Hinduism Chapter 3. The Quest for Discovering Hinduism begins…

HinduismChapter 3

The Quest for Discovering Hinduism

begins…

Hinduism Terms• Indus Valley Aryan Yoga

Hinduism• Veda/Vedas Rig Veda Sanskrit Sutras • Brahmanas Aranyakas Upanishads• Ramayana Mahabharata Bhagavad Gita• Puranas Tantras Brahmanic tradition • Brahman Atman Deva Avatar

• Caste system: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudra• Trimurti: Brahma Shiva (Sheva) Vishnu Durga

Kali • Karma Samsara/reincarnation Moksha• Dharma Santana Dharma• Ahimsa Asceticism Puja Mantra • Om Bhakti yoga Vedanta Lingam• Maya Prana Darshan Guru• Ashram Holi Durga Puja Divali

Hinduism: Lecture Overview/ Outline

• Introduction• Highlights Overview of the Religion• Historical Overview from Origins of

Hinduism and Vedic Times to Classical Age to Modern Times

• Main Beliefs• Main Sacred Texts• Main Practices• Main Divisions• Main Festivals

Hinduism: Introduction (1)

• Hinduism one of the oldest & most complex of all religions of the world

• “Hinduism” term: not a single tradition• “Hindu” was first used by Muslim sailors label

people in India, derivative of “Indus” (according to another source), and then centuries later by Colonial British power; in both cases, the term is applied by foreigners

• Only recently has “Hinduism” begun to be used to refer to their own religious beliefs and practices

• Dharma: duty, right, natural law, social welfare, ethics, transcendental realization, religion

Hinduism: Introduction (2)

• One of the most diverse and complex of all religions

• Spiritual expressions/ traditions range from extreme asceticism to extreme sensuality and from heights of personal devotion to deity to abstract Brahmanic philosophy, from metaphysical monistic proclaims to the worship of a multiplicity of deity-images

Hinduism: Highlights Overview of the

Religion• The Vedas are the oldest Hindu religious

texts• Karma--moral sense and consequential

effect of all action• In modern Hinduism, millions of gods and

goddesses are worshipped• The Laws of Manu are the “blueprint” for

Hindu society (codified the Caste system)• The Bhagavad Gita is among the great

epic poems of Hinduism.• Hinduism--the source for three more world

religions:Jainism, Buddhism, and Sikhism

Timeline of Hinduism Highlights

• 2500-1500 B.C.E Indus Valley civilization• 1750-1200 B.C.E. Aryan migration to India 1st Vedas (texts) compiled• 900-700 B.C.E. Brahmanas written• 400 B.C.E. Vedas completed• 600-100 B.C.E. Upanishads compiled• 400 B.C.E.200 C.E. Ramayana (present form)• 400 B.C.E. –400 C.E. Mahabhata (includes the Bhagavad Gita) compiled• 100 C.E.-300 C.E. Laws of Manu compiled; caste system formalized 500-1500 C.E. Puranas recorded 711 C.E. Muslim invasion begins 1556-1707 Mogul Empire rules India 1857-1947 British rule of India

Origin of Hinduism I:historical and geographical context

• From the 3rd to 2nd Millennium B.C.E. (2500–1500 B.C.E. in the Indus Valley

• A civilization had come…and gone

Origin of Hinduism II:Setting the Stage

• Pre-Aryan India: the early Dravidian peoples of India developed a flourished civilization in Indus Valley

• Archaeology uncovered cities w/ streets, elaborate plumbing, irrigation, and amulets in “yoga”? position and fertility gods & goddesses images

• Then come the Ayrans…(Aryan theory: see next few slides)

Origin of Hinduism III:The Aryan Theory (a)

• Aryans (“Noble ones” from land of Persia) Indo-European invaders came into the Indus Valley in migratory waves 1750-1200 B.C.E.

• The highly civilized city culture had worn out their land w/ agriculture, & they declined

• Aryan migration in Indus Valley: assimilation into the culture

• The Aryans may have moved in AFTER the decline or they invaded & conquered before the decline

Origin of Hinduism IV: Aryan Theory (b): Invasion into

India

They spoke an Indo-European language

Some Aryans remained in the Iranian plateau where the ancient Iranian religion Zoroastrianism was founded

Origin of Hinduism V: Aryan Religion (1)

• Best source of knowledge: the Vedic literature

• Vedas use “Aryan” to mean a noble person, not a racial category

• Polytheistic religion: the worship of personifications of the natural forces: storm, sun, moon, fire, & fertility of soil, as similarly did other Indo-European peoples

Origin of Hinduism VI: Aryan Religion (2)

• Open air altars• The chief manner of

worship of the Aryan gods was sacrifice of animal & diary products, on altars in open places

• Agni, the god of fire, was the channel thru whom offerings were presented to the other gods (source: Vedas

• The horse sacrifice (the Vedas)

Origin of Hinduism VII: Aryan Contributions & Society

• Early sources reveal Aryan society began to develop into 3 basic classes, varnas:Brahmins-the priests who served the cults

Kshatriyas-the chieftains, rulers, and warriors

Vaishyas-the commoners, merchants• A 4th group: Shudras, may have been the

pre-Aryan conquered people and were not full members in society, but slaves, servants to the Aryans

The Vedas

The Vedic Era and the Vedas (1)• The Vedas: Oldest sacred books of Hinduism Begun as early as 2000 BCE But others date it 1500-400 B.C.E.• The Four basic Vedic Books:

Rig-Veda-basic mythology of the Aryan gods

Yajur-Veda-knowledge of rites Sama-Veda-knowledge of chants Atharva-Veda-Knowledge of

sage Atharva

The Vedas (2)• Each Vedic book contains Mantras, hymns to be sung

to the godsThese hymn/mantra sections are considered to be the most ancient material, since it is believed that in the case of most ancient religions, these were conveyed, memorized, chanted, and passed from one generation to generation to the next orally before they ever got written down (Hopfe and Woodward p. 85).

• Together, the Mantra and Brahmana (priestly rites) sections are considered to be the oldest material in the Vedas.

Vedic Deities• Ingra-god of thunderbolt, clouds, & rain, and ruler of

the heaven, receives most of the attention in the Vedas

• Agni-the god of fire, and god of the priests• Varuna-god who presides over the order of the

universe & who forgives those who sin• Vishnu-at time of the Vedas, he was not an important

deity, and so mentioned briefly• Post-Vedic Times: Shiva & Vishnu became two of the

most popular gods of Hinduism• Devi—deity• Behind the myriad aspects of divinity, the sages

perceived ONE unseen reality

Comparative: The Vedas Story of the Flood comparative w/ the Biblical

Account (1)• The Vedas, besides hymns to the many Aryan gods,

also contain legendary and mythological material from earlier Indian life, such as the Story of Manu:“They brought water to Manu for washing, customary for washing hands. While he was washing, a fish came into his hands. It said to him in word, ‘Bring me up, I shall save you.’ ‘From what shall you save me?’ ‘A flood will carry away all creatures. I shall save you from that flood… The flood will come in such and such a year. Take my advice and build a ship. Enter it when the flood arises, and I shall save you from the flood.’ After rearing the fish, Manu took it to sea. In the year indicated to him by the fish, he acted according to the advice of the fish and built a ship. When the flood arose, he entered it. The fish…

Comparative: The Vedas Story of the Flood comparative w/ the Biblical

Account (2)• Then swam to him. He tied the rope of the ship to the horn of

the fish and thus reached swiftly the Northern Mountain there…. The fish then said, ‘I have saved you. Tie the ship…and descend as the water subsides.’ Thus he gradually descended the slope of the Northern Mountain. The flood carried off all the creatures, Manu alone survived. Wishing for a progeny, he began to worship and do penance. Then he performed a sacrifice of cooked meat. In the waters he offered melted butter, buttermilk, whey, and curd as oblations. In a year, a woman was created out of them. She rose dripping, melted butter collected at her footprints…he continued to worship and perform penance along with her. Through her this race was generated by him. This is the race of Manu. Whatever blessing he desired through her were all conferred on him.” Satapatha Brahmana 1:8

The Religion of Vedic Times

• The Brahmin priests compiled the Vedas, and were most influential over the religion

• Worship of deities through chants, mantras, and sacrifices

• Sacrifices, including animals, were still in practice

• This period of early Hinduism, being controlled by the Brahmin priests, is sometimes called Brahmanism or Brahmanic tradition

The Varna Classes• Brahmin (priest) • Kshatriya

(warrior)

The Varna Classes, continued

• Vaishya (merchant)

• Shudra (servant)

Timeline of Hinduism Highlights

• 2500-1500 B.C.E Indus Valley civilization• 1750-1200 B.C.E. Aryan migration to India 1st Vedas (texts) compiled• 900-700 B.C.E. Brahmanas written• 400 B.C.E. Vedas completed• 600-100 B.C.E. Upanishads compiled• 400 B.C.E.200 C.E. Ramayana (present form)• 400 B.C.E. –400 C.E. Mahabhata (includes the Bhagavad Gita) compiled• 100 C.E.-300 C.E. Laws of Manu compiled; caste system formalized 500-1500 C.E. Puranas recorded 711 C.E. Muslim invasion begins 1556-1707 Mogul Empire rules India 1857-1947 British rule of India

Other Revealed (shruti) Texts

(after the early Vedas)

Brahmanas-ritual material: directions to performance of the ritual sacrifices to deities

Aranyakas-Forest Treatises-material for hermits

Upanishads-Philosophical materials from “highly realized” spiritual masters

Brahman: All Encompassing

• The ancient sages (rishis) believed that the cosmos was/is one unified whole, the Absolute Reality, they called Brahman

• The Hindu system of thought the belief begins with Brahman

• Brahman, the Absolute, Unknowable, Impersonal Reality, pervades all nature

• The sages found Brahman in their self-soul, the atman (universal soul)

Understanding Brahman and The Atman (1) • All things in creation flow out of the

Brahman, and the Brahman is in everything• The atman is the soul in all beings, thus, the

universal soul, whose source is Brahman• Some scholars call the atman in humans as

the self/ Self• The atman or soul is what transmigrates

from one life to the next, and carries the karmic consequences (good or bad) of the previous life into the next life

Understanding Brahman and The Atman (2)

• Scholars/ Sources Definitions:• Brahman - impersonal, pantheistic world-soul,

the Absolute or total reality, union w/ which is the highest goal of the Upanishads

• Atman - universal soul Fisher on Atman: inner self, Self, individual soul H. Smith on Atman: hidden self, infinite, the

atman-Brahman• “The joyous discovery of the rishis was that

they could find Brahman as the subtle self or soul (atman) within themselves (Fisher p. 79)

The Upanishads (1):Central Doctrines to all forms of

Hinduism• Expresses several doctrines central to all forms of

Hinduism• Karma from Sanskrit karma root means “to do or

act” now takes on new meaning of consequence of action, and moral grounding

• Samsara/ reincarnation, lit. samsara “to wonder across,” referring to souls that leave one body & onto the next, (also called transmigration of souls); each lives many lives until or if released…

• Moksha, lit. means “release,” break the cycle of karma & samsara (=“liberation”) and be free from burden of life and merge with the Absolute Reality; the Ultmate Goal: break the karmic cycle/wheel to be free

Karma: meaning transformed from Veda to Upanishads in Classical

Period

• Karma originally meant to act, perform, i.e. perform sacrifices (religious/cultic context) in the 2nd mill. BCE era of open-air altar sacrifices

• Upanishads introduce the concept of karma as it has since come to mean

• Upanishads introduce the concept of Samsara (wonder-across) soul migration from one life/body to next

• Karma drives this process, the cycle • Every action and every thought had its

consequence, marking internally in the person, an effect felt in this life or the next

• One may be born as a human or animal

The Upanishads (2): Overview

• “Teachings from highly realized spiritual masters” (Fisher)

• Date from c. 600—100 B.C.E. (Fisher)• About 200 Upanishads• Some consider these the cream of Indian

thought• Became the basis of later Hindu philosophy• Ancient Indian thinkers preferred to attribute

virtue or evil to choices made by individuals

The Upanishads (3):Meditation on Brahman & Atman

• Mystical insights from the rishis (sages) who sought ultimate reality through meditations

• The Upanishads emphasize meditation as a means of worship, not the worship of deities

• The rishis taught the outward senses-fleeting; what is real is the all-pervading reality found inside ourselves, called Brahman, and the self/soul (atman) is a part of the Brahman

The Upanishads (4):(from Hopfe & Woodward text)

• The living beings that inhabit our world are really only expressions of the Brahman

• They are souls (atman) that are a part of the great ocean of souls that make up Brahman

• Phenomenal existence is an illusion (maya)• A person’s individuality apart from Brahman

is illusion, a dream, and ignorance• The plight of human beings is that we are

bound up in this world of illusion & ignorance• It is the task of religion to reveal the divine

within us and to show us how to live on a new plane.

The Upanishads (5):Presumption and Assumptions

• Some scholars assert that they operate from a monistic presupposition in contrast w/ the polytheism of the rest of the Vedas

• The Upanishads assume that there is only one reality, the impersonal god-being Brahman. All that is not Brahman is not real. Humans have false knowledge (maya) when they believe that this life and our separation from Brahman are real

• Fundamental assumption is that there is but one true reality in the universe—Brahman-eternal, infinite, unknowable, sexless, and totally impersonal (Brahman is neuter, lit. means “ever growing”)

The Upanishads (6):Influence

• Tremendous influential for later Hindu philosophy

• Never extremely popular among the masses, yet its teaching has had wide influence laying a foundation for Hinduism: Karma, Samsara/ reincarnation, Brahman, Atman, “Om”

• “I will tell you the Word that all the Vedas glorify, all self-sacrifice expresses, all sacred studies and holy life seek. That word is OM. That Word is the everlasting Brahman: that Word is the highest End…. It is the supreme means of salvation….”The Upanishads, trans. J. Mascaro, Penguin Books, 1965

Theistic and Divinity ”Within You” Hindu Paths

• The Upanishads-not about worshipping gods, but realizing the divinity within you, & monistic

• In BCE times, for the educated elite• But in both BCE and CE times, the

masses (popular religion) worship many gods (theistic: polytheistic)

• In Common era, the popular worship of deities by individuals came to be called Bhakti devotion (and Bhakti yoga)

Two Alternative Paths arise out of Hinduism

• 6th cent. B.C.E., two alternative paths to Hindu sacrificial deity-worshipping (Brahmanic tradition) arose in India, within the Indian worldview, but challenging deity worship: Jainism & Buddhism

• These serious challenges arose when the Vedas were being compiled in the early Classical period

• Hinduism gradually enveloped these alternative paths attests to the strength of the Hindu religion(s)

• Question: How does the tolerant attitude of multiple expressions aid Hinduism’s success?

Foundations of Hinduism Established by 1st cent.

B.C.E.• To the foundational three: KarmaSamsara/ Reincarnation, and Moksha, add:• Dharma, within this Indian cultural context of

the developing caste system, rooted in the Rig Veda, in which “duty” meant duty to one’s caste/class

• Dharma: came to mean not only duty, but right, natural law, social welfare, ethics, transcendental realization, and religion in general (last one called Santana Dharma)

Major Practices:Communal and Group Rituals

• Public worship: Pujah—led by Brahmins

• Ritual Fire ceremonies—led by Brahmin pandits

• Mantra Chanting Pilgrimages• Festivals (see near end of PPT)

Major Practices:Family and Individual Rituals

• Prayers Fastings• Mantra Chanting Pilgrimages• Reverence of Trees and Rivers• Bhakti--devotion to particular deities • Sacred Thread Ceremony• Meditation (e.g. based on Upanishads)• Yoga: Raja yoga, Jnana yoga, karma yoga,

Bhakti yoga• Asceticism-extreme self-denial• Sannyasin

Mantras: a Foundational Hindu Practice

• Origin from the priestly Brahmanas of the Vedas

• Reinforced in the Upanishads• Practiced ubiquitously by all kinds

of Hindus of various classes since the Classical into modern times

Om (or Aum)• The most sacred syllable, first

appears in the Upanishads• The supreme syllable• Regarded as the seed of all

mantraSource: Oxford Dict. Of World

Religions• The most important sacred

sound in the Vedic & Hindu traditions

• A symbol and expression of the Brahman

Source: Dict. Of Comparative Religion

Classical Age of Hinduism

• Marked by the compiling of the great classic works of Hinduism and Indian Lit.

• 900-700 B.C.E. Brahmanas written• 400 B.C.E. Vedas completed• 600-100 B.C.E. Upanishads compiled• 400 B.C.E.200 C.E. Ramayana (present form)• 400 B.C.E. –400 C.E. Mahabhata (includes

the Bhagavad Gita) • 100 C.E.-300 C.E. Laws of Manu compiled

The Law of Manu (1)300 B.C.E. – 300 C.E.

• Another piece of traditional Indian literature produced during the Classical era:

• *Two Main Things to Remember:• 1) Formalized the Indian Caste System• 2) Gave divine authority to the Caste

System• Valuable for its religious teachings as well as

what it reveals about Indian life, culture, society during Classical era, but some scholars see it as priestly propaganda

• They provide the outline for the caste system which are hereditary occupational groups

• One finds ethical and social standards which were held as ideal during this era

The Law of Manu (2)• Basic Assumption: the Varna system

apparently developed from early Aryan divisions of society

• Description of the Varna system is based on earlier account in Rig-Veda that describes the gods’ sacrifice of the cosmic man Purusa as origin of Hindu society: “The Brahman [priest] was his mouth. His two arms became the Raja [ruler]; his two thighs are the Vaishya [artisans, merchants, farmers], from his two feet the Sudra [servant] was produced.”

The Law of Manu (3)• It is more explicit in the duties of the 4 varna

and these 4 social groups are seen as being divinely ordained: “For the growth of the worlds, (Brahman) created Brahmanas (Brahmins), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders), and Shudras (manual workers)…”

• Members of each group have specific duties (dharma) and opportunities and must obey them only.

• The Law also shows the state of understanding of reincarnation at this period

• Shows also the effect the religious & philosophical teachings of the Vedas had on Indian society & roots of religious traditions in modern Hinduism

Bhagavad Gita (1)400 B.C.E. – 400 C.E.

• Contained within the Mahabharata (ch. 25-42), the story of the struggle of two leading families in beginning of Indian history, the two of which come together in a battle

• It’s a great epic poem, a dialog between

Arjuna, a warrior, and his charioteer, Krishna.

Bhagavad Gita (2)• The Bhagavad Gita means the “Song of

God,” and is sometimes referred to by its short title of “Gita”

• Term: Avatar: an earthly incarnation of a deity

• Considered the concluding statement on Classical Hinduism

• A conversation between Krishna & the warrior Arjuna as he ponders the folly, human,& karmic consequences of war. Krishna explains that because Arjuna is a Kshatriya (ruler caste), & obligated to fight, he will not suffer the consequences that members of other castes would in battle

Bhagavad Gita (3) Highlights of the Teaching

• You should perform the duty of your caste, thus avoiding karma (bad karma)

• Obligations of each caste is raised to the level of religious duties

• Openness to a variety of means of religious expressions: asceticism, yoga, meditation, devotions to and worship of the gods, obedience to rules of the caste. It is for this reason that Hinduism is often described as the most tolerant of all the world religions

Quotes from Bhagavad Gita

On the Atman:Some yogis merely worship the devas. Others are able, by the grace of the Atman, to meditate on the identity of the Atman with Brahman. For these, the Atman is the offering, and Brahman the sacrificial fire into which It is offered.

When a man is made perfect in yoga, he knows the truth within his heart. The man of faith, whose heart is devoted, whose senses are mastered; He finds Brahman. Enlightened, he passes at once to the highest, the peace beyond passion.”

Bhagavad-Gita, trans. Swami Prabhavananda, Mentor, 1972, Renunciation through Knowledge section

Classical & Post-Classical Hinduism

• The Bhagavad-Gita marks the close of the Classical period

• Vishnu becomes one of the most popular gods in this period, almost anticipated in the Bhagavad-Gita

• All the contributions of the Classical period (the Vedas, Law of Manu, & Bhagavad-Gita) became the basis for later Hinduism

• Some scholars distinguish by calling the earlier period (pre-Classical) Brahmanism

• Brahmanism was much like that of the religions of the Graeco-Roman world-multiple deities (=polytheism) & sacrifices on open-air altars

Post-Classical Hinduism• In Post-Classical period, a gradual shift to

emphasis on a few major deities, although they were worshipped in many forms

• Worship came to be love and devotion to those gods

• Temples were built to honor them• Hymns composed about their qualities• The literature of this period centered on the

gods and goddesses• Scholars also point out a change in basic

attitude toward life changed to a pessimistic view, negative & life-denying forces emerging, but roots appear in the Vedas

Middle Ages to Modern Pd:Key Events 600-1857 C.E.

• 600-1600 Rise of devotional and anti caste movements• 788-820 Shankara organizes Vedanta• 1510 Portuguese conquest of Goa• 1556-1857 Moghul Empire (Turkish Muslim rule, for most part, tolerant)

Shaktas• An estimated 50 million worshippers• Worship of the feminine aspects of the divine

are probably pre-Vedic• Her great power is called Shakti• The goddess worshipped in many forms• Term “Devi” may be used generically to all

her forms• Durga—beautiful woman but a fighter w/ 10

arms• Kali—fierce form of her, with dripping blood• Lakshmi-embodies wealth, generosity,

fortune• Tantras—sacred texts instructs how to

worship the feminine divine

Shaivites• Shiva is a personal, many-faceted

manifestation of the attributeless supreme deity: Brahma (Creator), Vishnu (Preserver), and Shiva (Destroyer)

• Trimurti: Brahma,Vishnu, and Shiva• Shiva is also the god of yogis, for he

symbolizes asceticism• His devoted spouse/consort: Parvati• The unity of the male and female:

expressed abstractly as a lingam (stylized phallic symbol representing the male comic force) within a yoni (symbol of female vulva

Vaishnavites

• Worship Vishnu, beloved as the tender, merciful deity, overpowers by goodness and generosity

• Worshipped since Vedic times• His consort is Lakshmi• Most beloved incantations: Rama• Popular devotion to Krishna-regarded as

the transcendent Supreme Lord• This form: Hari Krishna, gets exported to

America

Devotion to the 3 Major Gods

• Brahman, the ultimate reality, is at the core of Hindu thought. He is one & undivided

• Yet, post-Classical Hinduism sees him in terms of three forms/functions: the three deities of the Trimurti:

Brahma-the creator Shiva-the destroyer

Vishnu-the preserver

• Devotees of any of the 3 gods tend to see all the functions of Brahman is their chosen deity

• Devi-the great goddess, represents the feminine principle of Hindu thought; creative power, all-pervasive energy

Theistic Paths Overview

• Brahman-the Absolute, Supreme Realty• Bhakti-intense devotion to a personal

manifestation of Brahman, became the heart of Hinduism for majority of Hindus

• Shaktas-those who worship of Mother Goddess

• Shaivites-those who worship the god Shiva• Vaishnavites-those who worship the god

Vishnu• Tantra devotees: worship of God/deities in

feminine form

Philosophical Systems:Overview

•Samkhya•Advaita Vedanta•Yoga

Indian Philosophy/ Worldview during this Era

• Time moves endlessly through various cycles• World was created by Brahman• World cycles: Peace, abundance, & morality

then decay; Vishnu intervenes on behalf of humanity; but world continues to decay; Famines, wars, & general immorality become the rule. Finally, the world destroyed by Shiva; world dissolves and all souls depart into suspended being; after a period of repose, the world begins again and the souls take up new bodies.

Devotion to Knowledge• The Sankhya System

Philosophical system founded by sage Kapila, 6th cent. B.C.E.-basically an nontheistic approach to life

• The Yoga systemVarious extremes of asceticismFr. Root yuj, “to yoke” or “union”It basically follows the philosophical

views of Sankhya system, w/ dualistic worldview, w/ goal to yoke one’s individual spirit to atman, Brahman.The philosophy of Yoga today was developed by sage Patanjal c. 200 C.E.

Strength and Success of Hinduism

• Hinduism, with hundreds of thousands of practitioners into modern times attests to its strength and success through many challenges:

• It absorbed Buddhism (3rd cent. BCE - )• It was not run over by Islam (8th cent.

CE-• It did not become a Christian nation (1st

–21st cent. C.E.)

Modern Hinduism (1)• Hinduism, like all major religions, has had to

face the rigors of the modern age, with its nationalistic movements, its social reforms, its encounters between religions, and its scientific revolutions

• An important factor has been its encounter with Christianity beginning w/ the Thomast Christians from 1st cent. C.E. More influence since 20th cent.; British allowed missionaries in India in the 19th cent. e.g.notable missionary was William Carey

But Christianity had little impact on vast majority of Indian people until recent times due to the Indians treating Christians as a caste, as they also did with Muslims

Modern Hinduism (2)• Hindu Reformers:

Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833) the “father of modern India; he was influenced by Christianity, accepted monotheism (but not divinity of Jesus), and worked on reformsMohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) the best known Indian reformer of the 20th cent.

Modern Hinduism (3): Modern Caste System

• Modern caste system develops after 700 C.E.• Ultimately, more than 3000 separate castes

emerged in Indian society• Dalits, the lowest caste, are sometimes

referred to as untouchables, perform basically the dirty jobs; but if these outcasts accept the dharma (duty) of this life and do not rebel against it, they may hope for a better caste in the next life.

• Due to the efforts of reformer Ghandi, discrimination against the outcasts was forbidden

Modern Hinduism (4):The Main Denominations

• The three main branches are:• Vaishnavism-worship of God in form of

Vishnu and his many incarnations• Shaivism-worship of Shiva, Lord of

Destruction• Shaktism-veneration of Goddess (Kali,

Durga, Uma, etc.Source: Introduction to World Religions,

vol. 6 Hinduism

Modern India

Hindu Holy Days (Festival Practices)

• Holi-the most popular festival: Feb/March

• Dasehra (Durga Puja)-celebration in honor of Durga, consort of Shiva, 9 days in October

• Divali-the New Year: November

Hindu Symbols

Key Terms Review (1)• Brahman – the Ultimate Reality• Atman – the universal soul (of which individual

souls are a part• Avatar - an incarnation of a Hindu deity• Deva (pl. devas) Skr. - A god or divinity usu. In

feminine form• Dharma – duty, right, righteous, moral/legal

code, religion• Karma – orig. act/ sacrificial act, action and

effects in this life and future lives• Samara – lit. “wonder across,” the karmic

cycle of souls reincarnating, birth, life, death• Reincarnation – part of the karmic cycle of a

soul after death going into the next life form• Moksha – release, liberation from the endless

Key Terms Review (2)• Prana – invisible life force• Veda - knowledge or sacred lore• Vedas – oldest Hindu sacred texts• Upanishads – philosophical portions of the Vedas,

teachings from spiritual masters• Ramayana – famous epic deals with eternal play of

good & evil, battles involving incarnations of Vishnu• Mahabharata – famous epic includes Bhagavad Gita• Puranas – Scriptures which popularize abstract

truths of the Vedas through stories• Sankrit – orig. language Hindu texts including Vedas• Shruti – revealed knowledge/truth, not human orig.• Sutra – terse spiritual teaching/saying

Key Terms Review (3)• Mantra - ritual sound, words, to evoke a

certain religious effect• Puja – ritual worship• Bhatki – intense devotion to a deity• Asceticism – extreme denial of earthly comfort• Yoga – lit. “yoke” or “union,” practices for

union with true Self• Maya – False knowledge; all sensory

knowledge is Maya; illusion• Pantheism - belief that reality comprises a

single being of which all things (e.g. deities) are modes, members, or projections of it

• Brahma (Skr.) - creator or creative principle of the universe

Key Terms Review (4)• Hindu—derivative of Indus, term coined by

Muslim invaders to label people in India • Caste – hereditary occupational groups, from

Portuguese “casta” meaning “race,” multiple classes into which traditional Indian society has been divided

• Brahmins – priestly caste• Kshatriyas – ruler and warrior caste• Vaishyas – Merchant caste• Shudras – artisans and laborers caste• Guru – a spiritual teacher• Sage - an aged man distinguished in wisdom• Trimurti-the three most important Hindu gods:

Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu• Lingam – stylized phallic symbol (c.f. Shaivites)

Review of Hinduism:Core Beliefs

• Karma: The karma one accumulates determines the nature of future existences. Hinduism assumes that there is a constant cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth. Karma drives this process

• Samsara/Reincarnation: the soul moving from one life to the next in the Karmic cycle

• Moksha: Release from the endless cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth

• Earth has its endless cycles with yogas as ages within the cycles

• Dharma: right, religious duty, duty to one’s caste, legal code, religion

Review of Hinduism:Beliefs continued

• Brahman• Polytheism--Deity has many faces, forms,

incarnations, manifestations, a total of 330 million; Most common deities:

• Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu, Divine Mother, Durga, Kali, Lakshmi, Parvati

• The Vedas, oldest sacred texts, are shruti (divinely revealed, not human)

• Multiple paths of religious expression and practice to achieve ultimate goal

Review of Hinduism Practices

• Brahmin rituals Mantra chants• Puja worship• Bhakti worship or yoga• Meditation• Yoga• Asceticism• Shaktism• Shaivism• Vaishnavism• Practicing one’ duties according to caste

Hinduism Review: Development Overview

• “Old” Hinduism – Vedic Times: 2nd Millennium to 500 B.C.E. also called Brahmanism

• Classical Hinduism – 500 B.C.E. to 500 C.E. • Post-Classical (pre-modern) Hinduism –

500 C.E. to 1600 C.E.• Modern Hinduism – 1600 C.E. to the

present

Analysis, Synthesizing, Evaluating, Assessing, Comparative w/ other

Religions

• Analyze & evaluate the Hindu belief that all the deities are modes/ manifestations/ expressions of the one ultimate Brahman

• If ultimate goal for most Hindu religious expressions is moksha (release from the Karma cycle), how does their belief in maya fit into it? Is release even necessary?

• Is “Karma” meant in basically a non-theistic sense? And to what extent is it moral action?

• Compare & contrast the monotheistic concept of God e.g. Judeo-Christian sense to Hinduism’s Brahman and Karma beliefs