the coram nobiscoram nobis retrials which retrials which overturned the convictions of Fred Korematsu, Gordon overturned the convictions of Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui on all charges related to their Hirabayashi and Minoru Yasui on all charges related to their refusal to submit to exclusion and internment.refusal to submit to exclusion and internment.

The courts found that the government had intentionally The courts found that the government had intentionally withheld these reports and other critical evidence, at trials all withheld these reports and other critical evidence, at trials all the way up to the Supreme Court, which would have proved the way up to the Supreme Court, which would have proved that there was no military necessity for the exclusion and that there was no military necessity for the exclusion and internment of Japanese Americans. In the words of internment of Japanese Americans. In the words of Department of Justice officials writing during the war, the Department of Justice officials writing during the war, the justifications were based on "willful historical inaccuracies justifications were based on "willful historical inaccuracies and intentional falsehoods."and intentional falsehoods."

Terminology debate: What Terminology debate: What do we call these camps?do we call these camps?

TThere has been much discussion over what to call the here has been much discussion over what to call the internment camps. The WRA officially called them "War internment camps. The WRA officially called them "War Relocation Centers." The National Park Service has chosen to Relocation Centers." The National Park Service has chosen to use "relocation center" in referring to the camps.]use "relocation center" in referring to the camps.]

Some historians and scholars, as well as former internees, Some historians and scholars, as well as former internees, object to this wording, noting that the internees were literally object to this wording, noting that the internees were literally imprisonedimprisoned

A widely used name for the American camps is "internment A widely used name for the American camps is "internment camp". This phrase is also potentially misleading, as the camp". This phrase is also potentially misleading, as the United States Department of Justice operated separate camps United States Department of Justice operated separate camps that were officially called "internment camps" in which some that were officially called "internment camps" in which some Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II.Japanese Americans were imprisoned during World War II.

"Concentration camp" is the most controversial descriptor of "Concentration camp" is the most controversial descriptor of the camps. This term is criticized for suggesting that the the camps. This term is criticized for suggesting that the Japanese American experience was analogous to the Japanese American experience was analogous to the Holocaust and the Nazi concentration camps.For this reason, Holocaust and the Nazi concentration camps.For this reason, National Park Service officials have attempted to avoid the National Park Service officials have attempted to avoid the term.term.

Types of CampsTypes of Camps There were several different types of camps involved. There were several different types of camps involved. Assembly CentersAssembly Centers run by the Wartime Civil Control run by the Wartime Civil Control

Administration (WCCA), temporary facilities that were first Administration (WCCA), temporary facilities that were first set up in horse racing tracks, fairgrounds and other large set up in horse racing tracks, fairgrounds and other large public meeting places to assemble and organize internees public meeting places to assemble and organize internees before they were transported to WRA Relocation Centers by before they were transported to WRA Relocation Centers by truck, bus or train. truck, bus or train.

Relocation CentersRelocation Centers run by the War Relocation Authority run by the War Relocation Authority (WRA), which are generally (but unofficially) referred to as (WRA), which are generally (but unofficially) referred to as "internment camps.“camps that housed persons removed "internment camps.“camps that housed persons removed from the exclusion zone after March 1942, or until they from the exclusion zone after March 1942, or until they were able to relocate elsewhere in America outside the were able to relocate elsewhere in America outside the exclusion zone.exclusion zone.

The Department of Justice (DOJ) operated camps officially The Department of Justice (DOJ) operated camps officially called called Internment CampsInternment Camps, which were used to detain those , which were used to detain those suspected of actual crimes or "enemy sympathies." suspected of actual crimes or "enemy sympathies."

List of campsList of campsThere were three types of There were three types of

camps. camps. Civilian Assembly CentersCivilian Assembly Centers were were

temporary camps, frequently located at temporary camps, frequently located at horse tracks, where the Nissei were sent horse tracks, where the Nissei were sent as they were removed from their as they were removed from their communities.communities.

Eventually, most were sent to Eventually, most were sent to Relocation Centers,Relocation Centers, also known as also known as internment camps.internment camps.

Detention campsDetention camps housed Nikkei housed Nikkei considered to be disruptive or of special considered to be disruptive or of special interest to the government.interest to the government.

Civilian Assembly CentersCivilian Assembly Centers Arcadia, CaliforniaArcadia, California ( (Santa Anita RacetrackSanta Anita Racetrack, stables) , stables)

Fresno, CaliforniaFresno, California ( (Big Fresno FairgroundsBig Fresno Fairgrounds, racetrack, stables) , racetrack, stables) MarysvilleMarysville / / ArbogaArboga, California, California (migrant workers' camp) (migrant workers' camp) Mayer, ArizonaMayer, Arizona ( (Civilian Conservation CorpsCivilian Conservation Corps camp) camp) Merced, CaliforniaMerced, California (county fairgrounds) (county fairgrounds) Owens Valley, CaliforniaOwens Valley, California Parker Dam, ArizonaParker Dam, Arizona Pinedale, CaliforniaPinedale, California ( (Pinedale Assembly CenterPinedale Assembly Center, warehouses) , warehouses) Pomona, CaliforniaPomona, California ( (Los Angeles County FairgroundsLos Angeles County Fairgrounds, racetrack, , racetrack, stables) stables) Portland, OregonPortland, Oregon ( (Pacific International Livestock ExpositionPacific International Livestock Exposition, , including 3,800 housed in the main pavilion building) including 3,800 housed in the main pavilion building) Puyallup, WashingtonPuyallup, Washington (fairgrounds racetrack stables, Informally (fairgrounds racetrack stables, Informally known as "known as "Camp HarmonyCamp Harmony") ") SacramentoSacramento / (migrant workers' camp) / (migrant workers' camp) Salinas, CaliforniaSalinas, California ( (fairgroundsfairgrounds, racetrack, stables) , racetrack, stables) San Bruno, CaliforniaSan Bruno, California ( (TanforanTanforan racetrack, stables) racetrack, stables) Stockton, CaliforniaStockton, California (San Joaquin County Fairgrounds, racetrack, (San Joaquin County Fairgrounds, racetrack, stables) stables) Tulare, CaliforniaTulare, California (fairgrounds, racetrack, stables) (fairgrounds, racetrack, stables) Turlock, CaliforniaTurlock, California (Stanislaus County Fairgrounds) (Stanislaus County Fairgrounds) Woodland, CaliforniaWoodland, California

List of internment campsList of internment camps

Gila River War Relocation CenterGila River War Relocation Center, Arizona , Arizona Granada War Relocation CenterGranada War Relocation Center, Colorado , Colorado (AKA "Amache") (AKA "Amache") Heart Mountain War Relocation CenterHeart Mountain War Relocation Center, , Wyoming Wyoming Jerome War Relocation CenterJerome War Relocation Center, Arkansas , Arkansas ManzanarManzanar War Relocation Center War Relocation Center, California , California Minidoka War Relocation CenterMinidoka War Relocation Center, Idaho , Idaho Poston War Relocation CenterPoston War Relocation Center, Arizona , Arizona RohwerRohwer War Relocation Center War Relocation Center, Arkansas , Arkansas Topaz War Relocation CenterTopaz War Relocation Center, Utah , Utah Tule Lake War Relocation CenterTule Lake War Relocation Center California California

Justice Department Justice Department detention campsdetention camps

these camps often held German and Italian detainees in addition to Japanese these camps often held German and Italian detainees in addition to Japanese Americans:Americans:

Crystal City, TexasCrystal City, Texas Fort Lincoln, North DakotaFort Lincoln, North Dakota Fort MissoulaFort Missoula, , MontanaMontana Fort Stanton, New MexicoFort Stanton, New Mexico KenedyKenedy, Texas, Texas KooskiaKooskia, Idaho, Idaho Santa Fe, New MexicoSanta Fe, New Mexico Seagoville, TexasSeagoville, Texas

Citizen Isolation CentersCitizen Isolation CentersThe Citizen Isolation Centers were for those considered to be problem inmates.The Citizen Isolation Centers were for those considered to be problem inmates.LeuppLeupp, Arizona, Arizona Moab, UtahMoab, Utah (AKA Dalton Wells) (AKA Dalton Wells) Fort Stanton, New MexicoFort Stanton, New Mexico

Federal Bureau of PrisonsFederal Bureau of PrisonsDetainees convicted of crimes, usually draft resistance, were sent to these Detainees convicted of crimes, usually draft resistance, were sent to these camps:camps:

Catalina, ArizonaCatalina, Arizona Fort Leavenworth, KansasFort Leavenworth, Kansas McNeill Island, WashingtonMcNeill Island, Washington

US Army facilitiesUS Army facilities

These camps often held These camps often held German and Italian German and Italian detainees in addition to detainees in addition to Japanese Americans:Japanese Americans:

Angel Island, CaliforniaAngel Island, California//Fort McDowellFort McDowell Camp Blanding, FloridaCamp Blanding, Florida Camp ForrestCamp Forrest Camp LivingstonCamp Livingston, Louisiana , Louisiana

Camp Lordsburg, New MexiCamp Lordsburg, New Mexicoco Camp McCoy, WisconsinCamp McCoy, Wisconsin Florence, ArizonaFlorence, Arizona

Fort Bliss Fort Bliss Fort Howard Fort Howard Fort Lewis Fort Lewis Fort Meade, Maryland Fort Meade, Maryland Fort Richardson Fort Richardson Fort Sam Houston Fort Sam Houston Fort Sill, Oklahoma Fort Sill, Oklahoma Griffith Park Griffith Park Honolulu, Hawaii Honolulu, Hawaii Sand Island, Hawaii Sand Island, Hawaii Stringtown, Oklahoma Stringtown, Oklahoma

Conditions in the campsConditions in the camps

According to a 1943 According to a 1943 War Relocation AuthorityWar Relocation Authority report, report, internees were housed in "tar internees were housed in "tar paper-covered barracks of simple paper-covered barracks of simple frame construction without frame construction without plumbing or cooking facilities of plumbing or cooking facilities of any kind." any kind."

The spartan facilities met The spartan facilities met international laws, but still left international laws, but still left much to be desired. Many camps much to be desired. Many camps were built quickly by civilian were built quickly by civilian contractors during the summer of contractors during the summer of 1942 based on designs for 1942 based on designs for military barracks, making the military barracks, making the buildings poorly equipped for buildings poorly equipped for cramped family living.cramped family living.

The The Heart Mountain War Relocation CeHeart Mountain War Relocation Centernter in northwestern in northwestern WyomingWyoming was a was a barbed-wire-surrounded enclave barbed-wire-surrounded enclave with unpartitioned toilets, cots for with unpartitioned toilets, cots for beds, and a budget of 45 cents beds, and a budget of 45 cents daily per capita for food rations. daily per capita for food rations.

Internees were evacuated from Internees were evacuated from their West Coast homes on short their West Coast homes on short notice and not told of their notice and not told of their assigned destinations, many failed assigned destinations, many failed to pack appropriate clothing for to pack appropriate clothing for Wyoming winters which often Wyoming winters which often reached temperatures below zero reached temperatures below zero Fahrenheit. Fahrenheit.

Armed guards were posted at the Armed guards were posted at the camps, which were all in remote, camps, which were all in remote, desolate areas far from population desolate areas far from population centers. Internees were typically centers. Internees were typically allowed to stay with their families, allowed to stay with their families, and were treated well unless they and were treated well unless they violated the rules.violated the rules.

There are documented instances There are documented instances of guards shooting internees who of guards shooting internees who reportedly attempted to walk reportedly attempted to walk outside the fences. One such outside the fences. One such shooting, that of James Wakasa at shooting, that of James Wakasa at Topaz, led to a re-evaluation of Topaz, led to a re-evaluation of the security measures in the the security measures in the camps. camps.

Loyalty questions and Loyalty questions and segregationsegregation Some Japanese Americans did question the American government, Some Japanese Americans did question the American government,

after finding themselves in internment camps. after finding themselves in internment camps. Several pro-Japan groups formed inside the camps, particularly at Several pro-Japan groups formed inside the camps, particularly at

the Tule Lake location. When the government passed a law that the Tule Lake location. When the government passed a law that made it possible for an internee to renounce her or his U.S. made it possible for an internee to renounce her or his U.S. citizenship, 5,589 internees opted to do so; 5,461 of these were at citizenship, 5,589 internees opted to do so; 5,461 of these were at Tule Lake.Of those who renounced their citizenship, 1,327 were Tule Lake.Of those who renounced their citizenship, 1,327 were repatriated to Japan. repatriated to Japan.

The American Civil Liberties Union successfully challenged most of The American Civil Liberties Union successfully challenged most of these renunciations as invalid because of the conditions under these renunciations as invalid because of the conditions under which the government obtained them. These conditions were which the government obtained them. These conditions were described as "coercion, duress, and mass compulsion" . described as "coercion, duress, and mass compulsion" .

Many of the deportees were Many of the deportees were IsseiIssei (first generation Japanese (first generation Japanese immigrants) who often had difficulty with English and often did not immigrants) who often had difficulty with English and often did not understand the questions they were asked.understand the questions they were asked.

Even among those Even among those IsseiIssei who had a clear understanding, Question who had a clear understanding, Question 28 posed an awkward dilemma: Japanese immigrants were denied 28 posed an awkward dilemma: Japanese immigrants were denied US citizenship at the time, so when asked to renounce their US citizenship at the time, so when asked to renounce their Japanese citizenship, answering "Yes" would have made them Japanese citizenship, answering "Yes" would have made them stateless persons. Faced with possible deportation to Japan, the stateless persons. Faced with possible deportation to Japan, the IsseiIssei largely refused to renounce their only citizenship. largely refused to renounce their only citizenship.

Service in the US ARMYService in the US ARMY 20,000 Japanese American men and many 20,000 Japanese American men and many

Japanese American women served in the U.S. Japanese American women served in the U.S. Army during World War II.Army during World War II.

The 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which The 442nd Regimental Combat Team, which was composed primarily of Japanese was composed primarily of Japanese Americans, served with uncommon distinction Americans, served with uncommon distinction in the European theatre of World War II.in the European theatre of World War II.

This unit was the most highly decorated US This unit was the most highly decorated US military unit of its size and duration. Most military unit of its size and duration. Most notably, the 442nd was known for saving the notably, the 442nd was known for saving the 141st (or the "lost battalion") from the 141st (or the "lost battalion") from the Germans. Germans.

The US was not aloneThe US was not alone

Canadian citizens with Japanese Canadian citizens with Japanese ancestry were also interned by the ancestry were also interned by the Canadian government during World Canadian government during World War II (see Japanese Canadian War II (see Japanese Canadian internment).internment).

Japanese people from various parts of Japanese people from various parts of Latin America were brought to the Latin America were brought to the United States for internment, or United States for internment, or interned in their countries of residenceinterned in their countries of residence

The Plight of Japanese The Plight of Japanese LatinosLatinos

During World War II, over 7,000 Japanese Americans and During World War II, over 7,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese from Latin America were held in internment Japanese from Latin America were held in internment camps run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, camps run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, part of the Department of Justice.part of the Department of Justice.

Latin Americans of Japanese ancestry were rounded up and Latin Americans of Japanese ancestry were rounded up and transported to American internment camps run by the U.S. transported to American internment camps run by the U.S. Justice Department. Essentially kidnapped and brought to Justice Department. Essentially kidnapped and brought to the US against their will.the US against their will. These Latin American internees were eventually offered These Latin American internees were eventually offered

"parole" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in "parole" relocation to the labor-starved farming community in Seabrook, New Jersey.Seabrook, New Jersey.

Many became naturalized American citizens or Japanese Many became naturalized American citizens or Japanese Americans after the war. For example, at war's end, only 79 Americans after the war. For example, at war's end, only 79 Japanaese-Peruvian citizens returned to Peru; and 400 Japanaese-Peruvian citizens returned to Peru; and 400 remained in the United States as "stateless" refugees.remained in the United States as "stateless" refugees.

HawaiiHawaii

1,200 to 1,800 Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans 1,200 to 1,800 Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans from Hawaii were interned, either in two camps on Oahu or from Hawaii were interned, either in two camps on Oahu or in one of the mainland internment camps.in one of the mainland internment camps.

The vast majority of Japanese Americans and their The vast majority of Japanese Americans and their immigrant parents in Hawaii were not interned because the immigrant parents in Hawaii were not interned because the government had already declared martial law in Hawaii and government had already declared martial law in Hawaii and this allowed it to significantly reduce the supposed risk of this allowed it to significantly reduce the supposed risk of espionage and sabotage by residents of Japanese ancestry.espionage and sabotage by residents of Japanese ancestry.

Also, Japanese Americans comprised over 35% of the Also, Japanese Americans comprised over 35% of the territory's population, with approximately 150,000 territory's population, with approximately 150,000 inhabitants; detaining so many people would have been inhabitants; detaining so many people would have been enormously challenging in terms of logistics. enormously challenging in terms of logistics.

There were two internment camps in Hawaii, referred to as There were two internment camps in Hawaii, referred to as "Hawaiian Island Detention Camps". "Hawaiian Island Detention Camps".

Internment endsInternment ends In December 1944 (In December 1944 (Ex parte Endo)Ex parte Endo) the Supreme Court ruled the Supreme Court ruled

the detainment of loyal citizens unconstitutional, though a the detainment of loyal citizens unconstitutional, though a decision handed down the same day decision handed down the same day (Korematsu v. United (Korematsu v. United States)States) held that the exclusion process as a whole was held that the exclusion process as a whole was constitutional.constitutional.

On January 2, 1945, the exclusion order was rescinded On January 2, 1945, the exclusion order was rescinded entirely. The internees then began to leave the camps to entirely. The internees then began to leave the camps to rebuild their lives at home, although the relocation camps rebuild their lives at home, although the relocation camps remained open for residents who were not ready to make remained open for residents who were not ready to make the move back. the move back.

The freed internees were given $25 and a train ticket to The freed internees were given $25 and a train ticket to their former homes. While the majority returned to their their former homes. While the majority returned to their former lives, some of the Japanese Americans emigrated to former lives, some of the Japanese Americans emigrated to Japan. Japan.

The last internment camp was not closed until The last internment camp was not closed until 1946;Japanese taken by the U.S. from Peru that were still 1946;Japanese taken by the U.S. from Peru that were still being held in the camp in Santa Fe took legal action in April being held in the camp in Santa Fe took legal action in April 1946 in an attempt to avoid deportation to Japan.1946 in an attempt to avoid deportation to Japan.

Hardship and material Hardship and material lossloss

Many internees lost irreplaceable personal property due to the Many internees lost irreplaceable personal property due to the restrictions on what could be taken into the camps. restrictions on what could be taken into the camps.

These losses were compounded by theft and destruction of items These losses were compounded by theft and destruction of items placed in governmental storage.placed in governmental storage.

Some Japanese American farmers were able to find families willing to Some Japanese American farmers were able to find families willing to tend their farms for the duration of their internment. In other cases, tend their farms for the duration of their internment. In other cases, however, Japanese American farmers had to sell their property in a however, Japanese American farmers had to sell their property in a matter of days, usually at great financial loss.matter of days, usually at great financial loss.

To compensate former internees for their property losses, the US To compensate former internees for their property losses, the US Congress, on July 2, 1948, passed the "American Japanese Claims Congress, on July 2, 1948, passed the "American Japanese Claims Act", Act",

By the time the Act was passed, however, the IRS had already By the time the Act was passed, however, the IRS had already destroyed most of the 1939-42 tax records of the internees, destroyed most of the 1939-42 tax records of the internees,

few of the internees themselves had been able to preserve detailed few of the internees themselves had been able to preserve detailed tax and financial records during the evacuation process. tax and financial records during the evacuation process.

Thus, it was extremely difficult for claimants to establish that their Thus, it was extremely difficult for claimants to establish that their claims were valid. claims were valid.

Under the Act, Japanese American families filed 26,568 claims Under the Act, Japanese American families filed 26,568 claims totaling $148 million in requests; approximately $37 million was totaling $148 million in requests; approximately $37 million was approved and disbursed. approved and disbursed.

LossLoss

A number of persons died or suffered for lack A number of persons died or suffered for lack of medical care, and several were killed by of medical care, and several were killed by sentries; James Wakasa, for instance, was sentries; James Wakasa, for instance, was killed at Topaz War Relocation Center, near killed at Topaz War Relocation Center, near the perimeter wire. the perimeter wire.

Psychological injury was observed by Dillon S. Psychological injury was observed by Dillon S. Myer, director of the WRA camps. In June Myer, director of the WRA camps. In June 1945, Myer described how the Japanese 1945, Myer described how the Japanese Americans had grown increasingly depressed, Americans had grown increasingly depressed, and overcome with feelings of helplessness and overcome with feelings of helplessness and personal insecurity.and personal insecurity.

Reparations and redressReparations and redress

During World War II, Colorado governor During World War II, Colorado governor Ralph Lawrence Carr was the only Ralph Lawrence Carr was the only elected official to publicly apologize for elected official to publicly apologize for the internment of American citizens. the internment of American citizens. The act cost him reelection, but gained The act cost him reelection, but gained him the gratitude of the Japanese him the gratitude of the Japanese American community, such that a American community, such that a statue of him was erected in Sakura statue of him was erected in Sakura Square in Denver's Japantown.Square in Denver's Japantown.

Legal legacy Legal legacy SSeveral significant legal decisions arose out of everal significant legal decisions arose out of

Japanese American internment, relating to the powers Japanese American internment, relating to the powers of the government to detain citizens in wartime. of the government to detain citizens in wartime.

Among the cases which reached the Supreme Court Among the cases which reached the Supreme Court were were YasuiYasui v. United States v. United States (1943), (1943), HirabayashiHirabayashi v. United States v. United States (1943), (1943), ex parte Endoex parte Endo (1944), and (1944), and KorematsuKorematsu v. United States v. United States (1944). (1944).

In In YasuiYasui and and HirabayashiHirabayashi the court upheld the the court upheld the constitutionality of curfews based on Japanese constitutionality of curfews based on Japanese ancestry; in ancestry; in KorematsuKorematsu the court upheld the the court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion order. In constitutionality of the exclusion order. In EndoEndo, the , the court accepted a petition for a writ of habeas corpus court accepted a petition for a writ of habeas corpus and ruled that the WRA had no authority to subject a and ruled that the WRA had no authority to subject a citizen whose loyalty was acknowledged to its citizen whose loyalty was acknowledged to its procedures.procedures.

Coram Nobis a petition to the Coram Nobis a petition to the court to correct a previous court to correct a previous

errorerror Korematsu's and Hirabayashi's convictions were vacated in a Korematsu's and Hirabayashi's convictions were vacated in a

series of series of coram nobiscoram nobis cases in the early 1980s. cases in the early 1980s. In the In the coram nobiscoram nobis cases, federal district and appellate courts cases, federal district and appellate courts

ruled that newly uncovered evidence revealed the existence of ruled that newly uncovered evidence revealed the existence of a huge unfairness which, had it been known at the time, would a huge unfairness which, had it been known at the time, would likely have changed the Supreme Court's decisions in the Yasui, likely have changed the Supreme Court's decisions in the Yasui, Hirabayashi, and Korematsu cases.Hirabayashi, and Korematsu cases.

These new court decisions rested on a series of documents These new court decisions rested on a series of documents recovered from the National Archives showing that the recovered from the National Archives showing that the government had altered, suppressed and withheld important government had altered, suppressed and withheld important and relevant information from the Supreme Court, most notably, and relevant information from the Supreme Court, most notably, the Final Report by General DeWitt justifying the internment the Final Report by General DeWitt justifying the internment program.program.

The Army had destroyed documents in an effort to hide the fact The Army had destroyed documents in an effort to hide the fact that alterations had been made to the report.that alterations had been made to the report.

The The coram nobiscoram nobis cases vacated the convictions of Korematsu cases vacated the convictions of Korematsu and Hirabayashi (Yasui died before his case was heard, and Hirabayashi (Yasui died before his case was heard, rendering it moot), and are regarded as one of the impetuses rendering it moot), and are regarded as one of the impetuses for the Civil Liberties Act of 1988.for the Civil Liberties Act of 1988.

Information purposefully Information purposefully hiddenhidden

General DeWitt and Colonel Bendetsen kept information out General DeWitt and Colonel Bendetsen kept information out of of Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast - Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast - 1942,1942, which was written in April 1943 — a time when DeWitt which was written in April 1943 — a time when DeWitt was fighting against an order that Nisei soldiers (members of was fighting against an order that Nisei soldiers (members of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and the Military the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and the Military Intelligence Service) were to be considered "loyal" and Intelligence Service) were to be considered "loyal" and permitted into the Exclusion Zones while on leave.permitted into the Exclusion Zones while on leave.

DeWitt and Bendetsen initially issued 10 copies of the DeWitt and Bendetsen initially issued 10 copies of the report, then hastily recalled them to rewrite passages which report, then hastily recalled them to rewrite passages which showed racist bases for the exclusion. Among other showed racist bases for the exclusion. Among other justifications, the report stated flatly that, because of their justifications, the report stated flatly that, because of their race, it was impossible to determine the loyalty of Japanese race, it was impossible to determine the loyalty of Japanese Americans. The original version was so offensive — even in Americans. The original version was so offensive — even in the atmosphere of the wartime 1940s — that Bendetsen the atmosphere of the wartime 1940s — that Bendetsen ordered all copies to be destroyed. Not a single piece of ordered all copies to be destroyed. Not a single piece of paper was to be left giving any evidence that an earlier paper was to be left giving any evidence that an earlier version had existed.version had existed.

Redress Movement: Youth fight Redress Movement: Youth fight backback

Beginning in the 1960s, a younger Beginning in the 1960s, a younger generation of Japanese Americans who generation of Japanese Americans who were inspired by the Civil Rights movement were inspired by the Civil Rights movement began what is known as the "Redress began what is known as the "Redress Movement", an effort to obtain an official Movement", an effort to obtain an official apology and reparations from the federal apology and reparations from the federal government for interning their parents and government for interning their parents and grandparents during the war, focusing not grandparents during the war, focusing not on documented property losses but on the on documented property losses but on the broader injustice of the internment. broader injustice of the internment.

An apology: An apology:

In 1988, Congress passed and President In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed legislation which Ronald Reagan signed legislation which apologized for the internment on behalf of apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government. the U.S. government.

The legislation stated that government The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political hysteria, and a failure of political leadership". About $1.6 billion in reparations leadership". About $1.6 billion in reparations were later disbursed by the U.S. were later disbursed by the U.S. government to surviving internees and their government to surviving internees and their heirs.heirs.

Why is this important now?Why is this important now?

It is important to note that the rulings of It is important to note that the rulings of the US Supreme Court in the 1944 the US Supreme Court in the 1944 Korematsu and Hirabayashi cases, Korematsu and Hirabayashi cases, specifically, its expansive interpretation of specifically, its expansive interpretation of government powers in wartime, were not government powers in wartime, were not overturned. overturned.

the original Korematsu and Hirabayashi the original Korematsu and Hirabayashi decisions have taken on an added decisions have taken on an added relevance in the context of the relevance in the context of the War on War on terrorterror..

ReferencesReferences

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_American_internmentJapanese_American_internment