His 102 chapter 23 economics and culture - modern industry & mass politics, 1870-1914

MODERN INDUSTRY AND MASS POLITICS, 1870–1914

Chapter 23

Introduction

O my brother Futurists! All of you, look at yourselves! … …In the name of that Human Pride we so adore, I proclaim that the hour is nigh when men with broad temples and steel chins will give birth magnificently, with a single trust of their bulging will, to giants with flawless gestures. Marinetti, Edizione futuriste di Poesia, Milan 1915; as quoted in “Futurism”, ed. By Didier Ottinger; Centre Pompidou / 5 Continents Editions, Milan, 2008, p. 21.

Introduction

F.T. Marinetti 1909 Futurist Manifesto called for radical

renewal of civilization through “courage, audacity, and revolt”

The radicalism of the early 20th century Second industrial revolution New demands in the political arena Socialist mobilization of industrial workers White suffragists demand the franchise

F.T. Marinetti: Futurism & Fascism

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What is Fascism?

Fascism is not a single ideology but encompasses some or all of the following elements: Radical, authoritarian, nationalist Rejuvenation of the nation based on a commitment to organic national unity

of one people based on Ancestry Culture Blood

Embraces discipline, indoctrination of the young; Purify the nation of foreign influences that are causing degeneration

Fascism opposes conservatives as compromising Fascism characterizes liberalism, socialism and communism as

polluting the national resolve and vigor Fascists consider their party to be a Vanguard Party

Embracing revolution from above; strong authority under a strong national leader, and authoritarian democracy based on most qualified Qualifications based on race, birthright nationalism and commitment to the cause

20th Century Technologies and Global Transformations

New technologies Steel

Between the 1850s and 1870s, the cost of producing steel decreased

Steel industry dominated by Germany and the United States

Annual Output of Steel (in Millions of Metric Tons)


Electricity By the 1880s, alternators and transformers

produce high-voltage alternating current Edison invented the incandescent filament

lamp in 1879


Chemicals Efficient production of alkali and sulfuric acid

Transformed manufacture of paper, soaps, textiles, and fertilizer

British led the way in soaps and cleaners and in mass marketing

German production focused on industrial uses—synthetic dyes and refining petroleum

New Technologies and Global Transformations

The liquid-fuel internal combustion engine By 1914, most navies had converted from

coal to oil Discovering the potential for worldwide

industrialization

The Second Industrial Revolution


Changes in scope and scale Technological changes created changes in

scope and scale of industry National mass cultures Changes

Population grew constantly Food shortages declined Populations in Western Europe and North America

less susceptible to illness, lower infant mortality Advances in medicine, nutrition, and personal

hygiene


Changes in scope and scale Consumption

Consumption as a center of economic activity and theory The appearance of the department store Modern advertising Credit payments

Consumer debt = outstanding debt of consumers, as opposed to businesses or governments. In macroeconomics terms: debt used to fund consumption rather

than investment; includes debts incurred on purchase of goods (cars, refrigerators) that are consumable and/or do not appreciate.

Some economists view consumer debt as a way to increase domestic production, on the grounds that if credit is easily available, the increased demand for consumer goods should cause an increase of overall domestic production.

Milton Freidman suggests that consumers take debt to smooth consumption throughout their lives, borrowing to finance expenditures (particularly housing and schooling) earlier in their lives and paying down debt during higher-earning periods.

The Industrial Regions of Europe


The rise of the corporation Economic growth and demands of mass

consumption spurred the reorganization of capitalist institutions

The modern corporation appeared Limited-liability laws

Stockholders would only lose their share value in the event of bankruptcy


The rise of the corporation Size and control

Larger corporations became necessary for survival

Control shifted from the family to distant bankers and financiers

An ethos of impersonal finance capital Demand for technical expertise The white-collar class: middle-level salaried

managers, neither owners nor laborers


The rise of the corporation Consolidation would protect industries from

cyclical fluctuations and unbridled competition

Vertical integration Industries controlled every step of production

From acquisition of raw materials to distribution of finished goods

Population Growth in Major States between

1871 and 1911 (Population in Millions)


The rise of the corporation Horizontal integration

Organized into cartels Companies in the same industry would band

together Fixing prices and controlling competition Coal, oil, and steel were particularly well adapted

Dominant trend: increased cooperation between government and industry

Appearance of businessmen and financiers as officers of state


International economics Search for markets, goods, and influence

fueled imperial expansion Trade barriers arose to protect home

markets An interlocking, worldwide system of

manufacturing, trade, and finance Near-universal adoption of the gold

standard


International economics Most European countries imported more

than they exported Relied on “invisible” exports: shipping,

insurance, and banking London as money market of the world

Mass manufacturing and commodity production changed patterns of consumption and production

20th Century Labor Politics, Mass Movements

Changes in the European working class In general, workers resented corporate

power The “new unionism”

Labor unions evolved into mass centralized national organizations

Organization across whole industries Brought unskilled workers into the ranks

20th Century Labor Politics, Mass Movements

Changes in the European working class Changes in national political structure

Political process opened to new participants Efforts to expand the franchise (1860s–1870s)

created new constituencies of working-class men

Socialist organizations abandoned their insurrectionary radicalism and opted for reform

Labor Politics, Mass Movements

Changes in the European working class Karl Marx

Published first volume of Das Kapital in 1867) Attacked capitalism in terms of political economy

The Marxist appeal in the 20th century Provided a crucial foundation for building a

democratic mass politics Made powerful claims for gender equality The promise of a better future

Das Capital: Critique of Political Economy (1867), by Karl Marx

The motivating force of capitalism is the exploitation of labor

Unpaid work is the ultimate source of profit and surplus value

The employer can claim right to the profits of employee’s labor because he owns the means of production Legally protected by the State through property rights Producing money rather than commodities (goods and

services), the workers continually reproduce the economic conditions by which they labor.

"Laws of motion" of the capitalist economic system describe the dynamics of the accumulation of capital; the growth of wage labor, the transformation of the workplace, the concentration of capital, commercial competition, the banking system.

Marxist Critique of Capitalism

Commerce, as a human activity, implies no morality beyond that required to buy and sell goods and services;

Growth of the market system made discrete entities of the economic, the moral, and the legal spheres of human activity in society subjective moral value is separate from objective economic

value. political economy – the just distribution of wealth and

"political arithmetic" about taxes — became three discrete fields of human activity

Economics, Law, Ethics, Politics divorced from morality because the use of money voided religious and political illusions about its economic value


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Marxist socialism spread to social democratic parties in

Germany, Belgium, France, Austria, and Russia Disciplined, politicized workers’ organizations

The model of all socialist parties was the German Social Democratic Party (SPD, founded 1875)

Strove for political change within Germany’s parliamentary system

Before World War I, the Social Democrats were the best-organized workers’ party in the world because:

Rapid expansion of industrialization in Germany Large urban working class in Germany A new parliamentary constitution in Germany

Socialist Party Pamphlet, c. 1895


Britain Labour Party (1901) Remained moderate and committed to

incremental reform


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Anarchism

Opposed to centrally organized economics and politics

Advocated small-scale, localized democracy Similar foundations as Marxism, but different

approaches to change Conspiratorial vanguard violence

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The Internationale

Arise, ye workers from your slumber,Arise, ye prisoners of want.For reason in revolt now thunders,and at last ends the age of cant!Away with all your superstitions,Servile masses, arise, arise!We'll change henceforth the old tradition,And spurn the dust to win the prize! So comrades, come rally, And the last fight let us face. The Internationale, Unites the human race. So comrades, come rally, And the last fight let us face. The Internationale, Unites the human race.

Arise, you prisoners of starvation!Arise, you wretched of the earth!For justice thunders condemnation:A better world's in birth!No more tradition's chains shall bind us,Arise you slaves, no more in thrall!The earth shall rise on new foundations:We have been nought, we shall be all! 'Tis the final conflict, Let each stand in his place. The international soviet Shall be the human race 'Tis the final conflict, Let each stand in his place. The international working class Shall be the human race

British Translation American Version


The spread of socialist parties—and alternatives Syndicalism

Demanded that workers share ownership and control of the means of production

The capitalist state must be replaced by workers’ syndicates or trade associations


The limits of success Socialist parties never gained full worker

support Some workers retained loyalty to liberal

traditions or religious affiliation Others were excluded

German revisionism Eduard Bernstein (1850–1932) called for a shift

to moderate reform


The limits of success German radicals

Rosa Luxembourg (1870–1919) called for mass strikes, hoping to ignite a proletarian revolution

Conflict over strategy and tactics reached its climax in the years before World War I

Demanding Equality: Suffrage and the Women’s Movement

Women’s rights By 1884, Germany, France, and Britain had

enfranchised most men Women relegated to status as second-class citizens Women pressed their interests through

independent organizations and forms of direct action

Women’s organizations Votes became the symbol for women’s ability to

attain full personhood Middle-class women founded clubs, published

journals, organized petitions


British women’s suffrage campaigns Exploded in violence Millicent Fawcett (1847–1929)

National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies (1897)

Composed of sixteen different organizations Her movement lacked political and economic clout


British women’s suffrage campaigns Emmeline Pankhurst (1858–1928)

Founded the Women’s Social and Political Union (1903)

Adopted tactics of militancy and civil disobedience

Women chained themselves to the visitor’s gallery in the House of Commons

Slashed paintings in museums The British government countered this violence

with repression


British women’s suffrage campaigns The martyrdom of Emily Wilding Davison

(1913) Threw herself in the path of the race horse

of the Prince of Wales to draw attention to suffrage for women


Redefining womanhood Campaign for women’s suffrage helped

redefine Victorian gender roles The increasing visibility of women Middle-class women and work

Worked as social workers, clerks, nurses, and teachers

Women, politics, and reform Poor relief, prison reform, temperance

movements, abolition of slavery, education


Redefining womanhood The “new” woman

Demanded education and a job Claimed the right to be physically and

intellectually active Opposition

Never exclusively male opposition Christian commentators criticized suffragists for

moral decay Others argued that feminism would dissolve the

family

White-Collar Work

Changes in White-Collar Work

Liberalism and Its Discontents Late-nineteenth-century liberalism

Mass politics upset the balance between middle-class interests and traditional elites

Trade unions, socialists, and feminists all challenged Europe’s governing class of liberals and elites

Liberalism and Its Discontents France: the embattled republic

Franco-Prussian War (1870) a humiliating defeat for France

The Paris Commune (1871) Pitted the nation against the radical city of Paris Paris refused to surrender to the Germans Government sends troops to Paris in March 1871 Barricades and street fighting Twenty-five thousand were executed, killed in fighting,

or consumed in fires

Government of the Second Empire collapsed The Third Republic

Liberalism and Its Discontents French anti-Semitism: a new form of

radical right-wing politics (nationalist, antiparliamentary, and antiliberal) The Dreyfus Affair (1894)

Dreyfus convicted of selling military secrets to Germany

Sent to Devil’s Island The verdict was questioned and documents

were proven to be forgeries (1896) Dreyfus eventually freed in 1899 and cleared of

all guilt in 1906 Republicans saw the church and army as hostile

toward the republic

Liberalism and Its Discontents The Dreyfus Affair and anti-Semitism as

politics Merged three strands of anti-Semitism

Christian anti-Semitism (Jews as Christ killers) Economic anti-Semitism (Rothschild as

representative of all Jews) Racial thinking (Jews as an inferior race)

Anti-Semitic French Cartoon with Caricature of

Jakob Rothschild, 1898

“The Ogre’s Meal,” Caricature of Edouard Drumont, Editor

of La Libre Parole, from Le Rire, 1896

“Anti-Semitic Agitation in Paris: Mathieu Dreyfus Burned

in Effigy in Montmartre (Paris).”

Liberalism and Its Discontents Zionism: Theodor Herzl (1860–1904)

Considered the Dreyfus Affair to be an expression of a fundamental problem Jews might never be assimilated into European

culture Endorsed Zionism—building a separate

Jewish homeland outside Europe Zionism as a modern nationalist movement

to create a nation-state for Jewish citizens

Liberalism and Its Discontents Germany’s search for imperial unity

Three problems Divide between Catholics and Protestants Growing Social Democratic Party Divisive economic interests of agriculture and

industry

Liberalism and Its Discontents Germany’s search for imperial unity

The new coalition Agricultural and industrial interests allied with socially

conservative Catholics Social Democrats depicted new enemies of the German

empire Bismarck passed antisocialist laws in 1878

Workers Reforms guaranteed sickness and accident insurance Rigorous factory inspection Limited working hours for women and children Old-age pensions

Social welfare legislation did not win the loyalty of workers

Liberalism and Its Discontents Britain: from moderation to militance

Problems Liberal parliamentary framework began to

show signs of collapse Nationwide strikes of coal and railway workers Irish radical nationalists began to favor armed

revolution Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Brotherhood Home Rule tabled (1913)

Liberalism and Its Discontents Russia: the road to revolution

Internal conflicts and an autocratic political system

Threatened by Western industrialization and Western political doctrines


Russian industrialization (1880s–1890s) State-directed industrial development Serfs emancipated in 1861 Heightened social tensions Workers left their villages temporarily to work

and then returned for planting and harvest The legal system

No recognition of trade unions or employers’ associations

Outdated banking and finance laws


Alexander II (1818–1888, r. 1855–1881) The “Tsar Liberator” Set up zemstvos, provincial land and county

assemblies (1804) Curtailed the rights of zemstvos, censorship of

the press Assassinated by a radical


Alexander III (1845–1894, r. 1881–1894) Steered the country toward the right Stern repression

Increased authority of the secret police


Nicholas II (1868–1918, r. 1894–1917) Continued these “counterreforms” Advocated Russification to extend the language, religion,

and culture of Greater Russia Pogroms and open anti-Semitism

The Populists Russia to modernize on its own terms, not those of the

West Based on the ancient village commune (mir) Mostly middle class, students, and women Overthrowing the tsar through anarchy and insurrection Read Marx’s Capital and emphasized peasant socialism


Russian Marxism Organized as the Social Democratic Party

Concentrated on urban workers Russian autocracy would give way to capitalism Capitalism would give way to a classless society

Social Democratic Party split (1903) Bolsheviks (majority group)

Called for a central party organization of active revolutionaries

Rapid industrialization meant they did not have to follow Marx Mensheviks (minority group)

Gradualist approach Reluctant to depart from Marxist orthodoxy


Social Democratic Party split (1903) Lenin

Leader of the Bolsheviks while in exile Coordinated socialist movement Russia was ripe for revolution

Liberalism and Its Discontents The first Russian Revolution (1905)

Causes The Russo-Japanese War Rapid industrialization had transformed Russia

unevenly Low grain prices resulted in peasant uprisings Radical workers organized strikes and

demonstrations


Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905) Two hundred thousand workers led by Father

Gapon demonstrated at the Winter Palace Guard troops killed 130 and wounded several

hundred


The protest grew Merchants closed stores Factory owners shut down factories Lawyers refused to hear cases The autocracy had lost control


Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto Guaranteed individual liberties Moderately liberal franchise for the election of

a Duma Genuine legislative veto powers for the Duma

Nicholas failed to see that fundamental change was needed 1905–1907: Nicholas revoked most of the

promises made in October Deprived the Duma of its principal powers


Russian agriculture remained suspended between emerging capitalism and the peasant commune


Peter Stolypin (1862–1911) and the Stolypin reforms (1906–1911) Agrarian reforms for the sale of 5 million acres

of royal land to peasants Granted peasants permission to withdraw for

the mir Canceled peasant property debts Legalized trade unions Established sickness and accident insurance

Liberalism and Its Discontents Nationalism and imperial politics: the

Balkans Rising nationalism divides the

disintegrating Ottoman Empire Uprisings in Bosnia, Herzegovina, and

Bulgaria (1875–1876) Reports of atrocities against Christians Led to the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) The Treaty of San Stefano The great powers intervened

The Decline of the Ottoman Empire, 1699–1912


Balkans The Treaty of Berlin (1878)

Bessarabia to Russia, Thessaly to Greece Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austrian control Montenegro, Serbia, and Romania become

independent states The independent kingdom of Bulgaria

(1908) Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina


Balkans Turkish nationalism

Turks had grown impatient with weakness of the sultan

The Young Turks Forced the sultan to establish a constitutional

government in 1908 Launched effort to “Ottomanize” all imperial

subjects Tried to bring Christian and Muslim communities

under more centralized control Spread Turkish culture

The Science and the Soul of the Modern Age

Darwin’s revolutionary theory Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

The Origin of Species (1859) Five years aboard H.M.S. Beagle Observed manifold variations of animal life

Theorized that variations within a population made certain individuals better adapted for survival


Darwin’s revolutionary theory Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

Darwin used natural selection to explain the origin of new species

Applied theory to plant and animal species as well as to man

The Descent of Man (1871) The human race had evolved from an apelike

ancestor


Darwin’s revolutionary theory Organic evolution by natural selection

transformed the conception of nature itself An unsettling new picture of human

biology, behavior, and society Jean Lamarck (1744–1829)


Darwinian theory and religion Darwinian theory challenged deeply held

religious beliefs Sparked a debate on the existence of God For Darwin, the world was not governed by

order, harmony, and divine will but by random chance and struggle

Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895) Argued against Christians appalled by the

implications of Darwinism and called himself an agnostic

“… follow reason as far as it can take you”


The rise of the social sciences Influence of Darwinism on sociology,

psychology, anthropology, and economics Social Darwinism

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) Applied individual competition to classes, races,

and nations Coined the expression “survival of the fittest”


The rise of the social sciences Social Darwinism

Popularized notions of social Darwinism were easy to comprehend

Integrated into popular vocabulary Justified the natural order of rich and poor Nationalists used social Darwinism to rationalize

imperialism and warfare


Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche The irrational and animalistic side of human nature Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)

“Classical conditioning” Behaviorism

Eschewed mind and consciousness Focused on physiological responses to the environment

Sigmund Freud (1856–1936) Behavior largely motivated by unconscious and

irrational forces Unconscious drives and desires conflict with the rational

and moral conscience


Challenges to Rationality: Pavlov, Freud, and Nietzsche Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) and the

attack on tradition Middle-class culture dominated by illusions and

self-deceptions Rejected rational argumentation Bourgeois faith in science, progress, and

democracy as a futile search for truth


Religion and its critics The Roman Catholic Church on the

defensive Pope Pius IX issued the Syllabus of Errors in

1864 Condemned materialism, free thought, and

religious relativism Convoked a church council (first one since the

late sixteenth century) Doctrine of papal infallibility

Denounced by the governments of several Catholic countries


Religion and its critics Pope Leo XIII (1878-1903)

Brought a more accommodating climate to the Church

Acknowledged that there is good and evil in modern civilization

Added a scientific staff to the Vatican, opened archives and observatories


New readers and the popular press Facilitated the spread of new ideas Rising literacy rates and new forms of

printed mass culture Journalism

Emphasis on the sensational Advertising “Yellow” journalism—entertainment,

sensationalism, and the news


The first moderns: innovations in art Modernism

Questioning the moral and cultural values of liberal, middle-class society

Characteristics Self-conscious sense of rupture from history and

tradition Rejection of established values Insistence on an expressive and experimental

freedom A new understanding of the relationship

between art and society


The first moderns: innovations in art Wassily Kandinsky (1866–1944)

Devotee of occult mysticism The role of the visionary artist From soulless materialism to the psychic-

spiritual life

Black Lines by Wassily Kandinsky, 1913


The revolt on canvas French Impressionism in the 1870s

The legacies of Claude Monet (1840–1926) and Pierre-Auguste Renoir (1841–1919)

Paved the way for younger artists to experiment more freely

Impressionist artists organized their own independent exhibitions

Impression/Sunrise, Calude Monet 1872


The revolt on canvas Post-Impressionism

Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) Reducing natural forms to geometric equivalents Emphasis on subjective arrangement of color and

form Art as a vehicle for an artist’s self-expression

Still Life with a Curtain, Paul Cezanne 1895


The revolt on canvas German Expressionism

Emil Nolde (1867–1956) Painters turned to acidic tones, violent figural

distortions, and crude depictions of sexuality Edvard Munch (1863–1944) and Egon

Schiele (1890–1918) Henri Matisse (1869–1954) and Pablo

Picasso (1869–1954)

The Scream, Edvard Munch, 1893

Self Portrait, Study for Ermiten, Egon Schiele, 1912

Portrait of Ambroise Vollard by Pablo Picasso, 1909

His 102 chapter 23 economics and culture - modern industry & mass politics, 1870-1914

Education

century technologies

global transformations

steel decreased steel

futurism fascism

scale technological

steel chins

compromising fascism

degeneration fascism