HIST 3051 HISTORY OF TURKISH REPUBLIC BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY 2007 Prof. Dr. Zafer Toprak.

HIST 3051

HISTORY OF TURKISH REPUBLIC 

BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY 2007BAHÇEŞEHİR UNIVERSITY 2007

Prof. Dr. Zafer Toprak

 Week IThe Young Turks and the Unionists: Nationalist Response

to Nationalisms

The Tanzimat Reforms – The Young Ottomans - The Young Turk Revolution of 1908 – the Ottoman Parliament  Tanzimat – Genç Osmanlılar - Genç [Jön]Türkler – 1908 Devrimi - Osmanlı İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti – Osmanlı

Parlamentosu

Roderic H. Davison, “From Empire to Republic, 1909-1923,” in Turkey, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1968, pp. 109-127.

Feroz Ahmad, “The Constitutional Revolution, Reform, and War, 1908-1918,” in Turkey – The Quest for Identity, Oxford; Oneworld, 2003, pp. 49-73.

 Week II

The Balkan Wars - The Great War

Balkan Savaşları – I. Dünya Savaşı – Milli İktisat - Feminizm

The Balkan Wars – Word War I – The National Economy – The Emancipation of Woman

 Zafer Toprak, “The Family, Feminism, and the State during the Young Turk Period, 1908-1918,” in Première Rencontre Internationale sur l’Empire Ottoman et la Turquie Moderne, İstanbul-Paris, Éditions ISIS, 1991, s. 441-452.Zafer Toprak, “Nationalism and Economics in the Young Turk Era (1908-1918),” in Industrialisation, Communication et Rapports Sociaux en Turquie et en Mediterranée Orientale,(eds. Jacques Thobie et Salgur Kançal) Paris; L’Harmattan, 1994, s. 260-266.

Week III

The Fall of the Ottoman Empire

the Armistice - The Sèvres Treaty

Mütareke – Sevr Antlaşması Erik J. Zürcher, “The Second Constitutional Period,” chapter in Turkey – A Modern History, by Erik J. Zürcher, I.B. Tauris, 1997, pp: 97-137.

A. L. Macfie, “The End of the Ottoman Empire,” in The End of the Ottoman Empire, 1908-1923, Longman, 1998, pp. 182-208.

Week IV

The Struggle for Independence - the Lausanne Treaty – Turkish Foreign Policy

Milli Mücadele – Lozan Antlaşması – Türk Dış Politikası

Erik J. Zürcher, “The Struggle for Independence,” chapter in Turkey – A Modern History, by Erik J. Zürcher, I. B. Tauris, 1997, pp: 138-172.

William Hale, “Resistance, Reconstruction and Diplomacy, 1918-39,” chapter in Turkish Foreign Policy 1774-2000, London; Frank Cass, 2002, pp. 44-78.

Week V

From Empire to Nation: The Emergence of Modern Turkey

The Proclamation of the Republic - The 1924 Constitution – the Republican People’s Party;

Cumhuriyet’in İlanı - 1924 Teşkilat-ı Esasiye Kanunu – Cumhuriyet Halk Fırkası [Partisi]

 Bernard Lewis, “The Kemalist Republic,” chapter in The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1968, pp. 238-293.

 Feroz Ahmad, “The Kemalist Era, 1919-1938” in Turkey – The Quest for Identity, Oxford; Oneworld, 2003, pp. 75-94.

Week VI

The Early Reforms

Early Reforms - the Legal Reception Movement - the Great Speech and the Congress of 1927 – the Opposition -

the Uprisings.

Devrimler – Hukuk Düzenlemeleri - Nutuk (1927) ve 1927 Kongresi – Muhalefet - Ayaklanmalar 

Erik J. Zürcher, “The Kemalist One-Party State, 1925-45,” chapter in Turkey – A Modern History, by Erik J. Zürcher, I. B. Tauris, 1997, pp: 184-214

Dietrich Jung with Wolfango Piccoli, “National Resurrection – The early Turkish Republic,” chapter in Turkey at the Crossroads – Ottoman Legacies and A Greater Middle East, London & New York; Zed Books, 2001, pp. 59-82.

Week VIIThe Single-Party Era

The 1931 and 1935 Congresses of the RPP; The Liberal Opposition; New Cultural Institutions and Reforms;

Turkey on the Eve of World War II.

1931 – 1935 Kurultayları –Serbest Fırka

Kemal Karpat, “The Establishment and Development of the Republic,” chapter in Turkey’s Politics – The Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H. Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp: 32-76.

Donald Everett Webster, “The Ideology of Kamâlism,” chapter in The Turkey of Atatürk – Social Process in the Turkish Reformation,” Philadelphia, The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1939, pp. 163-172.

Week VIIIThe Cultural Revolution

New Cultural Institutions and Reforms – Language Society – Historical Society – Folk Houses

Kültür Devrimi – Türk Dil Kurumu – Türk Tarih Kurumu – Halkevleri

Donald Everett Webster, “The Party in Politics,” chapter in The Turkey of Atatürk – Social Process in the Turkish Reformation,” Philadelphia, The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1939, pp. 173-180.

Donald Everett Webster, “Propaganda – By Party and Other Agencies,” chapter in The Turkey of Atatürk – Social Process in the Turkish Reformation, Philadelphia, The American Academy of Political and Social Science, 1939,

pp. 181-196.

Week IX

The National Economy and the Great Depression 1923-1929

İzmir Economic Congress; National Economic Policy; Great Depression

İzmir İktisat Kongresi – Milli İktisat – Büyük Buhran

Bent Hansen, “Postwar Recovery, 1923-29,” chapter in The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth – Egypt and Turkey, Oxford University Press,

1991, pp. 312-318.

Z. H. Hershlag, “The Economic Reconstruction Period,” chapter in Turkey – The Challenge of Growth, Leiden; E.J.Brill, 1968, pp. 47-58.

Week X

Turkish Economy and Society in the 30s’

Economic Recession and Distress; Economic Planning in the 30s’; Sumerbank and Etibank

Ekonomik Durgunluk - Sanayi Planları – Sümerbank – Etibank

Z. H. Hershlag, “Origins of Turkish Etatism,” chapter in Turkey – The Challenge of Growth, Leiden; E.J.Brill, 1968, pp. 61-76.

Kemal Karpat, “The Economic and Social Transformation,” chapter in Turkey’s Politics – The Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H. Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp: 77-97.

Week XI

The Second World War: Politics

“National Chief” and the RPP; Turkish Neutrality;

Milli Şef – Tarafsızlık

Kemal Karpat, “The Social Classes and Wartime Developments,” chapter in Turkey’s Politics – The Transition to a Multi-Party System, by Kemal H. Karpat, Princeton University Press, 1959, pp: 98-133. Kemal Karpat, “Modern Turkey,” chapter in The Cambridge History of Islam, volume I, edited by P.M. Hold, Ann K. S. Lambton & Bernard Lewis, Cambridge University Press, 1970, pp. 527-565.

Week XII

The Second World War: War Economics and Society

War Economy and Inflation; National Defence Law; the Capital Tax; the Lot of the Peasantry

Savaş Ekonomisi ve Enflasyon – Millik Korunma Kanunu – Varlık Vergisi – Toprak Mahsulleri Vergisi -

Köylülük 

Bent Hansen, “The Etatist Experiment, 1929-50,” chapter in The Political Economy of Poverty, Equity, and Growth – Egypt and Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 319-336.

Z. H. Hershlag, “In Search of Economic Policies,” chapter in Turkey – The Challenge of Growth, Leiden; E.J.Brill, 1968, pp. 131-142.

Week  XIII

The Coming of Political Democracy

The Land Reform – The Democrat Party – The 1946 Elections

Çiftçiyi Topraklandırma Kanunu – Demokrat Parti – 1946 Seçimleri

 Bernard Lewis, “The Republic after Kemal,” chapter in The Emergence of Modern Turkey, Oxford University Press, 1968, pp. 294-319.

Feroz Ahmad, “Towards Multi-Party Politics and Democracy, 1938-1960,” in Turkey – The Quest for Identity, Oxford; Oneworld, 2003, pp. 75-94.

The World History The Long 19th Century 1789 – 1914The Short 20th Century 1914 – 1991

Turkish 20th Century - from 1908 onwards

The First Part (Seven Weeks)

a) The Second Constitutional Era [1908-1920]İkinci Meşrutiyet

III – The Turkish Republic [Türkiye Cumhuriyeti]b) The Single-Party Era [1923-1946]

The Second Part (Seven Weeks)

The Multi-Party Era [1946 -

Periodization of Turkish History

Young Turk Era 1908-1922The Committee of Union and Progress

The Long Great War 1912-1922Balkan Wars + World War I + National Struggle

Republicans 1923 -1945 – Republican People’s Party

The Democrat Party 1946-1960 & 27 May 1960

The Second Constitutional Period 1961-1980

The Third Constitutional Period 1982 - 2006

Intellectual Stages of Modernity in Turkey

Secularism - Çağdaşlaşma, Batı[lı]laşma, Muasırlaşma, Asrîleşme,

The Tanzimat Reformers [Reşit Paşa, Ali Paşa, Fuat Paşa]

The Young Ottomans [Şinasi, Namık Kemal, Ali Suavi, Mithat Paşa]

The Young Turks [Ahmet Rıza, Prens Sabahattin, Abdullah Cevdet]

The Unionists – The CUP [Committee of Union and Progress][Talat Paşa, Enver Paşa, Cemal Paşa, Ziya Gökalp]

The Republicans [Kemalists][Mustafa Kemal Paşa, İsmet İnönü, Celal Bayar]

Political Regimes in Turkey – Systems of Government

I - Autocracy /Absolutist Monarchy – [Mutlakiyetçi Monarşi]Pre-Tanzimat Era – Tanzimat Era – Post Tanzimat Era

II - Constitutional Monarchy [Meşruti (Anayasal) Monarşi]

a) The First Constitutional Era [1876-1878]

b) The Second Constitutional Era [1908-1920]İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi

III – The Republican Regime [Türkiye Cumhuriyeti]

a) The Single-Party Era [1923-1945]The Autoritarian Modernity

b) The Multi-Party Era [1946 -2006]The Political Democracy

Political Regimes in Turkey – Systems of Government

The Dynastic Period – Devlet-i Al-i Osman – OttomansSultan – Supreme Authority

I - Autocracy /Absolutist Monarchy – [Mutlakiyetçi Monarşi]

a) The Classical Era [1299 – 1789] from Osman to Selim IIISögüt – Bursa – Edirne – İstanbul

b) The Modern Era [1789-1822]

Selim III, Mahmut II, Abdülmecit, Abdülaziz, Abdülhamit II, Mehmet Reşat, Vahdettin

I ) The Classical Era – Social Strata

The Palace entourage – Kapıkulua) Seyfiye [Army],

b) Kalemiye [Primitive Bureaucracy], c) İlmiye [Religious authorities]

The Reaya – Peasantry (Subjects of the Sultan)The Guilds [Lonca] and Merchants

Lack of middling strata (bourgeoisie) – Middle Class

II ) The Modern Era

The Nation-State Process The Making of Ottoman Middling Strata – Middle Class

The Emergence of NationalismsThe liberterian Ideas – Public opinion – Civil society

The Emergence of Ottoman Intelligentsia

II - Constitutional Monarchy [Meşruti (Anayasal) Monarşi]a) The First Constitutional Era [1876-1878]

Birinci Meşrutiyet DönemiThe First Constitution [Kanun-ı Esasi 1876]

The First Parliament [Mebusan Meclisi – Ayan Meclisi 1877-78]

b) The Second Constitutional Era [1908-1920]İkinci Meşrutiyet Dönemi

III – The Turkish Republic [Türkiye Cumhuriyeti]a) The Single-Party Era [1923-1945]

b) The Multi-Party Era [1946 -2006]

Emergence of Ottoman middling strata in the 19th century

The New Bureaucracy (Weberian type) The Tanziman men

The Tanzimat Edict [Tanzimat Fermanı] (1839)Rational, Professional

Tanzimat ReformsThe Centralization of the State

A Modern State Apparatus – Ministries etc.A Modern Army

New Financial and Economic StructureNew Legislations – Codes borrowed from abroad

New generations trained in Secular High Schools

Civil Service Academy (Mülkiye Mektebi ) War Academy (Harbiye Mektebi) Medical College (Tıbbiye Mektebi)

The Young Turk Era in Turkish History 1908-1950

The Young Turk movement 1889 - Ottoman patriotismWho are the Young Turks ?

An organized opposition of reformist Ottoman patriotsAgainst absolutist regime of Abdulhamid II

to reinstate constitution & parliament to propagate liberal and constitutional ideas

European circle - Ottoman constitutionalists in exile

Ahmed Rıza - Ottoman nationalist - Unionist

Prens Sabahattin - liberal, minimal government, free enterprise

Aptullah Cevdet - Westernist

Congresses of Ottoman liberal and reformists in Paris – 1902 and 1907

Young Turk Era 1908-1918

harbinger / forerunner of Republican Turkey

Fortells the coming of a new regime / state

Political changes

The burgeoning of secular nation-state

The rise of constitutionalism

Basic rights – Citizens

Socio-economic and cultural changes

The new economic policy – Import Substitution – National Economy

Secularization - Emancipation of women

The officers from

the Third (Macedonian) and Second (Edirne) armies

coming from the lower middle class

1906-1908 increasing discontent- rising prices

- payment of salaries was in arrears

Signs of discontent

Strikes + small-scale uprisings Macedonian problem

Foreign control

The elections 1908 – Two-tier model [İki dereceli seçim]First electors – Second electors

The CUP – the Committee of Union and Progress [İttihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti [Fırkası]

Mehmed Cavid, Finance minister in June 1909Mehmed Talat, Interior minister in August 1909 -

The Party of Ottoman Liberals – [Osmanlı Ahrar Fırkası]splinter group which broke away from CUP – February 1910

The Party of Freedom and Understanding November 1911[Hürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası]

The Ottoman Socialist Party[Osmanlı Sosyalist Fırkası]

The Counter-revolution - April 1909 [31 Mart Vak’ası]

a) Demand for the Restoration of the Şeriatb) The Dismissal of the cabinet

c) Seclusion of Muslim women – liberated by the new regime

The Third Army and its Unionist supporters denounced the mutiny as unconstitutional

Officers loyal to the constitution organized

The Action Army [Hareket Ordusu] led by Mahmut Şevket Paşaset out from Salonica

to restore order in Istanbul & punish the mutineers

Abdülhamit II toppled from power

ratified by the fetva, a legal opinion, issued by the Şeyhulislam

the accession to sultanate of Mehmet (V) Reşat (65)

The liberal and conservative opponents of the CUP crushed

Mahmut Şevket Paşa dominant force – virtual dictator of the new regime

Unionists – his junior partners

Serious blows struck at the new regime

Bulgaria declared its independence – October 1908

Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia Herzegovina

Crete announced its decision to unite with Greece

Uprisings – Albania, Yemen (İmam Yahya)

The occupation of Tripolitania [Trablusgarp] by Italy - 1911

The Balkan War [Balkan Harbi / Savaşı ] - 1912-1913

1912 – Serbia, Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria - Ottoman Empire

The Treaty of London 1912

The Porte surrendered Edirne to Bulgariaalong with all territory west of de Erez-Midya line

The İstanbul Peace Agreement 1913between O.E. And Bulgaria

Eastern Thrace – including Edirne & Dimotoka – to O.E.Exchange of populatitions

The Babıali Coup [Babiali Baskını]

Mahmut Şevket Paşa as Grand Vizier and War Minister

Unionist – junior partners

Mahmut Şevket Paşa assasinated

CUP monopoly of power from 1913 onwards

1913 Constitutional amendments

Took away power from the sultan -

vested it in the legislature (parliament) and the cabinet

A program of political, social & economic reforms

A) Military Reform - Reorganization of the armyOlder officer corps purged

B) Administrative reform - Provincial administration - decentralization (adem-i merkeziyet)

C) Abolition of the capitulations 1914 - UnilateralPriviledges bestowed to foreigners

The Great War - The First World War

Harb-ı Umumî – Cihan Harbi – Birinci Dünya Savaşı

SECULARISM

Secularization – Laiklik

A) Judicial System

B) Educational System

C) Emancipation of Women

A) The Judicial Unification [Tevhid-i Adalet]

i) Removal of the Şeyhülislam (highest religious authority) from the cabinet (1916) + his jurisdiction limited

ii) Religious courts [Şer’i Mahkemeler]under the control of the Ministry of Justice

iii) The Foundation of the Ministry of Religious Foundations [Evkaf Nezareti]

B) The Educational Unification [Tevhid-i Tedrisat]

i) Religious colleges (medrese)under the Ministry of Education [Maarif Nezareti]

ii) The modernization of the Curricula of the higher medreses

C) Emancipation of Women

Private sphere versus public sphere

i) Law on inheritance, based on German code (1913)

ii) Family law (the territory of the Şeriat)

Decree for Family Law - [Hukuk-ı Aile Nizamnamesi] (1917)

-Uniformity of all Ottoman subjects

a) Right to take initiative for divorceb) Marriages before a magistrate

c) Brides to be aged over 16

Position of women

Ideology : The policy of the CUP (state feminism) +

The effects of the World War – Lack of manpower

compensated for by women hastened the entry of women into the labour market

Women became visible

Women took part in social life

Women appeared in public

Women went to theatres and musical performances

Meetings - Speeches in nationalist clubs

Girls - the schooling system at different levels

Primary education compulsory for girls (1913)

Higher education - the teacher training colleges

Courses at the University (1914) – [İnas Darülfünunu]

World War I

The Ottoman Society for the Employment of Women[Osmanlı Kadınları Çalıştırma Cemiyet]to recruit women for service in industry

The Making of Civil Society

The Concept of Citizenry

Law for the Associations [Cemiyetler Kanunu] 1909

Philanthropic – Communitarian - Labour - Women associations

Nationalist organizations - Turkish Hearths [Türk Ocakları] 1911

Committee of National Defence [Milli Müdafaa Cemiyeti ] (1913) - created a strong “home front” - the Balkan War

Participation in politics – Public OpinionPolitical game became less elitist

It also became more brutal

The Age of Ideologies 1914 - 1945

The Young Turk Era

Laboratory for Turkish Republic

1913 – a turnaround in the ideological currents

Stages of Turkish Nationalism

a) First stage – The proto stage Cultural (literary and linguistic) movement

in the 19th century – up to 1908Symbol: Namık Kemal

b) Second stage – The MetamorphosisEconomic and social movement 1908-1918

Ziya Gökalp

c) Third stage - The final stagePolitical movement 1919-1923

Mustafa Kemal

Late comers – Italy – Germany - TurkeySimilarity with German Stages after Ziya Gökalp

a) First stage – The proto stage

Cultural (literary and linguistic) movement up to the 1840s’Symbol: Fiche

b) Second stage – The MetamorphosisEconomic and social movement up to 1870s’

List

c) Third stage - The final stagePolitical movement – German Unity

Bismarck from 1870s’

STATISM - DEVLETÇİLİK

National Economy after Friedrich List (German economist – opponent of classical economics)

State economics (Devlet iktisadiyatı)

a neo-mercantilist policya prototype of statism

Insistence on “economic independence”

support for indigenous (local) capital foreign capital = exploitation

National credit institutions (milli banka) Support for national bourgeoisie (millî burjuvazi)

From economic liberalism to national economy– Milli İktisat)

a) Free Trade imposed on Turkey by capitulations

Classical liberal point of view

Removal of traditional barriers - guilds

New and modern legislation on transactions & ownership

b) Institutions :

Chambers of commerce (Ticaret Odaları)&

associations

c) Labor Disputes

Social unrest & strikes 1908

Labour legislation – 1909 - Legislation on strikesBan on trades-unions and strikes

favoured entrepreneurs

d) Agriculture

a) Property rights of the landowners

b) Modernization & investment in agriculture

(irrigation projects + infrastructural works + credit facilities)

Modern Finances

Modern Budget in 1909 prepared by Cavit Bey Minister of Finances

Unified and general budget

Increase in incomesinspection & collection of taxes

Budget control through Parliament = Democracy

National Economic Policy

Balkan Wars - a new era - to reliance upon internal strata

Loss of Salonica (1912)

shift of political center (CUP) to Istanbul

The Rise of Nationalism

Statist and Neo-mercantilist Era

State Economics – Devlet İktisadiyatı radical steps – liberalism challenged

Economic liberalism = low customs duties jeopardized interests of the local producers

Complaint of the Muslim merchants unequal competition by foreigners and non-Muslims

due to capitulations

Old style, well-organized trade corporations (petty producers) versus non-Muslim mercantile interests

Muslim-Turkish artisans and merchants - backbone of the new nationalist ideology

The Rise of “National Bourgeoisie”

Protectionalism = Import Substitution

Economic nationalism

neo-mercantilism or protectionism versus

liberalism and free trade – comparative advantages

Liberal [classical] economics of Adam Smith– not universal suits industrialized economy & imperialistic policies

Free trade – beneficial policy for England not for Turkey

Nation as an economic unity – (agriculture & industry & trade)A complete whole – Küll-i tam

Import Substitution – Home Product (Yerli Malı)

1909 Bursa Exposition – Bursa Sergisi

Austro-Hungarian Boycott 1908 – Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina

Muslim boycott of 1913 – National economic policy

Muslims to purchase from their co-religious shopkeepers

The Spirit of Industrialization

Decree for the Encouragement of Industry (1913)[Teşvik-i Sanayi Kanunu]

Joint-stock companies, indigenous – national [milli]

cooperatives & banking institutions

The Industrial census 1913-1915

Economic periodicals Sanayi Mecmuası – İktisadiyat Mecmuası

TheNational Industrialists Society (Millî Fabrikacılar Cemiyeti)

War Economics – The Great War (1914-1918)

Financial & Economic Independence

Capitulations abolished in 1914 - Public Debts postponed

New customs tariffs

specific and selective [protective] tariffs replacing

ad-volarem [liberal] tariffs

protective measures for the infant industries and local products

National market

National economic policy – the motto of both CUP & RPP

Social basis of National Liberation War (Milli Mücadele)

Employment of Muslims in economic & financial sectors

Imperative language - Turkish

in business correspondence and official accounting

Allocation mechanism – Rationing (İaşe)

Kara Kemal – architect of the “national economy program” –

founder of the Special Trade Commission &

“national” joint-stock companies – Milli Şirketler

The Ministry of Rationing – İaşe Nezareti

Creation of Muslim monopoly of trade - capital accumulation

Guilds encouraged to invest in national companies

Reversal of official policy – CUP had abolished the guildsCreated “trade associations” in their places

Support for “national bourgeoisie”

capital accumulation by small merchants of Muslim & provincial origins

Price policy during WWIfavoring Anatolian large farmers = Accumulation for Agrarian

bourgeoisie

National Banking Institutions

National Credit Bank - İtibar-ı Milli Bankası (1917)Substitute for the Ottoman BankMerged with İş Bankası in 1927

Local banking institutions in Anatolia under the aegis of CUP local clubs

Muslim provincial notables & moneyed men Support for CUP policies

Support for National Struggle

FROM CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCHY TO REPUBLIC

THE INTERREGNUM1918 – 1923

The Mudros Armistice 31 October 1918 (Mondros Mütarekesi)

The Congress of Erzurum 23 July 1919

The Congress of Sivas 4 September 1919

The Treaty of Sevres 10 August 1920

The National Pact (Misak-ı Milli) 20 January 1920

The Lausanne Peace Treaty 24 July 1923

The Mudros Armistice 31 October 1918 (Mondros Mütarekesi)

25 articles = amounted to Ottoman capitulation

Military occupation of the straits

Control of railway and telegraph lines

Demobilization and disarmament except to keep law and order

Surrender of Ottoman troops in Arab provinces

The freeing of Entente POW German & Austrian military personnel (two months)

to leave

Article 7: the most dangerous clause

The right to occupy any place if ... security ... threatened

Ottomans evacuated Musul - Occupation of Mosul

Article 24

The right to intervene militarily in the “Armenian” provinces

The Congress of Erzurum 23 July 1919

Society for the Defence of Rights of Eastern Anatolia Şarki Anadolu Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti

Representative Committee – Heyet-i Temsiliye

Mustafa Kemal Paşa – its president

* * *

The Congress of Sivas 4 September 1919

Society for the Defence of the Rights of Anatolia and Thrace Anadolu ve Rumeli Müdafaa-i Hukuk Cemiyeti

The Treaty of Sevres 10 August 1920 - Severe terms imposed The O.E. Rump (remnant) state in northern Anatolia

Thrace and İzmir to Greece

Straits internationalized

Independent Armenia created in eastern Anatolia

- French mandates in Syria & Lebanon Palestine, Transjordan, & Iraq (Mosul) - British mandates

South-western part of Anatolia to Italy

[Kurdistan] – to receive autonomy – right to appeal for independence

Elections – Autumn 1919 for Istanbul parliament

Unionists in control

Salvation of the Fatherland Group

( Felâh-ı Vatan Cemiyeti )

* * *

The National Pact (Misak-i Milli)

20 January 1920

Official & fundamental statement of

the resistance movement

based on the resolutions in Erzurum and Sivas

The National Pact – Misak-ı Milli

An indivisible whole:

Territories inhabited by Ottoman Muslim majority

Arab territories - plebiscite

Kars, Ardahan and Batum – plebiscite

Western Thrace - plebiscite

Security of Istanbul and Marmara Sea

Economic, financial and judicial independence

No return to capitulations

Turning Point

Greek Occupation of Izmir (May 1919)Protests - Mass demonstrations -

The British occupation of Istanbul (16 March 1920)

to put pressure on the nationalists

Administration: Allied Commissions of Control and Organization

Ottoman Parliament prorogued itself in protest (2 April 1920)

The last Ottoman The Peace Treaty of Lausanne

Ankara’s proposal: İzmir

Hosts - Britain, France, Italy and Greece

Ankara & Istanbul invited to send delegations

Grand vizier Ahmet Tevfik Paşa: suggested a joint delegation

Furore in Ankara

Abolition of the Sultanate ( 1 November 1922)

Vahdeddin fled the country / to Malta (17 November 1922)

His cousin - Abdülmecit Efendi - caliph, not a sultan

Turkish delegation led by İsmet İnönü loyal and dependable supporter

Rauf Orbay, known as an Anglophile

Conference - First Phase - 20 November 1922

Instruction to İnönü: not to deviate from National Pact

Discussions extremely difficult

Diffirent perspectives of the two sides

The Entente: victors of the Great War

Adjustment of the terms of Sevres

Turkey: victors in the National Struggle

Sevres: Past history

Turkey not considered equal partners in the beginning

Problems discussed: three headings:

a) Territorial and military

b) Economic and financial

c) Position of foreigners and minorities [Exchange of population]

February 1923 - territorial problems solved(the border in Thrace, the future of the straits)

Mosul question postponed

Conference broke down

Second Phase - Reconvened - 23 April 1923

Greek and Turkish delegations solved their problems.

Small border correction in Thrace

in exchange for renouncing war reparations

The Entente insisted on economic and judicial concessions in exchange for recognition of the abolition of capitulations

Complete sovereignty of Turkish state

Agreement reached on 17 July 1923Treaty signed on 24 July 1923

Ratified on 21 August 1923

Turkey emerged as a sovereign state

The Goals of National Pact basically attained

Capitulations remained abolished

No supervision over Turkish judicial system

Foreigners subject to the Turkish courts

Customs tariffs valid until 1929

Turkey to honour all existing foreign concessions

The Straits zone internationalized under a commission & demilitarized /

except for a garrison of up to 120.000 men in Istanbul

No mention of Armenia or Kurdistan

Minorities, Turkey bound itself to protect its citizens, regardless of creed, nationality or language

All wartime reparation claims renounced

Turkey accepted an amnesty: except 150 opponents of the Nationalists [Yüz Ellilikler]

British troops left Istanbul – 1 October 1923

10 years of continuous warfare 1912-1922

Depopulated, impoverished & in ruins

Demography

Large-scale migration

1914 - 1924Anatolian population declined by % 30

% 10 migration & % 20 warfare mortality

2.500.000 Anatolian Muslims

900.000 Greeks and Armenians

Populism - Solidarism

Philosophy = Solidarism

Political Ideology = Populism

CUP ideological framework of both CUP & RPP

prerequisites of nation state

Populism - Halkçılık

Solidarism - Tesanütçülük / Dayanışmacılık

combination of

German “national economy” &

French “solidarism”

Social Philosophy of CUP - New Life (Yeni Hayat)

Ziya Gökalp – disciple of Durkheim

Solidarism - from Third French Republic

division of labour versus class conflictDurkheim versus Marx

National economy market economy with advanced division of labor

&

organic solidarity (functional interdependence) national coherence - unity rather than plurality

Corporatist version of Solidarity

Ziya Gökalp 1874 - 1924

Türkçülüğün Esasları – The Principles of Turkism 1923

Three Dicta / Saying

1. No Individual but Society

(Fert yok, Cemiyet var)

2. No Classes but Professional Occupations

(Sınıf yok, Esnaf var)

3. No Rights but Duties

(Hak yok, Vazife var)

No Classes But Occupational Groups(Sınıf yok, Esnaf var)

Rejection of class conflict

no class tensions or economic egoism,

Corporatism – MeslekçilikGuild economy – Guild socialism

Occupational solidarity – Small Commodity Producers

Social Democratic version of Solidarity

Economic Ideology– Tekin Alp – Social Democracy

influenced by German “national economy” & “social economy”

Inevitability of classes in a capitalist system

Advance in civilization = capitalist development

Nationalism to strengthen capitalism

Economic development and industrialization under state supervision

Friedrich List – (German) National Economy mentor of Unionist economists (Tekin Alp)

pioneer of protectionalism in Europe

Principles for economic redress in Germany

Emile Durkheim - (French) Division of labourmentor of Unionist sociologists (Ziya Gökalp)

Mechanical solidarity - Organic solidarity

Ferdinand Tönnies (German ) – Gökalp’s reconciliation

Culture vesus civilization ( Hars - medeniyet)

Culture vesus civilization ( Hars - medeniyet)

Barrowed from Ferdinand Tönnies (German sociologist)

Culture –( hars) = set of values and habits current within a community

&

Civilization – (medeniyet) = rational, international system of knowledge, science and technology

Social consequences of national capitalism

Speculation, blackmarket &

disparities in income – New wealth created in the countryside

Individual interests endangered public well being

Social unity necessitated “sociology”

– a panacea [remedy – cure] for Ottoman social disintegration –

prescription: solidarism as u unifying principle

Populism - synonym of democracy

to eradicate social Darwinism & install “social politics”

State interfered on behalf of have-nots (poor people) Harp Zengini [War profiteer] – Harp Fakiri

The New Path (Yeni İstikamet) &

social revolution (içtimai inkılab)

based upon populism (halkçılık)

State acting as intermediary between public & private sectors

CURRENTSCompeting ideologies

-currents of thought –

-– not mutually exclusive –

Ottomanism (Ottoman nationalism / patriotism ) - Osmanlıcılık

Islamism (Traditional & Modernist or Reformist) - İslamcılık

Turkism -Turkish Nationalism - Türkçülük, Türk Milliyetçiliği

CURRENTSCompeting ideologies

Westernism - Muasırlaşmak, Avrupalılaşmak, Asrileşmek

Modern vesion: Çağdaşlaşmak

Solidarism – Tesanütçülük (Dayanışmacılık)

Populism – Halkçılık (Sosyal Demokrasi)

Corporatism – Meslekçilik (Korporatizm)

Socialism – İştirakiyyun (Sosyalizm)

Ottomanism: Millet – Official ideology of the State until 1922

union of the different communities around the Ottoman throne

1908 Revolution – New Vocabulary

- Emergence of citizen (Vatandaş) - Conception of people (Halk)

- Invention of society (Cemiyet)

- Eulogizing individual (Fert – Birey)

Constitutional Citizenship / Anayasal Vatandaşlık in 1876 Constitution

A new constitutional statemeşruti monarşi / anayasal monarşi

Osmanlı Vatandaşı

All subjects, irrespective of creed (religion) or language or race

considered as loyal citizenswith equal rights

1924 Constitution – Türk vatandaşı / yurttaşı

ISLAMISM

Ümmet [Community] rather than Millet [Nation]

A - Regeneration on the basis of Islamic practices [Asr-ı saadet] &

B - Solidarity within the Islamic community (Ümmet) / Internationalism based on religion

Modernist Islam versus Traditionalist Islam

Political discourse = Panislamism – Political unity

Pan-Islamic current - Heyday during Abdulhamit’s reign

Only adoption of Western techniques keeping Islamic values/culture

CUP Islamism – Political expediency after 1913

1. Internal = Loyalty of the Arabs

2. External = Support of Muslim colonies

Holy war (Cihad) declared in 1914aiming at uniting the world Muslims behind the Ottoman State

Islamic discourse during the National Liberation War

Political expediency to unite the countryagainst

The invaders [non-Muslim]

Islamic modernists or reformists

a) Şeriat - compatible with modernity (Namık Kemal)

Mecelle as Civil Code

b) Regeneration - Return to Islamic values

Ümmet (Islamic community) could strengthen the Empire

Sait Halim Paşa, Mehmet Akif (Ersoy)

Several leaders of the National struggle = Progressive Republican Party – Terakkiperver Fırka wanted to keep the Khalifate

NATIONALISM

Turkish Nationalism (a latecomer) :

response to separatist nationalisms Last nationalism in the Ottoman Empire

Against particularist goals of:

Greek, Serbian, Bulgarians, Armenian, Arab & AlbanianNationalisms

THREE TYPES OF TURKISH NATIONALISM

I - Expentionist Nationalism – Pan TurkismEthnic Type

II - Conservative Nationalism - TurkismReligious type

III – Liberal Nationalism – PatriotismCultural type

Variety of Turkish Nationalism - I

Expentionist Nationalism

First Type: up to 1918

Turkism / Pan-Turkism (Turkic / ethnic type) Central Asia

Turan = (Originally) Cultural bind

Ultra-nationalists = Political ideologyUnion of Turkic peoples under Ottoman flag

Variety of Turkish Nationalism - II

Conservative Nationalism – Religiously motivated

Second Type: 1919 -1923

Turkish nationalism (Religious type) – Anatolia & Islam

To mobilize Anatolian people against invaders

Turkic & Islamic cultures combined

Variety of Turkish Nationalism - III

Liberal Nationalism – Patriotism [Yurtseverlik]

Third Type: from 1924

Happy is he who calls himself a Turk

Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyene

rather than “Türk Olana”

Opposed the idea of birth, blood, or ethnicity

Turkish nationalism (Secular type) – Anatolia & secularity

Cultural rather than Ethic or Racial Binding

Anatolian civilizations & western values

Pan-Turkism

Expansinist Nationalism

The impact of the migrants

Hüseyinzade Ali, Ahmet Ağaoğlu, Yusuf Akçura

(Üç Tarz-ı Siyaset - Three Types of policy - 1904) by Yusuf Akçura

Relative merits of Islamist, Ottomanist and Turkist policies

Türk Ocağı (Turkish Hearth)

Social and cultural clubs

Lectures, discussions,

theatrical and musical performances

Türk Yurdu (Turkish Homeland)

Republican years: influenced by fascist regimes in Europe

Tended to adopt the docmatic, ethnic, and linguistic interpretation of nationalism

Turkish nationalism (Third type) – Moderate Nationalism

Patriotism

concentrates on Anatolia as the Turkish heartland

intertwined with populism

Halka Doğru (Towards the people)

periodical (İstanbul – 1913) & organization (İzmir - 1917)

idealized the culture of the Turkish peasant population

(halkiyyat - ethnography)

Ziya Gökalp

Turkish nation had its own strong culture

National pride to be reconciled with the adoption of European ways

Islamic/Arabian + Byzantine medieval culture

to be replaced with a modern European one

while holding on to Turkish culture

Criticism to men of Tanzimat:

joining European civilization

loss of touch with the culture of their own people

Populism - Halkçılık

to create national solidarity to cure social tensions

Peasantism - (Köycülük)

Support for peasantary

Statism

Supremacy of society over the individual

Prototype of Social Democracy

State versus Civil Society

CUP officially supported Ottomanism

The urgent question:

How to bring about a synthesis of European elements with Ottoman values.

Two Currents:

Centralist – State / Society – Ziya GökalpDecentralist – Individual – Prens Sabahattin

Unionist Young Turks– Revolutionary changes –

Ziya Gökalp

The Committee of Union and Progressİttihad ve Terakki Cemiyeti / Fırkası

Emphasis on state

A – Centralization

B – National Economy and State Economics

State is the logical and only means to achieve change

Liberal Young Turks– Evolutionary changes –

Prens Sabahattin

The Party of Freedom and UnderstandingHürriyet ve İtilaf Fırkası

Emphasis on society / individual rather than state

A- Decentralization

B - Private Initiative and Liberal economics

WESTERNISM

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk

Cultural and civilizational change

Adoption of European techniques & ideas & way of life

Young Turk Proponent: Dr. Abdullah Cevdet

İctihad (periodical)

discarding traditional Ottoman civilization &

adopting the European ways in totality

Turkey in 1923

Army recruitment – peasant population

Fronts in four corners

Caucasus,

Gallipoli,

Palestine,

Mesopotamia,

Galicia

Eastern Anatolia: War theater 1915

Shortage of labor in agriculture / labor brigades

Suffering –

retreating armies

Armenian/ Orthodox Anatolian delocation / deportation

Disruption of infrastructure / Railways, buildings etc.

Famine / Infectious deseases

Fatal Epidemic Deseases / Pestilence

* * *

Independence War

Retreating and fleeing Greek forces

& advancing Turkish troops

High mortality rate

due to

Warfare

Delocations / Deportations

Atrocities

Famine

Epidemics

Epidemics: Cholera & Typhoid

In 12 provincesWidows among women exceeded % 30

Migration

War with Russia (1878) 93 Harbi

&

Balkan War of 1912-13

Muslim refugees 100.000s.

During and after Great War

Armenians migrated to

Soviet Union, France & USA - 100.000s -

Greeks from Western Anatolia

Treaty of Lausanne

Remainder of the Rum Orthodox – 900.000

Muslim from Greece – 400.000

Net loss of population of Anatolia between 1912-1922

From 17 to 12 million / productive human capital

Ruralization

Depopulation of cities

% 25 to % 18

Ethnic

Structure

Anatolia

% 80 Muslim in 1914

% 98 Muslim in 1924

Armenians 65.000

Greeks 120.000

Economic structure

Havoc (damage-destruction) wrought by wars

Physical damages

Railways & bridges

Izmir devastated by fire - 1922

* * *

Exodus of entrepreneurs and managers

Stock of industrial and commercial know-how

International trade 1/3 of pre-war level

Agriculture recuperated quickly

GNP to reach 1914 – 1930s

* * *

Ottoman Public Debts

German War debts 170 million pounds written off

Ottoman Debts consolidated

Apportioned to the successor states or territories

% 65 Turkey

End of Part 1