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45
Ruling as large a territory as the Indian subcontinent with such
a diversity of people and cultures wasan extremely difficult task
for any ruler to accomplishin the Middle Ages. Quite in contrast to
theirpredecessors, the Mughals created an empire andaccomplished
what had hitherto seemed possible foronly short periods of time.
From the latter half of thesixteenth century they expanded their
kingdom fromAgra and Delhi until in the seventeenth century
theycontrolled nearly all of the subcontinent. They
imposedstructures of administration and ideas of governancethat
outlasted their rule, leaving a political legacy thatsucceeding
rulers of the subcontinent could not ignore.Today the Prime
Minister of India addresses the nationfrom the ramparts of the Red
Fort in Delhi, the residenceof the Mughal emperors, on Independence
Day.
4 THE CREATION OF AN EMPIRE:The Mughal Dynasty
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
Fig. 1The Red Fort.
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46OUR PASTS II
Who were the Mughals?The Mughals were descendants of two great
lineages ofrulers. From their mothers side they were descendantsof
Genghis Khan (died 1227), ruler of the Mongol tribes,China and
Central Asia. From their fathers side theywere the successors of
Timur (died 1404), the ruler ofIran, Iraq and modern-day Turkey.
However, theMughals did not like to be called Mughal or Mongol.This
was because Genghis Khans memory wasassociated with the massacre of
innumerable people.It was also linked with the Uzbegs, their
Mongolcompetitors. On the other hand, the Mughals were
Fig. 2A miniature painting (dated 1702-1712) of Timur, his
descendantsand the Mughal emperors. Timur is in the centre and on
his right ishis son Miran Shah (the first Mughal emperor Baburs
great-great-grandfather) and then Abu Said (Baburs grandfather). To
the left ofTimur are Sultan Muhammad Mirza (Baburs
great-grandfather) andUmar Shaikh (Baburs father). The Mughal
emperors Babur, Akbarand Shah Jahan are the third, fourth and fifth
individuals onTimurs right and on his left, in the same order, are
Humayun,Jahangir and Aurangzeb.
Do you think thispainting suggeststhat the Mughalsclaimed
kingshipas a birthright?
?
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47
proud of their Timurid ancestry, not least of all becausetheir
great ancestor had captured Delhi in 1398.
They celebrated their genealogy pictorially, each rulergetting a
picture made of Timur and himself. Take alook at Figure 1, which is
somewhat like a groupphotograph.
Mughal militarycampaignsBabur, the first Mughal emperor
(1526-1530), succeeded to the throne ofFerghana in 1494 when he was
only12 years old. He was forced to leavehis ancestral throne due to
the invasionof another Mongol group, the Uzbegs.After years of
wandering he seizedKabul in 1504. In 1526 he defeated theSultan of
Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, atPanipat and captured Delhi and Agra.
Table 1 charts some of the majorcampaigns of the Mughals. Study
it carefully and see ifyou can notice any long-term patterns. You
will notice,
for example, that theAfghans were animmediate threat toMughal
authority. Notethe relationship betweenthe Mughals and theAhoms
(see also Chapter7), the Sikhs (see alsoChapters 8 and 10),
andMewar and Marwar (seealso Chapter 9). Howwas
Humayunsrelationship with SafavidIran different fromAkbars? Did
theannexation of Golcondaand Bijapur inAurangzebs reign end
hostilities in the Deccan?
Fig. 3Mughal army oncampaign.
Fig. 4Cannons were animportant addition insixteenth
centurywarfare. Babur usedthem effectively at thefirst battle of
Panipat.
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
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48OUR PASTS II
Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1Table 1
mughal emperorsMajor campaigns and events
1526 defeated Ibrahim Lodi and his Afghan supporters
atPanipat.1527 defeated Rana Sanga, Rajput rulers and allies
atKhanua.1528 defeated the Rajputs at Chanderi.Established control
over Agra and Delhi before his death.
BABURBABURBABURBABURBABUR 1526-1530 1526-1530 1526-1530
1526-1530 1526-1530
AKBAR AKBAR AKBAR AKBAR
AKBAR1556-16051556-16051556-16051556-16051556-1605
Akbar was 13 years old when he became emperor. Hisreign can be
divided into three periods.(1) 1556-1570 Akbar became independent
of the regentBairam Khan and other members of his domestic
staff.Military campaigns were launched against the Suris andother
Afghans, against the neighbouring kingdoms ofMalwa and Gondwana,
and to suppress the revolt of hishalf-brother Mirza Hakim and the
Uzbegs. In 1568 theSisodiya capital of Chittor was seized and in
1569Ranthambhor.(2) 1570-1585 military campaigns in Gujarat
werefollowed by campaigns in the east in Bihar, Bengal andOrissa.
These campaigns were complicated by the1579-1580 revolt in support
of Mirza Hakim.(3) 1585-1605 expansion of Akbars empire. Campaigns
inthe north-west. Qandahar was seized from the Safavids,Kashmir was
annexed, as also Kabul, after the death ofMirza Hakim. Campaigns in
the Deccan started and Berar,Khandesh and parts of Ahmadnagar were
annexed.In the last years of his reign Akbar was distracted by
therebellion of Prince Salim, the future Emperor Jahangir.
HUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUNHUMAYUN 1530-1540, 1555-1556
1530-1540, 1555-1556 1530-1540, 1555-1556 1530-1540, 1555-1556
1530-1540, 1555-1556(1) Humayun divided his inheritance according
to the willof his father. His brothers were each given a
province.The ambitions of his brother Mirza Kamran weakenedHumayuns
cause against Afghan competitors. Sher Khandefeated Humayun at
Chausa (1539) and Kanauj (1540),forcing him to flee to Iran.(2) In
Iran Humayun received help from the Safavid Shah.He recaptured
Delhi in 1555 but died in an accident thefollowing year.
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49
Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Jahangir
1605-1627Jahangir 1605-1627Military campaigns started by Akbar
continued.The Sisodiya ruler of Mewar, Amar Singh, acceptedMughal
service. Less successful campaigns againstthe Sikhs, the Ahoms and
Ahmadnagar followed.Prince Khurram, the future Emperor Shah
Jahan,rebelled in the last years of his reign. The efforts ofNur
Jahan, Jahangirs wife, to marginalise him wereunsuccessful.
Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Shah
Jahan 1627-1658Shah Jahan 1627-1658Mughal campaigns continued in
the Deccan underShah Jahan. The Afghan noble Khan Jahan
Lodirebelled and was defeated. Campaigns were launchedagainst
Ahmadnagar; the Bundelas were defeated andOrchha seized. In the
north-west, the campaign to seizeBalkh from the Uzbegs was
unsuccessful andQandahar was lost to the Safavids. In
1632Ahmadnagar was finally annexed and the Bijapurforces sued for
peace. In 1657-1658, there was conflictover succession amongst Shah
Jahans sons.Aurangzeb was victorious and his three
brothers,including Dara Shukoh, were killed. Shah Jahan
wasimprisoned for the rest of his life in Agra.
Aurangzeb 1658-1707Aurangzeb 1658-1707Aurangzeb
1658-1707Aurangzeb 1658-1707Aurangzeb 1658-1707(1) In the
north-east, the Ahoms were defeated in 1663, but rebelled again
inthe 1680s. Campaigns in the north-west against the Yusufzai and
the Sikhs
were temporarily successful. Mughal intervention in
thesuccession and internal politics of the Rathor Rajputs of
Marwar led to their rebellion. Campaigns against theMaratha
chieftain Shivaji were initially successful. ButAurangzeb insulted
Shivaji who escaped from Agra,declared himself an independent king
and resumed hiscampaigns against the Mughals. Prince Akbar
rebelledagainst Aurangzeb and received support from theMarathas and
Deccan Sultanate. He finally fled toSafavid Iran.(2) After Akbars
rebellion Aurangzeb sent armies againstthe Deccan Sultanates.
Bijapur was annexed in 1685 andGolcunda in 1687. From 1698
Aurangzeb personally
managed campaigns in the Deccan against the Marathaswho started
guerrilla warfare. Aurangzeb also had to face the
rebellion in north India of the Sikhs, Jats and Satnamis, in the
north-eastof the Ahoms and in the Deccan of the Marathas. His death
was followedby a succession conflict amongst his sons.
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
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50OUR PASTS II
Mughal traditions of successionThe Mughals did not believe in
the rule of primogeniture,where the eldest son inherited his
fathers estate. Insteadthey followed the Mughal and Timurid custom
ofcoparcenary inheritance, or a division of the inheritanceamongst
all the sons. Follow the highlighted passagesin Table 1, and note
the evidence for rebellionsby Mughal princes. Which do you think is
a fairerdivision of inheritance: primogeniture or coparcenary ?
Mughal relations with other rulersTake a look at Table 1 once
again. You will notice thatthe Mughal rulers campaigned constantly
againstrulers who refused to accept their authority. But asthe
Mughals became powerful many other rulers alsojoined them
voluntarily. The Rajputs are a goodexample of this. Many of them
married their daughtersinto Mughal families and received high
positions. Butmany resisted as well.
Mughal marriageswith the RajputsThe mother ofJahangir wasa
Kachhwahaprincess, daughterof the Rajput rulerof Amber (modernday
Jaipur). Themother of ShahJahan was a Rathorprincess, daughterof
the Rajput rulerof Marwar (Jodhpur).
Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Map 1Akbars reign 1605
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51
Zat rankingNobles with a zatof 5,000 wereranked higher thanthose
of 1,000.In Akbars reignthere were 29mansabdars with arank of 5,000
zat;by Aurangzebsreign the numberof mansabdarshad increased to79.
Would thishave meant moreexpenditure forthe state?
The Sisodiya Rajputs refused to accept Mughalauthority for a
long time. Once defeated, however, theywere honourably treated by
the Mughals, given theirlands (watan) back as assignments (watan
jagir). Thecareful balance between defeating but not
humiliatingtheir opponents enabled the Mughals to extend
theirinfluence over many kings and chieftains. But it wasdifficult
to keep this balance all the time. Look at Table1 again note that
Aurangzeb insulted Shivaji when hecame to accept Mughal authority.
What was theconsequence of this insult?
Mansabdars and jagirdarsAs the empire expanded to encompass
different regionsthe Mughals recruited diverse bodies of people.
Froma small nucleus of Turkish nobles (Turanis) theyexpanded to
include Iranians, Indian Muslims,Afghans, Rajputs, Marathas and
other groups. Thosewho joined Mughal service were enrolled
asmansabdars.
The term mansabdar refers to an individual whoholds a mansab,
meaning a position or rank. It was agrading system used by the
Mughals to fix (1) rank,(2) salary and (3) military
responsibilities. Rank andsalary were determined by a numerical
value called zat.The higher the zat, the more prestigious was the
noblesposition in court and the larger his salary.
The mansabdars military responsibilities requiredhim to maintain
a specified number of sawar orcavalrymen. The mansabdar brought his
cavalrymenfor review, got them registered, their horses brandedand
then received money to pay them as salary.
Mansabdars received their salaries as revenueassignments called
jagirs which were somewhat likeiqtas. But unlike muqtis, most
mansabdars did notactually reside in or administer their jagirs.
They onlyhad rights to the revenue of their assignments whichwas
collected for them by their servants while the
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
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52OUR PASTS II
mansabdars themselvesserved in some other part ofthe
country.
In Akbars reign thesejagirs were carefullyassessed so that
theirrevenues were roughlyequal to the salary of themansadar. By
Aurangzebsreign this was no longer thecase and the actual
revenue
collected was often less than the granted sum. Therewas also a
huge increase in the number of mansabdarswhich meant a long wait
before they received a jagir.These and other factors created a
shortage in thenumber of jagirs. As a result, many jagirdars
triedto extract as much revenue as possible while they hada jagir.
Aurangzeb was unable to control thesedevelopments in the last years
of his reign and thepeasantry therefore suffered tremendously.
Zabt and zamindarsThe main source of income available to Mughal
rulerswas tax on the produce of the peasantry. In most places,
peasants paid taxes through the rural elites, that is,the
headman or the local chieftain. The Mughalsused one term zamindars
to describe all
intermediaries, whether they were local headmenof villages or
powerful chieftains.
Akbars revenue minister, Todar Mal, carriedout a careful survey
of crop yields, pricesand areas cultivated for a ten-year
period,1570-1580. On the basis of this data, tax wasfixed on each
crop in cash. Each provincewas divided into revenue circles with
its ownschedule of revenue rates for individualcrops. This revenue
system was known aszabt. It was prevalent in those areas
whereMughal administrators could survey the land
Fig. 5A mansabdar onmarch with hissawars.
Fig. 6Details from aminiature from ShahJahans reign
depictingcorruption in hisfathers administration.(1) A corrupt
officerrecieves a bribe and(2) a tax-collectorpunishes
poorpeasants.
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53
and keep very careful accounts. This was not possiblein
provinces such as Gujarat and Bengal.
In some areas the zamindars exercised a great dealof power. The
exploitation by Mughal administratorscould drive them to rebellion.
Sometimes zamindarsand peasants of the same caste allied in
rebelling againstMughal authority. These peasant revolts challenged
thestability of the Mughal Empire from the end of theseventeenth
century.
Akbar Nama and Ain-i AkbariAkbar ordered one of his close
friends andcourtiers, Abul Fazl, to write a history of hisreign.
Abul Fazl wrote a three volume historyof Akbars reign titled, Akbar
Nama. The firstvolume dealt with Akbars ancestors and thesecond
volume recorded the events ofAkbars reign. The third volume is the
Ain-iAkbari. It deals with Akbars administration,household, army,
the revenues and geographyof his empire. It also provides rich
detailsabout the traditions and culture of the peopleliving in
India. The most interesting aspectabout the Ain-i Akbari is its
rich statisticaldetails about things as diverse as crops,yields,
prices, wages and revenues.
A closer lookAkbars policiesThe broad features of administration
were laid downby Akbar and were elaborately discussed by Abul
Fazlin his book the Akbar Nama, in particular in its lastvolume,
the Ain-i Akbari.
Abul Fazl explained that the empire was divided intoprovinces
called subas, governed by a subadar whocarried out both political
and military functions. Eachprovince also had a financial officer
or diwan. For themaintenance of peace and order in his province,
thesubadar was supported by other officers such as the
Fig. 7Akbar recieving the Akbar Namafrom Abul Fazl.
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
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54OUR PASTS II
military paymaster (bakhshi), the minister in charge ofreligious
and charitable patronage (sadr), militarycommanders (faujdars) and
the town police commander(kotwal).
Nur Jahans influence in Jahangirs courtMehrunnisa, married the
Emperor Jahangirin 1611 and received the title Nur Jahan.She
remained extremely loyal andsupportive to the monarch. As a mark
ofhonour, Jahangir struck silver coins bearinghis own titles on one
side and on the otherthe inscription struck in the name of theQueen
Begum, Nur Jahan.
The adjoining document is an order(farman) of Nur Jahan. The
square seal states,Command of her most Sublime andElevated Majesty
Nur Jahan Padshah Begum.The round seal states, by the sun of
Shah
Jahangir she became as brilliant as the moon; mayNur Jahan
Padshah be the lady of the age.
Akbars nobles commanded large armies and hadaccess to large
amounts of revenue. While they wereloyal the empire functioned
efficiently but by the end ofthe seventeenth century many nobles
had builtindependent networks of their own. Their loyalties tothe
empire were weakened by their own self-interest.
While Akbar was at Fatehpur Sikri during the 1570she started
discussions on religion with the ulama,Brahmanas, Jesuit priests
who were Roman Catholics,and Zoroastrians. These discussions took
place in theibadat khana. He was interested in the religion
andsocial customs of different people. It made him realisethat
religious scholars who emphasised ritual
anddogmadogmadogmadogmadogma were often
bigotsbigotsbigotsbigotsbigots. Their teachings createddivisions
and disharmony amongst his subjects. Thiseventually led Akbar to
the idea of sulh-i kul or
DogmaDogmaDogmaDogmaDogmaA statement or aninterpretationdeclared
asauthoritative withthe expectationthat it would befollowed
withoutquestion
BigotBigotBigotBigotBigotAn individual whois intolerant
ofanother personsreligious beliefs orculture
Fig. 8Nur Jahans farman.
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55
?
universal peace. This idea of tolerance did notdiscriminate
between people of different religions inhis realm. Instead it
focused on a system of ethics honesty, justice, peace that was
universallyapplicable. Abul Fazl helped Akbar in framing a visionof
governance around this idea of sulh-i kul. Thisprinciple of
governance was followed by Jahangir andShah Jahan as well.
sulh-i kulJahangir, Akbars son, described his fathers policy
ofsulh-i kul in the following words:
As in the wide expanse of the divine compassion there is roomfor
all classes and the followers of all creeds, so in hisImperial
dominions, which on all sides were limited only thesea, there was
room for the professors of opposite religions,and for beliefs, good
and bad, and the road to intolerance wasclosed. Sunnis and Shias
met in one mosque and Christiansand Jews in one church to pray. He
consistently followed theprinciple of universal peace (sulh-i
kul).
Fig. 9Akbar holdingdiscussions withlearned individuals
ofdifferent faiths in theibadat khana.
Can you identifythe Jesuit priestsin this picture?
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
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56OUR PASTS II
The mughal empire in theseventeenth century and afterThe
administrative and military efficiency of the MughalEmpire led to
great economic and commercialprosperity. International travellers
described it as thefabled land of wealth. But these same visitors
were alsoappalled at the state of poverty that existed side byside
with the greatest opulence. The inequalities wereglaring. Documents
from the twentieth year of ShahJahans reign inform us that the
highest rankingmansabdars were only 445 in number out of a total
of8,000. This small number a mere 5.6 per cent of thetotal number
of mansabdars received 61.5 per centof the total estimated revenue
of the empire as salariesfor themselves and their troopers.
The Mughal emperors and their mansabdars spenta great deal of
their income on salaries and goods.This expenditure benefited the
artisans and peasantrywho supplied them with goods and produce. But
thescale of revenue collection left very little for investmentin
the hands of the primary producers the peasantand the artisan. The
poorest amongst them livedfrom hand to mouth and they could hardly
considerinvesting in additional resources tools and supplies to
increase productivity. The wealthier peasantry andartisanal groups,
the merchants and bankers profitedin this economic world.
The enormous wealth and resources commandedby the Mughal elite
made them an extremely powerfulgroup of people in the late
seventeenth century. As theauthority of the Mughal emperor slowly
declined, hisservants emerged as powerful centres of power in
theregions. They constituted new dynasties and heldcommand of
provinces like Hyderabad and Awadh.Although they continued to
recognise the Mughalemperor in Delhi as their master, by the
eighteenthcentury the provinces of the empire had consolidatedtheir
independent political identities. We will read moreabout them in
Chapter 10.
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57
ImagineImagineImagineImagineImagine
Babur and Akbar were about your age whenthey became rulers.
Imagine you haveinherited a kingdom. How would you make
your kingdom stable and prosperous?
Queens and kings
There were several great monarchs all near contemporaries
indifferent parts of the world in the sixteenth century.
These included Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603) of England.
Elizabethwas the last ruler of a dynasty known as the Tudors.
Elizabeths rulewas marked by several conflicts foremost amongst
these wereconflicts between the Roman Catholic Church and the
Protestants,who were attempting to reform the Church. Elizabeth
sided with thelatter, and tried to establish the independence of
the Church of Englandfrom Roman control, even as she adopted
several practices of theRoman Church. She came into conflict with
Philip II, the powerfulruler of Spain, and defeated a Spanish
effort to attack England. Underher patronage English sailors
harassed the Spanish fleet and made itdifficult for them to control
the wealth of the Americas. She was agreat patron of the arts and
supported the famous English playwrightWilliam Shakespeare. A poet
named Edmund Spenser wrote a longepic poem called The Faerie Queene
in her praise.
Find out more about Akbars other contemporaries the ruler
ofOttoman Turkey, Sultan Suleyman, also known as al-Qanuni or
thelawgiver (1520-1566); the Safavid ruler of Iran, Shah Abbas
(1588-1629); and the more controversial Russian ruler, Czar Ivan
IVVasilyevich, also called Ivan the terrible (1530-1584).
Lets recallLets recallLets recallLets recallLets recall
1. Match the following
mansab Marwar
Mongol governor
Sisodiya Rajput Uzbeg
Rathor Rajput Mewar
Nur Jahan Babur
subadar rank
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY
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58OUR PASTS II
2. Fill in the blanks
(a) The capital of Mirza Hakim, Akbars
half-brother,was____________.
(b) The five Deccan Sultanates were Berar, Khandesh,Ahmadnagar,
_____________ and_________________.
(c) If zat determined a mansabdars rank and salary,sawar
indicated his ____________ .
(d) Abul Fazl, Akbars friend and counsellor, helpedhim frame the
idea of ____________________so that he could govern a society
composed ofmany religions, cultures and castes.
3. What were the central provinces under the control ofthe
Mughals?
4. What was the relationship between the mansabdarand the
jagir?
Lets understandLets understandLets understandLets understandLets
understand
5. What was the role of the zamindar in
Mughaladministration?
6. How were the debates with religious scholars importantin the
formation of Akbars ideas on governance?
7. Why did the Mughals emphasise their Timurid andnot their
Mughal descent?
KEYWORDS
Mughal
mansab
jagir
zat
sawar
sulh-i kul
primogeniture
coparcenary
zabt
zamindar
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59
Lets discussLets discussLets discussLets discussLets discuss
8. How important was the income from land revenue tothe
stability of the Mughal Empire?
9. Why was it important for the Mughals to recruitmansabdars
from diverse backgrounds and not justTuranis and Iranis?
10. Like the Mughal Empire, India today is also made upof many
social and cultural units. Does this pose achallenge to national
integration?
11. Peasants were vital for the economy of the MughalEmpire. Do
you think that they are as important today?Has the gap in the
income between the rich and thepoor in India changed a great deal
from the period ofthe Mughals?
Lets doLets doLets doLets doLets do
12. The Mughal Empire left its impact on the differentregions of
the subcontinent in a variety of ways. Findout if it had any impact
in the city/village/region inwhich you live.
THE MUGHAL DYNASTY