Hindu Castes and Sects - Forgotten Books

HINDU CASTES AND SECTS.

AN EXPOSITION OF THE ORIGIN OF THE HINDU CASTESYSTEM AND THE BEARING OF THE SEOTS TOWARDSEACH

OTHER AND TOWARDS OTHER RELIGIOUSSYSTEMS.

JOGENDRA NATH BHATTACHARYA, M.A. , D .L .,

Pres ident of the 6512696 of Fundits, Nadiya,

Author of Commentaries on Hindu Law,

Vyamtha Kalpadruma,” J'c

Olalcntta :

THACKER , SPINK AND 00 .

[All rights reserved.]

PREFACE.

IN the last edition of my Commentaries on Hindu

Law I devoted a chapter to the Hindu Caste Systemwhich attracted the attention of the Publishers, and

they suggested that the subjectmight well be expandedso as to be brought out as a separate volume. Theysuggested also that, in order to make the book complete,I shou ld give an account not only of the Castes, butalso of the important Hindu Sects, some of which areprac tically somany new Castes.

As I had been already engaged in writing a bookabout the history and philosophy of religions, the proposal, so far as the sects were concerned, was welcomeindeed . About the Castes I felt very considerablediflidence but it seemed to me that, in a town likeCalcutta, where there aremen fromevery part of India,itmight not be quite impossible to collect the necessaryinformation . When, however, I actually commencedmy enquiries, then I fully realised the dimculty of mytask. The original information contained in this workhas been derived froma very large number of Hindu

gentlemen hailingfromdifl’erent parts of India. Ihere

iv PREFACE.

gratefully acknowledge the kindness that they haveshown in according tome their assistance. I feel verystrongly inclined to insert in this book a list of theirnames. But the publication of such a list is not de

sirable formore reasons than one. To begin with, sucha list would be necessarily too long to be convenientlyincluded . Then, again,

the subject of castes and sects

is, in some of its aspects, a very irritating one,and if

Iwere to give publicity to the names of the persons whohave assisted me, it might place them in a very falseposition . So Ithank themgenerally withoutmentioningany names.

In connection also with this partI must acknowledge my obligations tt. i

of Risley, W ilson and Sherring, and to Mr 1" rsimayangar

’

s Report of the last Census of My , As

to the last of these, which is compiled by an educatednative of the country, it is hardly necessary to observethat it is very reliable, though not very complete .

Mr. Risley’s “Tribes and Castes of Bengal”is

an exhaustive treatise, and is, generally speaking, reliablealso. If there had been similar works for the otherprovinces, then the task of taking a bird’s-eye view of

the whole would not have been quite so arduous to meas it has actually been .

W ith regard to the part of the book devoted to theHindu Sects, Imaymention that the greater portion of

it had been written originally formy promised work on

the philosophy of religion which I hope to bring out

PBBFAOE.

before long. For the sake of many of my friends andrelations near and dear tome I hesitated to give publicity tomy views before but it seems tome high timenow that I should speak out and do what lies in me toset forth the true character of the cults that the

majority of those who profess to be Hindus believe andpractise.

The religions of those who are not regarded as

Hindus do not come within the scope of this work.

But the position which Iassign to Christianity, Mahomedanism, Z oroastrianism,&c. ,must appear clear enoughfromwhat ve said in the Introduction to my ac

count of t; mdu Sects, about the evolution of humanfaiths, an d at the difi

'

erent principles on which theymay be

fed. Ihave tried my best throughout to

avoid rence and offensive expressions, and the

eader, who is not altogether blinded by orthodoxy,

will,Ihope, admit that, even with regard to the worst

of the abomination-worshipping sects, I have nowherebeen harsher than the nature of the case absolutelyrequired. Reverence ought to be by all means shownto persons and institutions that have a just claimto it.But nothing can , inmy opinion, bemore sinful than tospeak respectfully of persons who are enemies ofmankind, and to whitewash rotten institutions by esotericexplanations and fine phrases.It is no doubt extremely difficult to get rid of the

effect of early training and associations . But those whoclaimto be educated and enlightened will, I trust, give

vi PREFACE.

me an impartial and patient hearing. However strongtheir faith in Saivism, Saktaismand Radha worshipmay be, they cannot be altogether blind to the realcharacter of these creeds. One of the greatest thinkersof modern times has, in connection with certain questions of political economy, said

It often happens that the universal belief of one age of

mankind—a belief fromwhich no one was, nor, without anyextraordinary effort of genius and courage, could, at that timebe free—becomes to a subsequent age so palpable an absurdity ,

that the only difficulty then is to imagine how such a thing

can ever have appeared credible.

This, I am sure, will before long be the feeling of

every honest Hindu with regard to some of the mostimportant features of his so-called religions, and I shallfeel I have performed an almost sacred duty if thiswork promotes in some degree that end.

JOGENDRA NATH BHATTACHARYA.

CALCUTTA, May 1896.

CONTENTS.

HIND U CASTES.

PART I.

Inraonucrxon.

The Origin and Nature of the Hindu CasteSystem

W hether Caste is a Religious or a SocialDistinction

The Regulations by which the Castes havebeenmade Exclusive

The Origin of the Additional Castes and theSub-castes

The Authorities by whomthe Caste Rulesare Enforced

Nature of the Penalty of Exclusion fromCaste

PART II.

Tm: Baamus s GENERALLY.

The Position of the Brahman: in HinduSociety

The Brahman ’s ProperProfessionsTheModern Hindu GurusEn uiries by which the Caste Status of a

ahman may be AscertainedThe Sub-divisions among the Brahmans

PAGE

10-1 2

1 3-1 5

cosrss rs . ix

PAGE

Th:Brahmans of Maharashtra and Kanan

1 . The Desastha Brahmans2 . The Kankanasthas3 . The Yajurvedis4 . The Karhades5. The Shenav is of Kankan

The M iddle Class and inferior Brahmansof Maharashtra

Th e Brahmans of the KarnaticThe Brahmans of Dravira1 . The Smarts Brahmans2 . TheVishnuviteBrahmans ofSouthern

India

The Brahmans of TelinganaThe Brahmans of the Central ProvincesThe Brahman s of South KanaraThe Brahmans of Kerala, Cochin Malabar

and Travancore 106-108

Tm: Su i-BRARMANICAL Cae'rse.

The Bhuinhar BrahmansThe Bhats and the Charanas

Tm; D soRAnEn BRAHMANS.

The Hossainis and Kuvachaudas

ThePiraliTagores of CalcuttaThe Barns BrahmansThe Brahmans connected with the publicShrines

The Brahmans degraded by acceptingforbidden Gifts and ofi ciating as paid Priestsat Cremations 1 30

The Maha-Brahmans 1 2 9

The Agradanis 1 2 9

The Agra Bhikshu 1 2 9

The s alakhis 130

CONTENTS. xiii

The CarpentersThe Braziers and Coppersmiths1 . The Kansa Baniks of Bengal2 . The Kasaras and Thather

gas of Nor

thern India3 . The Gejjegora and Kanchugora

.

of

Southern IndiaThe Sankha Baniks of BengalThe GrainThe Dirjia or

Tm: MARURAc'ruame AND ARTISAN CAs'ras THAT ARE

RneAnnrn As Uranu s SunRAs .

The Brewers, Tadi-drawers, and Sellers of

Spirituous Liquors 2 54-26 1

1 . The Sunris of Bengal and Behar 257

2 . TheKalwars of Northern India 2 58

3. The Shanars and Illavars of Dravira 2 58 2 604 . The Bhandaris of Western India 2 60

5. The Pssis of Behar 2 60

6 . The Ti ans of Southern India 2 6 17. The 1 1igas of Mysore and the Telegu

Country8. The Gaundla and Gamalla of the

Telegu CountryThe Oil Manufacturers

1 . The Telis of Bengal2 . The Kalus of Ben3. The Telis and hanchis of Upper

India4. The Tel Kulu

.

Varlu 0} the TeleguCountry

5. The Ganiyas and Vanika

o

ns of Southern In is 2 64

TheSalt Manufacturers 2 65

The LeatherWorkers . 2 66 2 661 . The Chamars andMuchiaofN. India 2 66, 2 672 . The Chakilians andMadigsofS. India

3 . The Leather-working Castes of Rajputana and Central India

The Mat-makers and Basket-makers

XIV CONTENTS.

PART XIII.T11 1 1 CLEAN AomcuurunAL Gu n s.

TheKurmis andKunbisTheKoeris of Northern IndiaThe Malia

TheKschis

The Lodhas and LodhoiaThe AgriculturalKaibartas ofBengalThe San pas

The Agrlcultural Castes of the CentralProvinces 2 84

The Agricultural Castes of thePanjab 2 85

TheAgriculturalCastes of theTelcguCountry 2 86The Agricultural Castes of Mysore 2 87The Agricultural Castes of the Dravit eCountry

XIII.

1 . The Barui2 . The Tambuli

THE Cownaans AND Sns rnsans.

General Observations

The Ahhire or AhimThe GujareThe Goalas of the LowerProvincesThe Cowherds of Southern IndiaTheShepherd Castes

PART XV.

Tan CLEAN AND ma c nn a CAs'ras Enraoran mPERsONAL AND Don n a: Summer.

The BarbersThe WashermenThe Castes usually employed as DomesticServan ts 1n Hindu Households

The Castes of the Domestic Servants 1

.

n

Anglo-Indian Households

HINDU CASTESAND SECTS.

PART I.

INTRODUCTION.

CHAP. I. THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF THE

HINDU CASTE SYSTEM .

THE institution of caste is a unique feature of Hindusociety , and, as nothing exactly like it is to be found in

part of the world, the manner in which itgrew 11 in India cannot but be regarded as a questionof the

'

ghest im rtance by the student of soc1al phenomena. The subject has, therefore, attracted a largeshare of the attention of many erudite scholars, bothEu ro an and Indian . The mass of information con

tains in their works, though not free from errors andin accuracies, is of very great value. But the usefulness

o f their writings ismarred, to a considerable extent,themore or less superficial views which they take ofori

'

n and nature of caste as a system. In speaking of

it Sherring, be re ed as one of thechief authorities ect, c cterises our socialmechanismas

“amonstrous engine of pride, dissension

R, no 1

2 INTRODUCTION.

and shame, and generally has not one good word tcsay with reference to it or to its authors, the Brahmans .

Dr. W ilson also condemns the caste system in toto

thou h in milder terms. H6 says that among thq

Hindgus the imagination of natural and ositive dis

tinction in humanity has been brought to emost fearful and pernicious development.” In his dissertationon the natural history of cas te Mr. Sherrin givesfirst of all, what he calls an analysis of the Bra man ’

character in which he finds nothing but arrogance

selfishness and ambition, and then goes on to observeTo speak of the Brahmans as though they were one and tbs

same people,with the same characteristics is delusive. For thousandof ears they have been a disunited people, withmutual antipathiee

an non-resemblances instead of mutual likenesses and concordThe Brahmans themselves, and none others, are responsible for thisTheir monstrous arrogance , selfishness and assumption have proverthe bane of their race. In the cultivation of these vicious qualitiethey are at one, but in all other respects they are the most inharmonious and discordant people on the face of the earth .

The spread of caste, and themultiplication of separate,mutuallyexclusive, and inimical tribes among the lower Hindu es , alsclies at their door. The detestable examle they set coal not but befollowed b an imitative peog

lfwithout rains of their own These

Hindu tri would never ve dared to establish an infinity oi

castes among themselves without the direct sanction and assistan ce 01the Brahmans. Moreover, when theBrahmans perceived that casterwere increasi

qgbeyond decent limits until the whole coun was

threatened v i an endless number of cu te sub-divisions , all or themost part mutually destructive, they might have perem

gtorily

stepped their further multiplication . But they did not. 11 thecontrary, it is plain that they looked on with the utmost satisfaction,

pleased at the alienation of tribe fromtribe.”—Sherring

’s Hindu

Tribe: and Carter, Vol. 1 1 1 , pp. 234-35.

The inconsistencies and the fallacies abounding in

these extracts are too obvious re any criticalex sition . The author’s view regard to our

re 1gion and our social.polity were evidently more

influenced by his zeal forh1s own faith of which he wasamissionar than by his sober '

udgment. In his lifetime he ha a large number of indu friends who stillcherish his memory with affection, and he hadmuchbetter opportunities for studying the peculiarities of our

THE ORImN or TEE CAe SYSTEM. 3

social fabric than most of his countrymen in India. Atany rate , h e ma certainly be credited with havingpossessed suffic ien t nowledge of history to be aware of theshortcomings which existed in past generations, and stillexist, among the priestly classes in other countries

,

and there can be no justification whatever for the severecensure that he has passed on the Brahmans. Yet thesame v iew s have been blindly accepted by some Of theforemo st of modern Hindu scholars. After stating hisv iews regarding the probable origin of the caste system

,

Mr R . C . Dutt, in his Ilistory of l ndz'

a, says

It was unknown to the Hindus in the Vedic age, and was firstdeveloped in the Epic age. It divided and disumted the combody of Aryan Hindus into three hereditary bodies , via , the priests ,th e sold iers , and tZZH

eOple. And it permanently placed the peopleunder th e priestly militar

ycastes ; and thereby hindered popa

lar progress and the growth 0 popular freedomin India.

It shou ld be remembered , however, that with the exce tion of the

priests and soldiers , themass of the Hindu people still ormed one

united caste , the Vaishya in the Epic and succeeding ages . Andthemass o f the peo le wemstill entitled , like theKshatri as and theBrahmans , to r ormsacrifices . to acquire religious nowleand study th e edas. But with the loss of their independence,Hindus hav e becomemore disunited inmodern times .

’

The great living poet of Bengal, Babu HemChandraBanerj i, gives countenance to similarly erroneous views,when he calls upon his countrymen to cause a cleansweep of all caste distinctions, in order that theymay,by united action,

recover their ancient greatness.

I am no out-and-out admirer of caste, as it existsnow, and I think that, in the state of things now arising, its disciplinemight be relaxed in certamdirections

advantage. But I believe that, generally speaking, there does not exist that antipathy between theseveral castes which the world at large has been ledto believe. A little bitch is caused sometimes whena man of a superior caste refuses to allow one of an

inferior caste to sit on the same car t, or when theuse of his waterpot is disallowed by t e former to thelatter. For purposes of business, not the several castesonly, but even Hindus and Mahomedans can and

4 INTRODUCTION.

do mix on the most friendly terms. There is, uponthe whole, no more animosity between a Rajput anda Brahman than between a Ra

'

put and a Rajpu t,

or between a Brahman and a Brahman . If the Brahman refuses to eat in the house of a Rajput on the

ground that there are no true Ksatriyas in this age of

sin, the Rajput also refuses to partake of the Brahman ’

s

hospitality on the plea, afforded by the BrahmanicalShastras, that a Brahman ’s property should not be

a propriated by a man of any caste on an account .or purposes ofmarriage and interchange of o

spitality

each caste is an independent and exclusive bo y, and

all the classes are placed on a coequal footing. Suchbeing the case, the so-called inferior castes show no

more eagerness to be enrolled among the higher, thanthe latterdo to be reduced to the level of the former. It

is open to the lower castes to practise any profession ,

excepting that of a priest, and as every Hindu has a re

cognized position within his own caste, which does notvary with any viscissitude of fortune, no one can feelinclined to crush out that system, and run the risk of

losing its certain advantages, for the uncertain prospectof acquiring a better social footing by working as itwere upon a tabula mm. A few low caste parvenusthere may be, who, in their innermost hearts, feelashamed of even their own parents and brothers. But

the aspirations of these men certainly do not deservemuch sympathy. Generally s caking, the Hindus lookupon the several divisions in t eir society as the necos

sary component parts of their social mechanism, and

there can be no occasion for jealousy or bitter feelings.

Caste has had its origin, no doubt, in Brahmanicallegislation . But there is no ground whatever for thedoctrine that it is the outcome of the policy embodiedin the Machiavelian maximD ivide and Rule . A verylittle reflection ought to show that the caste system,

in

troduced and enforced by the Brahminical Shastras,could not possibly be the cause of any social split. On

THE ORIGIN or THE CASTE SYSTEM. 5

the contrary, it provmed bonds of union between races

and clan s that had nothing in common before its

introduction . There is no ground whatever for thesupposition that in primitive India all classes of peoplewere un ited as one man , and that the unnatural and

miciona caste system was forced on them by therahmans with the diabolical object of sowing dissen

sions among them..The more correct view seems to be

that the le lation of the Rishis was calculated not onlyto bring flint union between the isolated clans thatlived in primitive India, but to render it possible to

ass imilate within each group the foreign hordes thatwere ex ected to pour into the country from time totime . f those Englishmen who have permanentlysettled in this country recognized the sacredness of the

Shastras, and refrained from eating forbidden food,they might be admitted into the Ksatriya clan underthe name of Sakya Seni Rajputs. The authors of

such legislation deserve certain ly to be admired fortheir large-hearted statesmanship, instead of beingcensured for selfish ambition and narrowness.

The ambition that led the Hindu lawgivers to placetheir own class above the rest of mankind, has, no

doubt,an appearance of selfishness . But if self-aggran

disement had been,as is alleged, their solemotive, then

there was nothing to prevent them from laying downthe law that the proper men to enjoy the kmgly officeand the various loaves and fishes of the public service,were the Brahmans. The highest secular ambition of

the Brahman was to be the unpaid adviser of the

Crown, and, as a matter of actual practice, the entirecivil service was left b them in the hands of the

Kayasthas . Such professions, accompanied by suchconduct, do not betray selfishness. It was onl inres pect of matters relating to religion that theHi'ahmans kept in their hands themonopoly of power. But

they could not have taken any other course withoutupsetting altogether the fabric which they had built up.

6 mTaonro'rros.

Circumstanced as India, presumably, was in ancien ttimes, there could not possibly have been in that state of

things, any great attraction either formilitariservice or

for intellectual pursuits. The resources of t e countrywere then too limited for adequate]

;

rrewarding eitherthesoldierorthe scholar, and as any able-bodiedman could ,in those times, earn his living without any difficulty,either in agricultural pursuits orby breeding cattle, theonly way to induce any class of men to adopt amoreambitious or risky career, lay in giving thema superiorstatus by hereditary right. The importance of the ser

vice which caste has done to Indiamay be realized, tosome extent, fromthe fact that when , in a party of

Hindus, comments are made about an illiterate Brahman, an unbusiness like Kayastha or a cowardlyKsatriya

,they not unfr uently express their doubt as to

his very legitimacy .

ex

éuch being the case, no Kshatriyacan refuse to fight, when there is occasion ,

withou tlaying himself open to the most galling of reproaches .

His ancestors never shrank from legitimate fighting,

and so he has no choice left.He too would rather die than shame.

It is feeling of this kind that urged the ancientKsatriyas to desperate deeds for the defence of theircountry, and though long since fallen, yet modernhistory is not altogether wanting in testimony as to thegreatness of that mighty race . The name of BabuKumiira Sing, the last great Rajput hero, is not likelyto be soon forgotten, though English historians maynot do himjustice . Goaded on to rebellion by theungenerous suspicions entertained against him by a

local official, and by the attemptmade by that oflicial toinsult and imrison him, he besought his friends, relatives and ad erents, to remain loyal to the BritishGovernment, and to leave himto shift for himself. Buthe was the idol of the Bhojpurias, and they gatheredround him, like oneman, to fight under his banner. At

8 INTRODUCTION.

class is concerned, Brahmanical legislation failed to

attain its very noble ob'

ect. The Baniyas who practisetrade and are, gener y s caking, a wealthy class,claimin some places to be aishyas. But, in all probability,

the majority of the traders, artisans, and

agriculturists never cared for the honour of being invested with the sacred thread, or for the rivilege of

reading the Vedas . And when such was the case, the

Brahmans themselves could not be too anxious to forcethese honours and privileges upon them. The chief concern of the Brahmans, in the efforts theymade to realisetheir ideal of social polity, was to keep the fightingclans in good humour, so that even if the Valshyassou ht for the honour Of the thread, the Brahmanscon d not have given it to themwithout depriving it ofthevalue which it came to acquire in the eyes of the

Ksatriyas.

Caste is Often described by European scholars as an

iron chain which has fettered each class to the profes

sion of their ancestors, and has rendered any improvement on their part impossible. This viewmay, to someextent, be regarded as correct so far as the lowerclassesare concerned. But with regard to the higher classes,caste is a golden chain which the have willingly placedaround their necks, and which has fixed themto onlythat which is noble and praiseworthy. Any little 8 litthat is caused by caste now and then is far outweighedby the union of races and clans which it has promotedand fostered, and there is no justification whatever forthe abuse which has been heaped upon its authors.

CR AP. II.—WHETHER CASTE IS A SOCIAL,

OR A RELIGIOUS DISTINUIION ?

TEE question has been hotly discussed, whether casteis a soc ial or a religious distinction As shown in the

last chapter, it is mainly a social distinction . But as

many of the ordinances of ourShastras are based uponit. it has a religious aspect also. The religious ri hts

and duties of the Hindus do in fact va to a considerable extent, according to their caste.

l-

l7'or instance, onthe death of an agnate within seven degrees, aBrahmanhas to observemourning forten days only, while amanof the 5 gcaste has to wear the weeds of woe for

twelve s, aman Of the mercantile caste for fifteendays, Sudra for one fullmonth. Then, again, theVedic rites and rayers which the three hi her castes arerequired to perl

idrmevery day are all prghibited to theSudra.

’ The latter can be taught to repeat only thoseprayers that are prescribed by what ma be called thenew testaments of the Hindus, i.e., the mains and the

Tantras. But the Brahman who enlists even a goodSudra among his disci les is lowered for ever in the

estimation Of the peOpe, while by ministering to a

Sudra of a low class he is degraded altogether.

CHAP. III— THE REGULATIONS BY WHICH

THECASTESHAVEBEEN MADE EXCLUSIVE.

TEE rules defining the proper avocations of the

several castes are not imperative, it being laid down inthe Shastras that a person , unable to earn his livelihood otherwise, may take to a profession which is

ordinarily prohibited to his class. Mann says80. Amon

‘fathe several occupations for gaining a livelihood the

most common ble respectively for the sacerdotal, military , andmercantile classes, are teaching the Veda, defending, and commerceor keeping herds and flocks.

81 . Yet a Brahman unable to subsist by his duties justmentionedmglive by the dut of a soldier, for that is the next in rank .

If it be aske how hemust live, should he be unable to get asubsistence by either of these employments, the cancer is ,subsist as amercantile man, applying himself in person toand attendance on cattle.

95. A militaryman in distressmay subsist b all these means,but at no time must he have recourse to the big est, or eacerdotalfunction .

98. Amercantile man, unable to subsist by his own duties,maydescend even to the servile acts of a Sudra, taking never to dowhat on ht never to be done but, when he has gamed a competence ,let him epart fromservice.

99. Aman of the fourth class , not finding employment by waiting on the twice-born, while his wife and son are tormented withhunger,may subsist by handicrafts.—Manu , Chap. X.

”

Such being the precepts of the Shastras, it is veryOften found that a Hindu of one class is engaged in a

profession which is the speciality of another, and the

tendency of English education is tomake all the castesmore andmore regardless about strict compliance withShastrie rules on the subject. The Hindu legislatorsmade the castes exclusive, not so much by prescribing

TEE ESSENCE or TEE CASTE SYsTEM . 1 1

particular professions for each, as by prohibiting intermarriage and interchange of hospitality on a footingof equality . In the beo inning intermarriage was allowed so far that aman of a superior caste could lawfullytake in marriage a girl of an inferior caste . But, bywhatmay be called the Hindu new testaments, intermarriage between the difl

'

erent castes is prohibitedaltogether. AS to interchange Of hospitality, the Shastras lay down that a Brahman must avoid, if possible, the eating of any kind Of food in the house of a

Sudra, and that under no circumstances is he to eat

any food cooked with water and salt by a Sudra, ortouched by a Sudra after being so cooked . In practicethe lower classes Of Brahmans are sometimes compelledby indigence to honour the Sudras by accepting theirhos itality

— Of course, eating only uncooked food or

suc food as is cooked by Brahmans with materialssupplied by the host

.The prejudice against eating

cooked food that has been touched by aman Ofan inferiorcaste is so strong that, although the Shastras do not

pphibit the eating Of food cooked by a Ksatriya or

aishya, yet the Brahmans, inmost parts of the country,would not eat such food . For these reasons, everyHindu household— whether Brahman, Ksatriya or

Sudra—that can afford to keep a paid cook generallyentertains the services of a Brahman for the performance of its M aine— the result being that, in the largertowns, the ve name of Brahman has suffered a strangedegradation O late, so as tomean only a cook .

The most important regulations by which the casteshave been made exclusive are those which relate to

marriage. In fact, as Mr. Risley in his valuable workon the Ga tes and Tribes of B engal rightly Oh

serves, caste is amattermainly relating tomarriage.

”

Matrimonial alliances out Of caste is prevented by theseclusion of the females, their earlymarriage, and thesocial eti uette which requires that even themarriagesof boys 8 ould be arranged for themby their parents

1 2 INTRODUCTION.

or other guardians. The Hindu youth has to maintainan attitude of utter indifference about every proposalregarding his marria e

, and when any arrangementin that respect is ma e by his parents, grand arents,uncles or elder brothers, he has to 0 through t e cere

mony out of his sense of duty to o ey or oblige them.

The selection being, in all cases, made by the guardianin accordance with his soberjudgment, and never by theparties themselves in accordance with their impulses forthe time being,marriage out of caste is almost impossible in Hindu society, and is never known to take placeexcept among the very lowest.

CHAP. IV .— THE ORIGIN OF THE ADDITIONAL

CASTES A ND THE SUB -CASTES.

TEE sentiments which Brahmanical legislation en

gendered and fostered have led to the formation or

recognition of a vast number of extra castes and sub

castes . In all probability the laws of the Shastrasfailed to bring about a complete fusion of all the clansand races that had been intended to be included withinthe same group, and their recognition, as distinct subdiv isions, was inevitable fromthe very beginning. Newsub-divisions have also been formed in later times bythe operation of one or other of the following causes

l . B m'

tion to different parts of the count2 . B

)

; diIfl

ea

ient sections being devoted to thSypraotice ofdistinct professions.

3. By an

ysection bein elevated above or degraded below

the evel of the ot ers.

4. By quarrels between the different sections of the samecaste as to their relative status.

5. By becomin the followers of one of the modern reli

gious teac ers .

6. By the multiplication of the illegitimate progeny ofreligionsmendicants .

The Brahmanical sub-classes like the Ridhis, Barendras and the Kaa laS are so-called on account of

their being the inhabitants of Radh, Barendra, and

Kanoj , though they all belong to the same stock . TheVaidikas are evidently so-called on account of theirdevoting themselves exclusively to the study and the

teaching of the Vedas . If so, then it is not difficult tosee why they kept themselves aloof from those who

1 4 INTRODUCTION.

ursued secular avocations. The B uss inie, Kalankishubs-Brahmans, Agradanis, Sanicharis, Gangaputras,&c.,

have become more or less exclusive b beingdegraded and debarred fromassociation with t e otherclasses of Brahmans on a footing of equality. Whenone section of a caste affect a superior status and refuse

to give their daughters to another section, the lattermay for a time admit their inferiority by betraying an

eagerness tomarry their daughters in the superior castewithout having the compliment reciprocated . But

sooner or later the connection between them is cut

off altogether, and they become distinct sub-castes .

W ith regard to the additional castes, it is stated in the

Shastras that they are due to in termarriage and miscegenation between the primary castes. This explanation is necessitated by the theory that originally therewere only four castes , and has been of great use to theBrahmans for enforcingmarriage within caste, and forhumiliating such classes as theVaidyas and theAcharyaswho, being by the nature of their profession, very im

portant factors in every native court, might otherwiseave become too powerful .To me it seems that most of the so-called mixed

castes owe their exclusiveness to either Brahmanicalpolicy, or to the impossibility of includin themwithinany of the four primary groups while t ere are someamen the additional castes whose formation is clearlytraces le to their being the followers of some revolutionary teacher of modern times.

The Brahmanical explanation of the origin of the

additional castes has been accepted by some of the

English writers on the subject But to me it seemsutterly impossible that any new caste could be formedin themanner described by Mann or any other Hindulawgiver. In order to accept the theory it is necessaryto assume that a careful record was kept of every case

of irregularmarriage and illicit sexual intercourse, andthat the progeny of the parties were listed and included

CHAP. V at—THEAUTHORITIESBY WHOM CASTE

RULES ARE ENFORCED .

UNDER the Hindu kings, the rules relating to caste

were enforced by the officers of the crown in accordance with the advice of the great Pandits who generally acted as ministers. During the period of Moslemascendancy, the Hindu barons and chiefs exercised theprerpf

ative where they could. But in Northern India,the indus have now no recognised spiritual head . In

cases of serious violations of Shastric injunctions, thePandits are consulted as to the nature of the expiationrequired. But their power to impose any penalty on

the delinquent is not very considerable . In extremecases they may, as a body, refuse to accept any giftfromthe Offender, and keep aloof fromthe religiousceremonies celebrated in his house. But except wherepublic 0 inion is too strong to be disregarded, they are

very sel omsufficiently united to visit anyone with thepunishment of excommunication in suchmanner.

In Southern India the case is somewhat different.There the non-Vishnuvite Hindus are completely underthe spiritual authority of the Superiors of the Sankaritemonasteries. In fact, the head of the Sringerimonusteat the source of the Toonga Bhadra in Mysore, has e

same power over the Smarta Hindus of Southern Indiathat the Pope has over the Roman Catholic populationof Europe. See The Q ueen v. Sri Sankara, I. L. R. ,

6 Madras , p . 381 .

The main agency by which caste discipline is stillmaintained to some extent is the religious sentimentslismof the Hindus as a nation . But in this respect

CAUSES or ExcLUSION FROM CASTE. 1 7

there is no consistency to be found in them. For instance, there are lots of men who almost openly eat forbidden food and drink forbidden liquors, and yet theirfellow-castemen do not usually hesitate to dine in theirhouses, or to have connections with thembymarriage .

But if a man goes to Europe he loses his caste, eventhough he be a strict vegetarian and teetotaler. Then ,

again, if amanmarry a widow he loses caste, thoughsuchmarria e is not in any way against Shastric injunetions, while t e keepingof aMahomedanmistress, whichis a serious and almost inexpiable Offence, is not visitedwith any kin d of punishment by castemen . Similarly, amanmay become aBrahmo oragnostic andyet remain incaste : but if he espouse Christianity orMahomedanism,

his own parents would exclude himfromtheir house, anddisallow every kind of intercourse, except on themostdistant terms . He cannot have even a drink of waterunder his parental roof, except in an earthen pot, whichwould not be touched afterwards by even the servants ofthe house, and which he would have to throw away withhis own hands, if no scaven er be available .

The onl acts which now ead to exclusion fromcasteare the fo owing

Embracin Christianity orMahomedanism.

Going to uro orAmerica.

Marrying a v i ow.

Pubhcly throwing away the sacred thPublicly eating beef , pork or fowl.Publicly eatin

gbacks food cooked by a Mahomedan,

Christian or ow caste Hindu.

Ofi ciatin as apriest in thehouseBy a fen a

gle gomg away fromhome for an immoral pur

ln the villages, the friendless and the poor people are

sometimes excluded fromcaste for other offences as, forinstance — adultery, incest, eating forbidden food and

drinking forbidden liquors. But when the offender ispersonage or is influentially connected,

no one thinks of visiting himwith such punishment.3 , EC . 2

CHAP. VL—NATURE OF THE PENALTY OF

EXCLUSION FROM CASTE.

WHEN a Hindu is excluded fromcaste1 . friends relatives and fellow-townsmen refuse to

partake of his hospitality .

2 . He is not invited to entertainments in their houses.

3. He cannot obtain brides or bridegroom for his children .

Even his own married daughters cannot visit himout running the risk of bemg excluded fromcaste.

5. His priest and even his barber and washerman refuseto serve him.

6. His fellow-customen sever their connection with himso

completel that they refuse to assist himeven at thefuneral o amember of his household.

7. In some cases theman excluded fromcaste is debarredaccess to the public temples.

To deprive a man of the services of his barber and

washerman is becomingmore andimore difi cult in thesedays. But the otherpenalties are (enforced on excludedpersons) with more or less rigour, according to circumstances.

In themofussil the nalties are most severely felt.Even in the towns such

e

persons find great difficulty inmarrying their children, and are therefore sometimesobliged to go through very humiliating expiatory cere

monies, and to pay heavy fees to the learned Panditsforwinning theirgood graces.

PART II.

THE BRAHMANS GENERALLY.

CHAP. I.— THE POSITION OF THE BRAHMANS

IN HINDU SOCIETY.

THE most remarkable feature in the mechanismof

Hindu society is the high position occupied in itby the Brahmans. They not only claimalmost divinehonours as their birthright, but, generally speaking, theother classes, including the great Ksatriya princes, andthe rich Vaishya merchants readily submit to theirpretensions as a matter of course. A Brahman neverbows his head tomake a pranamto one who is not a

Brahman . When saluted by aman of any other class,he on ly pronounces a benediction saying, Victory beunto you .

”In some cases when the party saluting is

a prince or a man of exalted position in society,the

Brahman, in pronouncing his benediction,stretches out

the palmof his ri ht hand, in a horizontal direction, toindicate that he ins been propitiated . The form of

salutation by the inferior castes to Brahmans variesaccording to circumstances. When the Brahman to besaluted has a very hi h position , temoral or spiritual,and theman saluting esires to honour °mto the utmostdc cc possible, he falls prostrate at the feet of the objectof reverence, and, after touching themwith his hand

2 0 THE POSITION or THE BRAHMANS.

applies his fingers to his lips and his forehead . In ordinary cases a man, of any of the three inferior castes,salutes a Brahman by either joinin

ghis palms and

raising them to his forehead, in the ormof a doublemilitary salute, or by simly pronouncing such wordsas pranamor

Ipaunlagi. T us the amount of veneration

shown to a rahman may vary under difl'

erent con

ditions . But no member of the other castes can,

consistently with Hindu social etiquette and reli '

ous

beliefs, refuse alto ether to bow to a Brahman . Eventhe Chaitanites an the otherclasses ofmodern Vaishnavas, who do not rofess to have any veneration for theBrahmans as such, and speak of themas heretics in theirown circle, cannot do without bowing to Brahmansand accepting their benedictions in public .

Themore orthodox Sudras carry their veneration forthe priestly class to such an extent,

‘ that they willnot cross the shadow of a Brahman, and it is not

unusual for themto be under a vow not to eat any foodin themotuin before drinkingBipracharanamrita,water in whic the toe of a Brahman has been dipped.

On the other hand, the pride of the Brahman is suchthat they do not bow to even the images of the godsworship in a Sudra’s house by Brahman priestsThe rahman asserts his superiority in various other

ways. His Shastras declare that on certain occasions,Brahmansmust be fed and giftsmust be made to thembymembers of all classes. But the Brahman can acce tsuch hospitality and gifts without . hesitation onlywhere the host ordonor is amember of one of the threesuperior castes. The

gosition of the Sudras is, according

to the theor of the hastras and the practice of Hindusociety suc that a Brahman cannot accept theirpresents without lowering himself for ever, while byeating any kind of food cooked by a Sudra he loses hisBrahmanismand his sanctity altogether. In the houseof a Sudra, a Brahman may eat uncooked food, or suchfood as is cooked by a Brahman. But the Brahman

run POSITION or run BRAHMANS. 2 1

who does so , while not sojourning in a foreign lace, islowered for ever in public estimation . For a l thesereasons , a Brahman who accepts a Sudra’s gifts and

hospitalit at a religious ceremony, is able to 030 as a

person w 0makes agreat sacrifice to oblige thehost anddonor.

When a Brahman invites aSudra, the latter is usuallyasked to partake of the host’s r favour, in theshape of the leavings of his Orthodox Sudrasactually take offence, if invite the use of any otherformula. No Sudra is allowed to eat in the same roomor at the same timc withBrahmans. While the Brahmangut eat, the Sudras have to wait in a differentpart of the house . It is not, however, to be supposed

Sudras take any ofi'

ence at such treatment. Onthe contrary, they not onl

ywait patiently, but, in some

places, insist upon eating t e leavings of the Brahmans,and refuse to eat anything from clean platea Suchorthodoxy is against nature, and is happily somewhatrare . Ordinarily, the pious Sudra takes a pinch from

of a Brahman ’

s plate, and after eating theue reverence, begins to eat from a clean

plate.

The high caste and well-to-do Sudras never eat in thehouse of a Brahman without paying for the honour aranamz

'

,or salutation fee, of at least one rupee. The

rahman host never insists on such pa ment, and in

fact it is usually forced upon him. Butw en aBrahmancats in the house of a Sudra on a ceremonial occas ion ,

the payment of a fee by the host to the guest is a sine

qua non. This fee is called bhoj an dalcslu'

na, and ordinarily varies fromone anna to one rupee. In specialcases the Sudra host has to paymuch heavier fees.

When a Sudra writes a letter to a Brahman, it mustbe by declaring that the writermakes a hundredmi °

on obeisances at the lotus feet of the addressee.

When a Brahman writes a letter to aman of any othercaste, the style of his communication is that of a superior

2 2 ANCIENT roamor ADDRESSING BRAHMANS.

being, andhe commences it by pouring heaps of assurances of future bliss.

”

If the amount of honour which is shown by any community to its female members is an indication of the

degree of civilization attained by it, then, the Brahmansare, the most advanced race of men on earth . Theynever mention the names of their ladies without the

devi (goddess ). But while thus upholding theity of the femalemembers of their own class, theytaught the Sudras to use the word dad (slave) as

an aflix to the names of Sudra females .

For conversational urposes the roper formof ad

dress by Sudras to Bra mans is Thakoor Mahasaya or

Th'

akoorji whichmeans venerable cd.

”In the same

way Brahman ladies have to be a dressed by Sudrasas MaThakoorain ormother goddess. Formerly, eventhe Brahman kings of the country preferred the ad

dress of Thakoor to any other honorific expression .

But of late ears the word has suffered a strange degradation , an though it means cd it is now veryoften taken to denote a cook .

‘or this reason the

Brahmans who have received an English education ,

and are engaged in secular pursuits, saw no objectionat one time to be addressed as Babus. But the e ithet,Babu itself, has sufl

'

ered of late a similar degradhtion .

Before the commencement of British rule, it was appliedonly to the collateral relatives of the great royal familiesof India. But Englishmen in India applied it indiscriminately to every untitled Hindu, and speciall

yto

their Hindu clerks in Bengal. The title is, there ore,

now usually taken to be the equivalent of the Englishwords, clerk” and accountant,” and the higherclassesof educated Hindus now consider it an insult to be calledBabus. In the absence of any other Indian word forhonorific address, some Hindu gentlemen now prefer tobe addressed as Mr.

”and Esquire,” and for this they

See p. 1 1 , ante.

CHAP. II.- THE BRAHMAN’S PROPER

PROFESSIONS.

ACCORDING to the commandments of his religion ,the

proper avocations of Brahmans are the followingl . Stu

‘

ng the Shastras.

Teac ing the ShastrasPerformance of religious rites for the three superior

4. Acceptance of gifts fromthe three superior classes.

Until recently the teaching of the Shastras was considered as themost honourable profession foraBrahman .

The cat Pandits of the country are still honoured andsuhsi ized by the well-to-do classes . But their pretensions to superior learning are not admitted by thosewho have received an English education, and as theirvaunted lore does not open the doors to any kind of

service under Government, or to the liberal professions,they are fast sinking to a very inferior position .

There was a time when the first Pundit in the countrywas the firstman in the country. The people believedin the Pandits and, under the Hindu kings, the entireadministration was very often left in their hands. But

under British rule, the Pandits are nowhere. Theystill exercise very considerable influence over the nu

educated classes. But the dignity of their professionis gone, and the class itself is fast becoming extinct inconsequence of the superior attractions of Englisheducation .

As to the priestl profession, it is to be Observed thatthe ordinance whio recommends it as a proper one for

THE RRARMAN’

s PROPER PROFESSIONS. 25

a Brahman ,is subject to very important limitations.

Those who ofi ciate as priests for Sudras, and thosewho performthe service of idols in public or rivate

shrines , are, according to the dogmas of the gl induscriptures, degraded persons. The performance of

priestly functions for the superior castes is nowherecondemned in the sacred codes, and is, in fact, recommended as a to er avocation fora Brahman . But, se

cording to in u notions, a priest is a very inferiorperson , and no Brahman, who can live otherwise, wouldwillingly performthe work of a priest. The duties of theBrahman tor involve long fastings, and, in res ect

of the wors ipof idols, almostmenial service. Furt er,

themen who actually performthe function of priests are,in themajority of cases, ignorant persons with just theamoun t of the knowledge of rituals that is necessary fordischarging their duties. The Pandits, who study theori 3 1 works that regulate these rituals, can find faultwi the priest at every step, and reserve for themselvesthe higher functions of the critic and superintendent.Whatever be the reason

,the priest has a very inferior

position in Hindu society. The relative status of

Brahman families depends partly upon the hereditaryrank of its members, as determined by the records ofIndian heraldry. But, apart fromaristocratic lineage,the highest position among the Brahmans is, accordingto orthodox notions, occupied by the Pandits and the

Gurus who have only Brahman disciples. The Gurusare principal] of two classes— namely, Tantric and

Vaishnava. e Tantric Gurus inculcate main] theworship of Siva’s consorts ; while the Vais navaGurus or Gossains insist upon the worship of one

of the incarnations of Vishnu . The disciples of the

Gossains aremen of very low castes, includin Vintners,oilmen, and even the unfortunates of e towns.

Having such followers, the Gossains are a very wellto-do class , but are held in ve low esteem, and veryfewgood B

rahmans eat in theirr

houses.

2 6 GURUS AND COSSAINs .

Among the Tiintric Gurus there are a greatmanywho have only Brahman disciples. They are generallyvery learned men, and are not like the VaishnavaGossains, who are usually so illiterate that the fewamong themwho can barely recite the Sri Bht'tgavatare reckoned by their followers as prodigies of Sanskritscholarship .

CHAP. III.— THE MODERN HINDU GURUS.

A FEW words about the probable origin of themodernGuru

’

s professionmay not be out of place here. Thereis no mention of it in the ancient scriptures of the

Hindus , and it is recognized and regulated only bytheir new testaments . The word Guru or Acharyaoriginallymeant a teacher of the Vedas. The ancientlegal and moral codes of the Hindus gave a very highpos ition to the Vedic teachers. Mann says

Of h imwho gives natural birth , and himwhogives knowledge of

the whole Veda, the giver of sacred knowledge is t emore venerablefather, since the second ordivine birth ensures life to the twice-born,

both in this world and hereafter eternally .

”-Manu II, 146.

When, by such teachings, the position of the Guru

became associated in the Hindu mind with the tenderestsentiments Of regard and affection , the Brahmanicaltheologians began to think of devising ways to exactthat reverence even frompersons who have never beenVedic pupils, and who have not even the right to readour holy scriptures. The Vedic mantras are too voluminous and rosaic to attract any considerable numberof pupils . emales and Sudras are not allowed tostud themat all. For these reasons, no actual teacherof t e Vedas could at any time hope to attract roundhimany considerable number of actual Vedic students.

But the position of a Guru having a large number ofpupils is a desirable one

,and the Tantrics invented a

short cut to that position . They gave the namemantrato somemystic and meaningless syllables which might

2 8 ORIGIN OF THE GURU ’ S PROFESSION.

be communicated and learnt at one sitting. Sudras andfemales weremade eligible for thesemantras, and everyBrahman with a little tact and Show of piety was eu

abled to gather round himan army of chellas boundby their vow to worship himas a god and to pay a

yearly tax to himand his descendants fromgenerationto

generation . The chellas are regarded by the Guru

as is property, and when the sons of a deceased Gurumake a partition of his estate and effects, the chellas

are partitioned and distributed among themin the samemanner as any other property inherited by them.

The simple method invented by the Tantrics for ac

quiring the

(po

wer and position of a Guru over a large

number of isciples, has been remarkably successful.Looked at d priorz

'

such mystic syllables as hoong,doong, [cling or luring are an outrage on commonsense . But the gullibility of man has no limit, and theGuru who whispers thesemeaningless expressions in theears of his disciple is worshipped and paid by himas

the bestower of untold benefits . He is not allowedto reveal its nature to any one. Thematter is certainlynot such as to be capable of bearing the daylight ofintelligent criticism. The Guru, therefore, acts wiselyin insisting that the communication should be treatedas strictly confidential.The Gossains discard the mystic syllables more or

less, and inculcate that in this age of Sin the only wayto attain salvation lies in constantly re satin the nameof Harz

'

Their doctrinemay not at rst Sig t seemto

be consistent with their professional policy. A Tantricmantra is a mystic syllable whichmust necessarily bereceived from a Guru by those who may value it.But if, as the Vishnuvites say, aman can save his soulby merely repeating the name of some deity a certainnumber of times, surely he cannot be absolutely in needof a spiritual teacher to initiate himin the adoption of

that method. But 10 ic or reason has very little con

nection with faith, andas Gurus of all classes, includ

TANTRIC AND VAISHNAVA GURUS COMPARED . 2 9

ingboth the Tantric and the Vaishnava; insist upon thenecessity of a spiritual teacher for every human beinthe idea has become too firmly implanted in the Hind

gu

mind to be eradicated by any occasional gleamof common sense .

The abominations worshipped by the Tantrics are

eschewed altogether by the Vaishnavas. But the latterby reciting stories or Singing songs about the illicitamours of Krishna, gives perhaps eater encouragemen t to immorality than anyTantric ti

r

e nature of whosephallic emblems is understood by very few of thosewho worship them. So there is very little to choose between the morality of the one or the other. But the

Vaishnavas can perform their operations openly, whilethe Ti ntrics require a shroud of mysticismto envelopthem. Anyhow , the Vaishnavas are very fast extendingthe sphere of their influence, andmany of the Tantricsare now espousing Vaishnava tenets in order to have theadvanta e of en listing among their followers the lowclasses t t are becoming rich under British rule.

CHAP. IV .— ENQUIRIESBY WHICH THE CASTE

STATUSOF A HINDU MAY BE ASCERTAINED .

lANNOT a man of one caste pass as a member of

another caste ? This is a question which must occur

to every foreigner interesting himself in the subject.But, as explained already, there cannot be any strongmotive for such false impersonation , and the checkswhich are provided by Hindu social etiquette, are

owerful enough to repress any such attemts.

The unwritten law of Indian society requires thatevery Hindu,

when asked, must mention not only Sthenames of his paternal and maternal ancestors, butgive also every information that he can about suchqueries as the following

1 . What is your caste ? 4. W hat are yourPravaras2 . What is your clan 5. What is your Veda ?

3. What is your Gotra ? 6. What is yourSakha ?7. What is your Sutra

I once heard a sto about an attempt made by a shoemaker to

pass as a Brahman . ith a view to have a share of the nice eatablesrovided for the Brahman guests of a local D ives , be equippedimself like a Brahman with his sacred thread , and quietly joinedthe company when they assembled in the evening. As usual onsuch occasions, one of the party asked himwhat his name andhisfather

’s name were. He said , in reply , that his own namewas Ram

Chatterjea, and that his father’s name was Kasi Lahiri. Beingthus found out, he was hustled out of the place. His low positionin caste saved himfromkicks and blows, and while effecting his exithe gave ex ression to the sad moral of his adventure bymutteringa shoema or cannot conceal his caste even under cover of night.

’

32 NATURE or GOTRA, PBAVARAL E'

I‘

C .

since, yet every member of the priestly caste is ex

pected to know by tradition the name of the Veda, andthe rescension of it of which his family rofess to bestudents. Hence, when an enquiry ism 0 about thelines e of any member 0 the twice- born caste s, he is

asks tomention the name of his Veda.

Starch—The Sutras are ritualistic works, and the

Sutra of a Brahman is the name of the Rishi whosemanual of rituals regulates the religious ceremonies of

his famil Every Brahman in the country is supposedto knowhis Gotra, Pravara and Veda, and is expectedtomention themwhenever asked. But the Sakha and

theSutra are known only to the learned, and it is not

very usual to make any enquiry about themeven on

formal occasions.

A difference of Gotra, Pravara, Vedas orSikhs doesnot usually imply any difference of caste or clan nor

does any identity in these respects imply an identityof class. There is a saying in Bengali according to

which there are only five Gotras in the world. As amatter of fact there aremore than 100 different Gotras,and each one of these is to be found in almost all

the primary castes. The Gotra is not only something very difi

'

erent from caste, but involves veryopposite incidents. The most important feature of

caste is that no Hindu can contract amarital allianceoutside its limits. But as to Gotra the rule amonthe higher castes is that marriage can only be validbetween persons of different Gotra.

CHAP. V .— THE SUB-DIVISIONS AMONG THE

BRAHMANS.

ACCORDING to some authoritative texts of the Shastras , andaccording to popularbelief also, the Brahmansof India are divided into two main classes, each of

thembeing sub-divided into five sub-classes as shown inthe followin g table

1 . Pan ch Gauror the fiveclause of Northern India.

2 . Pand aD ravira or thefive classes of Sou th ern

As amatte r of fact the divisions among the Brahmans are so numerous that it is exceedin ly difiicult,if not ac tually impossible, to frame an e sustive and

accurate list thereof. For the urpose of iving an

account of the Brahmans of Northern India afone, eachof the following provinces and districts must be takeninto consideration se rately : (1 ) Bengal Proper (2 )Tirhoot ; (3) South fiber (4) N -W . Provinces and

Oudh (5) Kumkshetra (6) Punjab (7) Kashmir(8) Sind (9) Rajputana ; (10) Central India (1 1 )Assam (1 2 ) Orissa.

Even within the limits of each of the above-mentioned territorial divisions, the Brahmanical opulation

not, in any case, of the same class. 11h Bengal3

34 THE MAIN DIVISIONS AMONG THE BRAHMANS.

proper alone, there are, besides the d adod and the

semi-dograded Brahmans, about half ozen difi'

erent

divisions in the sacerdotal population which are, for allpractical purposes, different castes altogether. The caseis no better in any of the other provinces. On the

contrary, among the Sarswatas of the Punjab, whatweremerely hypergamous groups formerly, now threatento be separate castes, and when this transformation becomes complete, it will be quite as impossible to counttheir sub-divisions as those of the Guzratis.

PART III.

THEBRAHMANSOFNORTHERN INDIA.

CHAP. I.—THEBRAHMANSOF BENGAL.

Excnr'rme the recent immigrants fromother pro

vinces, the Brahmans of Bengal preper are dividedinto the following classes

1 . Pu cha Vaidih s (Lit. Vedic Brahmans of WesternIndia

2 . W hig-La“. Brahmas of Bad]: orWestern Bengal).

3. Baron (Lit. Brahmans of Birendra country , the name‘

ven to the northern rt of Bengal).4. DSl hinatyaVaidikafl t. Vedic Brah maof Southern

India).5. M Breni(Lit. Brahmans of themidland country t o"

of 0 district of M idna re which forms the borderland between Oriana and engal Proper).

It is said that there is, besides these, another class inBengal called theSeptaSatis , ortheSevenHundred,whowere the onl Brahmans in Ben before the colonisa

of the gvs rieste invited y KingAdisur in thecentu of 0 Christian era. I have never met

with any apta Sati Brahmans but, so far as myinformation oes,members of this classmay be found insomeparts 0 EastBengal, and especially in Maheshporein the eastern part of the Nadiya district. They usually

th,

the Ridhiyas, and, for all practicalpurposes, may be regarded as a section of that class.

36 ms BRAHMANS or BENGAL .

1 . The Prischditya Vaidi/cas.

The numerical strength of the Paschatya Vaidikas isnot very considerable. Their name indicates that theycame fromthe west, and according to the traditions intheir families, they are of theKanofia stock, their ancestors having, at the commencement of Mahomedan rule,migrated fromtheir original habitat to Tirhoot, and sub

sequently fromTirhoot to Bengal. Most of the Vaidikaimmigrants were specially invited by one or other ofthemany Hindu Rajas, who ruled over the country assemi- independent chiefs, during almost the entire periodof Moslemascendancy . The ancestor of the leadingVaidikas of Nadiya was a reader of the Mahdbhdirat

who could recite it frommemory, and was made tosettle in Bengal by a Raja Kashinath, who was the rulerof the Nadiya district before it was given by theEmperorJahangir to Bhava Nanda, the ancestor of the presentRaja of Nadiya. The founder of the Vaidika familyof Kotalipabar was invited fromKanoj by a Hinduprince who ruled over the district of Bakergunge in thethirteenth century, andwas led to celebrate at an immensecost a religious ceremony for avoiding an evil that wasforeboded by the fall of a dead vulture on the roof of hispalace. The lucky riest secured for himself, by wayof remuneration forhis services, a valuable zemiudariwhich is now in the possession of his descendants. Themost imottant colonies of the Vaidikas are to be foundnow in the districts ofNadiya, Burdwan , 24-Pergunnahs,Malda, Rajshahi, Jessore, Bakergunge, DaccaandFaridore.pThemajority of the other classes ofBengali Brahmans

are the spiritual disciples of the Vaidikas ofBhatpara. A Vaidika never enlists himsel

R]

:of a BraM an of any other class. Some Vaidikas

ve Sudra disciples, and have even stooped so far as toofiiciate as riests for Sudras and in public temples .

But; genera y speaking, their Brahmanical pride is

THE RARHIYA BRAHMANS. 37

such that the poorest amon themwould rather die thando any kind o fmanual wor Till recently they keptthemselves aloof fromEnglish education and Government service . But their disciples do not submit nowa-days to be taxed by themto the same extent as in

former times , and stern necessity has been compellingthe Gurus of Nadiya and Bhatparfi. to pocket their pride ,and to qualify themselves for Government service and

the liberal professions, by En lish education .

The usual s urname of thefi’ aidikas is Bhattacharya.

There are some in the class who have other familynames such as Chackravarti, Roy and Chowdry but

all these are honorific titles, and are not peculiar to theclass. For the meanings of these titles, see Glossary .

5 2 . The Rdrhiya B rahmans of B engal.

The Barhiya and the Birendra Brahmans of Bengaltrace their descent fromthe five priests brought fromKanoj , in the 9th century, byKingAdisur of East Bengal, for th e purpose evidently of performingone of thoseVedic sac rifices for which competent priests could behad only in the capitals of the great Hindu kings. TheRarhiyas and Barendras are ver proud of their descent.

But even on the supposition t at King Adisur was a

Ksatriya, andnot aVaidya, it cannot be said that, according to Hindu notions, the five priests imported by himwere en titled to be re arded as very high class Brahmans.

The very title of padhya, which their patron gavethem, shows that the were regarded asmiddle class,and not first class , Tandits . The Rarhiyas and the

B'

irendras may, with much better reason ,boast of

having had in their clans such greatmen as Baghunnath, Gadadhar, Kulluka and Raghunandan ,

the lastbeing by way of pre

- eminence known throughout Indiaas Smarta Bhattacharya, or the great professor of

jurisprudence and theology .

The Barbis derive their clan name from that of the

tract of country which now forms the northern portion

of the Burdwan division . Brahmans of this class are

38 THE BRAHMANS or BENGAL.

to be found in every part of Bengal proper, and theirnumerical strength is perhaps greater than that of allthe other classes of Bengali Brahmans taken together.

They are divided into about one hundred sub- classes, andgrouped under the fourmain headsmentioned below

l . Kulin (families of high 3. Sudha Srotriya (pure Vediclineage). scholars ).

4. Kashta Srotriya (impureVedic scholars.)

A Rarhiva Kulin can give his daughter only to a

Kulin . Ifhe gives his daughter to aBansaja orSrotriyahis Kulinismis destroyed forever. A Ku lin canmarrythe daughter of a Kulin or that of a Sudha Srotriya.

If he marry the daughter of a Kashta Srotriya, he islowered at once in rank . If hemarry into a Bansajafamily

, his Kulinism lasts for some generations in a

decaying condition , and his descendant in the eighthdegree becomes a regular Bansaj . A Kulin who firstmarries into a Bansaj family generally gets a very highpremium. The Kulins who have kept their Kulinismintact, general] find great difficulty in marrying theirdaughters, an are obliged to keep themunmarried,notwithstanding the Shastric injunctions that requireevery Hindu to give his female children in marriagebefore puberty. A Srotriya can give his daughter toa Bansaj as well as to a Kulin . A Bansaj cannot givehis daughter to a Srotriya.

The usual and peculiar titles of theRarhiyas arel . MukhOpadhya. 3. ChattOpadhya.

2 . Bandyopadhya.

5Gangopadhya.

Each of the first four of these titles consists of two

words joined together. The first word is the name of

the village' granted to the ancestor of the holder by

This is in accordance with the explanation of the above-mentioned names given by Rarhiya Gattaks or College of Heralds .

B ut Banodh being the ancient name of the tract of country , including themodern districts of Unao and Rai Bareilly in the vicinityof Kano;i

it is quite possible that BandyOpadhya means an U adhaya of anodh . Similar explanations seemto be possible raga ingM ukhOpadbya, Chattapadhya and Gangopadhya.

40 ms BRAHMANS or BENGAL.

Under British rule the Radhiyas , and especially theiroutcastedPirali section,have been thefirst to ada t themselves to the exi eneias of the new re

'

gime, an to takeadvantage of suc opportunities for advancement as itofi

'

ered to the people of the country. Dwarka NathTagore and Prasanna Kumar Tagore were Piralis .

RamMohan Roy and IshwarChandraVidvasagar wereBrahmans of a better class, but even they did not hold avery high position in their caste. In fact until recently

hardly compose.

” Such being the attitude of Has tings towardsNand Kumar, it is no wonder that he carried out the orders of theCourt of Directors only so far that be dismissed Mahomed RetaKhan , and removed the exchequer from_Moorsbedabad to Calcutta.

But the oflice of Naib Dewan was abolished . and Nand Kumar wassubjected to a cruel disa pointment. So “it was natural.

”accord

ing to Macaulay h irnse that the Governor should fromthattime be an object of the most intense hatred to the Brahman.

"

When the Councillors appointed by the Regulatin Act arrived , and .

ibly in accordance with instructions fromt e M inisters of therown , tried to upset the war of Hastings and indirectly that of

the East India Company, and Kumar by a natural process becameassociated with the enemies of the Governor-General. Hastings hadmortal] offendedNandKumar. When the lattersawhis op rtnnityhe trie to have his enemy disgraced. The enemy reta iated byhaving the Brahmanmurdered under colour of legal

{roceedingm

Accordingto Brahmanical ideas ofmoralit Nand umar deservesto be condemned in the strongest terms possi is for the vices of otheeseekingand vindictivenesswhich he betrayed But the impartial historian cannot condemn himwithout condemningalso in severer termsthe conduct of a man in the position of

.

Hastings, who retaliatedinsult by murder. If the rules of political morality be differentfromthose of ordinarymorality , and if the exigencies of the situation in which Hastings was placed

‘

ustified the shar antidotethat he used, surely the conduct of and Kumar towa s himoughtto be judged by the same standard . Butwhile the great Ex

t

i

lglish his

torian showers every kind of vitu ration not only on Nan Kumar,but on the nation itself towhich abelonged , he excul tes Hastingswith an amiability that is not often found in the 01 parents of aspoilt onl son. After observing that it is impossible to speak tooseverely 0 Im y

's conduct. the great historian goes on to add

But we loo on the conduct of Hastings in a somewhat different

fight. Hewas struggling for fortune. honour liberty, all thatmakesa valuable. He was beset rancorous andunprinci lad enemies.

Fromhis colleagues he con (1 expect no justice. 0 cannot beblamed forwishing to crush his accusers.

”

Oertaitgy

the defence embodied in the above applies quite as

much to and Kumar as to Hastings. yet , aocordin to the verdictof the t English historian, Hastings was a tician to whomthe 0 rules of morali do not apply.w ila Nand Kumarand the na on to which he ougad are villains.

run BADHIYA BRAHMANS. 41

the hi

gh class Ridhiyas were usually quite illiterate.

Their ereditary rankmade themhighly prized as bridegrooms forthe daughters of theirwell- to-do clansmen , and

many of themlived in former times bymakin marria 9

their sole profession . A Kulin of a high c ass mig tthan marry more than a hundred wives without anydifficulty , and there are still some who have such largenumbers of wives as to necessitate theirkeeping regularregisters for refreshing theirmemory, about the namesand residences of their spouses. Not only each marriage, but each visit by a Kulin to his wife broughthim valuable presents, and as his wives and childrenwere supported by his fathers-in-law,

he could ass his

days in comfort without bein qualified for anykind of

mrvice or profession . The ulin’

s sons sometimes hecame rich by inheriting the property of theirmaternal

But it was until lately very rare for a Kulinto be the architect of his own fortune. The state ofthings in Hindu society is, however, undergoing greatchanges. Most of the Kulin s have become lowered inrank by marrying into inferior families, and Kulinism,

even where it is preserved intact, is not now-a-days valued in the matrimonialmarket to the same extent that itused to be in former times. Wealth, un iversity degreesand ofi cial position command amuch higher premiumat

present than an ancient pedigree. The Kulins themselves have been taught, by the bitterexperience of theirancestors, to be not too eager for polygamy . And thecoup de race to the practice has been given by a decision of t e BengalHigh Court declaring that, accordingto the law of the Shastras applicable to all Hindus,even the Kulins are bound to givemaintenance to theirwives. Whatever be the cause,mono my is nowbecommg the rule among theKulins, and t ey are fast on theway towards again taking their proper lace among themost refined and cultured classes of the country. A

est rank has just retired on pensionthe Government of Bengal for several

42 THE BRAHMANS or BENGAL.

gears as Head Assistant in the Judicial Department .van among the greatest of the livin celebrities of

Bengal there are at present some K ins of a moreor less high position in the Radhiygmp

eerage, the foremost among them being Mr. C. Bonnerjee,Advocate, Bengal High Court Dr. Guru Das Baner

jee, Judge, Bengal High Court Mr. Pramada CharanBanerjee, Judge, N.

-W . P. Hi h Court ; Mr. PretulChandra Chatterj i, Judge, Panja Chief Court.The late Mr. Justice Anookul Chandra Mookerj l

was also a Radhiya Kulin . Mr. W . C. Bonnerjee isa member of the clan called Pundit Ratm'

or“the

jewel of Pandits, and is lineally descended on his

mother’s side fromthe great Jagannath, the author ofthe Digest translated by Mr. Colebrooke. Babu PratulChandra is of the Kharda clan . His randfathermadea fortune bymarrying the daughter 0 Gokool Ghosal,one of the chief fiscal officers in the early days of theEast India Company, and the founder of the Raj familyof Bhu Kailas.

3.

The Barendras trace their origin fromthe same stockas the R ’idhis, fromthe five priests invited byKingAdisur fromKanoj . The Barendras deriveztheir classname from the ancient name of North Bengal. Theirnumerical strength is less than that of the Radhis, butgreater than that of the Vaidikas.

The usual family names of the Barendras are the

followingl . Lahiri. 3. Sinyal.2 . Bhadari. 4. Maitra.

5. Bagchi.

These surnames are peculiar to the Barendras. Theyhave also among themBhattacharyas, Majumdars, Joadars, Boys, and Chowdries. There are some hi h casteBarendras who have the Mahomedan title 0 Khan .

The Barendras , like the Vaidikas, never do any kind of

menial work, and the only class of Bengali Brahmanas

run BARENDRA BRAHMANS. 43

who serve as cooks are the Barbis of West BurdwanThe Rarhis of the eastern districts of Be

of the dis tricts to the east of the riverire uite as aristocratic as the BarendrasVaidi as .

The hypergamous divisions amongthe Barendras are

similar to those of the Barbis in certain res eats, the

only important difference being that the arendras

have a sec tion among themcalled Cap‘ who have asomewhat unique position, though resembling to someextent the Bansaj among the Rarhis.

Polygamy is rare among the Barendras ; but the

marriage of a daughter amon their higher classesis quite as expensive as among t e Rathis. There are

many big Birendra landholders, themost noted among

W ith regard to the ori'

n of the Caps it is said that they are thedescendan ts of a great ulin named Madhu Moitra by his firstwife. Mad hu was an inhabitant of a village on the river Atrai,situated n ear the place where it is now crossed by the NorthBengal State Railway . An inferior member of the clan. beingtreated at a dinner party of his castemen with great contumely,determined to forma matrimonial alliance with the great Kuhnat any cost . and with that object hired a boat to take himto thevicinity of Madhu’s residence and was careful to have with himon

board of the vessel his wife, an unmarried daughterand a cow.

On reach ing the neighbourhood of Madhu’s village , he inquiredof a Brahman. who was as ng his prayers after performing hisablutions on the banks of t e river, whether he knew where the

great ha d of the Bi rendra clan lived . The Brahman , who wasInterrogated . was himself the person about whomthe en uiry wasaddre ssed . W hen the fact wasmade known to the Bra man on

board the boat , heplroduoed a hammer and a chisel threatening to

sink the boat with a its inmates unless Madhu agreed tomarry theBrahman '

s daughte r. The old man was too far advanced in hfe tobe quite ready for corn lying with an request of the kind . But ,as an orthodox Hindu, e could not 0 upon himself any share ofthe three great crimes 2 namel the killin of a female, the killingofa Brahman , and the killing 0 a cow—w ich were threatened to be

perpetrated in his presence. So he reluctantly gave his consent.

But when his sons came to know what he was going to do theywere very much annoyed, and they so ted from their fatherat once. The old man was suppo by his sister’s husband ,

who was then the other great Kulin of the caste, and the sons whoseparated became Ci The position of their descendants issuperior to that of t e Srotriyas , but inferior to that of the

Kulins. Matrimonial alliance between a Kuhn and 9. Cap reducesthe former to the position of the latter.

44 THE BRAHMANS or BENGAL .

thembeing the great house of'

Nattore that held possession of more than one- third of Bengal proper, at

the time of the conquest of the country by the EastIndia Company. Next in importance to the NattoreRajas, but more ancient than their family

,is that of

thePutia zemindars . The lateMaharan iSharatSundari,whose name is venerated throughout India for herextensive charities, and for her character as a modelHindu widow,

was a member of the Putia house .

Among the other great Barendra landholders of Bengalare the zemindars of Susang and Muktagacha in the

district of Mymensing. Babu Mobini Mohan Roy ,

who is one of themost successful pleaders of the BengalHigh Court, andwho has lately been made an AdditionalMember of the Supreme Legislative Council of India,is a Barendra.

Themajority of the Vaidikas, Barbis and Barcudras

are moderate Saktas . They worship all the ancientdeities of the Hindu antheon but Durga, Kali andSiva have the largest share of their devotion. Manyof themsacrifice oats and buffaloes before the deitiesthey worship ; ut among such of their orthodoxmembers as are not affected by English education

,and

the temptations of modern town life, the drinking of

spirituous liquors is still practically unknown .

4 . The D dlcslu'

natya Vaidikas .

The name of this class indicates that they originallycame fromthe south. They are found chiefly in thedistrict of Midnapore, and seemto have been originallyBrahmans of Orissa. A few small colonies of the

Dakshinatyas are to be found in the southern portionof the metropolitan district of 2 4-Pergunuahs. Theyare a separate caste altogether, and there can be neitherin termarriage nor interchange of hospitality betweenthemand the Paschatya Vaidikas. Pundit Siva NathSastri, of the Sadharan BrahmoSamej

,is a Dakshinatva

Vaidika.

run MADHYA SRENI BRAHMANS. 45

5.— Tlae Madhya SrmiB rahmans of the district of

The Madhya Srenis are a ve backward class ofBrahman s

, to be found only in the istrict ofMidnapore.

As they have the very same surnames and Gotras as

the Radhis of Bengal, they are evidently a section of

the Radhis . They themselves profess to be so, and

account for their want of connection with the Radhisproperly so-called, b sayin that as they refused toacknowledge the nu ority oi

gthe Ghataks to determine

the Radhi College of Heralds refused torecognise their very existence. The true cause of theirforming a separate caste seems, however, to be thatthey accepted the gifts of the Kaibartas, and lived in an

out-of- the-way district. The Madhya Srenis are generally very poorand without any literary culture beyondwhat is necessary for doing the work of a priest.The distinction between Kulins and Srotriyas is not

sed by the Madhya Srenis. The descendants of

those who, at one time or other, became famous as

Sanskrit scholars, en'

oyed, until lately, a higherpositionthan the secular Br mans . But at present, the statusof a party for matrimonial purposes depends chiefly

the amount of wealth possessed by him. Thea Stenis partake of the hospitali of the Kai

bartas, andminister to themas priests in ceremoniesexcept Shradhs.

” The Shradhs of the Kaibartas are

performed by a class of Brahmans called Vyasokta.

Mr. Risle in his account of the Madhya Branis sa s that the

have eigh t h as , and that the Madhya Srenis of ayna an.

certain other places have a higher position than the rest. But his

account seems to be based upon erroneous information.

CHAP. II.—THE BRAHMANS OF MITEILA AND

BEHAR .

1 .—Maz

'

thilas .

THE Brahmans of Mithila or Tirhoot are calledMaithila Brahmans . They formone of the five leadingclassses of North Indian Brahmans called Panch Gaur.

They have no sub-castes, though they are divided intomany groups which are of importance for the urpose

of arranging marriages among them. The fo lowingare the names of these hypergamous groups

l . Srotri orSoto (Lit. A reader of the Vedas).2 . J og family of an inferior class that has attained a

superiorstatus bymarriage connectionswith Srotri3. PanJiBadh (Recognized by the local College of Herald

-sh

4. Nagar.

5. J aiwar.

A man of a higher group may take inmarriage a

girl froma lower group. But a girl of a highergroup18 never given to a bridegroom of a lower class,except where the parents of the former are too poortomarry her to a boy of the same or a superior grouThe Maithila Brahmans have a special kind of head

dress. Their usual surnames are the following1 . Misra (A reader of the two 3. Thaltoor God .)

Mimansas ). 4. Paths ]: (Areaderof theMa2 . t a or h e.

“(Both are cor habbarat and thePurine).

rupted forms of the Sans 5. Pura.

kn t word Upadhya,which 6. Padri.means an assistant teach 7. Chowdry .

or or priest). 8. Roy .

Persons who profess to exorcise evil spirits or cure snake-bitesare usuall

ficalled t as, or, by a further corruption of the word ,‘

Boja.

’ey do not belon to an rticul caste

generally low classmen.

g y pa an.and are

48 THE naanmaxs or BEBAB.

Maithila authors, the names of Gan eshe Upadhya,Pakshadhar Misra, Udayanacharya, C deshwar and

BachaspatiMisra will continue tobe honoumd so longas Hindu law and philosophy remAmong the Sanskritists of recent times, thelate Pandit Bapu Jan Jha attained great eminence,and his son, Chumba Jha, is fully sustamingthe reputation of the famil The other two great livingPanditsof Mithila are alli Jha and Vishwa Nath Jha.

The majoritfi‘

of the Maithila Brahmans are Saktiworshippers. hey ofl

'

er sacrifices before the deitiesworship],and eat flesh and fish, but are not known

in the abit of drinkin spirituous liquors, as theextreme Saktas are require to do by their Shastras .

The Maithila Brahmans do not smoke to

2 .—Salcaldz

'

pi B rahmans of South B ehar.

There is a class of Brahmans in South Behar whocall themselves Sakaldipis or Sakadipis . The majorityof them live either by ministering to the other cas tesas priests, or by the ractice of medicine. There are,however, a few Pan its and landholders among them.

One peculiar customin the communit is that, like theSarswat Brahmans of thePunjab, aSakaldipimaymarrywithin his Gotra, though such marriage is strictlyrohibited among the three superior castes by Hinduw. The Sakaldipis are divided into a certain number

of Purs or sections, and marriage is impossible onlywithin the Pur.

CHAP. [IL— THE BRAHMANS OF THE NORTH

WESTERN PROVINCES AND OUDH.

Tm:most important classes ofBrahmans in the NorthWestern Provinces and Oudh are the following

1. Kanoj ia. l 2 . Sarujuparia. I 3. Saundbys .

Kanqnaa—The Kanopas hold a very high positionamong the Brahmans of Northern India. They formone of the five divisions called Panch Gaur, and theBrahmans of Bengal take a great pride in claimin

n originally Kanopus . The name is derivedfrom the ancient Hindu city of Kanoj, at the con

fluen ce of the Gran es and the Kalinadi, in the districtof Farrakkabad.

gThe Kanojia Brahmans are to be

foun d in almost every part of Northern India. But

th eir original home is the tract of country which, beforethe time of Wellesley, formed the western half of thekingdom of Oudh , including the modern districts of

Philibit, Bareilly, Shajehanpore Farakkabad, Cawnpore,Fatebapur, Hamirpur, Bands and Allahabad Theusual surnames of the Kanoj ia Brahmans are the

6. Tewari orTrivedi.2 M iflfi ln 7. Chaube or Chaturvedi.

3. Dih hit. 8 . Pande .

4. Sukul. 9.

5. Dobey or Dwivedi. 10.

In each of these there aremany sub- sections, havingdifferent positions formatrimonial purposes.

a, no

50 THE BRAHMANSor THE UNITED PBOVINOES.

The Kanoj las, notwithstanding their high positionfrom the point of view of caste, freely enlist in the

army as sepoys, and do not consider it beneath theirdignity to serve even as orderlies, peons and gate

keepers. The title Pande has a very bad odour withEnglishmen since the Mutiny of 1 857. But as a class

the Kanojia Brahmans are very remarkable for theiraristocratic demeanour andmanners, and for their quietand inoffensive nature. They seldomgive way to badtem r, and the practice of any kind of cruelty seemsto e quite inconsistent with their general charac ter.

They acted no doubt like fiends in some of the

episodes of the sepoy revolt. But the reased car

trid e was amatter serious enough to 1 any Hinduto e pe etration of things far worse . Would theBritish sol iers willingly obey their officers if orderedto bite the dead bodies of theirenemies in a battle fieldAnd if the disobeyed the order, and in doin so subjected their 0 cers to any kind of insult or - treatment,would any reasonableman find fault with them? Thewhole world would be horrified at an coercivemeasurefor enforcing such aperverse order. be situation of the

sepoys with respect to the greased cartrid e”was exact

ly the same, and et it is thought that they ve not sumciently expiated y either being hanged in batches fromthe boughs of trees, orby beingblown away fromguns.

There are learned Sanskritists as well as good English scholars among the Kanojias. Many of themprac

tise agriculture, and it is said some till the soil withtheir own hands. The majority of themare Sivites.There are ameng thema few Saktas and Srivaishnavas

also. The Sivites and Srivaishnavas are strict vege

tarians. There are some ganja-smokers and bhangeaters amongtheKanojias, but very few that would eventouch any kind of s

gin tuous liquor.

The late Pandit heodin, who was prime minister ofJaipore for several years, was a Kauoya Brahman of

Moradabad.

THE SANADHYAS. 51

Suru'

uparia .— The Saruju arias derive their name

from e river Saruju whio flows past the city ofAyodhya. They are most numerous in the vicinity of

the river Ghogra. They are said to be a branch of theKanopas . But whatever may have been their originalconnection there can be no marriage at presentbetween the two classes, and they must be held tobe independent castes. The usual family names of

the Sarnjeeans are the same as those of the Kanopans .

There are cod Sanskritists among the Sarorias. Theynever till t e soil with their own hands.

Sanadhyas are also said to be a

branch of the Kanojia tribe. They are very numerousin the cen tral districts of the Doab, between Mathura tothe sou th-west and Kanoj on the north-east. They livechiefly, as shopkeepers and pedlars . The number of

educated men among themis very small. The followingare their usual surnames1 . M in . 14. Khenoriya.

2 Panda. 15. Tripoti.3. Dubs orDwivedi. 1 6. Choturdhuri or Chowdry .

4 . Tewari orTrivedi. 17. Sawadiya.

5. Choube or cga

lt

lirvedi.

lg.

youn

g;6. Upl dh or j rata ri.

7.2 0. Chainpuria.

s,2 1 . Bhotiya.

9,2 2 . Modeya.

1 0. Pars-at . 2 3. Sandaya.

11 . Devalya. 2 4. Udenya.

1 2 . Goswami. 25. Chushondiya.

as. Barsya.

The late Guru of the Maharaja of Jaipore, who wasbelieved to have . the power of working miracles, andwho was venerated as a saint by most of the greatHindu poten tate s of Central India and Rajputana,was a Sanadhya.

CHAP. IV .

— THE BRAHMANS OF THE

KURUKSHETRA COUNTRY.

Gaur B rahmans —The original home of the GaurBrahmans is the Kurukshetra country. The Gaurs saythat the other four main divisions of North IndianBrahmans were originall Gaurs, and have acquired theirpresent designations of arswat, Kanya-hubja, Maithilaand Utkal by immigrating to the provinces where theyare now domiciled . The name Adi Gaur adopted bythe Kurukshetra Brahmans is in consonance with thisview. In Sir Geor e Campbell’sEthnology of India, itis suggested that t e Gaurs may have derived theirname fromthe river Ghagar, which, in ancient times,was a tributary of the Sarswati, and which now dis

charges its water into the Sutlej near Ferozepore. According to popular usage the word Gaurmeans a riest,and it is not impossible that the name of GaurBrahmanswas given to those who served as priests to the ancien tkings of Kurukshetra. The Adi Gaurs practise a

culture and till the soil with their own hands. Br

ui

t

there are many ood Sanskritists’ among them, andthey are the on y Brahmans whom the AgarwalaBaniyas would employ as their priests. There is a

class of Gaur Brahmans called the Tags Gaur. These

One of the greatest of these is Pandit In ksman Sastri, ofPatiala.

now residing in Calcutta, fromwhomIhave derived thegreaterpart

of the information contained in this chapter. The ate PanditGauraswami, who was the first Pandit in his time in the holy city ofBenares, was also a Gaur.

THE GAUR BRAHMANS. 53

are so designated because they have only the Brahmanical Taga or sacred thread . They are all addicted toagricu lture, and are quite ignorant of the Brahmanical

gray ers and religious rites .

. They neither study thehmtras nor performthe work of a priest. The other

c as tes do notmake to themthe kind of humble salutation (pranam) due to Brahmans, but accost themas theyw ould a Rajput or Baniya by simply saying RamR am.

”Some of the Adi Gaurs are now receiving

En g lish education. The general surname of the Gaurs

is LIisra. Their special surnames are the following9. Mote . 17. Gandharwal. 25.

2 . “wart 10. Indoaria. 1 8. Randyana.

3 . C h ube. l l . Haritwal. 19. 2 7.

5 . N ig'

§MEJW °

iii

33°

D walag'wan. ri ya. urga

6 . C hahmwal. 14. Ghagaun. 2 2 . Gautama. 30. Khorus l.Vidhata. 23. 31 . Surahya.

8 . In ta. 16. Phoratwal. 2 4.

Themajority of the Gaurs are Sivites. Like the otherh igh caste Brahmans of Northern India they worshipalso the Sala ramammonite as an emblemof Vishnu ,

an d a triangu r piece of Phallic stone representing theD evi or the consort of Siva. There are a few Ballabhachari Vaishnavas among the Gaurs. Themajority of

the Gaurs are s trict abstainers fromanimal food and

intoxicating drinks . Some of the Gaurs kee the

sacred fire ,and occasionally celebrate some of the edic

sacrifices .

CHAP. V .-THE BRAHMANS OF KASHMIR ,

THE PANJAB AND SINDH.

1 .-B ramhans of Kashmir.

Kashma'rz’ B rahmans . The usual surnames of the

Kashmir Brahmans is Pandit. The following observations in SirGeorge Campbe ll

’

sEthnology of India givean exact description of theirethnology and characterThe Kashmiri Brahmans are quite High A an in the type of

their features, very fair and handsome, with big chiselled features ,and no trace of intermixture of the blood of an lower raceThe Kashmiri Pandits are known all over orthern India as a

very clever and energetic race of oflice -seekers . As a body theyexcel the same number of any other race with whomthey come incontact —Ethnology of India, pp. 57-59.

The late Mr. Justice Sambhu Nath Pandit of the

Bengal High Court was a member of this class. Sowas also the late Pandit Ayodhya Nath, who was one

of the ablest advocates of the Allahabad High Court,and

‘

also one of the principal leaders of the Congress.

Babu Gobind Prasad Pandit, who was one of the

pioneers of the coal mining industry of Bengal, wasalso a Kashmiri. He amassed such wealth by thesuccess of his enterprise, that he became known as one

of the richest men in the country in his lifetime, and,after his death, his descendants obtained the title of

Maharaja fromthe Government of India.

D ogra B rahmans .— As there are Dogra Rajputs and

Dogra Baniyas, so there is a class of Brahmans. called

56 THE BRAHMANS or PANJAB .

minister to the Kshetris, but the Mohyals never serve

as priests. There aremany hypergamous groups among

the Banjais, which are on the way towards ecomingseparate castes. So long as the lower of these c las sesgave their daughters in marriage to the higher, theycould not be regarded as independent castes. But,in very recent times, the lower classes have resolvednot to give their daughters to the higher classes,less they choose to reciprocate the compliment. Theresult is that marriage alliances between the difl'

erent

classes are now extremely rare, and they are fast on the

way towards becoming independent castes. The generalsurname of a Sarswat is Misr. But each clan has aspecial surname. The names of the several hypergamousgroups among the Banjai Sarswats together with thespecial surnames of each class are given belowNames of Names ofG roups.

Titles .

Groups .

Titles

1 . Panjajati l . Morlhe.

A d r a i ‘2 . Tekha.

Ghar and'

l 3. Jh ingan .

C h a r 4. J eteli .Ghar 5. Kuinoria.

Ch hitrac ot.

l ’fiall

iya.

40 Bat h !

$3a lyao 02 ’ Inferior3. Kupuria. J alpatra.

4. Madhuria. Bhamvi5. Bagge. Paranoty .

Manar.

l . Basude.

5. Inferior g'

3235?B MW “ 4: M ehra

'

.

c9m‘

5. M uslol.ingW lth

‘

6 Sudanin t h e

b70 sutu ko

a o v e8. Ten .

9. Align].

[10. Haster.

A Sarswat cannot marry within his clan . But a

marriagemay take place among themwithin the Gotra,

gl

ilough such matrimony is strictly prohibited by theastras .

THE BRAHMANS or sums . 57

The Mohyals are found chiefly in the western districts of the Panjab and in Kabul. Intermarriagebetween themand the other Sarswats is possible, butnot very usual .

3.— The B rahmans of Sindh.

The Brahmans of Sindh aremainly Sarswats. Theyare divided there into the following classes

2 . Bari (Twelve families).3. families).4.

5.

All these classes eat animal food, though some of themare Vaishnavas of the Vallabhachari sect. Like the

Sarswats of the Panjabproper, those of Sindh also eat

cooked food from the ands of Kshetris and RodaBan iyas . The Bavana

'

ahis are Sakti worshippers of

the extreme class, an not only eat flesh but drinkwine. Some of the Shetapalas are also Sakti worshippers of the same type.

In speaking of the several classes of Sindh Brahmans Dr. Wilson saysAll these classes of Sarswats are Sukla Yajur Vedis. In using

animal food they abstain from that of the cow and tame fowls, butout sheep, goats , deer, wild birds of most species , and fish killed forthemby others Th also eat onions and other vegetables forbid

den in the Smritis . T ey are generally inattentive to sectarianmarks .

They dress like the Hindu merchants and Amins of Sindh , thoughusing white turbans. They shave the crown of their heads, buthave two tufts of hair above their care. They are the priests of the

m otile Lohanas or Lov s nas. They have man small pagodasdedia ted to the worship of the ocean , or rather t e river Indus .

Their fees are derived princi lly from their services at the marriagm, b irth s and deaths 0 their followers. They are partial to

as f” 53 easy N gnostication is concerned .m l 9mm? n d td’

giow where lost artic es are to be found. They alsoand sometimes act as petty shopkeepers

—Wilson’s

M s Cad “,Vol. II, pp. 137-138.

CHAP. VI.—THE BRAHMANSOF ASSAM .

THEmajority of the Brahmans of Assamprofess tobe Vaidakas, though, in fact, the practise either theTantric or the Vishnuvite cult. e inferior famil iesamong themappear to be of the Mongolian race, whileeven among theirmost aristocratic classes there apto have been a copious admixture of Mongolian withAryan blood. In U perAssam,

including the districtsof Sibsa ar and Lak impur, which, before its annexation to ritish India, was for several centuries underthe rule of the Ahang dynasty of Sibsagar, a greatmany of the Brahman families profess to be descended from seven Kanojia priests imported into thecountry about the middle of the seventeenth century

51the Ahang King Chutumala alias Jayadhwaja.

e Aryan features of most of the members of thesefamilies, and the genealogies preserved by them, givevery strong su port to their claim but, at the sametime, it is equal y certain that there has been a largeinfusion of non-Aryan blood among them. The fac tis conclusively proved by their ethnology, and also bytheir traditions and customs. They themselves entertainthe suspicion thatmany of the families with whomtheynow intermarry were originally Sudras, and weremadeBrahmans only by the edicts of their former kings .

That their suspicions are not groundless is provedalmost conclusively by some of the curious customswhich still prevail among themas to interdining. In

other parts of the country, the most puritanic Brah

THE BRAHMANS or ASSAM . 59

mans do not hesitate to partake of the hospitality of

their fathers- in- law or maternal uncles. But amongthe aristocratic Brahmans of Upper Assamclaiming tobe descended fromthe Kanojian stock, no one will eatany kind of food in the house of either his father-inlaw or his maternal uncle. It is said that even thedaughter of a low class Brahman will not, after beingmarried to a Kanojia of pure descent, eat in her

father’s house any kachi food though cooked by herown mother. The dau hter

’

s sons will eat in theirmaternal grandfather

’

s house till their initiation withthe sacred thread, but not afterwards. It seems thatin practice, the alleged custom, so far as the daughterand the daughter

’

s sons are concerned, ismore honouredbreach than in the observance. But the very

recognition of such rules, if only for theoretical purposes, and the existence of Mongolian and Aryantypes in the same families, clearly establish that thehigher Brahmans are of the Aryan stock, and that theyin termarried with local Brahmans of the Mongolianrace, though with a very considerable degree of

reluctance .

CHAP. VII.— THE BRAHMANS OF ORISSA.

AMONG the su eriorBrahmans ofOrissa there are twomain divisionsw ich rest on territorial bases, and whichare as follows

1 . Dakshinatya orSouthern clan.

2 . Jajpuria orNorthern clan.

There can be no intermarriage between these twodivisions, and they have nothing in common betweenthemexcept the status of being Brahmans.

51 . The D d l'

cshz'

nat

flaB rahmans of Cuttaclc andPuri.

The Dakshinatya rahmans of Southern Orissa are

subdivided as followsSurnames .

( l . Kulins or Vai- j

gikas of

ig est 01 °

Bv”fink”

dot who are mostly

r

tedmt

a

o

m1°

residents of onevo

lof the sixteen

h e“ pur Shasan or ofsuits wh ich are

the thirt -twoBu nipati.

not.

held de Kotbarvillyages.

$335to fife] 2 s 2 ghatt:Misra.

g.

gum-i.

rotriyas ya. as .

Shastras.

or ordinary 3. Mira-la. 8. Pati.

l Vaidikas . 4. 1mm.

5. on .

2 . Pujari, Adhikari or Forming one caste, found in every part of

Vaishnava Brahmans. Orissa. Same titles as the above.

3. Secular Brah 1mans divided

1 Maha tra 7 Pathi l‘

i DOytha.

into two classes2 . Pandag

a

8. panm. 14, Poryari.

ge

fiimwd 9"

3. Shaubth . s. Shathera. 15. Kbuntea.

0“ 4. Senapati. 10. Pashupaloke. 16. GoraBaru .

1 ° M ah a j a n5 Nekah l l Baru

nth! oro

.

2 . Manthan. J

omeupp. & mmmuIMMmNanda.

. Ih w

. Kar.

. Admnm

THE SASANI BRAHMANS. 61

The sub-c lasses that have the highest status amongakshinatya Brahmans of Orissa are the Kulins

and Srotriyars of the sixteen Shashan and the thirty-twoKotbar villages. The Shashanis evidently derive theirname from the fact of their obtaining, from someancient Hindu king of the country, grants of landattested by Shashanas or royal firmans . The nameKotbar seems to be a corruption '

of Kt char and to be

the roper desi ation of the suburban population of

the hasanas . he Shashan villages are inhabited onlyby the Kulin and Srotriya Brahmans of the ecclesiasticclass. In the Kotbars there are other castes also.

TheShashan iKulins have a higher status than all the

other classes of Orissa Brahmanas. There are a few

good Pandits among the Shashanis, and themajority of

themacquire a sufficient knowledge of Sanskrit to beable to discharge the duties of a priest. The followingobservations are made with regard to the class inHunter’s Gazetteer of India

They live on lands granted by formerRajas, orby teachingstudents, or as spiritual guides , or more rarely templeThey are few in number, for the most rt in tolerablestances, tho h often poor, but held in suc high estimation that aSrotriya B man will give a lar e dower in order to get hisdaughter married to one of them. ut the Kulin who thus intermarries with a Srotriya loses somewhat of his position among hisownmph . The pure Brahman rarely stoops below the Srotriya,the immediately next to him, forawife Imperial Gazettssr of India, Vol. X, p. 434.

The majority of the Srotriyas earn their livinthe very samemanner as the Kulins. All the Vaifikasare very aristocratic according to Brahmanical ideasof respectability, and a Shashani Kulin or a SrotriyaBrahman will rather live by begging than be engagedin any menial occupation . In fact, there are amongthem, and especially among the landless Srotriyas , a

cat many who are regular beggars. But it wouldg: hard to find any one of themtilling the soil, or

employed as a domestic servant.

62 THE BRAHMANS or ORISSA.

The Adhikari Brahmans are mainly followers of

Chaitanya, and have the same position in Orissa that theGossami and the Adhikari Brahmans have in Bengal.It is said thatmany of the OriyaPujariawere originallymen of low castes. They have enerally many lowcaste disci les, and are em loye as t iesta in the

temples. The Adhikari Bra mans are nown by the

necklace of basil beads which they wear in additionto their sacred thread . They are not all the followersof one teacher, and the disciples of each individualGuru forma distinct subdivision .

Of the several classes of secular Brahmans the Mahajan Panthis orPani iris have a high position but theMasthans are re ar ed as a low class, and their verytouch is regards by some as contaminating.

With regard to the Masthan Brahmans, Mr. Stirlingin his D escription of Orissa Proper saysThere is another class known commonly in Orissa by the name of

Mahasthan or Masthan Brahmans, who forma ve considerableand important class of the rural po ulation . Besi es cultivatingwith their own hands dens of the hn (ArumInd icum) cocoanut and areca, and t 0 pi er betel or pan, they very fre

guently

follow the plough , fromw‘

ch circumstance they are calle HaliaBrahmans , and the are found everywhere in t numbers in thesituation of Mukadams and Sarbarakars , or ereditary renters ofvillages . Those who handle the lou

ghnglory in their occupation,

and affect to despise the Bed or eda mans who live upon alms.Though held in no estimation whatever by the pious Hindu, theyare un uestionably the most enterprising intelligent and industrio us of l theCompany’s rgp

ts or renters ofmalguzari land in Orissa.

Asiatic Researches , Vol. X p. 199.

The Pandas who serve as priests and cooks in the

ublic temples receive in their ofi cial capac ity somehomage fromother people . But irrespective of theirc onnection with the holy shrines, they are regarded as avery low class everywhere and throughout the greaterpart of India the form separate castes with a veryinferior status. n Calcutta there are many Panda

64 THE BRAHMANS or ORISSA.

holy Bhagirathi, supplying the bathers with oil foranointing their persons before ablation, andmaterials forpainting their foreheads with holy figures and namesafter bathing. In the town of Jajpur there are somefamilies who have been keeping the sacred fire fromgeneration to generation .

Besides the good Srotriyas and Mahajanpanthisthere are in Orissa, as in every other part of thecountry, some classes of inferior Brahmans who are

regarded as more or less degraded . One of theseclasses is called Atharva Vedi . ‘ Theremay be intermarriage between the followers of Rik, Sham and

Yajus, but not between these and the Atharva Vedis.

The other classes of degraded Brahmans will be noticedin their proper place .

5 Some say that the Atharva Vedis are the same as theMas thanis .

But the result of my en uiries tends to establish that there are

Atharva Vedis besi es the Masthanis.

CHAP. VIII.—THE BRAHMANS OF

To make the description of the Brahmans of Rajputana in telligible, it is necessary to sa somethingabout the geography of the province. Bro ly s esking,it is that portion of India which lies between t river

bal on the east, and the valley of the Indus on thewest. The greater part of this vast tract of country isruled still by semi- independent Rajput chiefs, and henceit is called Rajasthan, Raithana or Rajputana. Thenumberofch iefswhose territories collectively go by thesenames is not less than twenty, and the only British possession within the circuit is the district of Ajmere-Mer

wars, which lies in the centre of the province. Thecountry of the Kings

’

children is, however, not endowed withmuch of nature’s ifts . It is divided into twoparts by the Aravali hills, w ich extend fromAbu on

the south to the historic ridge in the suburbs of Delhi .The western half of Rajputana comprising the territories of Marwar, Jesalmere and Bikanir, consistsmainlyof sandy deserts utterly unfit for owing any kind of

food-grains. Of the eastern half w ich ismore fertile,the southern portion is included within the dominion of

Udeypur the central portion is ruled by the chiefs ofKota, Boondi and Js iporo while the northern portionis taken up by °Dholepore, Bhurtpore and Alwar.

Though, according to its ve name, Rajputana is theputs, and t ough the military ,

Ksatriyas are the ruling caste alm

'

ost throughout its length.

65 5

66 THE alumnu s or RAJPUTANA.

and breadth, yet its Brahmanical population is twice aslarge as that of the fighting clans, and the influence of

the sacerdotal caste in the province is exactly as it is inother parts of India. There are in Rajputana largecolonies of Sarswat, Gaur, Sanadhya and KanojiaBrahmans whose connection with themembers of theirrespective races in theiroriginal homes, has not yet beencompletely severed. Of the several classes of Brahmanswhose proper home is Rajputana, the following are the

most importantI. A numerous clan found in every part

of Ra'

putana as well as in Gujarat.Found 0 efly in M ewad .

Most numerous in Western and NorthernRa

'

putana. Found also in Bombayan Gujarat.

4. Pokarana Most numerous in the Northern andWestern parts of Rajputana. Foundin considerable numbers also in Sindhand Gujarat.

Original home Sanchora in Sirohi.Found chiefl in Marwar and Bundi.Found chie y in B ikanir, Marwar andNathadwara.

8. Parik Found chiefly in Marwar and B undi.9. Khandelwal Found chiefly in Marwarand Jaipore.

10. Na n dwa n i Found chiefly in Marwar and Kesouli.Bora.

l l . Sikhawal Found in Jaipore.

1 2 . Asopa Found in Marwar.

13. Rajgor Found in every part of Rajputana.

14. Gujar Gor In eve part of Rajputana.

15. Bhojaks Logl

c

JBrahmans who minister to

e am.

The Bhats and the Charanes, who are the hereditarybards and genealogists of Rajputana, claimto have therank of Brahmans, but as they are not regarded as suchby Hindu society, I shall 5 ask of themin the part ofthis work which is devote to the semi-Brahmanicalcastes. I conclude this chapter with a few details of themore important sections of the Rajputana Brahmans,collected chiefly fromEnglish authorities.

1 . The Srimalz's.

The Srimalis have a very high position whether regarded from a religious or secular point of view .

'ma samsmBRAHMANS. 67

Theymin iste r as riests not only to the SrimaliBanyas,but to all the higher castes including the Brahmans ofthe other classes . They hold also very high offices inthe service of the local chiefs.

The following account of the Srimalis is taken fromWilson ’ s Indian CastesThe Srimalis derive their designation fromthe town of Srimal,

now called Bhinmal, lying to the north -west of Abu and intermediatehatv a n thatmountain and the river Loni. Their first representatives are said to have been collected b a local rince fromno fewerthan forty

- live of the most sac red p of t 0 north , west, southand east of India but to the traditions to this effect little importanceis to be ascribed TheAryan hysiognom is perhapsmore distinctlymarked in themthan in any ot or class of rahmans in India. In fact,they do not appearto differmuch fromthe t of some of theEuro

nations , especially of those who have 0'ms to Roman descent.

'

r costume is generally of a simple but not unbecoming character.

Their turbans are on the whole of a graceful form, though not solarge as those ofmany of the other natives of India. On their browsthey wear the sectarial marks of the Vaishnavas , Vishnu being theirfavourite deity. The Srimalis are now scattered not only throughseveral of the provinces of Rajputana, b ut through G u

'

eret andKacha . Central India, the countries borderin on the ndua, andthe island of Bombay. In consequence of t s dispersion of theirbody , they have been broken into several distinct castes, most ofwh ich now neither eat nor intermarry with one another. They arealso divided into two castes , founded on the Vedas which they ro

fess the Yajur Vedi (White and B lack), and the Same.Vedi o theKauthumi Sikhs . In the former there are seven gotras or lines offamil lin the Gautama, Sandilya, the Chandras, Laudravon,Mancin i“, pinjalas . In the latter there are also seven gotras,th e Shaunakas, Bharadva

’

, Parasam, Kausika, Vatsa, Aupamanya,and Kashyapa. M ost ofal their classes are eithermendicants or oilic iating priests, though secular service appears to be on the increaseamon them. They act as gur us and ceremonial Brahmans to theSrimtfli, Poraval, and Patolya and U rvala Vanyas (merchants) ands ouis or go ldsmiths and about of them, now apart from theirb reth ren , act as rus to the Oswalas, a class of mercantile J ainas,and are called wala Brahmans. A favourite Kuladevi or familygu id es among themis that of Mahalaksmi, the s use of Vishnu ,

a celebrated image of whomwas transferred fromB immal to Auhilpur, or Pattan in the times of the Gujarat kings. The celebratedSanskrit Magh , who is said to have lived in the time of BhojaRain, be onged to their fraternity. Their greatest livin orna

ment is DalpatramDays , the Kaviraj , or Poet Laureate o f Gujarat,who is also distinguished for his historical research, and sincere

aims at social reform. This stirringauthorand singer supposes that

there are 500 Brimait houses in Kacha and Kattiwar ; in

Gujarat ; and in Marwad and Mewad , exclusive of 50 of

I'mon birth called Daskori nearAhmedabad. of thembeing inJaib r (th e capital of Marwad) alona—Wilson

’

s Ind ian Cams,VOL pp. lm—l l l o

THE BRAHMANS OF RAJPUTANA.

2 .—Pallivals.

The Pallivals are numerous in Jesalmere, BikamrMarwad, Jaipur and Kishangarh . Very few of the

clan are to be found in Ajmere. The followingaccoun tof the Pallival Brahmans of Rajputana. is also takenfromDr. Wilson ’ s Indian CastesThe Pallival Brahmans receive their name fromthe town of 'Palli,

the commercial capital of Marwad in Rajputana. They havetwelve tras . They are shrafs, merchants, and cultivators, butserve on y in their own caste. They don

’t eat or intermarry with

other Brahmans . They are found in Jodhpur, Bikanir and J esalmere , and some others of the Rajput States . A few of themare at

D elhi, Agra. and in the Panjab, Gujarat and Mewad . Only one

or two of themare in Bombs They are Smarts s and do not use

animal food . They do not drin the water of the houses of theirown daughters

'l' orany persons not belonging to their own castes .

They don’t eat with those of their own caste, who have got isolated

fromthemas with the Gurjas and Mewad Pallivalas. The belong to the Kanya Kobja division of the Brahmans . The an

davs na and Palh vala Brahmans are traders ; were formerly locatedat Nandavana and Palli, and were there chiefly robbers , conductingtheir excursions on horseback. The subsequently became traders .

They are said still to worship a brid e on the Dasara in memo oftheir former They are scattered throughout the nort of

India, as Rohrs e ormiddlemen between the cultivators and Government —Wilson ’

s Ind ian Caster, Vol. II, p. 1 19.

The following account of the Pallivals of Jesalmereis fromTod’s Annals of Raj asthan

,

Next to the lordly Ratlp

uts, equalling themin numbers and farsur sing themin weal are the Pallivals. They are Brahmans,an denominated Pallivals fromhaving been temporal proprietorsof Palli and all its lands, long before the Bathorse colonisedMarwar. Tradition is silent as to themanner in which they becamepossessed of th is domain ; but it is connected with . the history of

the Palli, or pastoral tribes, who fromthe town of Palli to Pallitana,

in Saurashtra, have left traces of their existence ; and I ammuchmistaken if it will not one day be demonstrated that all the ramifications of the races figuratively denominated Aanionic were Palli

PALLI. —Town in JodhpurState, Rajputana situated on the route fromNssirabad to Dina, 108 miles to the south -west of the former cantonment. Anancient

placemired by the Rah tors of Kano in 1 156 A.D . It is the ch ief

mart of estern jfiutans , bet

? $510“at the tersection of the great com

mercial road from andavi in u to the Northern States , and hemHalwato Bahaipur and Sind .

—Hunter’s Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. I lla?

1 .

t Here Dr. Wilson has evidently misunderstood the ormation van to

him. The customspoken of here is not the speciality of the Pallivals, t is a

common one to all the orthodox Hindus throughout India. It is based not onany aristocratic feeling on the part of the father, but to toomuch obedience to

i

gi

:injunct

1i‘or

li

‘

of the Shastras forbidding the acceptance of any kind of giftma son w.

1 Irving’

s Topography ofAjmm.

'ma POKARANA BRAHMANS. 69

in origin : more ially the Chohans, whose princes and chiefs forages retained the istinctive allix ofPal.These Brahmans , the Pallivals , as app

ears by the Annals ofHarm , held the domain of Palli when eoji, at the end of thetwelfth century invaded that land fromKanoj , and by an

of treachery first established his power. It is evident, however,that he did not extirpate them, for the cause of their mi tion tothe desert of J eealmere is attributed to a period of a ahomedaninvasion of Marwar, when a general war contribution (dind ) beiimposed on the inhabitants , the Pallivals leaded caste and refu

This exasperated the Raja, for as their bits were almost exclusivelymercantile, their stake was greater than that of the rest of thecommunity , and he threw their principal men into prison . Inorder to avenge this they had recourse to a grand chandi or act ofsuicide ; but instead of gaining their object, he issued amanifestoof banishment to every Pallival in his dominions .

part took refuge in J esalmere , though many settledDhat and the valle of Sind . At one time, their number inJesalmere was calcu ted to equal that of the Rajputs . Almost allthe internal trade of the country passes through their hands, andit is chiefly with their capital that its merchants trade in foreignparts. They are the Malayan of the desert, advancing money to

the cultivators , taking the security of the crop ; and they buy upallthewooland ghi (clarified butter) which they transport to foreign

parts. They also rear and keep flocks. The Pallivals nevermarryout of their own tribe ; and directly contrary to the laws of Mannthe bridegroomgives a sumofmoney to the father of the bride. Itwill be deemed a curious incident in the history of superstition , thata tribe, Brahman by name at least, should worship the bridle of ahome. Wh en to this is added the fact that the most ancient coinsdiscovered in these regions bear the Palli character and the efliof the horse . it aids to prove the Scythic character of the ear ycolonists of these regions, who, although nomadic , were equestrian.

There is little doubt that the Pallival Brahmans are the remains pfthe priests of the Palli race, who, in their toral and commercialpin

-suits, have lost their spiritual power. od’

s M artha», Vol. II,pp. 318

3. The Pokaranas .

The Pokaranas are very numerous not only in everypart of Rajputana, but in Gujarat and Sind also. Theyderive their designation fromthe town of Pokarana,which lies midway between Jodhpore and Jesalmere.

The priests atPushkarare calledPushkarSevakas or theworshippers of the lake .

”The Pokarana Brahmans

have no connection whatever with the holy lake calledPushkara near Ajmere. They are devoted chiefly tosecular pursuits. They are also the priests of the

Bha as, and there are a few amon themwho are goodSans ritists and astrologers . Theygo not eat anykind ofanimal food . Theirphysiognomy is distinctivelyAryan .

CHAP. IX.— THE BRAHMANS OF CENTRAL

INDIA.

BY Central India ismeant the part ofNorthern Indiaenclosed by the river Chambal on the west, the riverNarmada on the south, the u per half of the Sone on

the east, and the valley of t e Jumna on the north .

Themajority of the Brahmans settled in this tract areforeign immigrants belonging chiefly to the Maharash

trya, Gujrati and Kanojia stocks. The only classes ofBrahmans whose original home can be said to beCentral India are the following

l . Malavis Found chiefl in Malwa.

2 . Narmadis Foun‘t‘idchie y on the banks of the Nar

m a.

3. J iJhotia Found chiefly in and nearBundelkhand .

The JiJhotias derive their designation fromthe oldname ‘ ofBundelkhand. As there are JijhotiaBrahmansso there are Jijhotia Banyas and Rajputs also . The

usual surnames of the Jijhotia Brahmans are the sameas those of the Kanojias. lt deserves to be noted herethat among the Jiihotia Brahmans there is a Mauna

Gotra. apparently derived fromthe name of the greatHindu legislator.

The name of J iJhota ismentioned in Huen Tsiang'

s h ave“.

72 run BRAHMANS or scumau mun .

greater strictness than in Northern India. In Ben

gal

and Hindustan proper, a Brahman devoted to secu r

pursuits is not deemed to be altogether incapable of

performing the functions of a Guru or priest, or ofreceiving religious gifts . For the discharge of clericalfunctions, those who do not stoop to an kind of secularemployment are generally deemed to best qualified .

But in theNorth reli '

ous donations are very often givento, and received b t e secular Brahmans, and cases are

known in Beng in which the rivilege of even administering themantra has been a owed to be exercisedby graduates of the CalcuttaUniversity, and by personsin the service of Government. The case, however, inSouthern Indiais different. There the laity cannotacce t

religious gifts, and are debarred alto ether from t e

performance of clerical work. Throng out the greater

part of the Deccan, aBhikshumay at any time becomea member of the secular order, and intermarriag

hes

take place usually between the ecclesiastics and t e

laity. But in the Andhrai

country the distinction iscarried to a far greater extent than anywhere else .

There the laity forma different caste calledNiyogis, andthere cannot ossibly be any intermarriagg

betweenthemand the aidikas. Throughout the eccan thelaity are called Lanla

'

ka Brahmans ; and the ecclesiasticshave the designation of B id/calms . Another peculiarfeature

, common to the several classes of South IndianBrahmans, is the fact of their being all subject to thespiritual authority of the Sankaritemonasteries. Thisfact has been noticed already. See p. 1 6, ante.

CHAP. II.— THE BRAHMANS OF GUJARAT.

THOUGH Gujarat is situated to the north of the riverNarmada, yet, according to Shastric texts , the GujaratBrahmans formone of themain divisions of the PanchDravira or the sacerdotal class of Southern India. Themajority of them are either Sivites or Vishnuites.But it is said that there are a few Saktas among themof an extreme type not to be found in Bengal . The

profes s ion of the Guru is said to be unknown amongthem. Itmay be so among the followers of the ancientSivite cu lt, the actual nature of which is by very few

understood or thought of. But, considering ther of the rites said to be practised by the

Saktas and Vaishnavas, it does not seemlikelyGuru is less active among themthan in other

parts of the country.

Every Gujarati’s name consists of two parts the firstpart bein

'lglhis own name, and the second that of his

father. e usual surnames of the Gujarati Brahmansare Bhatta, Yani, Sukkul, Upadhya and Vyas.

The number of separate clans among the GujaratiBrahmans is very large. They generally say that thereare not less than 84 different sections among them.

The list given in Wilson’

s Hindu Castes includes 160independent clans among them. However thatmay be,0the flowing are the most important

5:Audichya g

.

3. 6. Girner.

3

74 run BRAHMANS or GUJARAT.

These are the most aristocratic clans among theGujarati Brahmans. There are very few among themwho live by begging or manual work . But a cat

many of themhave a high secular position, an themajority of themare in well-to-do circumstances. Ofthe other clans, the Sanchoras usually serve as cooks .

The Valodras are, generally speaking, very well-to-dopeople, a great many of them bein money- lenderson a large scale. But they all go a at the countrybeghging for alms. They usually perform their tours

on orseback.

1 .—Audichyas.

The Audichyas, as their name indicates, profess tohave come fromthe north. According to their traditionsand the Audichya Pralcas, a reputed section of the

Skanda Parana, their origin is stated to be as fol

lowsM an

ta

King of Anh ilwaraPattana, the Hindu capital ofcollec the following numbers of Brahmans fromthesacred places mentioned -Fromthe junction of the Gauge. andYamuna 105 ; fromthe Chyavanasrama 100 : Bamavedis , fromthecountry of KanyaKubja 200; fromKathi 100 ; fromKuru Kshetra272 ; from vara 100 ; fromNaimisha forest and fromKuruKshetra. an ditions.! sh

yly of 132 ,making a total of He

conferred upon themas a mbua n , the town of Sihor,with 150ad oining villages, and the town 0 Sidhapura. with 100 adjoiningvi

Bythis liberalit he did what satisfied those Brahmans

denominat the Sahaura thousand)Audichyas. But otherintelli

gent Audichyas did not accept his dana (largesses) but forminga

to“of their own, became the a Audich who acquired or

themselves Khambhat (Camhay) an twelve o er villages ; while ofthe others 500 were of Siddhapara and 500 of 8ihor.

—Wilson’s

Indian Castes, Vol. II, p. 94.

According to the above account, the Audichyason t to be divided into the following three classes

on

1 . Tola Audichyas.

2 . SiddmuriaAudichyas.3. SihorAudichyas .

According to the Audichya Brahmans of GujaratwhomI have been able to consult, there are many

“I'l3. Gohelwari.

There can be no intermarriage between these sections,and, for all practical purposes, they are separate castes

though they may eat together without violating anyrule of caste .

Siddhapur is an ancient town and a place of pilgrim

age wi thin the territories of the Baroda Raj . S'

or is

within the Bhaunagar State, Kathiwar, about 1 3mileswest of the Bhaunagar town . Its ancient names wereSinhapur and Sarswatpur. It formed the capital ofthe Gobel Rajputs until Bhaunagar town was founded .

The Jhallwaris take their name fromthe district of

J hallwar in Kathiwar. Kherali is a petty State in the

Jhallwar division of Kathiwar. Gohelwar is a tract ofcoun try to the south-east ofKathiwar, and forms one of

its fourmain divisions. Kheral is a petty State inMahiKantha, a province of Gujarat. Una was an ancienttown in JunagarhState, ruled at one time by the Unawar

Brahmans . Its modern name is Dalawar. Garh isthe name of a petty State in Rewah Kanth, Gujarat .Themajority of the Audichyas are devoted to secular

pursuits . But there are many amon themwho are

regular beggars. There are a few Vefic Pandits in theclass . But the number of these is not very considerable . W ilson says that some of the Audichyas act as

domestic servants in the capacity of water carriers.

Consideringhowproud the Brahmans usually are, thatmay seemas quite impossible. But the existence of

the

practice among the Gujrati Brahmans is home out

by t e result of my own enquiries. The Siddhapurias

‘

76 'ma BRAHMANS or GUJARAT.

like,many other classes of Brahmans,may be found tobe engaged as cooks and theSiddhapuria cooks are saidto be very expert in their line.

2 .—Nagar B rahmans of Guj arat.

The Nagar Brahmans are the riests of the NagarThere are very few Sans rit

'

scholars amongthem. But the count among their numbersmany whohold and have eld high secular positions The maindivisions among themare the following

1 . Vadnagara. 4. Prasnora.

2 . Vishalnagora. 5. Kishnora.

3. Sathodra. 6. Chitroda.

The information which Ihave been able to collectregarding these several classes of the Nagara Brahmanscomcides in all material oints with what is givenabout themin Wilson ’

s boo I therefore cite fromit

in extenso the following account of themThe Vadnagora Brahmans receive their designation fromthe city

of Vadnagora lyin to the east of Aunhilavada Pattana. The are

mostl found in t e Peninsula of Gujarat, formerly Sauras tm.

now thiwar, where the business of the native estates is principallyin their hands ; but individuals of themare scattered over nearlthe whole of the revince of G

'

arat, being found at Nadiyady,

Ahmedabad , Ba Surat, &c. est of themare Rig-Veda , fol

lowin the Sankhyana Sutras ; but some of them roices the'

o

other

three edas. particularly the White Yajur Veda. e ma '

ority of

themare Smarts s ; but an inconsiderable number of emare

Vaishnavas of the sects of Swami Narain and Vallabhacharya.

None of themare practical cultivators, but a fewof themact as

Den is . The mendicants among themare few in number. They don ot eat even with theN of other denomination’s.The Vishalnagora Bra mans receive their name fromthe town of

Vishal founded by Yishal, the first king of the Vaghela dynastyof Gujarat, sometimes called Visaldeva (said b Colonel Tod to havebeen installed in Sumvat 1 2 49, A.D . 1 192 ) an which lies alittle .

to

the south -west of Vadan ra. They are princi lly R! N otio

ns.

and are either Smartas or aishnavas of the sect o Swami arain.

The aremainly either public servants or agriculturists.T e SathodmBrahmans get their name fromthe town of Bathed

on theNarmada. There are some Rig-Vedicamoaghthem but they

are princi ly of theMadh ndinaSakba of the its Yawr Veda.

They are ound at Anand , adiyad ,Ahmedabad . Dabberand other

places. Some of themare in public service, or on in buyingand sellin but a good many of themare still B h us, or act as

Gum . ey are principally if not wholl Smartss .

The Prasnoras are said to belong to nora. Th are

Yed is , and of the Vallabhacbarya sect, their chief resi once bei gmKathiwar. They are principe lymendicants.

ran SBIMALI BRAHMANS. 77

of Krishnapura are of the Ri . 8ama, and Ya ur

Vedas. Most of themare Bhikshukas of a kfild respectable or

The'

tmdas are of the town of Chitrod. They are found atsay that they have among them

of each of Vedas. They are not a numerous

The present Dewan of Baroda, Mr. Muni Bhai, is aVadnagora Brahman . So was also Mr. Gouri Shankar,Udaya Shankar, formerly Dewan of Bhaunagar,whose portrait is given in SirMonierWilliams’ s recentwork on B rahmanismand Hinduism.

3 .—The Railcwar B rahmans of Gujarat.

The Raikwars are to be found chiefly in Kach and inthe district ofKheda in Gujarat. There are many Sanskritists and English scholars among them. The spiritualguide o f the Rae of Kach is a Raikwar ; so is the

eminent Pandit Badri Nath Trimbak Nath. Mr. BhaiSankar ,

who is one of the leading attorneys of theBombay High Court, is also a Raikwar.

4.— The B hargava Brahmans.

The chief habitat of the Bhargavas is the district ofBreach at the mouth of the Narmada. The name of

the tract inhabited by themis evidently a corruptedformof the Sanskrit Bhrigu Kshettra, the territory of

Bhrigu . The Bhargavas were formerly one of the

rest andmost i orant of all the classes of Gujaratimhmans . In I ilson’

s book it is stated that, underthe British Government, they were certainly rising.

The correctness of his forecast is demonstrated by thefact that there are now many learned men and highofi cials among them.

55. The Srimalis.

The Srimalis are, properly speaking, Brahmans of

Rajputana, and an account of themhas been given ' in

the chapter on Rajputana Brahmans in Part III“

,

Chapter VIII, p. 66, ante.

78 THE BRAHMANS or GUJARAT.

Mr. DalpatramDa a, the celebrated poet of

Gujarat, and'

the ant or of the work on caste entitledGnati Nibandha,” is a Srimali of Ahmedabad. The

great Sanskrit poet Magha. is also said to have been a

Srimali.The

'

Srimali Brahmans of Gujarat have the followingsub-divisions among them

1 . KachiSrimali. 4. Ahmedabadi Srimali.2 . KathiwadiSrimali. 5. SuratiSrimali.3. GujarathiSrimali. 6. KhambhatiSrimali.

6. Girnars.

W ilson gives the following account of the GirnarBrahmansThe Girnare derive their name fromthe ancient mountain city of

Girinagar, now re resented by J unagadh , the old fort at the rootof the celebrated irnaramountain . In this locality they are rincipally to be found. The

yare alsomet with in other towns o the

ninsula of Gujarat. A ew of themare in Bombay. They are

ivided into the following cas te s.

(1 ) The J unagagihya Gimme.

(2 ) The Choroada Girnar: of the town of Chorvad on the coastof the ninsula of Gujarat between PattanaSomnath and Mangrol.

(3) e Ajakyas, so called fromthe village of Aj alc.These three castes readily eat together, but do not

The new rank low in the Brahmanhood , fromtheiracting as Guruto olis , and

.

havrng a variety of occupations as those of administrators to native chiefs , clerks , astrologers, cultivators and mendicanto. They are of various sects as suits themfor the time being.

The are said to professall the Vedas but!the Sama, but are princi jot theWh ite YajurVeda. Theymust be a very ancient conf cration of Brahmans.

—Wilson , Vol. II, p. 101 .

7. Tbe other Classes of Gujarati B rahmans .

The other classes of Gujarati Brahmans are mentioned in the following list with brief descriptivenotices1 . Anavalas or B hatelas .

—Found chiefly in thetract of country between Breach and Daman . TheBhatelas are secular Brahmans, the majority of thembeing devoted to ricultnre and trade. Some of themare employed as overnment servants andmercantileassistants.

80 THE BRAHMANS os'

GUJARAT.

1 4 . The Narsipa Narsi ras are followersof Vallabhacharya.

'

l‘

he priests of a shrine ofKriabna at Dakor, in the Thasra sub-division of the Kairadistrict, are Brahmans of this class.1 5. The Paramryas.

—The Parasaryas are said tobe found in the south-east of Kathiwar.

1 6. The Sachara.—The Secheras are followers of

Vallabhacharya. A great many of them serve as

cooks.

Sajhodras.—So named from the town of

Sajodh near Breach. Like that of the Bhatelas the

chief employment of the Sajhods is cultivation .

1 8. TheSomparas .—TheSomparas are the Brahman

who have charge of the temple of Siva at Somenath .

They have a somewhat higher position than is usuallyassigned in the caste system to the priests of othershrines. The Somparas are all Smartas. After thedestruction of the great temple at Somenath byMahmud Ghazni a new one was erected by BhimaDeva I. This new ter

lpfile was destroyed by the rene

gade Hindu, Sultan uzafi'

er I. The present templewas erected by Bani Ahalya Bai.1 9. The Sorathiyas .

—The Sorathiyas derive theirname fromSaurashtra,modern Surat. They are foundchiefly in Junagadha.

2 0. The Talaj yas.—The Talajyas derive their name

fromthe town ofTalaja in the BhaunagarState, situatedabout 31 miles south of Bhaunagar town . The Talajyas are nowmainly sho kee rs, and are to be found

at Jambusar, Surat, Bomay; asik and other towns of

Western India.

Tapodhanas.—The Ta odhanas derive their

nanie from the river Tapti on 0 banks of whichthey are to he found. Some of themare priests in the

ln'

cal temples of Siva. But themajority of themare

The Valadras .—Tha

“

Valadras seemto derivetheir name fromWala, the capital of the Wale State in

'ras mu m BRAHMANS. 81

the Gohelwar division ofKathiwar. The ancient nameof Wals was Walabhipur. Some of the Valadras are

very rich, beingmoney- lenders on a large scale. But

the majority of them are mendicants and be gars.

Some of the latter class perform their tours on orse

back. The Valadras are Smartas and Sakti worshippers.23. The Valmz'lcz's —The Valmikis are to be found

inKheda., Cambay and Idar. There are both beggarsand cultivators among them.

24. The Vayadas.—The Va adas are the spiri

tual preceptors of the Vayada §anyas. The VayadaBrahmans are a very small bod .

The other classes usually 1no nded in lists of Guzrati

Brahmanas are either foreigners, or degraded and semidegraded Brahmans, corresponding to the Agradanis,Malia-Brahman“ and Barua Brahmanas of NorthernIndia. The following are like BarnaBrahmans

L AM ira Brahmans—Brahmans who minister to theAhhira cowherds as priests

2 . Muchioor—Brahmans whominister to the Mochis.

3. Kunbigor—Brahmans whominister to the Kunbis .

4. Darj ioon —Brahmans whominister to the darjls ortailo .rs

55

6.

Gandharp Gore—Brahmans who minister to the Gandharpe ormusicians .

Gurj ara Gore—Brahmans whominister to the Gurjaras.

CHAP. Il l —THE BRAHMANSOF MAHA

RASHTRA AND KANKAN.

THEmost imortant classes of Brahmans in Maharashtra and the ankan are the following

I 2. White Yajm'

vedi.z xanh nu tha. Karhade.

It was on Brahmans of the first four of these classesthat the Peshwas bestowed religious gifts, and donationsin acknowledgment of literary men t. The last havegreat secular importance.

1 .— The Deshastha B rahmans of Maharashtra.

The word D eshastha literallymeans residents of thecountry,” and, in Maharashtra, the name is given to theBrahmans of the country round Poona, which was the

metropolis of the Maharashtra empire. Most of theDeshasthas pursue secular rofessions as writers,accountants, merchants, &c . liowever, there were, andstill are, among them great Pandits in almost everybranch of Sanskrit learning. As amongthe otherclassesofSouth Indian Brahmans, the laity among the Deshasthas are called Luulcilcas (worldly men ) or Grihasthas(householders). The B hikshu: or ecclesiastics are alsohouseholders, as every Brahman is required to be in hisyouth ; but as they devote themselves entirely to thestudy of the Shastras, they alone are held entitled toreceive religious donations, and are called B hikshu or

beggars. The secular Deshasthas have such secular

( 82 )

84 BBAHMANS ormanm sa'raa AND KANKAN.

means a purifier or curer of the soul . But on theauthority of the Sahyadrikhanda of the SkandaPurina,which seems to be the composition of aDeshastha, the

other classes of Maharatta Brahmans say that Chitpavana is not a corru ted formof ChittaPavana, butof Chitapiivana, whio means a purifier of a funeral

pyre. According to the SkandaPurina, theKankanasthes are so-called because the Brahminical hero and

incarnation, Parushuram, created themout of a chita

or funeral pyre. Leavin aside legends, the name of

Chitpavan g1van to the ankanastha Brahmans seemsto be derived fromthe town of Chiplun in the Ratnagiridistrict, situated near the head of the Kumbharli pass,which is one of the easiest routes fromthe Deccan to thesea-board. The Peshwas, who ve nearl succeeded inestablishingHindu supremacy in ndia uring the lastcentury,were KankanasthaBrahmans. Of the same classalso were many of the high officials of the Mahrattaomire— thePatvardhanas, the Gokales, theRastyas, &c .

ja Dinker Rao, who was Prime Minister of

Scindia at the time of the Sepoy war, and who was

regarded as one of the greatest administrators of his

time, was a Kankanastha. Mr. Justice Ranade, of theBombay High Court, is a Brahman of the same tribe .

So was the late Rao Saheb VishwanathNarayan Mandalika, who was one of the ablest advocates of the BombayHigh Court, and was also a Member of the LegislativeCouncil of India.

As amon the Deshasthas, so among theBrahmans, emajority are devoted to secular pursuits .

They are the persons who generally fill offices of

eve kind, including the village and perganah accountants ips all over the country.

“ A greatmany of themare khotes or landholders, who en

'

oy valuable proprietary over theKankan villages. T oughmainly secular,the Kankanasthas do not keep themselves quite aloof

Campbell’s Ethnology qrIndia, p. 73.

ma n mavams. 85

fromthe cultivation of letters. On the contrary, theyhave had among themsome of the best scholars in everydepartment of learnin One of the greate st of thesein recent times was t e late Pandit Ba 11 Deva Sastriof the Government Sanskrit College, snares. Thefollowing is fromthe appreciative notice of his life in

Mr. Sherring’

s Hindu Tribe: and Castes

Su tri has y distinguished himself as aand by his works, ed a lustre on the Sanskrit College, inwhich formany years he has been a Professor of Mathematics andAstronomy , and on the city in which he lives. The titles of some ofhis numerous works are as follows : On Trigonometry in Sanskrit ;Transh tion of the Surya Siddhanta into English ; On Algebra in

Hindi ; On G eographiin Hindi ; On Arithmetic in Sanskrit ; Sym

helicalEuclid in Sans rit.In consid eration of the great services rendered to science and

education in India, the Sastri has been made an Hone Memberof theRoyal Asiatic Society of Great Britain , and also of AsiaticSociety”

of Bengal.—Sherring

’s Hindu M a and Costa , Vol. I,

p.

Like the Deshasthas, theKankanis are followers of theRikand the KrishnaYajns. The Big Vedis are of theAshwalayanaSi khs, and theYajurVedis oftheTaittiriyaSikh‘s

;The following are sub-classes of the Kanka

nastl . Nirvanhor.2 . Keloskar.

The Kankanis have more than three hundred sur

names peculiar to their class.

The Ya'

urvedis amongthe Desbasthas are followers ofthe Blac Yajns. The class of Maharatta Brahmanscalled Yajurvedi are followers of the White Yajns.

They have two branches, namely,1 . The Kanvas .

2 . The Madhyandinas.

The Kauvas are so called on account of theiradoptingthe Kanva rescension of the White Yajns. The Mad

hyandinas derive their name in the same manner fromthe Madhyandina Sikhs of the White Yajns. Both the

86 BBAHMAN8 or MAHARASHTRA AND KANKA N.

Kauva'

s and the Madhyandinas follow the ShatapathaBrahmana, and the Srauta Sutras of Katyene . TheMadhyandinas

"attach great importance to the peru

formance of the Sandhya prayer at noon, after

1 1 A.H. But the Big Vedismight performthemid-daypm or even at 7 o’clock in themorning. The Madhyandinas cannot celebrate any Sradh except at noon ,

whereas the Big Vedis can erformsuch a ceremonyany time during the day. he Yajurvedis are to be

found in every art of the Maharatta country, properlyso-called, from asik on the north to Kolhapur on thesouth . They enjoy a very high position among the

Brahmans of the country . The majority of themkeepthemselves aloof fromsecular pursuits, and devote themselves entirely to the study of the sacred literature and

to the practice of the Vedic rite s. During the reign of

the Peshwas, they had perhaps the largest share of the‘

religious gifts made by the State as well as in thosemade by rivate individuals. The families of the Guruof theM arujaofKolahpur,and of the titularPratinidhiof Sattara are Yajurvedis of the MadhyandinaSikhs .

The Karhades derive their name fromthe town of

Karhad near the junction of the Krishna and theKoinarivers, about fifteen miles to the south of Sattara.

While the Deshasthas are Sivites, and the Yajurvedisare observers of the Vedic rites , the Karhades are the

extreme Saktas of the Maharashtra country. In Northern India, Sivites, Saktas, Vishnuv ites, and Vedistsare to be found within the same class ; and a differenceof cult, though giving rise to great animosity , has veryseldom brought about the formation of subdivisionsin any caste. But in the Deccan, which has been

The name of the Madh ndinaSikhs. of theWhiteYajus seemsto be derived fromthat of t e Madhyandina School of Hindu astronomers according to whomthe da is regarded as beginnt atnoon , and not at sunrise ormidnigh t.

y ng

88 BRAHMANS or MAHARASHTRA AND KANKAN.

revolting to every one excepting a few depraved fantics, and as actual instances of it are extremely rare, if

not quite unknown ,inmodern times, the case was a par

ently never very different inmediwval or ancient ndia.

In the Mahabhart,which is undoubtedly a very eu

cient work, Krishna himself ismade to observe’ that theslaughter of human beings for sacrificial purposes wasunknown in practice. Coming down to historical timesthere is nothing in the early records of British rule, orin the Mahomedan chronicles to warrant the conclusion that the practice prevailed very extensively duringthe last seven centuries . The injunctions about it intheTantras were, it seems,meant only to excite awe on

the minds of the common people, and to enable the

priest to make the votaries more ready to ofl’er as a

substitute a goat or a sheep than they would otherwisebe. The case is only that of an application of themaxim of priestly politics which the Brahmanicalclerics formulate by saying that they must ask for a

Kashmere shawl in order to get a bathing towel.Whatever roomthere may be for comment on the

religion of the Karhades, they are equal to the Kankanasthas and the Deshasthas in every other respect. The

great Maharatta poet Moropant was a Karhade. Sowas the late Bala Gangadher Shastri Jambhekor, whowas a professor in the Elphinstone Institution .

The Karhades distinguished themselves sometimes insecular service also. GovindaPandit, aKarhade Brahman

,was sent by the Peshwa as his agent to Sanger,

and the Pandit succeeded in taking possession of the

district for hismaster, fromChattra 8411, in 1 753. Sheo'

RamBhao was the SirSeahub or Governor of the pro;vince of Jhansi at the time of the conquest ofNorthernIndia by the English. His descendants ruled the prov ince as semi- independent kings, till the annexation of

the State by Lord Dalhousie. The Karhade dynasty of

See Hohdbhdrt, Suva Pam, ChapterXXII.

Tun BERKAVI BRAHMANS. 89

Jhansi has been rendered particularly famous by thename of the great Bani whose political genius and

ability as amilitary commander have elicited the admieven English historians and generals. There

is still a large colony ofKarhade Brahmans in Sangerand Damoh who trace theirdescent fromthe companionsin -arms of theirgreat clansmen who first con nored the

country . There aremany Karhades among t e officers

of the M sore Raj , thema'

ority of thembeing connectedw ith its venue Survey l) epartment

5.— The Shenam’ B rahmans of the Kankan .

The Shenavis are believed to be a branch of the Sarswat Brahmans of the Panjab. They are found chieflyin the Kankan, Goa, and Bombay. There are a few

among themwho are of the priestly profession . But

the majority of them"

are devoted to secular pursuits inwhich they are new general] farmore successful thanperhaps any other class of rahmans. Like the Sarswatas, the Shenavis are in the habit of eating fish

and such flesh as is not prohibited by the Shastras .

The Shenavis are not all of the same religion . Thereare Sankarites and Madhwa Vishnuvites among them.

The late Dr. Bhau Da'

i,the late Mr. Justice Telang, and

the late Pandit Shanhar Pandnrang were all Shenavis .

So is also Mr. Bhandarkar, the present Vice-Chancellorof the Bombay University.

CHAP. Ill —MIDDLE CLASS AND INFERIOR

BRAHMANS OF THE MAHARASHTRA.

1 .—Middle Class Secular B rahmans.

THE following are the middle class Brahmans of theMaharashtra country

1 . Deva Bake. 2 . Savashe.3. K rvantas.

D evaRake—The Deo Bukes are found chiefl in the

Kankan . They are generally very poor. hey are

devotedmainly to agriculture. The Deshasthas will eatwith them; but the Kankanasthas generally refuse to

do themthat honour.

Savarka.—The Savashes are found chiefly in the

Southern Maharatta country. They engage in trade,and are a prosperous class. The name is evidentlyderived fromthe Sanskrit word Sahavasi whichmeansan associate. The ori in of the application of thisdesignation to themis explained as followsIn remote times , a certain Brahman came upon a hidden treasure

but to his amazement. the contents appeared in his eyes to be all livescorpions . Out of curiosity , he hung one of themouts ide his house.

A little while after. a woman of inferior caste, who was passiug’oby

the house. noticed it to be gold , and upon her questioning hima t

it, the Brahman espoused her and , by hermeans, was able to enjoythe treasure. He gave a feast in honour of his acquisition ofwealth . He was subs uently outcasted for his marathon“ withthe lowe aste female, wh e those who were with himwere put undera and thus acquired the nickname —Mysore Census Report,p. Q

Kirvantas.— The Kirvantas are found chiefly in the

Kankan. Many of them are cultivators. But some( 90 )

4

CHAP. V .—THE BRAHMANSOF KARNATA.

IN English works on the history and the geographyof India, the name Karnatic is usually applied to thetract of country on the east coast of the Deccan betweenArcot and Madras. But the name of Karnat is properly applicable only to the tract where Kanareseis the prevailing language. It embraces almost thewhole of Mysore with the British districts of NorthKauara, Dharwar, and Belgaumof the Bombay Presideney. In external appearance, the Karnat Brahmansdiffer but little fromthe Deshasthas of Maharashtra.

The following classes are regarded as the indigenousBrahmans of Karnat

l . Babburu Kamme Derive their name fromthe Ram2 . KannadaKamme me country situated to the east of3. D ineh Kamme modern Mysore.

4. Haisaniga Ve numerous in theHassan division o Mysore. The greatMadhavacharya, it is said , was a member ofthis caste.

Secular Brahmans ; followcu of

Very numerous in Mysore , but6. mehave a lowa s“Sh tllflo

7. Karnataka.

8. Vadu uadu (Lit. fromthe north ).9. Sirn 0

FromHaiga, the ancient name of10’ North Kanara.

l l . Hahn—Found chiefly in North Kanara.

Of these, the first seven classes are found chiefly inMysore, and the last in North Kanara. The Havikasor Haigas have their principal home in North Kanara

( 92 )

'ma KANARESE BRAHMANS. 93

and the Shimog division of the M sore territories.

They claimto derive theirname fromt e Sanskrit wordHay ya, which means oblation .

” Their usual occupation is the cultivation of the supari or areca-nut

gardens . But there are among themman

kwho are of

t e priestly order. The Hubus of North anara are a

degraded class . A greatmany of them live either bythe prac tice of astrolo y, or by servin as priests inthe public temples. T e Hale Karas ti as . of M sore

considered as a still more de reded class. Theirvery Brahmanhood is not generalfy admitted, in s

of their having lately secured a Srimukh fromSringeri monaster recognising themas a class of the

sacerdotal caste . eir chief occn ations are agricul

ture and Government service, as S anbhogs or villageaccoun tants . By way of reproach they are calledMaraka, which literallymeans slaughterer or destroyer.

The following account is given of themin the MysoreG azetteer“A cu te claimin to be Brahmans, but not recognised as such .

They worship the indu triad , but are chiefly Vishnuvites

the trident u rk on their foreheads. They aremost numerous in thesouth of the M re district, which contains nve-sixths of thewhole number. e greatmajorit

yof the remainder are in Hassan

d istrict. They call themselves He. e Kannadi orHale Karnataka,

the name Mar-aka being considered as one o reproach . They are

. .id to be descendants of some disciples of Sankaracharya, and thefollowing legend is related of the cause of their expulsion fromtheBrahman caste to which their ancestors belongedOne day Sankaracharya, wishing to test his disciples , drank some

tadi in their presence , and the latter thinking it could be no sin tofollow theirmaster’s example indulged freely in the same beveraSoon after, when passing a butcher

’s shop, Saukaracbarya asked or

allu the butcher had nothing

but meat togive which the guru

and his disciples ate. Acco mg to the Hin u ghastrasn '

ed hotiron alone can purify a person who has eaten flesh and drunk tadi.Sank-recharya went to a blacksmith

’

s furnace, and fromhimsome red hot iron , which he swallowed and was puri ed. The dieciples were unable to imitate theirmaster in the matter of the redhot iron, and besought himto forgive their presumption in havingdared to imitate h imin partaking of forbidden food. Sankara

chgq . refused to give absolution, and cursed themas unfit to

anecd ote with the six sects of Brahmans -4 03011 Gazetteer, Vol. I,

3 341 .

CHAP. VL—THE BRAHMANSOF DRAVIRA.

Dnavma is the name given to the southernmostart of the Indian Peninsula, including the districts of

richinopoli, Tanjore, Arcot, Tinnevelly, Kambakonam,

and Madura. This tract of country bein inhabited bthe Tamil-speaking tribes is roughly gistinguishab efromthe provinces of Karnat and Andhra towards itsnorth, the prevailing languages ofwhich are respectivelyKanarese and TeluThe Brahmans o Dravira are divided into twomain

classes according to their religion . The followers of

Sankaracharyaare called Smartss,andthoseofRamanujaand Madhava are called Vaishnavas. All the DraviteBrahmans are strict vegetarians and teetotalers.

1 .- ~T7w Smarta Brahmans.

The majority of the Smarte Brahmans are Sivites,and there are very few Saktas orVishnu worshippersamong them. They are all followers of Sankaracharya,and regard the Superior of the Sankaritemonastery at

Sringeri as their spiritual head. Those among the

Smarts s who devote themselves entirely to Vedic studyand to the practice of Vedic rites are called Vaidikas,and those who earn their living by secular pursuits arecalled Laukikas. The Vaidikas alone are entitled to

religious gifts , and the Laukikas cannot lay claimto

largesses for pious purposes. But in other respects thedistinction is of no imortance whatever, as intermarriage is freely allows between them.

( 94 )

96 'ma snm ss s or nnavru .

TheWarma Brahmans paint their foreheads in twodifferent ways. Some have transverse lines of sandalor sacred ashes while others have a perpendicularline of sandal or Gopichandana.

’

B rihat Charana.— Among the Dravira Brahmans

the Brihat Charanas are next in importance only to theWarmas. The Bt ibat Charanas paint their foreheadwith a round mark of Gopichandana in the centre, inaddition to transverse lines of white sandal . SirSheshadriAyar, the present Dewan of Mysore,is a Bt ibat Charana. So is also Mr. Sunder Ayar,Advocate, Madras High Court.Ashta Sahasra.

—The Ashta Subastas are, enerallys akin more handsome than the other (gasses of

raviri rahmans. Like themoderate Sakti worshippers of Bengal, the Ashta Sahasrasp

aint between theireyebrows a roundmark which is eit er of white sandalor of a black colouring material formed by powderedcharcoal.Sunket.—The Saukete are Dravidians, but are found

also in M sore. The Mysore Sankets cannot speak pureTamil. T ere are two sub-divisionsamong them, namely,the Ransike Sanketis and the Bettadapara Sanketis .

Their religion and their social customs are the same,but there can be no intermarriage between them.

The followinn

emarks are made with reference to

the Sanketis by r. Narsimmayangar in his report on

the last Census ofMysoreThe Sanketis are proverbially a hardy, intensely

industrious Brahman community . The are referred to as modelsfor simultaneously securing the twofo (1 object of preservin thestadici theVedas, while securing aworldly competence cu tivat

ing sirgardens, and short of actually plou hing the lan they are

pro-eminently the onl

yIfraction of the B man brotherhood, who

turn their lands to s best advantage —Mysore Census Report.1891 , p. 233.

A kind of calcamous clay , said to beobtainable only froma tanknearSomnath, where the wives of Krishnadrowned themselves afterhis death.

vanacamm mucu s BRAHMANS. 97

5 2 .— T7w Vishnuvite B rahmans of D ravira.

The Vishnuvite Brahmans of Dravira are followers ofRamanuja. They are divided into two classes, namely,the Vadagala and the Tengala. An account of thesesects will be given in a subsequent part of this work.

The late Mr. Bangacharlu, who was Prime Ministerof the Mysore Raj , was a Vadagala Vaishnava. Mr.

BhasyamAyangar and Rai Bahadur Anandacharlu,who are now th e leading advocates of the Madras HighCourt, and hav e lately been appointed as Members of

the Legislative Council of India, are also VadagalaVaishna of the Tamil country.

CHAP. VII.—THE BRAHMANS OF TELINGANA.

TELINGANA is one of the names of that part of theDeccan where Telugu is the prevailing langua e. In

ancient times this tract of country was include? in the

kingdoms then called Andhra and Kalinga. At the

present time Telingana includes the eastern districts oftheNizam’

s dominrons, in addition to theBritish districtsof Gan

'

am, Vizi apatam, Godavari Krishna, Nellore,North root, Belfa Cudapa,Karnoul, and Anantpore.

The Brahmans ofl

this part of the Deccan are knownby the general name of Tailangi Brahmans. The are

followers of the ApastambaSakha of the ajurThere are also RigVedis among them. Nearly

a third of themare Vishnuvites of the Ramanuja andMadhava sects, the rest being Smartas . There are

worshippers among themeven of thet Likemost of the other classes of the

DeccaniB s, the Tailangis are strict vegetarians

and abstainers fromspirituous liquors. The orthodoxTailan does not smoke tobacco.

TheBrahmansofTelinganaare sub-divided into severaldistinct sections. On account of difl'

erence ofcults thereare among themthefollowing threemain sub-classes

l . Smartss. 2 . SriVaishnavas. 3. Madhavas .

The followers of Madhaya forma sin 10 caste. TheSri Vaishnavas among the Telin ana rahmans forma distinct caste called Andhra aishnava. They are

not sub-divided asVad aandTongala like their cc-religionists of Dravite. e Smartss are sub-divided intotwo classes, namely, Niyogi and Vaidik. TheNiyogis

(98)

100 ms BBAHMAN‘

B or TELINGANA.

Gujrat and Bombay, was a member of this tribe.

According to theHindustani account of Ballava’

s“con

quests his fatherwas a native of Kankarkom, but hisbirth took place at aplace named ChampanearRaipore,while his stents were on their way fromtheir nativevillage to snares. A full account of Ballava is givenin the part of this book dealing with the Indian sects .

The Velnadus aremost numerous in the Godavari andKrishna districts . Colonies of the tribe are found alsoin every part of Mysore exc

zptKadur.

Ven'

nadu .—The Vengin us are next in importance

to the elnadu, and are found chiefly in the British districts of Godavari and Vizigapatam, formerly called theVengi country.

Kasalnadu .—TheKasalnadus derive their name from

Kosala, the ancient name of Oude, fromwhence theyprofess to have emigrated to the Kalinga countrywhere they are now found.

Murakanadu. Brahmans of this class are foundchiefly in the tract of country to the south of the

Krishna. They are pretty numerous in Mysore. Thereare among them both priests and men devoted to

secular pursuits. The present Superior of the chiefSankaritemonastery at Sringeri is aMurakanadu.

Telaganadu .— TheTelaganadus are quite as numerous

as the Velnadus. The former are found chiefly in thenorth-eastern part of the Nizam’

s dominions .

Yajnavalkya.—This name is

'

ven in the Telucountry to the followers of the anwa Sikhs. of t 0White Yajur Veda. They are called also PrathamSakhi as in the Mahratta country.

Niyogia—The Niyogis are secular Brahmans. Theyderive their name fromthe word meansreligious contemplation, as opposed to meansreligious sacrifice. As the word M yoga in Sanskritmeans emplo out,

” it ismore probable that the Niyogis are so-os ed because they accept secular employment. The Komatis and the Sudras bow to them, but

m moor BRAHMANS. 101

the ecclesiastical Brahmans address themwith a benediction . From a secular point of view they have great

cc. They are usually employed as writers and

wordAradhya signifies “deserving tobewo The Aradhyas do not forma separatecaste, as intermarria es take place between themand the

Smartas . The Arad yas of the Telugu country professto be Brahmans, but are, in fact, semi-converted Lin

guits, and are n ot regarded as good Brahmans. ThoughollowingBasava in attachinggreat importance to Lingaworship, they adhere to caste and repeat the Gayatri

They act as Gurus or spiritual preceptors to theclasses of lay Lingaits , while the lower classes

among the followers of Basava are left to the guidanceof the Jangamas orthe priestlySudras of the sect.

CHAP. VIII.—THE BRAHMANSOF THE

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

As a considerable portion of the territories includedin what is now called the Central Province was formerlyruled by kings of the Gond tribe, and as there is stilla lar e Gond population in the districts round Nag re

andfiubbulpore, the tract of country inhabited by emularly called Gondwana, and the Brahmanswithin it receive the designation of Gond Brah

mans. They are called also Jhara Brahmans fromthe

fact of their country being still, to a very hit 0 ex

tent, covered b forest. Like some of the tts

Brahmans, the50nd Brahmans are divided into distinctsections on account of the difl'

erences in the Vedas and

the Sakhas which the profess. Themajority of themare followers of theTajur Veda. There are also RigVedis amon them, but very few followers of any of

the other edas . The Yajur Vedis are divided intovarious Sakhas, the Madhyandinas, Kauvas , and the

Apastambis bein the most numerous . There cannotbe intermarriage etween these. Butmarriage alliancesare possible between the BigVedis and the Apastambisection of the Yajur Vedis. All the Rig Vedis are of

the Ashwala ana Sakha.

All the 0nd Brahmans are ve ctarians and ab

stainers from intoxicating drink.

5The Yajur Vedis

are chiefly Sivites. There are a few Bhagabats and

moderate Saktas among them. The Bhagabatsmoderate Vishnuvites, paying reverence to Siva

(102 )

CHAP. IX.— BRAHMANSOF TULAVA,

SOUTH KANARA AND COORG.

Tulava Brahmans.—Tulava is a small tract of countrymbracing only the British District of South Kanaraand a part of Coorg. Udipi, the chief centre of theMadhava sect, is in Talava, and is regarded by itsmembers as a very holy place.

Dr. W ilson gives the following account of the TulavaBrahmms

themselves the designation of Tulavasare scattered notmere ly ugh this rovince but through some ofthe territories above the Ghats where ey have nearly forgotten theirori Stokesmentions the following loml

l . Shiwali.2 .

Thenhe almost bori

grna’

l (i rtslappear to a n a cs n sense

numerous in the South of agara, KauladumKOppawhare they hold the greatest portion of the hunt gardens. Theyare mostly of Smarts sect, and disciples of the Shrin and itssubordinate Mathas of Tirtha, Muthar. Hariharpura, digadra.

Mala «to. They speakKanarese only but theirbooks are partLvin the rautha and

Fagin the Bal Bodha character. Some sign

theirnames in theTn vs 0 aracter. They areo

iudrflerently educatedexcept a fewwho are either brokers or in public empioTheTulava Brahmans do not intermarry with the c orBrahmans

on the MalabarCoast. In the laticas, attributed to Sankaracharyn, possessed by the Nambu Brahmans, “it is decreed thatintermarna

gs

’

among the Brahmans north of Parampol, formingthirty-two ramas of Tulansd with the Brahmans of thirty

-twoGramas to the south called Malaylamare forbidden.

’ A synonymof the Tula Brahmans is Imbreu or rather Tambaran.

TheTulava Brahmans renmble the Namburis. and consider themselves as the preper lords of the country, pretending that it was

"358. of Col. Mackenzie, quoted in South Indian Christ. Repository , Vol. II,

n o

m BRAHMANS or some m ass . 105

created ressly for their use by Parashurama. They

5mm c

g)cohabit, too. Dr. F. Buchanan tells us ,

anghters of t e Rajas. 8'

ng of the Kumali RaJa, a professedKsatriya, he says : The el est daughter in the female line cchabrtswith a Tulava Brahman 5her sons become Rains, and her eldest

daughter continues the line of the family . Whenever she pleases,she changes her Brahman.

” They prevent widow re-marriage, butpromote widowprostitution in the name of religion and with widowsand women who have forsaken theirhusbands and become Moylerand attached to the temples, th hold intercourse. They burn theirda d . They abstain fromammzfood and spirituous liquors.The Tulava Brahmans are equally divided between the sects ofSank aracharya and Madhavacharya.

In Mysore there are some Brahmanic colonists whocall themselves Kavarga and Shishyavarga and who are

believed to have been ori ally inhabitants of Tulava.

liters y means the first five lettershabet. The reason why the designs

tion is applied to the tribe of Brahmans bearing thename is e lained as follows in the report on the lastCensus of ysore

The name is said to have a reproachful allusion to a lle

lgcnd , accord

to which a brother and sister of this tribe deceitfu y received a

by representing themselves as husband and wife at a Brahmanical co ernony . By the patriarchal law of visitingthe sins of thefathers on the children, the tribe is to this day distinguished by the

name of Kavarga (of the Ks class), Ks being the initial syllable of

the Kanareseword Kullu thief).—Mysors Census Report, p. 235.

In Coorg there is a priestly class called Ammac aga or Kaveri Brahmans ; but as they do not

rofess to follow any rticularVeda, they are, propery speaking, no Br mans. They are a very smallcommunity. W ith regard to them, Richter saysThe AmmaKodagas live principally in the 8 .

-W . parts of Coorg,a nd are the indigenous priesthood devoted to the worship of Amthe Kaverigoddess. They are of a quite unobtrusive character 3 donot intermarry with the other Coorge, and are, generally speaking,inferior to themin personal appearance and strength ofbod Theirnumber is about 50, they are unlettered and devoid of B manicallore . Their diet is vegetable food only , and they abstain fromdrinking liquor. Their complexion is rather fair, their eyes darkbrown, and their hair black and strai

ght —Ethnological Compon

diu s of the Costa and M os of Coorg, y the Rev. G . Richter, p. l.

Buchanan'

s Journey, Vol. III, pp. 81 , 16.

CHAP. X.—THE BRAHMANS OF KERALA,

MALABAR, 000m AND TRAVANCORE.

THE part of the western coast of the Deccan whichextends fromCannanore and the Chandra Giri river onthe north to Cape Comorin on the south, and whichembraces at present the British district of Malabar, andthe principalities of Cochin andTravancore, is, inmanyrespects, ahomogeneous tract distinguishable fromeveryotherpart of India. This strip of country was calledin ancient times Kerala or Chera, and governed by itsown kin The e spoken by its people is Malaylan which, to the Tamil, is a uite diQtinctdialect. and the Hamburi Bra ans, who

formthe chief elements in the opulation ofKerala, arenot to be found in considers ls numbers even in theadjoining districts of Coimbatore, Trichino oly,orTinnevel It is, however, the pecu

’

ar laws and

customs of erala that distinguish it most fromotherparts of India. The very family t e among the Nairsis so different fromwhat is foun in other countries,that it is very difi cult for an outsider to forman idea ofit. Amongmost of the nations throughout the world,eachmalememberwhen hemarries, becomes an unit ofthe society. During the lifetime of his father he may,with his wife

, and in some cases with his children also,live under the parental roof. But each of themalemembers of the society is, in the eye of law, the centre of

an independent group actual orpossible. Afterhis death,the usual rule is that his sons succeed to his property

108 'ms BBAEMANS or rmvmooss .

members are allowed to eat with the Ksatriyas . Themost striking peculiarity in a Namburi is the tuft ofhair grown near the forehead, instead of the usualBrahmanical Sikhs at the central part of the head.

There are both Sivites andVishnuvites amongtheNumburis. The formerare called Chovar, the latterPan on.

The Hamburi Brahmans seldom go abroad wi out

holding a chatra or large umbrella. Theirwomen alsoscreen themselves with a chatrawhen theygo out, whichthe do very seldom. The foreign Brahmans residing in

bar are called Pattern. The Ambalvashis, who arethe employé s of the

public shrines, are Namburis by

descent, but degraded y their evocation.

The great Sankarachar a, whose name stands mostconspicuous in the strugg e for rooting out BuddhismfromIndia, and who is regarded by Brahmans in everypart of the country as an incarnation of Siva, was a

Namburi.

PART V.

THE SEMI-BRAHMANICAL CASTES.

CHAP. I.—THE BHUINHAR BRAHMANS OF

BEHAR AND BENARES.

THERE are various ls nds regarding the ori of thiscaste. The BhuinharBiahmans themselves aimto betrue Brahmans descended fromthe rulers whomParusu

set u in the place of the Ksatriya kings slainb him. The good Brahmans and the Ksatriyas of

tie country, however, look down upon them, and in

sinuate that they are of amixed breed, the ofl'

spring of

Brahman men and Ksatriya women . It is even saidthat the class was formed by the promotion of low castemen under the orders of a min ister to a Rajs who

wanted a very large number of Brahmans to celebratea religious ceremony, but for whomhisminister couldnot procure the required number of true Brahmans.

But this legendary theory is very strongly contradictedAryan physiognomy of the Bhuinhars who, in

respect of taoualappearance, are in no way inferior

to the B us an the Rajputs. One of the mostpoints of difference between the Bhuinharand themajori of the ordinary Brahmans is,

that while the latter are'

vided in to only those exoga

mous clans called Gotra, the former have among them,

(109)

1 10 'ma sum-summa tion . casrss.

like the a twofold division based upon bothGotra an Fromthis circumstance Mr. Risley'has been led to conclude that the Bhuinhar Brahmansare an offshoot of the Rajputs, and not true Brahmans .

But as there are similar tribal divisions among the

Maithila Brahmans of Tirhoot and the Sarsswat Brahmans of the Panjab, itmight, on the same ground, besaid that the Saraswats and the Maithilas are ofl

'

shoots

of the Rajputs.

The theory that Bhuinhar Brahmans are an ofl’shoot

of the Rajputs, involves the utterly unfounded assumption that any of themilitary clans could have reason tobe ashamed of their caste status. The royal race had

ve good reasons to be proud of such surnames as

Sirl

iha, Roy andThakoor, and it seems very unlikely thatany of their clans could at any time be so foolish as to

The grounds on which Mr. Risley rests his viewwill appearclearfromthe following extract

An examination of the sections or exogamous groups into whichthe Babhans are divided ap r

, however to tell strongly against thehypothesis that they are egraded B mans. These ups are

usually the oldest andmost durable element in the interns organisation of a caste or tribe, and may therefore be expected to cfierthe clearest indications as to its origin . Now we find among theBabhans section names of two distinct types, the one territorialrefs either to some very early settlement of the section, or

to the irthplace of its founder, and the other eponymous, thee aymbeing inmost cases aVedic Bishiorinspired sage. The names0 the former class correspond to or closely resemble those currentamong Rajputs ; the names of the latterare those of the standardBrahmanical Gotras. Where the matrimonial prohibitions basedon these two classes of sections conflict, as must obviously oftenhappen where every member of the caste necessarily belongs toboth sets, the authority of the territorial class overrides that ofthe epon ous orBrahmanical class. Suppose, for instance, that aman of t eKoronch territorial section and of the Sandilya eponymous section wishes tomarry a woman of the Sakanwar territorialsection, the fact that she also belongs to the Sandilya eponymoussection will not operate as a bar to themarria

g. Whatevermay be

the theory of the porch“: of the caste, the rahmanical Gotra isdisregarded in practice. This circumstance seems to indicate thatthe territorial sections are the older of the two, and are probablythe original sections of the costs , while the eponymous sections havebeen borrowed fromthe Brahmans in comparatively recent times .

It would follow that the Babhans are an offshoot, not fromtheBrahmans, but fromtheRajputs.”—Bisley’s Tribe: and Castes, Vol.Is Introduction.

1 1 2 THE sum-samumcu . CASTES.

mans are sometimes called simply Bhuinhars, just as themasons, whose class name in Bengali is Raj ma

'

stri

(riyal architect), are generally called Raj , whichmeans

a in

IngAssamthe Bhuinhars hold their lands on very

favourable terms ; but no exceptional indulgence is

shown to the Bhuinhars of Behar or Benares by thelocal zemindars. As may be expected the Bhuinharsare now chiefly an agricultural class ; but like the

Brahmans, they never touch the lough. Theyhowever, do any kind of menu work except

personal service. They serve not only as soldiers, constables, orderlies and gate—keepers, but also as porters,cartmen, and cutters of wood. Many of the Hinducartmen and porters in Calcutta are Bhuinhars . Someof themare very proud and cantankerous. Tthat the Bhuinhars readily enlist in the army and in

the policemay be taken to show, to some extent, whattheir caste professionmust have been in former timss.

The Bhuinhars observe all their religious esin the same manner as the good Brahmans but as

they practise secular avocations they, like theBrahmans of Southern India, are not entitled to acce treligious gifts, or tominister to any one as priests. 9

best Brahmans ofliciate as priests for the Bhuinhars, andit is not considered that the are degraded by doin so.

On the view that the Byhuinhars were ancient y a

fighting caste , it is not at all a matter for wonderthat there are among them, as among the Rajputs,many big landholders The Rajas named below are of

the Bhuinhar caste

of Bettis in Champaran, North Behar.of Tikari in Gays .

of Hatwa in Saran, North Behar.

of Tan akhi in Gorakpore.

of Maisadal in Midas re.Bengal.

of Pakour in Sonthal er nna Bengal.of Moheshpore in Sou Perguunahs, Be

'ma BHUINHAR mum s. 1 1 3

Like the Rajputs the Bhuinhar Brahmans formone

great te, and there are no sub-castes among them.

They are divided into a large number of clans which,for purposes ofmarriage, are, with very few exceptions,all equal. The usual surnames of the Bhuinhar Brahmans are the same as those of the otherBrahmans of

Northern India. Being a fighting caste, a few of themhave Rajput surnames.

CHAP. II.—THE BEATSAND THE CHARANAS.

THE Bhate and the Charanes are very importantcastes in Rajputana. and the adjoining provinces. Theyare the minstrels, historians and genealogists of theRajput chiefs, and are verymuch feared by their constituents, as it is in their power to lower any family bydistorting history. They all take the holy thread, andas their persons are considered to be sacred by all

classes, they seemto have been originally Brahmans .

The very name of Bhatta points also to the sameconclusion, as itmeans a learnedman, and is an honorific surname of many of the best families of Brahmanasin every part of the country. In all probability theBhuts are the caste who were usually employed bythe Rajput princes in diplomatic service, while the

Charsnss, as their very name indicates, were the spies .

At any rate this view not only explains the fact thatthe Bhats have a higher cas te status than the Charsnss ,but is supported also by the customwhich still prevailsamongthe Rajputs of employing the Bhats to conductne otiaticns formarriage alliances.

ir John Malcolmgives the following account of theBhateThe Bhats orRaos seldomsacrifice themselves ; but as chroniclers

orbards , they share power, and scmetimes ofi ce with the Charanas.

Among the Bhilalas and.

lower tribes theyenjoy great and exclusive

influence ; they give praise apd fame in t eir songs to those who areliberal to them, while they visit those who neglect or in

’

ure them,

with satires in which they usually reproach themwit spuriousbirth and inherentmeanness. Sometimes the Bhat, if very seriouslyofiended, fixes the figure of

(

the person he desires to degrade on a

1 1 4

1 16 'ma sum-Bau mAH'

ICAL CASTES.

are shrewd men of business ; while the Maru Oberense apply theirskill to the nealogy of tribes , and to the recital of numerousle nds (usua y in verse), celebrating the praises of former heroes ,w

’

ch it is their dut to chant, tograti

fythe pride and rouse the

emulation of their escendants . he harsna’s chief power is

derived froman impression that it is certain ruin and destruction

to shed his blood or that of any of his family , or to be the cause ofits being shed . They obtain a h

’

h rank in society , and a certain

livelihood, fromthe superstitious lief which they are educated to

inculcate, and which they teach their children to consider as their

chief object in life tomaintain . A Charana becomes the safeguard

of travellers and security formerchants , and his bond is often

preferred among the Ra puts , when rents and roperty are con

cerned , to that of the wee. thiest bankers. W hen e trades himself,he alone is trusted and trusts among the community to which hebelongs . The Charana who accompanies travellers likely to beattacked by Rajput robbers, when he sees the latter approach ,

warns themoff by holdinga dagger in his hand , and if they do not

attend to him, he stabs himse f in a place that is not mortal,and taking the blood fromthe wound , throws it at the assailantswith imprecations of future woe and ruin . If this has not the desired effect, the wounds are re ted , and in extreme cases one of theCharane

’

s relations, common y a female child or an old woman, is

made a sacrifice . The same process is adopted to enforce the payment of a debt to himself or a claimfor which he has becomesecurity . It is not unusual, as the next step, to slay himself andthe catastrophe has been known to close in the voluntary death of

his wives and children . The females of the Charanas are distinctfromall the otherpopulation , both in dress andmanners . They oftenreside in separate villages, and the traveller is surprised to see themcome out in their long robes , and attend himfor some space, chanting his welcome to their abode. Th e Charanas are not onl treatedby the Rajputs with great respect (the highest rulers of t at race

rising when one of this class enters or leaves an assembly), but theyhavemore substantialmarks of regard . When they engage in trade,lighter duties are collected fromthemthan others . They receive at

al feasts andmarriages resents that are only limited by the abilityof the parties The e con uences of a Charana being drivento under 0 a Violent death , can alone averted by grants of landand cost y gifts to surviving relations ; and the Rajput chief, whoseguilt is recorded (forall these sacrifices are subjects of rude poems ),as the cause of such sacred blood being shed , is fortunate when hecan by any means have his repentance and

gzenerosit

rvmade part of

the legend.—Malcolm’

s Cautml l ndiaNol JI, hap.X V , p. 108 at ssq.

About the peregrinations of the Bhats and the Cha

ranas, and the periodical visits paid b themto theirconstituents, a graphic account is to be found in the

following extractWhen the rainy season closes, and travelling becomes practicable,

the hard sets off on his year] tour fromhis residence in the Bhatwara of some city or town . us by one he visits each of the Rajputchiefs who are his patrons , and fromwhomhe has received portionsof land, or annual grants ofmoney , timing his arrival, if possible,

PART VI.

THE DEGRADED BRAHMANS.

PRELIMINARY REMARKS.

THERE are various classes of ed Brahmanswho now form

,more or less comple separate castes.

Their social ostracismis due to one or other of thefollowing causes

1 . Allegegdintercoursewith Mahomedans at some by-

goneer:

2 . Miiiistermg to the low casws as priests.

3. Being connected with the great public shrines.

4. Accepting forbidden gifts.

5. Ministering as riests at a cremation .

6. Being sus to be of spurious birth .

7. By beingtillers of the soil.8. Bymenial service.

CHAP. I.—THEHOSAINISAND KUVACHANDAS.

Hosaz'm'

s.— These are a class of Brahmans to be

found in many parts of Western India, and especiallynear Ahmednagar. They have actually adopted to

some extent the Mahomedan faith and its observances,though they retain some of the Brahmanic practicestoo, and generally intermarry only among themselves.

As a class they have no importance. They are chieflybeggars.

Kuvachandas— Found in Sind, and they generallyresemble the Mussalmans in their habits.

( 1 18 )

1 20 'ma racoass or CALCUTTA.

sillah Jmore. They formtheir connections byKhan Chowdries of Brooms , but not with anyThe remaining persons present on the occasion

were called Pirali. Purushottama was one of the latter. Others'

ve a difiercnt account. They say that when Purushottamawas inessore, on his way to bathe in the Ganges, the Chowdries of thatlace,who became polluted in theabovementionedway , forcin tookhimto their house with a view to give hima dau hter of theirs in

marriage. Seeing that the bride was very beauti l, Purushottamaagreed to ma her. After thismarriage, Purushottarmleft theoriginal seat of is family and settled in J essore. Purushottama hada son named Balarama. Panchanana, the fifth in descent fromBalarama left J essore and came to Gorindpora, the site of FortWilliam, where he purchased land, and built thereon a dwellinghouse and a temple. His son Jairamwas employed as an Amin in

the settlement of the 2 4-Pergunnahs and discharged his duties withconsiderable credit. At the capture of Calcutta he is said to havelost all his roperty with the exception of Rs. in cash.

Jairam’s ouse was taken by the English for the purpose of building Fort William. He received somemoney and land as compensation, and removed himself to Pathuriaghata. He died in the year1762 , leavi

qgfour sons , named Ananda Ram, Nilmani,

Narayan an Govinda. The eldest, Ananda lhmwas the first w 0

received a liberal English education. His fam’

and that of hiscongest brother, who as rintended the build ng of the Fortilliam, have become e not. Kilmaul was the grandfather of

Dwarkanath Tagore, who occupied a foremost rank in thehis day. See 8 . O. Boss

's Hindus as they are, pp. 171—74.

With reference to the above, itmay be observed herethat the alleged enjoyment of the smell of a Mahomedan ’

s savour meat, cannot, by itself, explain theperpetual degradation ofPurushottama, orof any of theother guests of Pirali. The sin of even voluntary andactual eating of such food is not an inexpiable one, andthere is not within the four corners of the Shastras,any such utterly unreasonable and Draconian law as

would visit aman with eternal degradation forinvoluntarily inhalin the smell of forbidden food. There are

also other in ercut improbabilities in the story as

narrated above. Unless the Amin, and the inhabitantsof the locality where he was conducting his investitions, were quite demented, there could not possibly

ggeoccasion for any altercation between the parties as

to a question of the Hindu’s reli '

on. Then, again, ifthe habits and prejudices of the 1ndus in those times betaken into consideration, it would seemquite impossible

re s TAGORES or CALCUTTA. 1 2 1

that Pirali would have invited any number of themto his house, or that they would have responded to theinvitation so far as to enter his dining-room. Hindusand Mahomedans very often exchange visits for cere

monial and ofi cial urposes. But even when they are

on the most friendly terms, aman professing the one

religion will not ask a votary of the other to sxt by histable while he is at dinner. The orthodox Hindu ’

s pre

judices are such that after sitting on the same carpet witha Mahomedan or a Christian friend, or shaking handswith such a person, he has to put off his clothes, and tobathe or s rinkle his person with the holy water of theGran es. e Mahomedan gentleman of the countrywho ow well of these pre

'

udices on the part of theirHindu fellow-countrymen, erefore, never ask themtomix too familiarly, and the Hindus also keep themselvesat a sufi cient distance to avoid that theymust regardas contaminations. The dwelling-house of every nativeof India, he he aHindu oraMahomedan, consists of twoparts, namely, the zenana and the boytalchana. Thegamma apartments are reserved for the ladies, and thedin ing-rooms for themembers of the house are alwayswithin the mana. The boytalchana is the outer partof the house where visitors are received. The Musselmans do sometimes entertain their cc-reli ionists in theboytakhana but no orthodox Hindu wou d enter sucha place while the plates are in it, orwould remain thereamoment afterany sign of preparations for introducingan kind of cooked eatables.

romwhat is stated above, it would a pear that thecauses assigned by the Piralis themse ves for theirdegradation cannot satisfactorily account for theirstatus in the Hindu caste system. Fromthe generaltenor of their story, it seemsmore probable that Purushottama was an officer in the staff of the surveyor,Piri li, and that, as Amine and their underlings usuallydo

, he made himself very unpopular among his cc

religionists by attempting to invade the titles to their

1 2 2 m moon s or camera's .

patrimony, so as to lead them to club to other forostracisin himon the allegation that he tastedor smelt orbidden food.

The reason why the Piralis left their originalhabitat, and settled in Calcutta, is not far to seek.

Purushottama. who was first outcasted had evidentlymade his native village too hot for him. He removedto Jessore but even at Jessore he could not have, inhis degraded condition, foundmany friends. His descendant, Panchanana, therefore removed to Calcuttain search of en

éployment, and a place where he could

live in peace. alcutta was then practically ruled bythe East IndiaCompany, who had no reason whatever topay any regard to any rule or decree of caste disciline. The majority of the well-to-do population of

alcutta were then of the weaver caste, with a s rinklingofSonar Banyas andKayasthas. Good Bra ans

visited the towns sometimes for ministering to theirdisci les or collecting the donations of the rich Sudrasto eir take or Sanskrit schools. But those weredays when the orthodox and respectable Brahmans

considered it beneath theirdignity to engagepursuits, and even to those who were in

clined to cokot their pride for the sake of pelf, theservice of

)

the East India Company could not thenhavemuch attraction . Whatever the causemight havebeen, the Brahmanic population of Calcutta was not

very larg days. When such was the stateof things Panchanana settled in it. A Brahman is a

Brahman though outcasted by his clansmen . TheSonar of Calcutta were themselves outcastes,and as Tantis and Kiyasthas, they could haveneither themotive nor the power to subject the outcastePanchanana to any kind of persecution . The Setts andthe Malliks actually befriended his family, thou h apparently without recognizing their status as

’

Bra ans

so far as to acce t their hospitality in any sha e. In

PrasannaKumar agore’

s account of his familyphistory

1 2 4 mu muon s or CALCUTTA.

brou ht to sale, forarrears of revenue, thePiraliTagoresboug tmany valuable properties, and became themselvesgreat zemindars. The total income of the several branches of the Ta ore familymust at present bemore than

he leadingmembers of the clan in the las tgeneration were DwarkaNathTagore, PrasunnaKumarTagore and Ramanath Tagore. Among the livingcelebrities of the family, Maharaja Sir Jotindra Mo

hun Tagore is deservedly esteemed as one of its brightest ornaments. He was a member of the LegislativeCouncil of India for several years, and the BritishGovernment ofIndiahas conferred u o eve possible title of honour at its disposal . E

li

’

s brotherNaharajaSourendra Mohan Tagore is a votary of the science of

music, but at the same time has been steadily improvinghis estate by efficient management like his illustriousbrother. Dwarka Nath’s son DevondraNath is now insear and yellow leaf ” of life . On account of his devotion to religion he is usually called a Maharshi orSaint.His son SatyendraNath is the firstHindumember of theIndian Civil Service, and is now emplo ed as a DistrictJudge in the Bombay Presidency. Ba u Kali KrishnaTagore, who represents another branch, does not movemuch in Calcutta society ; but next to Sir J . M. Tagore,he is perhaps the richestmember of the family.

Froma long time the Tagores have been strugglinghard to be restored to caste. Ward says that RajaKrishna Chundra of Nadiya was promised one lac of

rupees by aPirali, if he would only honour himwith avisit for a fewminutes, but he refused. Similar offers,though of smaller amounts , have been a ain and againmade to the reatPandits ofNadiya, but ve been similarly decline But the Tagores are now fast risin in

the scale of caste . Poor Brahmans now more orfiessopenly acce t theirgifts, and sometimes even theirhospitality ; and ir J .M. Tagore is on the way towards acquiring an influence on the Pandits which may one dayenable himto re-establish his family completely in caste .

CHAP. III.-THE BARNA BRAHMANS.

THE Brahmans thatminister to the low Sudra castesand outcastes , are looked upon as degraded persons, andthey generally formseparate castes. The good Brahmans will not take even a drink of water fromtheirhands, and intermarriage between themis quite out

of the question. In Bengal the following classes of

Sudras and outcastes have special priestsSonarYaniya—G oldmerchants.l .

2 . Goals— Cowherds.

2. Kain—Oilmen .

5:” TQM T-

b. f ood tters d en:w6. Kat

n 0 00 an m en

The priests of each of these classes form independentcastes, without the ri ht of intermarriage or diningtogether with any ot er section of the Brahmaniccaste. With the exception of a few of the SonarVani a Brahmans, these Bama Brahmans, as they are

call are mostly very poor, and utterly without anykin d of social position . The priests of the Kaibartasare in some places called Vyasokta Brahmans.

2 .—Bama B rahmans of M thz

'

la.

The following castes of Mithila have special Brahmans

Teli—Oilman .

( 1 25 )

1 2 6 THE BARNA BRAHMANS.

3.- Bama Brahmans of Guj rat and Rajputana.

The following are regarded as Barna Brahmans inGujrat, and have a low caste status

Abhira Brahmans—Priests of the cowherd caste.

Kunbi Gour—Priests of the Kunbis .

G ujar-a Gour—Priests of the Gujars.

Machi Gour Priests of the Machi or fishermen.

Gandharpa Gown —Priests of themusicians.Koli Gour—Priests of the Kolis .

Garndyas—Priests of the Chamhars and Dheds.

4 .—

.Barna B rahmans of Telz'

ngana.

The following are the names of the classes of Tailangi Brahmans thatminister to the low castes

l . Ganda Dravidras .

2 . Nambi Varlu.

5.— Barna B rahmans of Malabar.

1 . Eledus—Priests of the Nair-s .

1 2 8

The Somparas connected with the shrine of Somnathseemto have a higher position than the priests of the

public shrines usually have. There is a class of Brah

mans in the Doab who call themselves Chowbays of

Mathura. but have nothing to do with priestly work .

These are very high class Brahmans. There are manylearned Sanskritists and English scholars amon them.

Some of themhold hi h offices in the service of overn

ment and also of t e Native States. One of the

greatest of these is Kumar Jwala Prasad, who is at

present the District Judge of Azimgarh. His father,Raja Jai Kishen, rendered eminent services to the

Government at the time of the Sepoy Mutiny, and

is still employed as a Deputy Collector. Anothermemberof the Chowbay cas te, named Raghu Nath Das,is the Prime Minister of Kota.

Imet with two Brahmans fromMysore. The are educated men ;one of themwas ex oting to appear in t e following B . A.

Examination of the adras University. When we were leavingB enares , it occurred tome to ask if they had any friends in that

holy city . They said ,—“No, but we soon found some B rahmans

fromour part of the country .

” I said oh , then you were wellreceived and hospitably entertained by themof course ?

”Ishall never

forget the look of infinite disdain with which one of themreplied .

Do you think we would eat withmen who live in such a city as

Benares , and associate with Brahmans of this district ? No, we contented ourselveswhilst therewith onemeal ada which we cooked forourselves.

” My question ap to thema out as reasonable as

if Ihad asked a nobleman in ugland if he had dined with scaven

ger.—Wilkin’s ModemHinduism, pp. 163 164.

CHAP. V— THE BRAHMANS DEGRADED BY

ACCEPTING FORBIDDEN GIFTS,AND OFFI

CIATING AS PAID PRIESTS AT CREMA

TIONS.

Br the religious codes of the Hindus, the acce tanceof certain kinds ofmovables, such as elephants, orses,

etc., is strictly forbidden . But in actual practice even

high caste Brahmans are sometimes led by povertyto accept such ts, especially wheretakes place in a tant part of the country, and undercircumstances thatmay render it possible for the dometo keep his act of sin unknown to his clansmen . If

the fact becomes known to themhe is outcasted, and hisdescendants remain in the same condition, so longas thenature of the original cause of their degradation is

remembered by their fellow-castemen . But in almostevery such case the family recovers its lost position after

a few generations, and no separate caste is formed.

There are, however, certain kinds of gifts which goodBrahmans neveraccept, and which only certain classes ofdegraded BrM ans are held to be entitled to. TheseBrahmans are called Maha-Brahman in Northern India,Agradiini in Ben al,AgraBhikshu inOrissa, andAcharya in Western ndia. The Maha-Brahmans or GreatBrahmans are ao-called by way of irony. Theirstatus is so low that good Hindus consider their verytouch to be contaminatin andactually bathe ifaccidentally afl

'

ected by such po lution . Almost all the classes1 29 9

1 30 'mx SAWALAKHIS.

mentioned above take a part in the ceremonies whichhave to be performed within the first ten days after aman ’

s death . Agreat many of them claimalso the

owearing apparel the deceased and his bedding, as

their perquisites.

There is a. class of Brahmans in and near Benares

called Sawalakhi. They are considered as degraded on

account of their being in the habit of accepting giftsfrompilgrims within the holy city of Benares . TheSawalakhis are not treated as an unclean class, and a

£20

3Brahman will take a drink of water fromtheir

11 3.

There is a class of Brahmans in the N -W . Prorinces called Bhattas who minister as priests in cere

monies for the expiation of the sin of cow-killing.

They are regarded as very unclean .

The Maruiporas who ofliciate in some public bumingghfits as paid priests have a lower position than that ofeven the Maha-Brhmans and the Agradanis. Gene

rally the function is performed by the ordinary familypriests without fee of any kind. But in some bumi

zgghats certain families claiman exclusive right tominister the sacrament to the dead, and claimheavyfees in themost heartlessmanner. These are in Bengalcalled Maruiporas, literally, dead burners. In WesternIndia they are called Acharyas.

In Rajputana and the neighbouring districts there isakind of Brahman called Dakotand also Sanichar,whoaccept gifts of oil and sesamummade for propitiatingthe lanet Saturn . They are, therefore, regarded as deg ed Brahmans.

PART VII.

THE MILITARY CASTES.

CHAP. I.—THE RAJPUTS.

THE political importance of the Rajputs in India iswell known, and Ineed not, in this book, sa anythingas to what their position had been until 9 countrybecame subject to Moslemrule. Their past history isa glorious one and although it is long 81 1100 they havebeen shorn of their ancient greatness, yet it cannot besaid even now that they have no importance whatever.

From time immemorial, they looked upon war and

litica as their only proper sphere, and although theBo

rahmans allowed to themthe privilege of studyingthe Shastras , yet they never devoted their attention to

the cultivation of letters. The traditions of their families, and the hereditary aptitude for the art of warfaredeveloped in them,made themthe perfect type of cod

soldiers. But their want of literary culturemade eir

great generals incapable of recording their own ex

eriences in such manner as to be available for thenefit of their successors. The Bhate who served as

their genealogists lavished praises on their ancestors,and excited themto feats of bravery, but could nevergive themanything like a good history.

manical Purans distorted the facts so as to suit thepolicy of their authors, e greater importance to

m m umcss'rss. 1 33

the good or bad wishes of a Brahman, than to eithermilitary or diplomatic skill. On the other hand, the

themselves were too illiterate to rofit by evenwas in the urine. Thenatural talents and per

sonal bravery, they could not secure to the country a

sufi cient number of good generals and politicalministers . A genius shone at times. But in no countryand in no community are Chandra Guptas and Vikra

madityas born every day . A natural genius like thatof Sivaj i or Ranjit may do without any kind of edu

cation but the majority of even the best men in

ntry r uire train ing in order to develop theircapac ities, and e necessary means for that trainingwas sadly wanting among the Rajputs. Thus, in spiteof all their soldier- like virtues, the failed to cope withthe early Mahomedan invaders. But the greatest of

the Mahomedan rulers— not even Akbar orAlaudincould break their power completely. The wreckswhich they preserve still of their former greatness arenot at all inconsiderable. The majority of the leadingHindu chiefs of India are still of their tribe. A eat

many of the Hindu landholders, big and smafir

in

every part of India, are also of the same caste. TheRaj uts are still generally quite as averse to educationas air ancestors ever were. But already some members of the class have shaken off their old prejudices,and have received the benefits of English education .

And the time seems to be fast comingwhen the scionsof the Ksatriya aristocracy will prove to be formidable

the Brahmans and the Kayasthas, in the race

for high ofi ces, and for distinction in the liberal proSome noble examples of such departure

have already been set in Bengal. The well-knownBabus Prasanna Chandra Boy and Saligram

Bing, of the Bengal High Court, are Rajputs bycaste. The former is a Rajput zemindar of Nadiya.

In the early years of the Calcutta University he

134 ms MILITARY CAs'rns.

attained its highest honours, and for a time,practised

with great success in the Bar of the Allahabad HCourt. If he had continued in the profession , hemihave been one of its recognized leaders but the exi

gencies of his patrimony

and his indigo plantationscompelled himto keep imself unconnected with the

Bar for nearly twenty years. He has lately resumed hisprofession as a Vakil of the Bengal High Court, andis fast rising in eminence. In the Judicial Service of

Ben al there are at resent two gentlemen who are of

the jput caste . ey are the grandsons of the

celebrated Babu Kesava Boy of Nakasi are , who wasthe terror of his district in his time, an who with hisarmy of Goala clubmen successfully set at defiance theauthorit of the police and themagistracy .

The Rajputs are to be found in every part of India,and the total population of the tribe exceeds tenmillions.

The following table shows their numerical strength ineach of the several Provinces where they are mostnumerous

N -W . ProvincesPanjabBengal

RajputanaCentral India

There are no sub-castes among the Rajputs properlyso-called . They are divided into a large number of

clans, the rules among them relating to marriagebeing as follows

1 . No one canmarry within his tribe.2 . A girl should be given inmarriage to a bridegroomof a

higher tribe.

3. A male member of a Rajput tribemay take inmarriageany Rajput girl though of a lower class.

Like the Sarswats, the Rajputs are said to marrywithin their Gotra provided the clan is different.

136 mummu ar cs s'ms.

The Rajput is the best person fromwhoma Brahmancan accept a gift. A Brahman may also ofi ciate as a

priest in a Rajput household without lowering himselfin the estimation of his castemen . There is nothingin the Shastras to prevent a Brahman from eatingeven kaclu'

food fromthe hands of a Rajput. But in

actual practice the Brahmans do not eat such rice,dal, fish or flesh as is cooked, or touched after cookinby a Rajput. The hi cakes and sweetmeats m 0

by the Re 'pute are, owever, eaten by the best Brahmans, wit the exce tion of only a few of the overpuritanic Pandits . T e Brahmans will eat also kachi,food in the house of a Rajput, if cooked b a Brahman

,

and untouched by the host after cooking. be followingis a list of the leadingRajput chiefs of India togetherwith the names of the clans to which they belongRana of Udaipur Sisodya branch of the Gra

bilot clan of Buryavansi

Maharaja of J odhpur Ramfuctl'an of Suryavansi

Maharaja of Bikaneer Ragiiifign of Suryavansi

Maharaja of Kishengarh Rafiypu

c

‘lsan of Snryavansi

Maharaja of J nipote Rachava clan of Sumvansi

Maharao Raja of AlwarMaharaja of JaisalmirMaharaja of J halwar J hala clan.

Maharaja of Karauli J adun clan of s uvansi

Hara sept of Chaabane.Of the same clan as theRana of Udaipur.

’

The number of minor chiefs and landholders whoare of the Rajput caste is so large that a complete list

'ms au ru're. 1 37

of themcannot possibly be given in this book. TheMahara

'

a of Domraon, nearArrah, one of the biggestlandlo s in Behar, is a high caste Rajput, represening,it is said, the line of the reat Vikramaditya.

The Raj puts are admitte by all to be true Ksatriyasand are not to be confounded with the Kshettris of the

Punjab who are usually regarded as Buniyaa, and an

account of whomis given in the next chapter. Theinferior Rajpu ts of Bengal are call Pukuria, or Tonkmen. They wear the sacred thread, but some of themare to be found employed as domestic servants and

tillers of the soil.

CHAP. II.—THE KSHETTRIS.

THERE is very considerable difference of Opinion as

to the exact position of the Kshettris in the Hindu castes stem. Some authorities take themto be the same as

t e bastard caste Kshc‘itrz', spoken of by Mann as the

offspring of a Sudra father by a Ksatriya mother.

”

The people of this country include the Kshettris amongthe Baniya castes, and do not admit that they havethe same position as the military Rajputs. TheKshettris themselves claimto be Ksatriyas, and observethe religious rites and duties prescribed by the Shastrasfor the military castes. But themajority of themliveeither by trade or by service as clerks and accountants,and their caste status ought, it seems, to be intermediatebetween that of the Re 'pute on the one hand, and the

Baniyas and the Kayast as on the other.

In their outward appearance the Kshettris lack themanly vigour of the Rajput and the broad forehead of

the Brahman . But they are generally very handsome,and with their slender figures, theirblue s arklin 0 es,

and their aquiline nose, some of themlookexac y likethe Jews whomthey resemble also in their character.

In trading as well as in service, they generally dis laygreat shrewdness. But there is not found among themeither the enterprise oftheParsis, or the literary industry

See Mann X, 12 , 13 see also ShyamaCharan’s Vyasastha Darpau. p. 659.

138

140 ms MILITARY ci s'rss.

humble dealers, shopkeepers, andmoney-lenders ; but in that gap.thePatbans seemto look at themas a kind of valuable ammal ;

an a Pathan will steal anotherman’s Kshet not only for thesake of ransom, but also as hemight steal amilo cow, or as J ew!might, Idaresay , be carried 06 in the Middle Ages, with a view to

l

ie

ll

étler themprofitable.”—Campbell’s Ethnology of India, pp. 1&

Many of theKshettris now go to En land, and thosewho do so are not very harshl treated their castemen, as in otherprovinces. inns of the hettris havequalified to practise as barristers.

There are fourmain divisions among the Kshettris.

The name of their first and most important divisionis Banjai, which is probably a corrupted formof the

Sanskrit word Banijik meaning a trader.

” Theirsecond division, the Screens, are probably ao-calledon account of their being, or having been at one time,Sirinda, i.s ., ploughmen or cultivators. With regard totheir third division, the Kakhura,‘ it is said that theyderive their name from that of a district near the

town of Find DadanKhan on the Jhelum. The fourthdivision called Rorhas orArorhas claimto be Kshetris,but are not regarded as such by any one except theirown class.

5l .—Screens.

The Screens are to be found only in the Panjab .

They have four main divisions among them, each of

these having a large number of exogamous sections,as shown in the following table

Glass No. 1 .

2 . Koshe. 3. Kupani.

l . Kuher. 5. “co 9. Sodt.2 . fi lms. 6. Koon ra.

3. Buhb . 7. Kumra. l l . Pooroe.4. Bhubhote. 8. Ouse. 12 . J eoor.

The name of theKukkur tribe ismentioned in the Hahdbkdm.

Bee UayagaPom , Chap. XXVII.

'ma xsnsr'

rms. 1 41

1 1 . M uhibah .

1 2 . B um.

13. Rera.

I4. Subhikhi.15. Suchur.

Kousai. 10. Bin race.

1 1 . Ku d .

Choodu. I2 . Kesor.

13. Umat.14. Lumbc.

15. Lumb .

16.17.

18. B udd.

The above lists, taken fromSherring, were referred to

Baba Sumcra Sin h, the Chief of the Sodi Gurus, now

in charge of the ikh Temple at Patna, and have beenpronounced by himto be substantially correct. The thirdGuru of the Sikhs, Ummer Das, was of the Bhallc

clan, included in class No. 1 , of the Screen Kshettris .

The second Guru, Ungat, was of the Tihan clan,includ

ed in class No. 2 . The last seven Gurus were all ofthe Sodi clan included within the same group. Guru

Nanak, the founder of the sect, was not a Screen, but aBenji of the inferior Bedi clan . His descendantsare called Bcdis. The last Guru left no descendantsliving, and the Sodis, who are now venerated by theSikhs as his representatives, are the descendants of thefollowing

1&2:t g

land (Elderbrother of GuruAn oon.)

The Bhallcs and Tihans form small communities.

The Sodia and Bcdis are ver numerous. The chiefof the Bedis is now the Hon ble BabaKhemSing, ofRawal Pindi, who has lately been made amember of

the Legislative Council of India. The chief of the

Sodis is, as stated above, Sumcra Singh, the HighPriest of the Sikh Temple at Patna. These gentlemendo not possess any knowledge of English. But they

1 42 'ma MILITARY css'rss.

are both very intelligent, and there is an air of dignityand greatness in their very appearance which cannotfail to command notice and admiration .

It has been already stated that the Bedis, who aredescendants of Guru Nanak, belong to the Banjaidivision of the Kshettri caste, and that the Sodis belongto the division called Screen . Intermarriages, however,are now taking place between the Bodis and the Sodia.

2 . Tile Kukkm's .

The Kukkurs are found chiefly on the banks of

the Indus and the Jhelum, near the towns ofPindDadau Khan, Peshawar, and Nowshera. Their usualsurnames are

l . Anand. 4. Chude. 7. Raine.

2 . Bhaseen . 5. Scores . 8. Sabhurwal.3. Sohnee. 6. Bother. 9. Usscc.

Mr. Sherring says that there are some Kukkurs inBenares. In Calcutta there may be some of the class

,

but Ihave nevermet with any one claiming to be so.

3.—Rorha or Arorha.

These are, pro erly speaking, Baniyas. But as theytake the sacred t read and claimto be Kshettris

,they

are included in the group dealt with in this chapter.

They are found chiefly in the Panjab . Their total number is Themajority of themare shopkeepersand brokers. The sweatmcat makers of Panjab are

mostlyRorhas. The other classes of Kshettris neithereat W ith the Rorhas nor intermarry with them.

4.—Banjaz

°

Kshettris .

The Banjai Kshettris are to be found throughout theeater part ofNorthern India. The total population of

t c class in each province is given in the followingtable

Pan'

ahKas mirN.

-W . ProvincesBengal

144 'ma HILITABY cu rse.

of a lower group, they will never give a daughteroftheir own family to a bridegroomof a lower status .

The Maharaja of Burdwan is of the Adrai Ghar clan .

Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh reli '

ou, was a

Banjai Kshettri of the inferior class called cdi. Theother Sikh Gurus were all of the Screen tribe.

The Sarswat Brahmans of the Panjab usuallyofliciatc as priests in Kshettri households. It is saidthat the Sarswats will eat even Icaclu

'

food cooked bya Kshettri. If they do so, they are quite within thelaw of the Shastras. The Brahmans of the '

other partsof the country do not honour theKshettris by acceptingtheir hospitality in the shape of [sushi food cooked bythem. But no Brahman will hesitate to accept their

'

fts, or to take a drink of water from them. Thoserahmans of Bengal and N -W . Provinces whose re

ligious scruples are not very strong, will take fromthehand of a Kshettri pale/oi food unmixed with wateror salt. They will eat also Icaclu

'

food in the house of

a Kshettri, if cooked by a Brahman, and untouched bythe host after cooking.

The bastard descendants of the Kshettris are called

Puriwal, a name which literally means a person belonging to a town . The Pariwala forma distinct caste,and the Sahu Kshettris orKshettris of pure blood donot intermarry with them.

CHAP. III.- THE JATS.

Tan Jats are the most important element in therural popu lation of the Panjab and the western districtsof the No rth-Wests Provinces. The last Census

gives the following figures as the population of theats in the several provinces of India where they are

Cen tral IndiaSind 45,5fi

The Jats do not wear the sacred thread and haveamong themcertain customs which aremore like thoseof the Sudras than of the twice-born castes. But inevery other respect the are like the Ra

'

puts . Ordinarily, themajority of oth the Jats and e Rajputslive by ractising agriculture. But when the occasionarises, the Jat can W ield the sword as well as themostaristocratic of the military castes. The late Lion ofthePanjab andmany ofhis leadinggenerals were of theJat tribe . To the same clan belongs also theMaharajaof Bhurtpur, whose ancestors, from the beginningof the last century, played an important part in the

politics of Northern India, and at the time of the conquest of the Doab by Lord Lake compelled that greatgeneral to raise the siege of Bhurtpur which he hadundertaken . The present reigning family of Dholeporeare also Jats . The Jats themselves claimto be Ksatriyas. But as they do not wearthe holy thread, they are

145 1 0

1 46 THE JATS.

usually looked upon as having the status of only cleanSudras. There cannot therefore be intermarriage between the Jats and the Rajputs. The J ets are, likethe Rajputs, divided into a large number of exogamousgroups, and, among them, as among the superiorKsa

triyas,marria e is Impossible between arties who are

members of t e same clan . The Jats have been supposed, by someofthe bestauthorities onIndian ethnologyand antiquities, to be a Scythic tribe. General Cunninghamidentifies themwith the Z anthiz' of Strabo and the

Jatii of Pliny and Ptolemy, and fixes their parentcountry on the banks of the Oxus between Bactria,Hyrkania, and Khorasmia. But the sufliciency of the

grounds on which this view rests has been questioned,Prichard remarksThc supposition that the J ot: of the Indus are descendants of the

Yustschi does not appear altogether preposterous , but it is supported

b y no proof except the very trifling one of a slight resolu lanceof names . The physical characters of the J an are extremelydifferent from those attributed to the Yuatsoht and the kindredtribes by the writers cited by Klaproth and Abel Bewuss t who say

zippywa

rs of sanguine complexions with blue “ca—Researches

The question cannot possibly be answered in a satisfactorymanncr so long as the ethnology and history ofRussia and Central Asia are not carefully investigatedby scholars. There are certainly historical worksin Russia and Central Asia which might throw a floodof light onmany an obscure passage of Indian histoBut the necessary facilities for such study are sadlywanting at present, and the state of things is not likelyto improve, until Russian scholars come forward to taketheir roper share in the field of Oriental research .

In India itself a great deal yet remains to be done toprovide the necessary basis of the cthnolo ical sciences .

A be'

nning has been made by Messrs. fialton, Risleyand I betson . But the work must be prosecuted morevigorously before it can be expected to yield anyimportant results.

1 48 was murmu rs.

as an unclean caste, and will not take even a drink of

water fromtheir hands. The usual titles of the Khanduits of Orissa are as stated below

1 . ha, Tiger2 . ubalendra, Like the god Indra in3. Dakhin Kabat, South gate.

4. Daubarik, Sentinel at the gate.5. Garh Nayaka, Commander of the/art.6. Hati, Elephant.

3. J ena.

Mabereth orMaharathi, Great Charioteer.

18. Malia, Wrestler.

l l .

14. thefight.15. Bout.I6. Rui.

1 8.19. Senapati, General.20. Sinha,2 1 . Uttara Rabat, North gate.

CHAP. V .—THE MARATTA.

TimMarattas are the military caste of the Maharatta coun try . Their position in the Hindu castesystemwas originally not a very high one, and evennow it is not exactly the same as that of the Rajputs ofNorthern India. But the political importance acquired

since the time of Sivaj i, who was amember ofhas enabled them to form connec

tion by riage with many of the superior Rajputfamilies, and they may be now re arded as an inferiorclan of the Rajput caste . The lower classes of the

Marattas do not go throu h the ceremon of the lipsnayana, or investiture wit the thread. ut they takeit it at the time of theirmarriage, and are not held tobe altogether debarred fromits use. Their right tobe reckoned as Ksatriyas is recognised by the Brahmans in various other ways. Even the most orthodoxBrahmans do not hesitate to accept their gifts, or tominister to themas riests. The only ground on whichthey may be regar ed as an inferior caste is the factthat they eat fowls . But in no part of the countryare themilitary castes very puritanic in their diet.The Marattas have two main divisions among them.

The branch called the seven families has a superiorstatus. The great Sivaji, and the Rajas of Nagporeand Tanjore were members of this division . Theseven families are

l . 5. Gujlpr (not the same as

2 . t ose of Gujrat.)3. Birkhe. 6. Nimbalkoar.

7. Ghorcporc.

1 49

1 50 THEm amas.

There is another division among the Marattas calledthe ninety-six families .

” These have an inferiorstatus. The Maharajas of Gwalior and Baroda are of

this class. The inferiorMarattas are usually emplo ed

by the superior castes as domestic servants . TheMaratta tribe is not to be confounded with the tribecalled Mahars who serve as village watchmen and also

prac tise the art of weaving. The Mahars are an nu

clean tribe, while the Marattas are certainly a cleancaste . The name of the Maratta country seems to bederived fromthat of the Maratta tribe.

152 'ms su ns or MALABAR.

1 1 . Pariari or Velakatbara. Barbers for Brahmans

tacharnavar. Menial servants to Brahmans and$1 11 .

3: Kulata orVelur.15. Yahbari. Merchants.16. Udatu. Boatmen .

The peculiarities in the social constitution and in the

marriage laws of the Nairs have been described already.

See p. 107, ante. Their uni no customs and laws are

the outcome of the undue vantage taken upon themby their priests, theNnmburi Brahmans. The nominalmarriage which every Nair girl has to go through witha Brahman is a source of profit to the titular husband .

The freedomwhich is subsequently given to the girl tochoose hermale associate froman equal or a superiortribe is also advantageous to the Numburis . But the

Nairs are bein roused to the necessity of better laws,and they have oflate been demanding for Special legislation in order to et rid of their ancient customs, and

to have the bone t of such laws as are recognised bythe Hindu Shastras.

CHAP. VII.— THE MARAVANS, AHAMDIANS

AND KALLANSOF SOUTHERN INDIA.

In the extreme south of India the most importantmilitary caste is that of the Maravans. The Rajas ofRamnad, and Sivaganga are of this caste. The headof the Maravans is the Raja of Ramnad who assumesthe surname of Setupati or Master of the Bridge,

”

though it has been pdecided by the Privy Councilthat the shrine of Rameshwar belongs to its priest,and not to the Raja of Ramnad . The Raja of Rfmnadis, however, entitled to great honor from the otherRajas and noblemen of his caste.

“The RajaTondiman ,

ofPuthukottei, the Raja of Sivaganga, and the eighteenchiefs of the Tanjore country must stand before himwith the palms of their hands oined tog .ether Thechiefs of

pTinnevellyy, such as ataboma

gNayakkan ,

of Pan ;ala Kureichi, Serumali Nayakkan , ofyKndal

Kundei, and the TokalaTotiyans being all of inferiorcaste, should prostrate themselves at full length beforethe Setupati, and after rising must stand and not be

” ted” ‘pa

The Maravans are said to be ln the habit of eatingflesh and drinking wine. But they are regarded as a

clean caste , and the Brahmans evince no hesitation toaccept their gifts . The Maravans allow their hair togrow without limit, and both sexes wear such heavyornamen ts on their ears as tomake the lobe reach the

Nelson’s l lama! ofMadam, Part II, p. 41 .

153

154 THE MARAVANS.

shoulders. Unlike the other races of the locality theMaravans are tall

,well built and handsome.

The Ahamdians cannot be regarded as a separatecaste. They are rather an inferior branch of the

Maravans . Intermarriage is allowed between the twoclasses . The total population of the Maravans ismorethan three hundred thousand .

The Kallans have a very bad reputation . Their veryname implies that they are a criminal tribe. Theyhave some big men among them. Mr. Nelson, inspeaking of the Kallans, saysThe bovhood of every Kallan is sup to be passed in acquir

ing the rudiments of the only profession e cau be naturally adapted ,

namely, that of a thief and robbery . At fifteen he is usually en

titled to be considered as proficient, and fromthat time forth , he isallowed to grow his hairas longas he pleases, a privilegeyounger boys. At the same time, he is often rewarded for his experience as a thief by the hand of one of his female relations.

The Kallans worshipShiva, but practise the rite of circumcisionlike the Mahomedan .

”

CHAP. IX—AGUEISOF BENGAL.

THE Aguris of Bengal claimto be the UgraKsatriya caste spoken of in Mann’s Code X, 9. In Mr.

Oldham’

s recent work on the Ethnology of Burdwan,the right of the Aguri to be reckoned as identical withthe Ugra Ksatriyas has been questioned. But Mr.

Oldham’

s theory that the Agut is are the roduct of

illicit unions between the Kshettris and theghodgopas,has been shown to be utterly unfounded .

‘ It can with

See the following extract froma review of Mr. Oldham’s workwhich appeared in a recent issue of the Rois and Rawst.

The theory that the Aguris are the roduct of unions between theKshettris of the Burdwan Raj famfi and the Sadgopas of theGOpbhumdynasty, does not a pear to supported b an kind ofroof, historical or ethnological

)

. Mr. Oldham says t t h theorybased upon admissions made by the Agutis themselves. But

knowmg what we do of them, it seems to us impossible that anyof themwould have

“given such a humiliatingaccount of theirorigin .

At any rate , acco ing to the princi les of the law of evidencerecognised by almost every systemof urisprudence, an admissioncannot be necessarily conclusive. In the case under consideration ,

there are very stron reasons whv, in spite of Mr. Oldham’s

certifying it as proper y recorded , the ao-called admission shouldbe rejected altogether. The ground on which we base this viewis that there are among the Agurismany families whose history iswellknown to extend to a far earlierperiod than the time of even AbuBoy and Babu Boy , the founders of the Burdwan Raj . Then again ,

the ethnic and moral characteristics of the Aguris clearly marl:themout as a separate community , unlike any other caste to be

found in Bengal. They are b nature hot tempered. and incapableof bearing subordination, wh Is the Kshettris and Sadgopas, whomMr. Oldhamsupposes to be their pro nitors, are endowed by

qualities the very o posits of these. A shettriwould do anythingto secure the g graces of his master. But a single word of

comment or censure, though reasonable and proceeding from a

in authority , would cause the Aguris’blood to boil and urge

perate deeds. The supposed admixture of Sadgopa blood( 156 )

'rns s cams or BENGAL . 1 57

more reason he said that theAguris are connected withthe Aghari tribe found in ChutiaNagpore and Central

With regard to the origin and characterof the Ugra Ksatnyas, Mann g1ves the followingaccountProma Ksatriya by a Sudra girl is

U which has a nature partaking both of Ksatri and of Suan‘dn

finds its pleasure in savage conduct—Mann X5

3

.

dra,

The word Ugrameans hot tempered,’ and it is saidthat to this da the Agaria

’

character fully '

ustifies boththe name an the description given of the U ingras

Mann’

s Code. The Aguris are now to be found chieflyin the district of Burdwan in Bengal. Themajority of

the Bengali Agut is practise agriculture. But some ofthemare more or less educated, and hold immrtantoflices in the service of Government, as well as of thelocal landholders. Some of the Agut is are themselvesholders of estates and tenures of various grades. Thereare many successful advocates of the Aguri caste prac

in the District Court of Burdwan .

Burdwan A. uris appear to have a higher castestatus than those 0 other parts of the cm. In the

eastern districts of Bengal, Aguris are c

hunting and fishing castes. In Burdwan the localBrahmans, who are mostly of a low class, not onlyaccept their gifts, but even partake of such food in theirhouses as is cooked by Brahmans. As to taking a

with that of the Kshettri cannot account for these peculiarities inthemoral character of their alleged progeny, excep

t on the theorythat when both the father and

.

the mother are c amild nature ,the child , by some law of physiological chemistry , must be fierceand hot tampered . The strongest a ment against Mr. Oldham’

s

theory is afiorded by the fact that, uu11 e the otherleadingcastes , theKshettris recognise , to some extent. theirconnectionwith the bastard,members of their class. The illegitimate sons of the Brahmans,Ra puts and of even the superior Sudra castes , have no recognised

tion whatever. The only alternative of themotherand the childin such cases is to adopt the faith of one of the latter day prophets ,and to bemembers of the casteless Vaishnava community . AmongtheKshettris the raetics isvery different. Their illegitimate progenyhave a though a lower status. are called PuriwalsTheyand certai y not Aguns. SeemM ilan“, Feb. 16, 1896.

1 58 'ma mums or BENGAL.

drink of waterfromthe hands of theAgut is, the practiceis not uniform. Some Brahmans re ard themas clean

castes, but many do not. Althougi the Aguris claimto beKsatriyas, yet as they are the oifspring of a Sudrawoman ,

they have to performtheir religious rites in thesamemanner as the Sudras . In ractice also they performthe Adya Shradh, or the rst ceremon for the

benefit of the soul of a deceased person, on t e thirtfirst day after death, and not on the thirteenth day as 0

true Ksatriyas.

TheAguris are divided into twomain classes, namely,the Suta and the Jana. The Janas take the sacredthread at the time of theirmarria e. There can be no intermarriage between the Suta an the Jarm. TheSutusare sub-divided into several sub-classes, as, for instance,the Bardamaniya, the Kasipuri, ‘ the Chagramis, theBaragramis, &c. Intermarriage is well-nigh impossiblebetween these sub-castes, and theymay be regarded as

se arate castes.

e surname of the Kulins, or the noblest familiesamong the Aguris, is Chowdry. The surnames of the

other Suta A uris are Santra, Panja, Ta, Hati, Ghosh,Bose, Dutta,Hajra, Kower, Samanta. The surname of

the Jana Agut is is usually Jana. There are amongthemalso many families having the same surnames asthe Sutas. The late Babu Prata Chandra Ra who

made a great name by the trans ation and publicationof the great Sanskrit epic, Mahabharat

,was a Suta

Aguri. He was not only an enterprising publisher, buta man of rare tact and grace ofmanners. The actualwork of translating the Mahabharat was done by a

youn butgifted scholarnamedKishoriMo Ganguli,a Bra man of the Ridhiya class.

The Bardhamani derive their name from the town ofBurdwan, and the ipurias fromthe country of the Raja ofPanchkote. Ido not knowwhere Chagramand Baragram

1 60 THE scmN'rmo os s

'rxs.

spiritual disciples. When there is afeast in aBrahman ’

s

house, the Vaidya guests aremade to sit at their dinnerin a separate room,

but almost at the same time as theBrahman guests. The Kayasthas neither ex ect nor

claim such honor. On the contrary, the akshina

Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengal insist that, as they are theservants to the Brahmans, the cannot commence untiltheir masters, the Brahmans, ave finished . The Ra

'

uts do not usually eat in the house of any Bengdirahman, but when the

;do, they receive generally the

same attention as the aidyas. The only reason whythe cas te status of a Rajputmust be said to be superiorto that of the Vaidya is that while a Brahman may ,

without any hesitation, accept a gift froma Raj ut and

officiate as his priest, he cannot so honour a sidyawithout lowering his own status to some extent.The Vaidyas are, as a class, very intelligent, and in

respect of culture and refinement stand on almostthe same level as the Brahmans and the superiorKayasthas. Themajority of theVaidyas,wear the sacredthread, and performpujas and prayers in the samemanner as the Brahmans. Fromthese circumstances itmight be contended that they are degraded Brahmans,but their non-Brahmanic surnames negative that supposition . In all probability, they are AmbasthaKayasthas of South Behar. This view is supported by thefact that they themselves profess to be Ambasthas, andalso by the circumstance that, like the Kayasthas of

U per India, the Vaidyas of East Bengal consider thetaking of the thread as more or less optional, instead ofregarding it as obligatory . The Vaidyas of the easterndistricts do not take it even now, and as to those of

Dacca and the adjoining districts it is said that they aretaking it only since the time of the famous Raj Ballava,who was one of the most powerfu l ministers in the

Court of Suraj-Dowla, and whose ambition materipaved the way of the East India Company to

sovereignty of Bengal.

run vamvas or ass ess . 1 61

The numerical stron of the Vaid a caste is not

very considerable. In t e last Census t eir total number is given as amounting to The comutation

of their number seems to be correct enough ; but thehave beenmost improperly placed in the samegroup withthe astrolo ers, exorcisors and herbalists, imlying an

insult whi is quite unmerited, and against w ich everyone, knowing anything about the importance and use

fulness of the class,must feel inclined to protest. If theVaidyas themselves have not expressed any dissatisfaction at the wanton attempt to humiliate them,made bythe authors of the Census Reports, it is perhaps theconsciousness that the Hindu caste system, which givesthema position next only to that of the Brahmans, isnot likely, for a long time, to be afl

'

ected by theflat ofa fore ign power, however great itmay be.

The three main divisions among the Vaidyas are

the following1 . Bax-hiVaid 2 . Ba a orBarenda Vaid

amsmeavndygfi

j y"

There is a class of Vaidyas in West Bengal calledPanchakoti Vaidyas, who derive their name from thedistrict of Panch Kote or Pachete now called Puruliaor Manbhoom. But intermarriages take place sometimes between themand the BarbiVaid as, and theyma be regarded as a sub-class of the arhis. TheSyllieti Vaidyas form a distinct class, not only bytheir omission to take the sacred thread, but alsoby intermarriage with Kayasths and even low classSudras.

The following are the usual surnames of the Vaid

9 pta.

Gupta.S“

l .2 .

3.4.

2: These titles are common among theKl yas

8. s

as

a, no

1 62 ms scrmmo cu rse.

18‘

gr' dn ‘

Hindu'

titlss of honour common among the1 1: Sirliar. rich of every caste.

1 2 . Khan.

13. Mallik.

Like the learned Brahmans, some of the eminentVaidyas use as their surnames such academics ] titles asKabi Ratna, Kabi Bhusana, Kantha Bharana, &c. TheVaidyas are the only non-Brahmanic caste who are

admitted into the Sanskrit Grammar schools of Bengalfor studyin grammar and belles lettres. Not beinBrahmans, e are not allowed to study the Vedas anthe Smritis. ut in respect of general scholarship inSanskrit, some of the Vaidyas attain great eminence.

The name of Bharat Mallik, ’ who was a Vaid a of

DhatrigramnearKalna, is well-known to eve Sanskritistiu Bengal as a commentator on the Mugd ha

Vyalcarana andas the authorofa series of excellent annotations, read by Brahmans themselves as a part of theircurriculum, in order to be able to study and enjoy theleadiu Sanskrit poems. The late Kaviraj Gangadharof Ber mpore was rhaps one of the greatest Sanskritists of his time. ewas the authorofa lar e numberof valuable works on difi

'

erent sub'

ects, an even thegreatest Pandits of the country 11 to consider himas

a foeman worthy of their steel.For professional eminence and skill the Vaidya

names now best known are the following1 . Paresh Nath Roy Benares).2 . Govinda Chandra n (Moorshedabad).8. ManiMohan Sen Calcutta4. Dwarka.Nath Senéglalcutta5. Bijoy RatnaSen ( cattal.

Of these Paresh Nath, Govind Chandra and DwarkaNath are the pupils of the late Kaviraj Gangadhar.

Paresh Nath is perhaps the ablest and themost learnedamong them, though his devotion to study and certain

Bharat Mallik has left no descendants. His brother’s descend

ants are nowliving at Patilpara near Kalua.

1 64 mu scimmc cAsrus.

plantsmentioned in their books. In practice, theKaviraj i student very seldomstudies the works of the bestauthorities on the subject. He reads a Manual of

Therapeuticsby some latter-day compiler, and then beginshis practice. It is this systemthat has brought discredit on the Kaviraji science. There are 3 lendid workson anatomy and surgerg‘

in Sanskrit. ut these are

neglected altogether. he Kaviraje’

s therapeutics no

doubt supersedes the necessit of surgery even in such

cases as topsy, stone and car uncle. But the practiceof therapeutics itself is impossible without 11 suppl of

such drugs as very few Kavirajes can procure, or air

tients can pay for. The majority of those who are{gown as Kan rajes are therefore quite incapable of

vindicatin the value of their lore, and the votaries ofthe Englis medical science have succeeded in secur

ing the public confidence to a much greater extent.But the restKavirajes, who have the necessary learningand stoci of drugs, are known to have achieved suc

cess in cases which the best English physicians hadpronounced to be quite hopeless . The very quacksamong theKavirajes often display ve remarkable skill

,

in making diagnosis and prognosisfby simply feeling

the pulse, and without the he p of any scientific appli

ance, such as the watch, the thermometer, and thestethesco

The sidya seldom fails to achieve success in

any line that he adOpts. The name of Raja Raj Ballava, who from a very humble station became the

virtual Governor of Dacca underSuraj Dowla, has beenalready referred to. Under British rule no native ofthe count can have an

gsco e forthe display of similar

ability .

l

fli

nt, even un er 0 present regime, manyVaidyas have distinguished themselves outside theirown proper sphere. The late Babu RamKama] Sen,who was the friend and collaborateur of ProfessorH . H. Wilson, held with great credit the t of theDam or Treasurer of the Bank of Ben His son ,

‘

THE VAIDYAS Ol‘BENGAL.

HariMohan Sen,not only held that post afterhis father’sdeath, but subsequently became the Prime Minister of

the Jaipnr Raj . Babu Hari Mohan’a son is the wellknown publicist and patriot, NorendraNath Sen, thepro rietor and editor of the Indian

e most gifted and the best known amon the

descendants of RamKamal Sen was the late abu

Keshuv ChandraSen . Whatever difi'

erence of o inionthere many be as to his claaims to be regard as a

religions reformer or as to his capacity as a thinker,there cannot be the least doubt that Ind1ahas not givenbirth to amore gifted orator. Wherever he spoke, andwhether in English or in Bengali, he simply charmedthe audience, and kept themspell-bound as it were. In

the beginning of his career, he rendered a great serviceto the cause of Hinduismby counteracting the influenceof the late Dr. Duff, and

“

the army ofnativemissionariestrained up b him. Babu Keshuv Chandra was thenthe idol of e people, as he was the bé temire of the

Christian propagandists. He was, however, too practicala man not to value the friendship of the ruling caste,

and when Lord Lawrence, who was aman of rayer,became the Viceroy of India, he developed red

'

ectxons

for Christianit which found expression in is s lendid

oration on jams Christ, Europe and Asia.

” By thismove, he softened the bitterness of the missionaries,and at the same time secured the friendship of the

Saviour of the Punjab . Thenceforward his leaningtowards Christianity increased, until it was actuallyapprehended that he was in fact a follower of Christ.Lord Lawrence left India in 1 868, and in the next yearKeshav Chandra visited England. He there professedsuch doctrines that he was allowed to reach fromthepulpits ofmany Dissenting churches. he influence ofLordLawrence, and his splendid oratorical powers, introduced himinto the highest society. HerGrac iousMajestyherself granted himthe honourof an interview. Beforehis departure a farewell meeting was convened at the

1 66 mu sommmo osaras.

HanoverSquare Rooms, at which no less than elevendenominations of Christians were represented . Whilein England he spoke at n wards of seventy differentpublic meetings to upw of forty thousand people,and created the impression that his religion was only aformof Christianity. This attitude hemaintained withconsistenc till 1 879, the yearofLord Lawrence

’

s death.

On the Qt of April in that year he spoke about Christas follows in the course of an oration delivered at the

Town Hall

At this time the political situation of Keshav wasapparently very embarrassing. On the one hand, so longas Lord Lawrence was living, he could not, withoutgross inconsistency and forfeiture of the esteemof the

ex-Viceroy, betra any leaning towards the religion of

his forefathers. the other hand, he had in the previons year married his daughter to the Maharaja of

Kooch Behar, and, as by doing so and countenancing thecelebration of the wedding in the Hindu form,

he had

exposed himself to the charge of inconsistency and ambitiousness for secular aggrandisement, he could not but

feel inclined to profess a liking for those forms. Fromthe point of view of one who did not believe in caste,and desired nothin more than to destroy it altogether,themarriage coul be held to be objectionable on the

only ground that the parties had not arrived at themarriageable age, according to the standard fixed byKeshav himself. But if the parties themselves desiredthe marriage, as they certain] did, Keshuv could not,consistently with his rinci es, throw any obstacle intheir way . Nor coul he o

lhject to the form of the

marriage which was also amatter entirely between the

1 68 'ms scmrmrrc exams.

in 1 879, and the very next yearKoshev gave the following certificate of good character to the HindureligionHindu idolatry is not to be altogetheroverlooked orrejected. As

weexplained some timeago, it re resentsmillions of broken fmamsntsof God, collect themtogetheran youget the individual D ivinity . Tobelieve in an undivided deity without reference to those aspects

of his nature is to believe in an abstract God , and it would lead us

to practical rationalismand infidelity. If we are to worshipHimin allHismanifestation we shall name one attribute—Sarswatee, ahother Lakshmi, another Mahadeva, another Jagadhatri, ac" andworshipGod each day under a new name, that I! to say , in a newaspect.

—Simaay Mirror, 1880.

This is clearly inculcating idolatry to its fullest extent,though the author of it is careful enou h not to enjoinexpressl the worshipof Siva

’

s Linga,Kgali

’

s Obscenities,or Krishna’s battahons of sweethearts . The passagecited above appeared in a newspaper, andwas apparentlymeant only to prepare men ’

s mind for the con dc’

tat

that followed in 1881 under the name of New n

sation . Ever since the Kooch Behar marriage, w ich

certainly required something like a Papal Dis ensation

under which an unlawful marriage might take placeamong the Roman Catholics, the word dispensationhad evidently taken a firmhold on Keshav’smind. Atleast, that is the only explanation which can be an gestedof the name which he gave to his new on t. Its

manifesto was in formaddressed to all the great nations ofthe world, the chief burden of the document being an

exhortation that the should learn to practise toleration .

Taking into considyeration, however, the events that

immediately preceded it in the life of the author, therecannot be any doubt that it wasmeant only to cover hisretreat to the fold ofHinduism, or rather to a positionwhere he could organise a new arty, withoutmuch iaconsistono and without losingthe wrecks of his formerparty. y review of Keshav ’s life has already beencern ed to afargreater length than whatmay be deemed

groperin this book. I cannot carry the notice further.

ut what I have said will, I hope, sufi ce to forma just

GENERAL cmaacrna or run vu nu s. 1 69

estimate of his character and powers. His capacity or

solicitude.

to achieve any real good formankindmay bedoubted but there can be no uestion as to his war

to dazzle themin a manner w ich is rare indeed)

,

o

and

the Vaidya community to which he belonged mightcertainly be proud of him.

Although the profession of the Vaidayas enables themto acquire bothmoney and power in a fair and nobleway, yet the Brahmanical ambition of playing the role

of a prophet is rather too common among them,and

Keshav Chandra’s case is not the only instance of

craving. Babu Pratap Chandra Majumdar, who washis colleague in his lifetime, andwho is, or at least oughtto be, regarded as his spiritual successor, is also a

Vaidya, and possesses very nearly the same '

fts as his

late chief. NarhariThakoor, who was one of t 0 leadingdisciples of Chaitanya, and whose descendants are, as

aresult of that connection,now able to live like princes

at Srikhand near Katwa, was also aVaidya. So is alsothe living pro het Kumar Krishna Prasanna Sen,who, by his vocacy of Hinduismand his charmingeloquence, hasmade himself almost an object of regularworship among certain classes of Hindus throughoutthe greater part of the Hindi-speaking districts betweenBhagulpur and Allahabad. His want of sufi cient command over the English language has prevented himfromattracting much of the notice of the Eu lishmenresiding in this country ; but the influencewhio he has

acquired among the half-educated classes in Behar andUpper India is very great. The hi her classes, andespecially the Brahmans, are somew

‘inat prepossessed

against himon account ofhis caste, and the usual shallowphilosophy of a stumper. The parade which hemakesof the fact of his being unmarried, by the use of the

designation of Kumar serves tomake himsometimesan object of ridicule.

Though the Vaidya population of the country is, asalready stated, very small compared with the other

1 70 'ma scraN'rmc oas

'

rss.

leading castes, yet persons belonging to the medicalclan are to be found in high positions in almosdepartments that can attract the intellectual classes.

Amon hi h ofi cials, the names of Messrs. B. L. Guptaand g (f Gupta of the Bengal Civil Service standconspicuous. In the legal profession, the late BabusMahesh Chandra Chowdry and Kali Mohan Das, whowere among the ablest advocates of the Bengal HighCourt in their time, were Vaidyas by caste . So wasalso the late Babu Mritunjoy Boy, who was the leadingleader of the District Court of Nadi

fia. Among theiiving Vaid vakils of the Bengal igh Court, the

names best nown are those of Door a Mohan Das,Girija Saukar Majumdar and Akhi Chandra Sen.

Babu GirijaSankar is a zemindar also. Babu Akhil isaVaidya of Chittagong. AmongDistrict Courttioners themost conspicuous Vaidyas are GuruErosadSen, Ambika Chandra Majumdar and Baikant NathBarat. Babu Guru Prosad practises in the DistrictCourt of Patna, Babu Ambika Chandra at Faridpore,and Babu Baikant Nath at Moorshedabad. The latternot only enjoys great professional eminence, but is thefriend

,philosopher and guide of the local zemindars.

In connection with the Press of Bengal, the name ofBabu NarendraNath Sen, Editor of the daily called theIndian Mirror, has been mentioned already. Theweekly paper called Hope is also edited by a Vainamed Amrita Lal Boy, who passedmany years oflife in Europe andAmerica, and served his ap rentice

ship in the art of journalismin connection withone of

the leading newspapers of New York .

The Vaidyas are very clannish, and, wherevera Vaidya manages to get into a high omoe, he is sure to introduce as man of his castemen as he can into thedepartment. Ba u RamKamal Sen, who, asmentionedalready

, was the Dewan of the Bank of Bengal, introduced at one time a very large numberof his clansmenthere. The East Indian Railway office at Jamalpore is

CHAP. II.—THE BEZ OF ASSAM .

Tm: word Bez seems to be an Assamese corruption ofthe Sanskrit word “Vaidya.

”At an rate, theBez caste

of Assamhave the same position an the same functionsas the Vaidyas have in Bengal. Like the Vaidyas, theBez are an aristocratic and cultured class. Some of theBez practise Hindu medicine in their native country,while agreat many of themare now receivingEnglisheducation, and adoptingone orotherof the difl’erentprofessions which are open to the higher classes of Hindusunder the presen The late Mr. Andi RamBarua, of the Service, was a Bez. So isalso Dr. Golap Bez Barns, who holds at presentthe charge of a public hospital in British Guiana inSouth America.

The Bez wear the sacred thread.

( 1 72 )

CHAP III.— THE ASTROLOGER CASTES OF

BENGAL AND ASSAM .

In Bengal, the astrologers form a separate castewhich has a ve low position . In AssamandOrissa theGanakas and akshatra Brahmans, as they are called,are regarded as an inferior section of the sacerdotalcaste, and not as an unclean non-Brahmanic caste as inBen a]. In otherparts of India astrology is practisedby the Joshis who are regarded as good Brahmans. Theastrologer castes ofBengal are variously calledAcharyaBrahmans, Graha Bipras, Daivagnas, Grahacharyas,and Gunaksa. In all probability they were Brahmsnsat one time, but have been degraded to a very low position by the policy of the superior Brahmans. According to a text cited as authoritative by the Pandits of

Ben al, the astrologers are shoemakers by caste , and

goof Brahmans sometimes refuse to take even a drinkof water fromtheir hands. But, with an inconsistencywhich is quite unaccountable, themost orthodox Brah

t the least hesitation, and

of Nadi a enlisted theamong his disciplbs—the connec

being still in existence between their

The numerical strength of the Acharyas is ve

small. In the last Census, they were, it seems, indu?cd among the Jotishis or JoshiB, and the total number

( 1 73 )

THE ASTROLOGER CASTES.

of the Joshis in each province is given as followsN.

-W . Provinces 85,26618mo5.

3.4. 12 ,204

the Acha a caste of Bengal have yetistinguish emselves, either by Western

learningor by service under the British Government ofIndia.

Gaucks of Assam—The Ganaks of Assamhave a

somewhat higher osition in their rovince than theAcharyas havem en .gal The usua surnames of theGanskeare Dalai and Bars Dalai and their total number2 8,739. Compared with the total population of the

province, their numerical strength 19 not very inconsiderable.

1 76 ms. warms cums.

theymust be regarded as havin their origin in the

arms of the great god Brahma. be real derivation of

the word is, perhaps, to be traced to the idea that theBrahmans must be re arded as the head ornamentsof the king, and the fiayasthas as ornaments for thearms . However that may be, the Kayasths have, froma ver remote period of antiquity, been recognized as

the olhas whosepro or avocation ‘ is to serve as clerks

and accountants. he Brahmans excluded themfromthe study of the Sanskrit language and literature. But

they learned the three R ’

s with great care, and, duringthe period of Moslemrule, mastered the Persian lan

gua c with such assiduity as to make it almost theirmot er-tongue. At the present time, the honours anddistinctions conferred by the Indian Universities are

as eagerly and as successfully sought by themas bythe Brahmans and theVaid as . As authors, journeand public speakers they 0 not now lag behind anyother caste, and, in fact, in some of the departmentsof En lish scholarship they almost surpass the Brahmans aemselves. In the field of journalism, Indiahas not at had better men than the two MukerjisHarish Chandra and Sambhu Chandra. But amongpublic speakers the first to distin ish himself by hisorations in En lish was the late ayastha Babu RamGopal Ghose, wiile amongst the living batch of orators,the field is equally divided between Ki asthas and

Brahmans. The case is the same in the e al rofes

sion . Of the two best native Advocates of t eBengalHigh Court one is a Brahman, and the other is a

Kayastha while of the eight Hindu Judges appointedto the Bench of the High Court of Bengal, since its

creation, exactly half the number have been Kayasthas .

During the time of the Hindu kings, the Brahmansrefrained fromentering the public service, and the

See Yaj naeuwayu, I, 335. Fromthemanner in which the wordKimtha is used in the ancient Sanskrit works , it seems that originally itmeant a secretary. clerk orscribe.

m mu sm s. 1 77

s, as, for instance,of the revenue deshedabad

, and Rai

Rajas ShitabRoy andRamNarayan , who were Governors of Behar, in the period of double government orinterregnum which intervened between the battle of

haps those of all the

Ki yasthas are said toricuce of the

ualified themawci country. They generallrove equal to any position in which they are placeci.y have been successful not only as clerks, but in the

very highest executive and judicial ofi ces that haveat been thrown Open to the natives of this country.

The names of the Kayastha Judges, Dwarka NathMitra, Ramesh ChandraMitra and Chandra MadhavaGhosh, are well known and respected by all. In

the Executive service the Kayasthas have attainedthe same kind of success. One of them,

Mr. R . C.

Dutt, is now the Commissioner or chief ExecutiveOfi cer of one of themost important divisions ofBengal .Another named Kalika Das Datta has been for severalears employed as Prime Minister of the Kooch BeharRaj , giving signal proofs of his ability as an administrator by the success with which he has beenmanagingthe affairs of the principality in his charge.

Babu Gopal Is l Mitt-a, [the able Vice-Chairman of the Calcutta

l unicipal Corporation, is, on his mother’s side, descended fromKaiDurlav.

11, ac

CHAP. II.—THE KAYASTHASOF BENGAL.

THEKayasthas of Bengal are divided into the following classes z

Dakshina Rarhi. 4. Birendra.2 . U ttara Rarhi. 5. Sylheti.3. Bangaja. 6. Golamor slaveKlmthas.

For all practical purposes these are se

garate castes,

and intermarriage between themis, genera ly speaking,quite impossible.

L— l Dd’

kshina Barkis of Bengal.

The Dakshina Barbis, or the Kayasthas of thesouthern part of Burdwan, afi

'

ect the reatest venerationfor the Brahmans, and profess to believe in the legendthat traces their descent fromthe fivemenial servantsthat are said to have accomanied the five Brahmansinvited by King Adisur.

‘ he Dekshina Rarhis are

divided into threemain groups, namely1 . Kulin. I 2 . Maulit .

3. The seventy-two houses.

The Kulins have the hi hest status, and they againare subdivided into severa hypergamous sections thathave different positions formatrimonial purposes. The

See page 37, am.

1 78

1 80 'ma xan srnas or BENGAL

worshipmost enerall

lyare Dur aandKali. But their

orthodoxmom rs fo ow the iscipline imposed uponthemby their Brahman Gurus, and they neither drinkany kind of spirituous liquor, nor eat an kind of fleshexcepting that of goats offered in sacri cc to some godor goddess. Of all the classes of Kayasthas in Bengal,the Dekshina Barbis have, under British rule, madethe greatest progress in education, and in securingofficial positions.

2 .— The Uttara Rarlu

'

Kdyasthas.

The caste position of the Uttara Barbis, or the

Kayasthas of the northern portion of the BurdwanDivision, is the same as that of the DakshinaRarhis .

But the northemers do not profess the same venerationfor the Brahmans as the southerners. The formerOpenlydeny the authentici

iyof the legend which traces the

descent of the Ben i Kayasthas fromthe five menialservants of the five%3rahmans brought by KingAdisurfromKanouj in the ninth centur of the era of Christ.An Uttara Rarbi very seldomfa ls rostrate at the feetof a Brahman, and usually salutes the priestly caste bya curt pranam, which does not implymuch reverence .

The UttaraBarbis aremost numerous in the districtcalled Birbhoom,

and in the ad'

oining portions of theMoorshedabad District. Some emilies of the same clanare to be found also in the towns of Patna, Bhagal ar,Dinajpur and Jessore. Many of the leading zemin ars

of Bengal, as, for instance, the Rajas of Dinajpur,Paikpara and Jessore are Uttara Rarhis. There wasformerly an Uttara Rarbi family of zemindars in the

district of Malda who, for several enerations,were in

possession of the barony of Bhatia opalpore, includinga portion of the city of Gour. Nomemberof the community has risen very high in the service of Governmentin recent times. But under the Mahomedan rulers ofBengal, the Uttara Barbis held some of the highestoffices. The charge of the revenue department was

ma nrmna BABHIS. 1 81

then almost entirely in the hands of the BangadhicaryMahaseya family of Dahpara nearMoorshedabad and so

great was their influence that when Hastings removedthe Khalsa or Exchequer to Calcutta, he was obligedto place it in the hands of one of their clansmen, whowas also one of theirquondamclerks. Thisman

,whose

name was Ganga Govind Sing, became, by virtue of his

oflice, the arbiter of the destinies of the Bengal zemindars, and by takin advantage of his opportunitiesmade himself one oft e richest landlords in the country .

Hismasterwas perhaps too shrewd to no ociate directlywith the zemindars, likeSirThomas Rumold of Madras.

He required an intermediary,and as Ganga Govinda

was his chief fiscal ofi cer, he was deemed the bestmanfor the office. Perhaps he acquired a great hold overHastings b helping himin the prosecution and con

viction of and Kumar. Whatever was the cause of

the undue favourshown to himby hismaster, his powerwas great. Thou h serving under the immediate supervision of one of t e greatest satraps that England hasever sent out to India, his confidence in the strength of

his own position was such that be compelled the

zemindars, whose revenue he had to assess,to give him

not onlymoney which could be easily concealed, but

also substantial slices of their estates which conclusivelyproved his corrupt practices. The Raja of Dinajpur

,

who was his casteman, was, out of jealousy, absolutelyruined by him. The proud Brahman Raja KrishnaChandra of Nadiya was reduced by him to such

to be obliged to beg for his favour in themosthumiliatin terms and at a later time Raja KrishnaChandra’sieir, Raja Sib Chandra, was compelled to bepresent at the funeral ceremon of Gangs Govind’amother. When Hastings was hauled up before the

The ori’

nal of this letter or rather memorandumis given inDewan Karti Chandra Roy

’s history of the Nadiya. BaJas. The

following is a translation of itMd

son is disobedient, the Exchequer Court is impracticable,I depen upon Ganga Govind.

"

1 82 m KAYASTHAS or BENGAL.

British Parliament to answer the charges ofmaladministration and corruption that were brought againsthim, Ganga Govinda, as his ri ht-handman , naturallycame in for a lar 0 share of t e vitu erative phrasesthat the genius of urke could invent. The great oratorcharacterized himas the ca tain-

general of iniquity”

and the broker-in-chief of bribery.

” Nothing, however, was ever done to compel himto disgorge theproperties he had acquired, and they are still in the

possession of his descendants by adoption, now calledthe Paikpara Rajas.

‘

Since Ganga Govinda’

s time no Uttara Barbi has attained a high position in the service of Government.The highest officials in their class are at resent not

above the rank of Subordinate Magistrates. n the legalprofession also the UttaraRarhis are asmeagrel reprosented as in the various departments of the pa lic service. The only members of the clan who have anyconsiderable amount of legal practice are Babu SurjaNarain Sing, of the District court of Bhagalpur, BabuPurnendu Narain, of the District court of Patna, and

Mr. S. P. Sinha, who is a barrister-at-law,and practises

in the High Court of Calcutta.

Among the Uttara Rarhis Kulinism, or high castestatus, is the result of having been or1g1n y residentsof some particular villages in the Kandi Sub-divisionof the Moorshedabad District. The names of these villages are Basorah, Panchthupi, Jajan, &c. An UttaraBarbi Ghosh orSinha is not necessarily aKulin . It is

only a Ghosh of Rasorah or Panchthupi that can claima high position in the caste.

The original home of Gangs Govinda was the town of Kandi,now the head -

quarters of a sub-division in the district of.

Moorshe

dabad. When he became the D ewan of Hastings , he built, for hisresidence, a palatialmansion in Calcutta, on the site now opoup1ed bthe warehouses on the southern side of Beadon uare. His descen

ants used formerlmbe called the Rajas of Kan i. But as they nowusually reside at drl1am, in the suburbs of Calcutta, they are alsocalled Rajas of Paikpara.

"1 84 m mamas orm en .

as Mr. Justice ChandraMadhava Ghosh, who is now

one of the Judges of the Bengal High Court, and Mr.

M. Ghosh, who is now one of its leadingAdvocates.

The usual surnames of the Ban ajaKayasthas of thedifferent grades are asmentionedielow

Surnames of the highest class ofBangajaKayasthas.

Surnames of the second class of

The BirendraKayasthas do not differ fromthe otherclasses of Bengali Kayasthas either in culture or in

respect of caste status. The usual surnames of theseveral grades of Barendras are as stated below

L Chaki.2 . Das.3. Kandi.1 . Datta.

Second class

was com mn srms ormere smear. 1 85

5.—The GolamKdyasthas of East Bengal.

There are many Kayasthas in East Bengal who are

called Golams or slaves. Some of themare still attached as domestic servants to the families of the localBrahmsns, Vaidyas, and aristocratic Kayasthas. Eventhose who have been completely emancipated, and arein the position of well-to-do and independent citizens,are obliged by local custom to render on ceremonialoccasions certainmenial services for the glorification of

their ancient patrons andmasters. Some of the Golamshave in recent times become rich landholders, and it issaid that one of themhas got the title of Rai BahadoorfromGov ernment. Themarriage of aGolamgenerallytakes place in his own class but instances of Golamemarrying into aristocratic Kayastha families are at

present not ver rare. The Golams are treated by allthe high caste indus as a clean caste. The Brahmanswho min ister to the ordinary Kayasthas as priests,evince no hesitation to erformsimilar rites for theGoluma. The Golams o the Vaidyas serve also theBrahmans and the Kiyasthas ; but the Golams of theBrahmans and the Kayasthas do not serve the Vaidyas.

CHAP. III.—THELALAKAYASTHASorNORTH

WESTERN PROVINCES, BEHAR AND OUDH.

THELalaKayasthas have the same position in Behar,N -W . Provinces and Oudh that the several classes ofKayasthas, spoken of in the last chapter, have in Bengal.The Lalas are, however, verymuch addicted to drinkmgand gambling, and in these respects they difler verymaterially fromthe BengaliKayasthaswho, asmoderateSaktas or bigoted Vishnuvites, are mostly teetotalers.The Kayasthas of Hindustan proper are divided intothe following classes

8mWMm1&mmaAmh M &

SakyaSeni.KNa fi u MLBhatnagari.

13. Unai.

Members of these different clans may eat togetherand smoke fromthe same pi e. But intermarriagebetween themis impossible, an theymust be regardedas separate castes havin only a similar 8

usual surnames of the Kayasthas are Das, Lal,Rai, Sabaya and Sing.

1 .- T}1e Srivasta Kayasthas .

The Srivastis derive their name fromthe ancientcity of St ivaste, which was the capital of the kingdomof Uttara Koshala, and which has been identified

( 1 86 )

1 88 'ma KAYASTHAS ormamas men .

The ancestors of these families held veryin the service of the Mogal Emperors, and also underthe East India Company, in the early days of its

political supremacy. The Sedisapore family renderedvery important services to the British Government atthe time of the Sepoy Mutiny. The four familiesmentioned above still possess considerable local influence, and among their castemen their su

premacy is

undisputed. The Srivasta zemindars of Se ebganj in

the District of Chapra have also considerable influenceamong their castemen. The late Hon ’

ble Har BansSahoy of Arrah was a St ivasti. So also is JaiProkash Lal, the present factotum of the a of

Domraon.

§2 .— Tlle Ambastha Keir/asthas.

Mann gives the name Ambasth to the progeny of a

Brahman fatherandVaish amother, and la 8 down thattheir properprofession is t 0 practice ofmedicine.

‘ But

there is a class of Kayasthas in Behar, and in the

eastern districts of the N -W . Provinces, who alone usethat name to designate their caste. Its derivation is

not definitely known . It is quite possible that it isderived fromthe name of a Perganah in Oudh calledAmeth. The Ambastha Kayasthas are very numerousand influential in South Behar including the districts ofMonghyr, Patna and Gaya. Raja RamNarayan,

who

was Governor of Behar, in the early days of Britishascendancy, was an Ambasthi. He has no linealdescendants

,but his family is represented by some

collaterals, of whomBabu Isri Prasad of Patna is one .

23.— The Karen Kayasthas.

The Karan clan of North Indian Kayasthas are to

be found chiefly in Tirhoot or North Behar where theyare usually employed asPatwaris or village accountants .

m su n em Kan sraas. 1 89

Their position is inferior to that of the SrivastasandAmbas tas. The Uttara Rarhi Kayasthas of Bengalclaimto be Karans. The Karans of Orissa have no

connection with those of North Behar.

4. The Sakya SeniKayasthas .

The Sakya Seni Ks asthas are very numerous in theDistrict of Etawa in t e Doab, and are to be found inevery part of the Gangetic valley fromHardwar toPatna. Many of the wealthiest landholders of Etawa,Eta and Fatehpore are Sakya Senis. Like the Srivastas they are divided into three classes, namel Ail

,

Dusri and Khore. These do not intermarry,an must

be regarded as separate castes. The Sakya Senis havea lower social position than the Srivastas.

RajaShitab Boy, who was Governor of Behar in thewhat is called the double Government

,

”was a

Sakya Seni . The following account regardinghimisto be found in Macaulay’s review of the admin1strationof Warren HastingsA chief named Shitab Boy had been intrusted with the government of Behar. His valourand his attachment to the English hadmore than once been si ly proved . On that memorable day on

which the people of tea.

saw fromtheirwalls the whole army ofthe Mogul scattered by the httle band of Captain Knox, the voice

of the British conquerors assigned the pdmof gallan to thebrave Asiatic. Inever,

”said Knox, when he introdu Shitab

Roy , covered with blood and dust, to the English functionariesassembled in the factory, Inever saw a native light so before.

”

Sh itab B oy was involved in the rain of Mahomed Rosa Khan, wasremoved fromoffice, and was placed underarrest.

The revolution comleted , the double Government dissolved, theCompany installed in 0 full sovereignty of Bengal, Hastings hadno motive to treat the late ministers withm

gr. Their tnal had

h en put off on various pleas till the new organ tion was complete.Theywere then brou ht before a committee overwhich theGovernor

ded . Shitab was speedily acquitwd with honour. Aorn ala l was e tc himforthe reetraint to which hehad beensubjected? the easternmarks of respect were bestowed on him.

He was clothed in a robe of state, presented with jewels and with arichly harnessed ele hant, and sent back to his Government at

Patna. B ut his h th had suffered fromconfinement ; his s iritcruellywounded 3 and soon a

fterhis liberation he di of

abrohcn heart.’

190 ms mn sms or NORTHERNmm.

The late Raja Bhoo Sen Sini

of Patna was thedaughter

’

s son of Shitabgtoy ’s son, alyan Sing. BhoopSen left two sons named Mahipat and R00p Narain.

The line of MaharajaMahipat is now re resented by hiswidowed daughter-in- law,

Maharani TikamKumari .Kumar Roop Narain is still livin

g,but is a lunatic.

The family have their residence in e quarter ofPatnacalled the Dewan Mahallah.

5.—The Kala Sreshtz

'

Kayasthas.TheKula Sreshti Kayasthas are found chiefly in the

districts ofAgra and Eta.

6.—The Bhatnagari.

The Bhatnagar Kayasthas derive their name fromthe town of Bhatnagar or Bhatner in the HanumangarDistrict on the north of Bikaneer.

“They are foundin great numbers in almost all the districts inhabitedby the Gaur Brahmans, fromSambhal and Moradabad to Agroha and Ajmere. They are also scatteredover some of the Eastern provinces. The Bhatnagarisare not considered very pure Hindus, and are moreaddicted to drinking than other Kayasthas . But theiroflicial position in some places has enabled themto

acquire considerable influence. They are theKanangosof Gwalior and Mahaban in Mathura. The GaurBhatnagars are Kanangos of Mariyahu in Jounpore,of Chapra and Monghyr.

’

7. The Mathun'

Kdyastkas.

The MathuriKayasthas are, as their name indicates,inhabitants of the country round the ancient city ofMathura.

The SuryadhajaKdyasthas.

The Suryadhaja K5. asthas are to be found in theDistricts of Balia and azipur. In the Bijnour Districtthe Suryadhajas claimto be Brahmans.

Elliot’s Supplemental Glossary, p. 88.

CHAP. IV.—THEWRITER CASTESOF

SOUTHERN INDIA.

IN the Andhra countr including the north-easterndistricts of the Madras residency, the work of writersand accountants is done chiefly by the Niyogi Brahmans. The Karnams of the rovince, whose castestatus is similar to that of the

'

yasthas of NorthernIndia, are also employed in similar capacities. TheKamams are, however, a small community, and as veryfew of themhave attained high positions in Government service or in the liberal professions, they cannotbe said to be ual to the Kayasthas of Bengal, eithersocially or intel ectually. TheKaruams take the sacredthread, but are re rded by all as Sudras.

In Mysore an in the British districts towards itssouth and east

,the classes that are usually held to be

entitled to the desi nation of writer castes, are the

Kanakkans and theghanbhogs. Intellectually and so

cially these are more like the Karnams , than like theKayasths of Northern India.

In the Dravira country, the Vellalars and some of theVadugas claimto be Kayasthas, and though they are

finemlly described as agricultural castes, they seemtove, inmany respects, the same position as the writer

castes of Northern India. The Vellalars are dividedinto two classes, the usual surname of one of which isMudaliar, and that of the other Pillai. The Mudaliars

have a higher position than the other Vellalars. TheMudaliars are found chiefly nearArcot andSalem. The

1 92

ran vsLLAhAas. 1 93

Vellslars, whose surname is Pillai, are found chieflyin the extreme south. Neither the Mudaliars nor the

Pillais take the sacred thread but they are regardedas very clean Sudras , and the Brahmans accept theirgifts withoutmuch hesThe Vadu

lgas are not, properly speaking, a se arateracaste. In vira the name is applied to the udras

of the Telegu country who have mi ted, and are

domiciled, in the Dravira districts. e high casteVadugas have the same osition as the Vellalars. Theusual surname of the adugas is Naidu. There are

many well-educated men among both the Vadugas

and the Vellalars, andmembers of these castes are as

numerous in the public service and the liberal professions in Southern India, as the K5. asthas are in

the same lines of business in Northern ndia.

CHAP. V .— THE PRABHUS OF THE BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY.

Tan word Prabhu literally means ‘ lord.

’

It is the

caste name of a very small but important communityfound in Western India. Their total number is only

but they are a very intelligent and ener

getic class. The two main sub-divisions among themare the following

1 . Chandra SeniPrabhu—found chiefly nearPoona.2 . PataniPrabhu—found in Bombay and Gujrat.

There are other classes of Prabhus besides these, as,for instance, the DonnaPrabhus, of Goa. The Prabhuswear the sacred thread, and, claiming to be Ksatriyas,performtheir poojas and prayers in the same manneras the highest of the twice-born castes. Neverthelessthey are usual] considered to have only the same footing as that w '

ch the Kayasthas have in NorthernIndia. They held very high oflices under the Marattakings. The great Sivaji

’

s chief secretar was a Chandra Seni Prabhu, named Balaji ADJ] , w ose acutenessand intelligence are recorded by the English Government at Bombay on an occasion of his being sent thereon business.

‘ MulharKhanderao Chituavis, Vakil, district Amraoti, is a descendant of Balaj i Auji. Two of

his other descendants are now receiving their educationin England at the expense of the Maharaja Guikwar ofBaroda. SakharamHari Gupti, who was Minister to

SeeGrant Duff'

s History of thoMarathas, Vol. I, p. 201.

1 94

CHAP. VI.—THE KOLITASOF ASSAM .

Tm! Kolitas are found not on] in Assam, but also inthe Southern Tributary States 0 ChutiaNag ore. Colonel Dalton describes the Kolitas of Chutia agpore as

of fair complexion, with good features and well ropor

tioned limbs, and expresses the Opin ion that ey are

ofAryan blood with a slight deterioration arising fromintermixture with the less comely aborigines. The sameremarks appl to the Kolitas ofAs sam. They are re

garded by t 0 best authorities as genuine Hindus of

unmixed descent. ’The highest classKolitas in Assam,

called BoraKolichiefl by serving as clerks and accountants .

Under the A ang Rajas almost all the Bora Kolitaswere employed in the civil service of their country .

Some of the high class Kolitas practise trade. When a

Kolita mane es to become a bigman,he claims to be a

Kayastha an takes the sacred thread. Of the inferiorKolitas, who are mainly agricultural, many serve as

menials in the houses of Brahmans. The Kolitas are a

pure Sudra caste, and they are almost the only Sudrasin Assamwho are allowed to enter the cook-roomof a

Brahman . There are some Kolitas who are artisan s,but their status is inferior to that of the agriculturalKolitas. Some of the Kolitas are now the abbots of

themonasteries appertaining to a Vaishnava sect founded by an Assamese Brahman in the fifteenth century .

Hunter’s Imperial Gazetteer, Vol. I, p. 355.

1 96

'ma xomms or ASSAM. 1 97

The usual surnames of the Bora Kolitas are Kokatiaand Choliha, both of which have the same signification ,

and are the Assamese and Ahang equivalents of the

designation clerk,” their literalmeaning being per

writer.

”The surname of the inferiorKolitas is olita.

The Kolita population is more numerous in Upperand Central Assamthan in the Surma Valley. Of the

Kolitas returned in Assamin 1 881 ,were inhabitants of the Bramhaputra Valley . TheKayastha population ofAssamis confinedmainly to theSurma Valley .

PART X.

THE MERCANTILE CASTES.

CHAP. I.—THE BANIYAS OF BENGAL.

THE word Baniya is a corruption of the Sanskritword bani/c which means merchant.” The Baniyasare certainly entitled to be regarded as Vaishyas. But

the Baniyas of Bengal do not wear the sacred thread,and the best of themare looked upon as inferior Sudras .

The Baniyas proper of Bengal are divided into two

classes, namely,1 . Suvarna Banika—goldmerchants.2 . Gandha Banika—spicemerchants.

Besides these there are two other classes, namely, theKansa Banika and the Sankha Banika, whose professionandcaste names entitle themto some extent to be regardedas Bani as, but who are not popularly taken to comeunder the category. Fromthe int of view of caste,the Gandha Baniks, Kansa Ba s, and Sankha Banikahave all a higher position than Suvarua Baniks but

in respect of wealth, intelligence and culture, the latterstand on a far higher footing. There are among theSonar Baniyas a great many who are big capitalists .

These have very little enterprise, and generally seek thesafest investments. The middle classes among themhave generally poddari shops in the large towns where

1 98

200 'mmBANIYAS or BENGAL .

The free admission of all the castes into the Englishschools and colleges set up in the country, since the

commencement of British rule, has enabledmany of theSonarBaniyas to distinguish themselves,more or less, asEnglish scholars. The greatest among thesewas the lateMr. Lal Behari Dey , the well-known author of the

GovindaSamanta and the FolkTales of Bengal . BabuBholaNath Chandra, the author of Travel: in India, isalso of the Sonar Baniya caste. I do not know anySonar Baniya who has yet attained much eminence inthe Bar but in the Judicial Service, there aremany whohold very high positions. Themost notable among themis Babu Brajendra Kumar Seal, who has now the rankof a District Court Judge, and who may one da provean ornament of the Bengal High Court. In the edical

Service also there are some SonarBaniyas holding veryhigh positions.he totalSonarBaniya population ofBengal is accord

ing to the last Census souls in all. They are

divided into two classes called Saptagrami and Ban

gaja. The usual surnames of the Sa tagramis are

Mallick, Seal, Dhar, Laha, Baral, Ad ya and Sen .

Very few of these titles are peculiar to the class. But

the leading Mellicks, Seals and Lahas of Calcutta are

of the Sapte i division of the Sonar Baniya caste .

Abandoned y the higher classes of Brahmans, theSonar Baniyas have naturally fallen into the hands ofthe Chaitanite Gossains. The teachings of their spi

ritual guides havemade themstrict abstainers fromeu

mal food and intoxicating drinks. To that extent theirreligion has had a very wholesome influence on them.

The inevitable result of Vishnuvite teachings is, however,to cause a relaxation of the fetters by which the noblereligion of the prim Hindu Rishis to enforce

sexual fidelity, and it is said that by 1 their followers to ander to themin imitating ged dirts

tions of rishna, the Chaitanite Gossains, and theBallavachariMaharajas are sometimes able tomake them

rm: GANDHA BANIKS. 201

wallow very deep in the mire of the most abominableracfices. But, though the religion of the Gossainsmaycalculated to corrupt themorality of their followers,

itmust be ahnost impossible for the teachers to take advantage of their cult for the gratification of their lust,without losing the esteemof their disciples which istheir onl source of income. Many of the Gossains,whomI now, are themselves very goodmen, and thechellas being also ver shrewd men of the world, thestories that are usually retailed about their religious

8must to a res t extent be quite without foundation. It is only wien the chella is a young widowwithout any nearrelation to protect her, that the spiritualteacher may find it possible or safe to corrupt her. But

even in such cases the Gossain is boycotted by his

ma manner which makes himverymiserableindeed. Even apart fromsuch checks, no class of mencan possibly be so bad as some of their religious tend tomake them.

The Sonar Baniyas are very neat and clean in theirhabits. They dress very decently, and their style of

conversation very seldombetrays their low status incaste. Their ladies are generally very handsome.

2 .- The Gandha Baniks of Bengal.

The Gandha Baniks, though entitled to be regarded3 treated inBengal asmiddle class Sudras,

good Brahman may take a drink of

waterwithout any hesitation . A Brahman may evencondescend so far as to accept their gifts and ofliciate

at their religious ceremonies, without losing altogetherhis connection with his caste .

The Gandha Baniks usually live by keeping shops,where they sell spices, sugar, ghi, salt, medicines and

food-

grains. They retail opiumand charas . But theyvery seldomsell ganja, except through a Mahomedanservant. Themajority of the shopkeepers of Bengal areeitherGandhaBaniks orTelis. There are not,amongthe

202 'mx BAe As or BENGAL .

Gandha Baniks, such big capitalists as are to be foundamongtheSonarBaniyas norsuch big traders as amongtheTelis. But, generall speaking, the GandhaBaniyasare a well-to-do class. ey stick to the profession of

their caste, and Ido not know anymember of the classwho has obtained any University distinction, orhas heldany high omce in the service of Government. TheGandha Baniyas are all

,however, possessed of sum

cient education to be able to keep accounts. Theirusualsurnames are Sinha, Dhani, Mallik, De, Nag, Sadhu,Datta and Dhar. Their total numerical strength is,according to the last Census,The Gandha Baniyas live in good houses. But they

very seldomspendmuch of their wealth in any otherkind of personal comfort. It is very unusual for themto be dressed decently, and even the wealthiest amongthem generally live ,

in a very shabby style. TheGandha Ban iyas spend very considerable amountsin Pujas and marriages. But in other respects, thepriestly class have ver little influence on themeitherfor good or evil. T eir women have a very highcharacter for conjugal fidelity.

204 'ms BANIYAS or NORTHERN INDIA.

Kesandhan. Z l. Mahuria.

Loh iya. 24. The Bais Baniyas.

Bouiya. 25. The Kath Baniyas.Sura Seni. The Raoniyas .

Bara Seni. 27. The Janarya.

Baranwal. 2 8. The Lohana.

Ayodhya Bansi. 39. The Rewari Baniyas.Jaiswar. 30. The Kanu.

Mahobiya.

Of these the first ten are the richest andmost en terprising. They claimRajputana and the adjoining tractsas their original home, but are to be found in everypart of Upper India, fromthe Sutlej to the Brahmaputra. They are, generally speaking, very intelligent,and, although not possessingmuch of literary culture,their aristocratic appearance, cleanly habits, courteou smanners, and capacity for every kind of business,markthem out as men of a superior stamp . They are allstrict vegetarians and abstainers fromstrong drinks.

The above are the chief tribes of Up er India thatusually profess to be, and are recognize as, branchesof the Baniya ormercantile caste. Among the personsactually connected with the trading business ofHindustan pro er, a very large number are of the Kshetricaste, w o

, as already stated in a previous chapter, claimto be of themilitary group, butwho, as amatter of fact,are mainly cloth merchants. In the Pun

'

ab, UnitedProvinces,Behar, and Calcutta, theKshetris ave almostthemono oly for the sale of all kinds of textile fabrics,fromCas mere shawls and Benares brocades to thosecheap Manchester dhotis which are now hawked in the

streets of towns by the shrill and familiar cry of

three ieces to the rupee four pieces to the rupee,&c .

”T emajority of the several classes of brokers in

Northern India are also of the Kshetri caste. Amongthe sellers of food-grains, oil-seeds, salt, spices, &c., the

several tribes of the Baniyas mentioned above maycollectively formthemajority. But the numberofTelisand Kallwars among themis also very considerable. In

fact, the Telis , whose proper evocation is themanufac

'ms: AGARWALs. 205

ture of oil, and the Kallwars who are brewers, claimtobe Baniyas, though that claimis not admitted by anyone outside their own spheres.

The Agarwalis, Khaudelwals and Ossawals are themost important classes of Baniyas in Upper India, andare to be found in every part of it fromthe Sutlej tothe Brahmaputra, and even outside these limits. TheAgarwals trace their descent froma Ksatriya king,Agra Sen, who reigned in Sirhind, and whose capitalwas at Agraba, now a small town in theFatehbadTahsilof the Hissar District, Punjab. The exact dateSon is unknown, but some conjecture about itmade from the tradition that his descendants took animportant part in the struggles between Hinduismand

Jainaism,and that many of themwere led to embrace

the Jaina religion at the time. After the capture of

AgrababySahabuddin Ghori in 1 1 94,andthe dispersalofthe tribe in consequence of that disaster, they renouncedthemilitary profession, and took to trade.

There are a few Jains among the A smi le. Themajority of the caste are Vishnuvites. ome of themofier worship to the shrines of Siva and Kali. But

there are none among themwho can be called Sivites orSaktas. They all rofess great reverence for the field of

Kurukshetra and tie river Gauges. They worship ver

particularly the goddess Laksmi, and celebrate witheat pomp the Diwali, or general illumination of their

limes, in the night of the newmoon in October. TheJainAgarwalas are chiefly of theDigambari order. TheHindu A 515 profess great reverence towards snakes,in accordance with their traditional belief that one of

their remote female ancestors was a Na kanya, i.e.,

the daughter of a serpent king. In Delhi t e VaishnavaAgarwals paint pictures of the snake on either side of

the outside doors of their houses, andmake offering of

fruits and flowers before them. A great many of the

206 'ms BANIYAB or NORTHERN INDIA.

Agarwals take the sacred thread ; but they consider thepractice as o tional, and not desirable for those whosepursuits or haliits of life render it impossible to observethe rules and ceremonies prescribed to the twice-born bythe Shastras. Accordin to the last Census, the numerical strength of the ggarwals is as shown in thefollowing table

Total, including thefigures of otherProvinces where they are found

There are about 1 8 Gotras among the A arwals, and

they observe the rule of the Shastras forbi din marriage within the Gotra. Intermarriage is allowed tweenthe Jainas andHindus in theircaste. Their widows arenot allowed to re-marry. The Gauda Brahmans usuallyminister to themas priests. They are all strict vegetarians and teetotalers. The illegitimate offspring of

the Agarwals are not altogether without a caste status .

They are called Dasa, while those of legitimate birthare called Bisa.

The A arwalaclaimto be the only true representativesof the iryan Vaishyas , and their occupations havethroughout been in keeping with the tradition .

“Afterthe dispersion of the tribe by Sahabuddin Ghori theirtalent for business brought individual -members to thefront under the Mahomedan Em rors of Delhi. Twoof Akbar

’

s Ministers— Madhu Se and Todar Mal—are

said to have been Agarwals.

“ But the majority of

the caste have fromremote times been, and still are,employed in banking, trade, petty money- lendin and

similar pursuits. A few are zemindars and hol ers of

large tenures but in most cases their connection withthe land Ina be traced to a profitablemort go on the

estate of anhereditary landholder, so that ndholding

Tod’s Annals qrRaj asthan, Vol. I, p. 548.

2 08 THE BANIYAS OF NORTHERN INDIA.

spend vast sums of money in building and

shlng temples dedicated to their saints . Thebest and most ancient of these shrines are at Palitanaand Girnar. There are also a few recently-builtJain temples in Calcutta which are well worth visiting.

The Ossawals are to be found in almost all the ttowns Of Northern India. The Jagat Setts of hit?shedabad, whose political support mainly paved theway Of the English to the acquisition Of the sover

eignty of Bengal, were Ossawals. That family is welln igh ruined now, but there is a large colony of Ossawalsat Azim n

ic near Moorshedabad, who are all very

wealthy an ers and landholders. The greatest of

these are Ray Dhanpat Sing and his nephew Ra

Chatrapat Sing. Themembers of this family have allbeen very remarkablemen as bankers and zemindars.

Ray Latchmipat, the father Of Chatrapat, was at one

time involved in difficulties which threatened his ruinbut his reputation for strict honesty, and his skill in themanagement of his business, enabled him to tide overthe crisis with success, and to pay his creditors in fullwith interest. His creditors themselves Offered to fore o

the interest, but he declined to avail himself of e

concession even in the darkest hours of his peril, andnow the credit of the family is established all themore.

Therewas lately a run on the bank OfRay Dhanpat also.

Some of his creditors tried to have himdeclared an

insolvent. But he contested their proceedings, and instead of taking advantage Of the law for the relief of

insolvent debtors, he is, like his brother, about toay the last farthing that he owed to his creditors.Such integrity in actual practice has certainly far

greater value than the ollapodrida Of co y-book ethics

and Machiavelism for which the priestly class claimto be worshipped by their followers.The great defect in the Baniyas OfNorthern India is,

as already observed, their inca acity tomarch in advanceof

, or even with, the times. ith all theirwealth and

'ma KHANDELWALS. 2 09

capacity for business they have done nothing whateverto introduce those new industries which the country now

sadly needs, and which, after the experimental stage isover, are sure to be profitable. They work in the Oldooves, or in lines presented to themready-made, andey have not yet given any evidence of an aptitude fororganising new spheres of commercial activity. In

this respect they are far surpassed by the Parsis andthe Nagar Baniyas of Gujrat. Among our Ossawals,Agarwils,Khandelwals,Mahesris orSonarBaniyas thereis not a single name that, in respect of enter rise, can becompared with that of Sir Mangal Das athu Bhaior SIr Dinshaw Manikjee Petit.The Bho

'

ak Brahmans minister to the Ossawals aspriests in the performance of those Brahmanical cere

monies that are not eschewed by the Jains. The socialrank of the Ossawals is the same as that of theAgarwals,and their gifts would be accepted without hesitation byBrahmans of_all classes.

Like the Agarwals, the Ossawals give a recognisedstatus to their illegitimate progeny callin themDasa,while those of legitimate birth are called isa.

The usual surnames of the Ossawals are Chand, Das,Dosi, Lal, Singh, Golecha, Doogar and Nalaka.

3.—The Khandelwal Baniyas.

The Khandelwal Baniyas are not inferior to any Of

the other divisions Of the caste, either in wealth or in

respect of refinement. They derive their name fromthe town of Khandela in the Jaipore State, which at

one time was the chief cit of the Shekhawati Confederation .

’ There are both ishnuvites andJains amonthem. The Vishnuvite Khandelwals take the morethread. Themillionaire Setts Of Mathura areKhandelwals and of the Jain persuasion, with the exce tionof one branch only that has lately adopted the Vis nu

SeeTod’s Annals of q asthan, Vol. II, p. 434.

3 , no 14

2 10 THE BANIYAS OF NORTHERN INDIA.

vite faith, through the influence of an Achari monkof the Ramanuja sect, named Ran hari Swami.Mulchand Soni of Ajmere is a Jain K andelwal.

4. The Srimali Baniyas.

Like the Srimali Brahmans, the Srimali Bani astrace their name to the town of Srimal now cal ed

Bhinal, near Jhalore in Marwar. With regard to Bhinaland Sanchore, Colonel Tod saysThese towns are on the high road to Cutch and Gujrat, which

has given themfromthemost remote times a commercial celebrity .

Bhinal is said to contain fifteen hundred houses , and Sanchoreabout half that number. Very wealthym h as or merchantsused to reside here , but insecurit both wit in and without hasmuch injured these cities , the first 0 which has its namemdl fromits wealth as amart.—Tod ’

s Annals of q asthan, Vol. II, p.$12 .

Like the Agarwals, the Srimalis give a recognisedstatus to their ille itimate Offspring, and call themDasa Srimalis, whfie those of legitimate birth are

called Bisa. The latter are all Jains. But among the

Dasa Srimalis there are both Jains and Vishnuvites .

There aremany richmen among the Srimali Baniyas,as, for instance, Pauna Lal JOhori, the leading

'

eweller

of Bombay, and Makhau Lal KaramChand, t e leading banker Of Ahmedabad . Like the Ossawals and

the Khandelwals, the Srimali Baniyas generally stickto their caste profession, and keep aloof fromthe publicservices, and the practice of the liberal rofessions .

There are, however, some exceptions. Dr. riBhavanDas, Of Junagar, is a Srimali.

5. The Palliwal Baniyas.

The Palliwal Baniyas derive their name fromthe

ancient commercial mart of Marwar, about which an

account has been already given in connection with thePalliwal Brambans.

‘ Amon the Palliwal Baniyasthere are both Jains and Vis nuvites. They are verynumerous in Agra and Jaunpur.

See page 68, an“.

2 1 2 THE MERCANTILE CASTES.

9.- The Agrahan

'

Baniyas .

The Agraharis are found chiefly in the districtsround Benares. Their numerical stre Is slightlyin excess Of one hundred thousand . are not

many wealthymen among them. They take the sacredthread, and, like the other leading Baniya clans, are

strict vegetarians and teetotalers. There '

are manyA raharis who have embraced the Sikh faith . There isa rge colony of such Agraharis in the district Of

Arrah.

10.—Tile Dhunsar Baniyas.

The Dhunsars are found chiefly in the Gangetic Doab,between Delhi on the west and Mirzapore on the east.There are many big landholders among them. Theytake their name fromDhusi, a flat-to ped hill, near

Rewari, in Gurgaon . They are all ishnuvites, andthere are no Jains amon them. They do not devotethemselves entirely to tra e. In fact their chief profession is penmanship, and they combine in themselvesthe Ofi ce-aptitude Of the Kayasth, with the Baniya’sca acity for mercantile business. Under Mahomedanrule, the occasionally filledmany high offices of State .

Under t e present régime a good many Of themholdsuch appointments in the public service as are open tothe natives of this country now.

1 1 .- The UmarBaniyas.

The Umars are very numerous in the tract Of countrybetween Agra on the west and Gorakhpur on the east.

The Baniyas Of the districts adjoining Cawnpur are

chiefl Umars . The tribe has very few representativesin Be ar. They are usually recognised as good Vaishyas, and their caste status is not regarded as inferiorto that Of any other Baniya tribe. They take thesacred thread after the death Of their fathers, but notbefore.

THE KASABWANI AND KASANADHAN. 2 1 3

1 2 .-The Rastogi Baniyas.

The Rastogis are very numerous in the U per Doab,and in almost all the chief towns of the nited Provinces, as, for instance, Lucknow, Fatehpur, Farakkabad, Meerut, and Azamgarh. The tribe has a few

representatives also in Patna and Calcutta. All theRastogis are Vaishnavas Of the Ballava sect. Like theUmara they take the sacred thread after the death of

their fathers, and not before. There are some wealthybankers among them. Even the poorest among themare generally found well clad . They have the followingsub-divisions

l . Amethi—probably fromthe Pergunnah of that name, inthe Sultanpore D istrict , Oudh .

2 . Indrapati— fromIndra t, the ancient name of

3. Manhariva—probably romMaihar i

1 3, 14.- The Kasarwani and the Kasanadhaa

Baniyas.

These two tribes seemto derive their names fromtheSanskrit word Icaaaa, whichmeans bell-metal. If thatbe the correct derivation of their caste designation,

thentheir original occupation was the keeping Of shops forthe sale of those brass and bell-metal utensils whichare a necessity in every Hindu household. But as, in

practice, they generally keep shops for the sale Of foodgrains and Oil-seeds, it does not seemimpossible thattheir names are corru ted forms ofKn

’

shana. Vam'

k and

Krish na D ham'

, bot meaning the,

husbandman ’

s

banker. They are pretty numerous in every part ofthe United Provinces and Behar. The last Censusgives the following figures relating to their numericalstrength

Kan ndhan. 97,74l—most numerous in the districts of Bands.and Basti.Kasarwani, dim—most numerous in Benares.majority of these two tribes are petty shopkeepers,

d the number of wealthy men among them is not

very considerable. Most of themare quite illiterate.

. 2 14 THE MBBCANTILB CASTES.

A few have education enough to serve as book-keepersand clerks in the offices of the Hindu bankers . TheKasarwanis allow their widows to re-marry, but do not

recognise the possibility of divorce. Shopkeeping istheir regular occupation . But there are a few amongthemwho practise agriculture. The Kasarwanis of thedistricts round Benares are chiefly Ramworshippers,and are generally strict vegetarians and teetotalers .

They, however, Ofi'

erworship to the Sakti goddess Bindhya Basini, Of Mirzapore, releasing the animal whichthey offer, without slaughtering it. They do not takethe sacred thread .

g The Lohiya Baniyas.

As their name indicates, the caste occupation of

the Lohiyas is the sale of ironware. The numericalstrength of the class is not very considerable. Themajority Of them are Vishnuvites ; but there are

among themsome Jains also. The taking Of the sacredthread is very rare among them.

1 6.— The Soniyas.

The Soniyas are dealers in gold. But the Soniyasof Upper India are not a ver wealthy class like the

Sonar Baniyas Of Bengal. ere are many Sonia inAllahabad. Those of Benares profess to havemigratedthere fromGujrat.

1 7. The SumSeni Baniyas.

The Sura Seni Baniyas evidently derive their designation fromthe ancient name Of the Mathura District.

1 8. The Bara SeniBaniyas.

The Bara Senis are an important community. Thereare many rich bankers amon them. They seem to

derive their name from Bars sun in the suburbs of

Mathura. At any rate, the clan is very strong in

Mathura and the adjoin ing districts.

2 16 THE HEBCANTILE CASTES.

23.—The Mahuria B aniyas.

A clan very strong in Behar and in the Doab. In

Behar they are the richest ofall the local Baniya tribes.

There are many big landholders and rural bankersamong them. They finance the cultivators of sugar

cane, and have almost themonopoly of the local trade

in sugar. They do not take t e sacred thread, butare re arded as good Hindus of the Vaishya class.

Tika gahu, of Hansua Noagong, in Gays , who wasone of the biggest zemindars Of the district, was a

Mahuria. Like the Sikhs the Mahuriaare strictly forbidden the use of tobacco, and aman detected smokingwould be expelled fromthe community. In all probability the Mahurias are a section of the Rastogis.

g 24. Bais Baniyas.

These Baniyas are found chiefly in Behar. Likethe other high caste Baniyas, they allow neither divorcenor the re-marriage of widows. A reatmany of themkeep shops for the sale Of brass an bell-metal vessels.

Some Of them practise agriculture. The Bais of

Kumaon are a different clan, having the same status.

2 5.—The Kath Baniyas.

The Kath Baniyas are found in Behar. Themajorityof themare shopkeepers andmoney- lenders butmanyhave taken to agriculture, and work even as landlessday labourers. Some members of the caste have of

late become zemindars. The MaithilaBrahmansminister to themas priests. The allow the te—marriage of

widows, but not of divorc wives. They burn theirdead, and performsmdh on the thirty-first day .

2 6.—The Raom'

yar Baniyas.

The Haoniyars are found in Gorakhpur, Tirhoot andBehar. The local Brahmansminister to themas priests.They allow the re-marriage of their widows but not of

THEm s. 2 1 7

divorced wives, except with the ermission Of the Panchait. The Raoniyars are not ishnuvites like most ofthe other Baniya tribes. They regard Siva as theirtutelary deity, and like the Agarwals pay s

rptecial rever

ence to Laksmi, the goddess of Fortune. emajority

of themare petty traders and money- lenders. Theyare called also Nonia.

2 7.— The Jameya Baniyas.

These are found chiefly in the Etawa District. Theyclaimto be descendants ofPralhad, who, accordingto theV ishnuvite legends, was the son of themonsterHiran a

Kasyapa, and was saved by Krishna himself fromt e

persecutions to which he was subjected by his father.

2 8. The Lohana Baniyas.

The Lohanas seemto be allied to the Bhatya. Theyare found chiefly in Scind . The total Lohana population of India exceeds half amillion .

2 9.—The Rewan

'

Baniyas.

The Rewari Baniyas are a ve small clan. Theyev idently derive their name from e

'wari in Gur aon .

Their usual Occupation is the keepingof cloth s Ops .

There is a small colony of Rewari Baniyas in Gays .

30.— The

'

Kanu Baniyas.

The Kanus are ‘ petty

shopkeeplers dealing chiefly

in food-grains and supp ying trave ers with the requisites for cooking theirmeals.

CHAP. III.-THE BANIYASOF GUJRAT.

THE barren deserts of Rajputana are the principalhome of the Bani as . In the contiguous province of

Gujrat also the aniyas are very numerous, wealthyand enterprising. The Srimalis, Ossawals and Khandelwala, who are to be found in large numbers inGujrat, as in almost every other part Of NorthernIndia, are, properly speaking, Bani as Of Rajputana,and have been described already. he main divisionsamong the Baniyas of Gujrat proper are the follow

7. J harola.

1 ‘ Nagar 8. Sorathiya.

2 . Disawal.1 lg

.

ghadaita.

Dasa. arsora.

3’ Porawal{2 B isa. l l .4. Gujar.

5. Modh. 13. Patolia.

Each Of these sections has a corresponding Brahmanical castewho usuallyminister to them, and to themonly, as priests. For instance, the Nagar Brahmansminister to the Nagar Baniyas the Modh Brahmansminister to the Modh Baniyas and the case is the

same with the others.

Themajority of the Gujrati Baniyas are Vishnuvitesand followers of Ballabhachari. The number of Jainsamong themis also very considerable. The Vishnuvite Baniyas take the sacred thread.

( 2 1 8 )

2 20 THE MERCANTILE CASTES.

of these Chetti clans hold very high positions in theservice Of Government, and in the liberal professions.

The total Chetti population is as stated below

B urmaMysore

The Chettis are very numerous in the town of Madras,and in the Districts Of Krishna, Nellore, Cuddapah,Kornool, Madura and Coimbatore. There are very fewmembers of the clan in Malabar or South Kanara.

The trade Of the Malabar coast is carried on chiefly bythe local Brahmans and Mussulmans. The usual profession of the few Chettis there is agricultural banking.

They advance money on growing crops Of pe per,

ginger, turmeric and other produce, superinten the

cultivation themselves, and ultimately Obtain possessionof the land.

”

In Mysore the Lingait Banijigas preponderate overall the other trading castes. The Komatis andNagartasare usually found onl in the townsand practising trade.

But of the Lingait anijigas and Telegu Banijigas a

considerable number practise agriculture, and are te

sidents Of rural villages.

Madras 0mm: Reportfor 1871 . Vol. I, p. 143.

CHAP. V .-THE MERCANTILE CASTESOF THE

TELUGU COUNTRY.

THE mercantile castes of the Telugu country are

called Komatis. The claimto be Vaishyas, and takethe sacred thread. ey are an educated class, andcount among their number man who have obtainedhigh Universi distinctions, and old respectable positions in the

'beral professions or in the service of

Government. Upon the whole, the Komatis havealmost exactly the same position in Telingana, thatthe Baniyas have in Upper India. The Komatis havemany divisions among them,

of which the followingare themost important

1 . Gavari. 3. Ber-iKomati.2 . KalingaKomati. 4. BaljiKomati.

5. NamKomati.The GavuriKomatis have the highest position . They

are strict vegetarians and teeto talers. The otherKomatis are said to be in the habit of eatingfleshmeat. ln

matters relati%to religion, themajority of the Gavuri

and Kalinga omatis are Sankarites, and only a smallfraction are either Lingaits or followers of Hamann '

s .

Among the BeriKomatis themajority are Lingaits . n

matters relating to social discipline, theKomatis acknowledge the authority of the spiritual successors Of Bhaskarachari, who have their chief monastry at Gooti inthe Bellary District. The Brahmans minister to theKomatis as priests without reciting the Vedicmantras .

The Komatis now claim that they are entitled( 2 2 1 )

2 2 2 THE MERCANTILE CASTES.

to such recitation . The practice of marr ing the

maternal uncle’s daughter not only prevails amongthe Komatis as among the other castes of SouthernIndia but where there is amaternal uncle’s daughter,a Komati has no option , and it is Obligator on himto take her in marriage. The Komatis se l confec

tioneries, and there is no separate caste in Telinganacorresponding to the Mayara or the Halwai. The totalKomati population Of India is as stated below

MadrasHydrabadMysore

PARTXI.

THE ARTISAN CASTES GENERALLYRECOGNIZED AS CLEAN SUDRAS.

CHAP. I.—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

THOUGH in practice many of the Banick or Baniyaclans, spoken of in the preceding chapters, are treatedas having no higher status than that of clean Sudras,and though one Of them, namely, that Of the SonarBaniyas is regarded as actually unclean, yet their claimto be reckoned in the third group of the four mainHindu castes being undeniable, they are not includedamong Sudras in any Shastra, ancient ormodem. Thecultivating and the castes are equallyentitled to be looked upon ishya according to

the Shastric definition of the term but as they do notgenerally take the sacred thread, they are all regardedas Sudras, and, according to amodern text, only nineof them, namely, the following, are entitled to be treatedas clean

1 . Tanti

3. Kulala

2 24

Confectioner.

Potter.Ironsmith .

Oilmanufacturer.Cowherd.

Growerof betel leaf.Florists.

CASTE RULEs. 2 25

This list does not include an Of the chief agricultural classes, and omits also suc clean artisans as the

goldsmith and the carpenter. In practice a few of the

other artisan classes, not included in the list Of NavaSayakas, are regarded as clean Sudras, as also the .

majority of the cultivating tribes ; while the Telis,though included in it, are regarded as more or lessunclean in practice. The manufacturing castes thatare actually regarded as more or less clean are the

l . Tanti2 . Modakakar3. Kulala

5. Svarnakara6. Sutrndhar,SutarorBarbi Carpenter.

7. Kasera and Thathera Braziersandcoppersmiths.8. Kandu and Bhad Bhunja Grain parchers.9. Dirji Tailors.

To forman idea of the exact status of these and

other clean Sudras, the reader should bear in mind thefollowing rules of the Hindu caste system1 . Aman of any of the superior castes may drink

such water as is fetched or touched by a clean Sudra,whether the water be of the river Ganges or fromanyother source.

2 . The water of the river Ganges, thou h fetchedby an unclean Sudra, is not thereby render unfit forthe high caste Hindu ’

s drinkin purposes. But everyother kind of water is polluted y the touch of an un

c lean Sudra.

3. Even the water of the sacred Ganges is renderedu seless to a Hindu by the touch Of a non-Hindu .

4. The touch of non-Hindus and unclean Sudrasbeing contaminating, it is only the clean Sudras thatcan render the necessary personal service to the high

Hindlq:like the Brahmans, Rajputs, Vaidyas,

s.

twice-born castes cannot, without renderingthemselves liable to expiation, eat any cooked food

a, He 15

2 2 6 CLEAN AND UNCLEAN CASTES.

touched by a Sudra. The result Of this rule is that aSudramenial, whether clean or unclean, can be of no

use to a high caste Hindu for the actual cooking of

his food, or the serving of it. In fact, in the absenceof a Brahman cook, the high caste Hindu has himself tocook the food of his servant. For the actual cuisinework, the clean and the unclean Sudras stand on the

same footing. But while the clean Sudra can assist inthe process in various ways

,the unclean Sudra is not

allowed even to enter the cook-room. It is for this

reason that the clean Sudras alone are usually appointedasmenials in Hindu households.

6. Another imortant difference between the cleanand the unclean udras lies in the fact, that while a

Brahman can minister to the former without losinghis Brahmanism he cannot show such honour to the

latter without being de sdcd for ever.

7. Further, though t eShastras forbid theacceptanceof the Sudra

’

s gifts without any reference to his status ,yet in practice the best Brahmans do not hesitate toaccept the bounty of the Nava Sayakas , when the

amount Offered is a large one. Most of the great

Pandits Of the country accept,more or less openly, theifts of Maharani Svarnamayi, who is a Teli by caste .

But,with the exception of the Chaitanite Gossains, eventhe poorest andmost illiterate Brahmans will notusuallyaccept the gifts Of a washerman, fisherman, vintneror courtesan .

2 2 8 THE WEAVING casrns.

not Hindus. The Julahas, who formone-fourth of theentire pO ulation,may have been at one time low caste

Hindus, ut are now all Mahomedans. Even amongthese classes of weavers that areHindus, the caste statusOf many is very low, and they certainly do not belongto the group called zNava Sayakas or the nine Sudracastes.

The weavers of India were, until recentl a veryprosperous class but the importation of mac inc-madepiece-

goods' fromManchesterhas, Of late , thrown many

thousands of themout of employ. These dragg

ed on

a life of poverty for some years, and at last eit er diedof semi-starvation, or were forced by necessity tobecome menial servants or tillers of the soil. As thehand- looms of India are now constructed, the bestweaver, with the assistance of his whole family to dressand card the yarn, cannot turn outmore than five yardsof cloth in a. day ; but the motive power required towork such a loomis very slight, and the machinerymight certainly be so improved as to enable one man towork at least half-a-dozen similar looms. It is said bysome that if the weaving industry Of India has ceased

With regard to the efiect Of the importation of machine-madepiece oods on the condition of the Indianweavers, Mr. Risleymakesthe fo lowing observations : Although the Tantis admit weaving tobe their immemorial rofession , many of themhave of late yearsbeen driven by the in ux of chea machine-made oods to betakethemselves to agriculture. It is di cult or impossi lo to say withany approach to accuracywhatproportion Of the caste have abandoned their original craft in favour of trad e oragriculture . The UttaraKula Tantis of Western Ben have, on the whole, adhered toweavin and it is Opularly be

“mad that their comparative povertyismain y due to t on attachment to the traditional occupation ofthe caste. Among the Aswini or Moriali about one-third are supposed to have given upweaving and settled down as re llar cultivao

tors .—Risley

’s Tribes and Carter of Bengal, Vol. II, p.

It must be exceedingly difficult for a foreigner to a

ppreciate

exactly the story of humanmisc implied in the above. thirtythree per cent. of any class of Tan s have reconciled themselves, byhard necessity, to the handling of the plough , perhaps anotherthirtythree per cent. died of sheer starvation, before the survivors in thestruggle could think of giving up theirancestral looms and shuttles,and adopting such a plebeian occupation as agriculture.

nsrsnsssn con fl ict! or run wusvss s. 2 29

to be paying in consequence of the competition of

piece-goods, the Indian weavers should, deir caste prejudices, take up some other line of

The principle of Free Trade has been lnvoked in orderto '

ustify our indifference, and that of ourGovernment, to t e sufferings brought on themillionsof our weavers by the immrt of Manchester piecegoods. But neither the science of Political Economynor the principle of Free Trade uires that when

goods make their way into t e markets of a

the people of it should make no efforts tosave the sinking vessel of their own industries. The

principle of Free Trade insists only upon absolutefreedombeing left to the consumer to buy his goodsfromthe cheapest and best market according to his ownjudgment.In this coun try domestic industry alone suits the

genius of the people, and, so faras the weaving industryis concerned, it is certamnot desirable, even fromtheint of view of Political Economy, that the handmms should be superseded b steam-power looms.

Domestic industry does not invo ve any expenditure on

account of supervision, mill buildings, or brokerage tocompany promoters. Domestic industry cannot renderit necessary to collect raw materials ormanufacturedgoods in one place to such an extent as to involve therisk of any heavy loss by fire, shipwreck or damn Theskill possessed by the people of a country in any art

being, according to the science of Political Economy,

an important part of its ca ital, India is at resentsufierin a prodigious loss, t rough allowing t e skillacquit by her weavers by generations of practiceto remain unemployed and become deteriorated . A

very little improvement in the hand- looms might notonly enable themyet to hold their own a

gainst foreign

competition, but save the heavy loss to the ndian peo leand to the world which now takes lace in freight,

and other (ga ges incurred

230 rue wssvmu cssrss.

unnecessarily forthe benefit ofManchester. Theweaversof India are themselves too ignorant of themechanicalsciences, and too poor at present, tomake the necessaryimprovements in their looms, by their own capital andexertions. Thematter is one which deserves the earnest

attention of our publicists.

2 . The Tantis of B engal.

The Tantis of Bengal are Sudras of the Nava Sayakaor Upper nine group. They are divided into manysub-castes, which, however, need not bementioned here .

The Brahmans who minister to the clean Sudra casteslike the Tantis are not, as already observed, degradedfor ever, though as Sudra Yajakas (priests of Sudras)they are looked down upon by the Asudra Pratigrahis ,i.a., those who never take any gifts fromSudras . TheTantis being a clean caste theirmen and women are

eligible for domestic service in the houses of the Brahmans. The following are the usual surnames of the

Tantis of Bengal1 . Basaka—Surname of the higher class Tantis of Dacca.

some of whomare now settled in Calcutta.

2 ° Gum2

‘ BR“! peculiar to the Tan3. Nan

4. Ash 7. Bit“8 °f Bengal.

8. Seal—A surname of both Tantis and SonarBani s.

9. Kandi—A surname of theKayasthas , Telis and ntis .

10. Datta—A surname of the Kayasthas , Tantis, SonarBaniyas ,&c.

1 1 . Pal—A surname of the Kay-asthas, Telis, Goalas and

Tantis.1 2 . Shah—A Mahomedan title which is the usual surname

of the wine-selling caste called Sum-i ; some of theDacca Tantis have also this surname.

Aitch—A surname of the Kayasthas and theTantis.

14. Pramanik—A surname of many of themiddle class andiapferior Sudras such as the Teli, Napit, N iki, Tura.

c .

15. Chandra—A surname of the Kayasthas, Sonar Baniyasand Tantis .

Generally speaking, all the Tantis of Bengal areVishnuvites and teetotalers. Like the other superiorSudra castes of Bengal, they do not allow divorce or there-marriage of widows. It is, however, said that some

232 'ms wssvmc cu rl s.

by the gods, and that the Taufis of Kutwa alone

ap reciate ithe weavers of Bengal are very industrious, thrifty

and sober. The only luxuries in which they indulgeare fish, curry, and a porridge of black kidney beans .

They neverwaste onemoment of their time in idle talkor amusement. Their adult males are always at theirlooms, while their females devote themselves to dressinand carding the yarn whenever the are not occupiedwith household work . The weavers c notmanufacturethe yarn . In former times, it was spun by old womenof all the classes, including high caste Brahman ladies .

But mule twist has now silenced the primeval char/ca,

and the sound of the spinningwheel can seldombe heardnow even in the remotest villages. The yarn now used

by the Indian weavers ismainly imported fromEngland,and is supplied to themby some capitalist who

.

advan

ces alsomoney and food-grains to his constituents, andgenerally has themcompletely under his power. Theyhave to give himthe roducts of their looms at a fixedprice, and he never al ows themto sell a yard of theircloth to any other person. It is only where there is acompetition among the capitalists that the poorweaversfind a little relief.

3.—T7ae Tatwas of B ehar.

The Tatwas of Behar have not the same position inthe Hindu caste systemthat the Tantis have in BenThe two names are corrupted forms of the same Sans '

t

word Tantubaya, whichmeans a weaver. But the Tatwas of Behar are in the habit of eating flesh and drinking strong liquors, and so they are regarded as an

unclean caste. The existence of such clans as C'hamar

Tanti and Kahar Tanti among the weavers of Beharints also to the conclusion that their status wasflo

wered partly at least by the admission of low castes

among them. Besides the indigenous Tirhutia Tantis,there are in Beharmany colonies of Tantis fromother

'ms KOBI, xomAND xosn'rr. 2 33

grovinces as is indicated by the names of Kanopa,aiswara, &c.,

by which the are known . The Tatwasbeing an unclean caste, thegrahmans do not take evena drink of water from their hands, and if a Brahmanofi ciates as their priest he becomes very nearly a

degraded person. The priestl work of the Tatwas issometimes performed by such of their castemen as

have enlisted asmembers of one or other of themodern

4.-l Kori and Kali of Northern India.

The Kori and Koli of Northern India are weaversprofessing the Hindu faith ; but they are very low

castes, and a member of any of the higher castes willnot take even a drink of water fromtheir hands .

5.— T7w Tantis of Orissa.

The Tantis of Orissa are divided into the following

1 . Gola Tanti—These weave fine cloth .

2 . Hana Tanti—These make coloured cloth of various

patterns.3. Moti BansTanti—These weave coarse cloth fromthread

of English or localmanufacture.

Many of Moti Bans Tantis of Orissa have of latedeserted their ancestral profession, and have becometeachers in village schools. The Tantis are regarded asan unclean caste in Orissa.

6. The Kaslm' of the Central Provinces.

The weavers of the Central Provinces are calledKoshti. They are a semi-clean caste . The Mahers of

the Province weave coarse cloths.

7. The Weavers of Guj rat.

There is a class of Kshettris in Gujrat whose profossion is weaving. They are good Hindus. But thereis not in Gujrat any cas te that can be said to correspondto the Tantis of Bengal.

2 34 'ma wssvmc exams or nvsoss .

8. Weavers of the D ravira country.

The cotton weavers of Southern India are calledKaikalur. It is said that they are addicted to drinkingspirits, and that their habits are similar to those of theaboriginal tribes. But theSudraYajak Brahmansminister to themas priests, and there is one clas s amongthemcalled Saliyar, who take the sacred thread . Thesilk weavers of Southern India are called Patnulkar.

Ethnologically they are a superior race, and their castestatus is also higher than that of the Kaikalars. Aocording to the traditions of the Patnulkars of SouthernIndia, their original home was Gujrat. Both the Kaikalars and Patnulkars are generally quite illiterate .

9.- The Weaving Castes of rllysore.

The general name of the weaving castes ofMysoreis Neyige. The following description of the severalsections to whomthe designation is applicable is takenfromthe last Census report of Mysore

U nder the generic name of Neyige (weavirii

’gzisixteen sub-castes

a r with an aggregate population of 86 , persons in almost033

“numbers for the two sexes , bearing a ratio of 1 76 per cent.

to the total population . The sixteen divisions may be condensed

into eight distinct sub-orders as below

DevangaTogataSale orBilimaggaSenigaPatvegarKhatriSaurashtrika

Total sages

These sub -divisions do not intermarry with one another or haveany social intercourse. In numerical strength the Devangas, subdivided into Kannada and Telegu Devangas, hold the first place.

The former are Lingaits, but have no intercourse with the LingaitBanijiks ; whereas Telegu D evangas are both Vishnuvites and

Siy‘altes

lanThere is no intermarriage, however, between this and the

ot er c

The next in order of strength are the To tas who are Siviteweavers , and produce the coarse kinds of clot that are worn onlyby the poorer classes. Theirlanguage is Telegu.

2 36 ms JOGIS.

10.—The Weavers of the Telegu country.

The weavers are called Niyata Kamin the Telegucountry. The profession is practised by the followingcastes ‘

1 . Pattasali—s trict vegetarians.2 . Devangala orDeyandra}

These eat fish , but do not ia3. Saliyar dulge in intoxicatingdrinks.

These are all clean castes. The Devangalas and theSaliyars are mostly Lingaits, wearing the LingaSutraand regarding the Jangamas as theirspiritual superiors.

Those who are not Lingaits wear the Yajna.Sutra of atwice-born Hindu .

1 1 .—The J ugis.

Besides the above there is a caste called Jugis whoare weavers and who are found in many parts of India.

The Jugis are Hindus, and of late years they havebeen claiming to have the right of takin the sacredthread but they are generally regar ed as veryinferior Sudras, and in all probability they are the

illegitimate and semi- legitimate descendants of the

mendicants called Jogis' who, with Gorakhpur as theirhead-quarters, were at one time perhaps as numerousin every part of India, as the Sankarite San as is andVishnuvite Vairagis are now. The name of t e caste,their usual surname of Nath, their practice of buryingtheir dead, and the profession of lace and a ron stringselling practised by thempoint to the conclusion thatthey are connected with the ancient Jogis in the sameway as the Ghar Bari Sanyasis and the Grihasthi

Vairs '

s are with the true Sanyasis and Vairagis.

Like t e Jugis, some of the Jogi mendicants are stillfound engaged in themakingand sellin ofapron stringsand other things of the same kind. 090 are calledDuri Har Jogis.

As the Jugis in some places serve as priests to idols calledDharmaRaj , it is uite possible also that they are the descendantsof the ancient Bud histmonks.

CHAP. III.—THE MAYARAS, HALWISAND

GURIAS.

THE Mayares and the Halwis of India make thoseconfections which formvery important items in the

daily food of the majority of well-to-do Hindus and

Mahomedans. These delicacies are highly prized byall classes of the people of India, and the demandof the poorer families for themis limited only bytheirmeans. The dainties manufactured and sold bythe Halwis are of various kinds, and some of them, as,

for instance, the preparations of creammade at Kishnagar, require ve considerable skill, and are verycostly . Some of e Hindu confectioneries are madeof onl sugar, curd and fine chips of cocoanut. These,thoughprepared by aMayara or Halwi

,may be ofl

'

ered

to the gods, and are eaten without any objection byorthodox Brahmans, as well as by the widows of thehigher castes who are required by the Shastras to be,d, in practice, usually are

,quite as uritanic in respect

of their diet, as the students of theBedas are en'

oined,and ought to be. Some of the Mayatas and alwismake other kinds of confections which are called paklcimethai, and which usual] consist of flour, peasemeal,pulverised rice, cream, go” fried in glu

'

or baked instrong solutions of sugar. The pale/cf methais prepared by the Sudra confectioners are eaten b Hinduchildren ,married ladies, and Babus of liberaf

r

views,”

but never b orthodox Hindus or their widows. In the

towns, the ayaras and the Halwis nowmake and sell( 2 37 )

2 38 'ms comscmonsas.

even some kinds of vegetable curries which are eatenby the classes who eat their pakkz

' methaz'. Some of

the confectioners in the towns are Brahmans. But

even theirmethais are not eaten by the strictly orthodox,or the widows of the higher castes. With regard tothe Mahomedans it is hardl

finecessary to say that as

they do not recognize the indu caste system,they

eat every kind of sweetmeat whether kachi orpakkiand by whatever caste manufactured . Some Mahomedans have learnt to practise the art. But consideringthe very small number of the Mahomedan Halwis

, as

they are called, it does not seemthat they have beenable to secure a very large share of the patronage of

even their own cc-religionists. In fact they are gene

rally quite unable to manufacture the nicer varieties,and that is, perhaps, the reason why the Hindu-madeconfectionery finds great favour even with the Mahomedan aristocracy of the country.

The word Mayara is a corru t formof the Sanskritcompound Modaka- lcam, whio means a confectioner.

The word Halwi means primarily a kind of puddingmade by frying flour in hi

, and then boiling thewhole in a solution of mil and sugar. The wordHalwi is also used as the designation of the confec

tiouot caste in Upper India. The Halwis and Mayaras

are divided into a large number of sub-castes, an enu

meration of which does not seemto be necessary in thisbook . Somemembers of these classes possess a littleknowledge of book-keeping. But themajority are quiteilliterate. The usual surnames of the Mayares of Bengalare Manna, Modak, Laha, Nag, Nandi, and Rakshit.The figures given by the several Censuses as to the

to tal population of the Mayaras and the Halwis do not

seemto be quite reliable . According to the Census of

1 881 , the total number of Ma aras in the LowerProvinces, includingperha s the Ilalwis, was , at that time,

souls. Accot ing to the last Census, the totalHalwipopulation ofBengal,BeharandOrissa, including

CHAP. IV. THE KUMAR OR POTTER.

Tm: Sanskrit names for the potter are Kulal andKumbhakara. In Southern India the potters are calledKusaven . The word Kumbhakar literally means a

maker of earthen jars.’ In practice, theKumarsmakemany other kinds of earthen vessels. As the poorerclasses of India use only earthen vessels as their cooking pots and water ots, and as earthen pots are usedeven by the rich or cooking purposes, the Kumar isindispensable in every village of importance. TheKumar’s services are required also for makin thoseclay images that in Bengal are set up at statein the houses of the rich and in public places, and which,after being worshipped for a few days, are thrown intosome river or tank with great pomp. Such being thefunctions of the Kumars, the caste is found in everypart of India, and their total numerical strength is, according to the last Census, Some of theKumars, as for instance, those of Nadiya and Ghurni,possess very considerable skill in painting and makingclay statues. In most parts of the countr e Kumars are regarded as a clean caste . In theyare regarded xceptionally clean, but in the CentralProvinces and Orissa they are re arded as unclean. It

is said that in some parts of -W. Provinces also

the are regarded as an unclean caste.

he Kumars are an illiterate caste, and there are

very few among themwho can sign their own name.

Their usual surname is P51.( 2 40 )

CHAP. V .—THE KARMAKARS AND LOHARS.

THE Hindu ironsmith is called Karmakar in Bengal,and Lohar in all the other Provinces of NorthernIndia, including Behar and Chutia Nagpur. TheKamars are in Bengal included among the upper nineof the Sudra castes. In Behar the corresponding casts

of Lohars have the same position, and there also a

Brahman will take a drink of water fromthe handsof an ironsmith without any hesitation . It is onlythe Lohars of Chutia Nagpur and Central Provinceswho are regarded as an unclean caste. That is, however, not on account of their profession, but theirpractice of eating fowls.

The Kamars of Bengal are unacquainted with ironsmelting, and now-a-days they generally work on piiron imported fromEurope, and sold by the wholesaledealers of Calcutta. The import of hardware fromEurope has led to the absolute neglect of the excellentsources of iron ores which are to be found in manyparts of India, and especiall in the western districtsof Bengal and in Mysore. Iron smelting is, however,still practised to some extent in the Central Provincesand Chutia Nagpur by the local Lohars.

’ In everyvillage throughout India there is generally a Kamaror Lohar, whose function is tomanufacture and repairthe agricultural implements of the local people.

For an account of the indigenous process of ironmelting, see

Mr. P. N. B oss'

s Hindu Civilisation , Vol. II, p. 308.

B,HC 2 41

2 42 THE sLacxsmns.

In the vicinity of the large towns, Kamars andLohars are generally to be found who display greatskill in the manufacture of cutlery, padlocks, swords,nails, hooks, &c. The name of FromChand Kamar, ofKanchan Nagar in Burdwan , is on the way towardsbecoming almost as famous in connection with cutleryas that of Rogers of Sheffield. The padlocks madeby Das Co. bid fair to supersede those of Chubb

,

and in respect of the manufacture of swords, the

superiority of the Indian Hamar’s work has been proved,

over and over again, by the experiences of Englishsoldiers in the field.

” If in spite of their skill theIndian Kamat s are not able to hold their own inthe local markets, their failure is not to be attributedto any fault on their part. The products of a

domestic industry must necessarily be more costlythan machine-made wares. Then , again the outturnof the small manufactories to be found in the remotevillages cannot be so easily collected together in a

commercial focus for distribution, and exchange, as

the produce of large foundries. The result of thesecauses is very strikingly illustrated by the fact thatwhile the worthless padlocks turned out by the fac

Birminghamare to be had in every hardwareIndia, and sell in millions, the Kamariaof the ancient types, which are considered

0 be the best and safest mechanisms of thekind

,cannot generally be had either for love or

money, and can be procured only by special order to

some workmen whose very names are generally un

known,— the advantages of themodern art of advertisement being as yet quite unknown to them.

Circumstanced as India now is, the revival andimprovement of the iron industr of the country seemsto be well-nigh beyond the ounds of immediate

See the remarks of Mr. Forbes-Mitchell in his Reminiscence:arthe Indian Mutiny.

CHAP. VI.—THE GOLDSMITHS.

1 . The Sonar and Shalom of Northern India.

THE position of the goldsmith in the Hindu castesystemis not the same in

c

all the provinces. Not beingexpressly includedm the Navasayaka group, he 1 8, in

Northern India,generally regarded as somewhat unclean .

But it is suggested that he comes within the divisioncalled Karmakar, and the best Brahmans will not

sometimes hesitate to take a drink of water fromhishands. The position of the Sonar in Behar, N -W .

Provinces and Panjab is similar to that of the Shakraor Swarnakara of Bengal . In the Pan]ah, the HinduSonars take the sacred thread

,just asmost of the other

Sudra castes there do. In the extreme south of the

Indian Peninsula, the oldsmiths do not forma separatecaste, but are includedin the groupp called Kammallar,whose sub-sections practise five difi'

erent kinds of handicraft, viz” work (1 ) in gold and silver

, (2 ) brass and

cepper, (3) 1 ron, sculpture . The correspondi

o

n

ggroup of castesm ysore is called Panchvala.

The smith sections in Mysore are called Akkasalaor (grkasala)) Agasala. The A esalas are recognisedby the other Panchsalars as the end of the clan . In

Telingana there is a similar group of castes calledPanchanamVarlu, an account of which is given in

2 of this chapter. In the Central Provinces there aretwo classes of goldsmiths called Sonar and Panchallar.

They take the sacred thread at the time of marriage,( 2 44 )

THE SONAR AND THE SHAKRA. 245

and are regarded as clean castes. The goldsmiths area very in telligent class— perhaps a little too sharp .

They usually practise their hereditary profession ,and,

as it is very lucrative, they very seldom ive a liberaleducation to their children in order to qu ify themfor

amore ambitious career.

2 . The PanchanamVarlu of the Telegu countryand the Kammallar of D ravira.

It has been already stated that the artisan castesworking on metal

,wood or stone are called Panchanam

Varlu in the Telegu country, Panchval in Mysore and

Kammallar in Dravira. The Panchanams of Telinganatrace their origin fromthe five faces of the god Siva.

They take the sacred thread and claimto have a higherstatus than the priestly Brahmans. But the other castesregard themas very unclean . In fact, not even aPariawill take a drink of water fromthe hands of a Panchanam. Formerly the Panchanams were not allowed towear shoes, or to carry umbrellas with them, or to ride inapal/ti even at the time ofmarriage . They have four subcastes, with five different occupations as stated below

l . Thfiaprofle

ssion of the goldsmith is practised by thensa

2 . That of the blacksmith by theKamari.3. D o. carpenter b the Wedron

3. D o. brazier b the Kanshari. g

‘a

D o. sculptor y all the above-mentioned castes.

The Kansalis, or the oldsmiths, have generally a

little education ,but the ot ers are usually quite illiterate .

The Kammallars of Dravira have the same divisionsamong them, but erhaps a higher status than the Panchanams of the elegu country . The correspondin

grou of castes in Mysore is, as already stated, calleanc val. They profess to be descended from the

celestial architect Visvakarma and wear the Brahmanical triple cord . They claimto be equal to the Brahmans, but their pretensions are not admitted by anyone not of their caste.

CHAP. VIL—THESUTAR AND THE BARHI.

IN Bengal and Western India the carpenters are

called Sutra Dhar or Sutar, from the Sanskrit word

Sutra, the thread, with which the course of the saw is

marked. Though their profession is a clean one, they,like theSonars, are regarded as a semi-clean caste. GoodBrahmans do not usually take drinkingwater fromtheirhands, and they are ministered by a special class of

Brahmans who are treated as degraded persons, andwhose status is inferiorto that of even the SudraYajakas.

Some of the Suters of Bengal practise the art of painting pictures of the Hindu eds. The female membersof some of the Sutars ma e an article of food for themiddle classes called chipitaka or chira. It is preparedby boiling unhusked rice, and husking it, while yetsli soft, by placing it in a wooden mortar, and

be it with a wooden hammer attached to the end

of amwhich is worked like a lever. While the

motive power is supplied by the foot of one of the

females engaged in the manufacture, another femalefeeds the mortar, and takes out from it the flattenedgrains mixed with the loose husk which is afterwardswinnowed off. The chira

,when it is first brought out

of themortar, is very sweet. But enerally it 1s eatenlon afterwards when it is compTetely dry . Whensoaked inmilk andmango juice, andmixed with sugar

and plantain, it becomes a highly enjoyable delicacy .

Themaking of chira is not the monopoly of the Sutars.

There is another caste called Ganrariya whose femalestake a considerable share in the busmess. The Sutar

( 2 46

CHAP. VIII.—THE BRAZ IERS AND COPPER

SMITHS.

1 .— The Kansa Banika of Bengal.

THE Kansa Baniks or Kansaris of Bengal are bothmanufacturers and sellers of brass, copper and bronzevessels. In the other provinces of Northern India, thecorrespondin castes are called Kasera, Thathera andTamhera. he caste status of the Kansa Baniks is

exactly similar to that of the Gandha Baniks . Theordinary SudraYajaka Brahmans minister to both as

priests, and even the best Brahmans will take a drinkof water from their hands. good Brahmansaccept even the Kansaris’ gifts op and without anyhesitation . The Kansaris are a ~ to-do class, andthere are among thema few who are reckoned amongthe richest men of the country . Such is Babu KaliKrishna Pramanik of Calcutta, and such was the lateBabu Guru Das Das of Nadiya. The late Babu TarakNath Pramanik

,the father of the former, used to spend

enormous sums of money every year in charity to the

pacer, and in the performance of religious ceremonies .

ut so vast were his resources, that the prosperit of

his family continues undiminished to the present (litwhile the family of Guru Das has been ruined ysimilar extrava ance, combined with injudicious speenlations and the ad counsel of his legal advisers.

( 2 48 )

THE RASARAS AND THATHEBAS. 2 49

The total Kansari population of Bengal is, accordingto the last Census, souls in all. There are

several sub- classes among them, of which themost important are the Saptagrami and Mohmadabadi.The usual surnames of the Kansaris are Das,

Pramanik and Pal. Generally speakin the Kansarisare an illiterate class, though some of tiemare able tokeep their own accounts. Kansari boys are sometimesfound in the English schools of the country. But theynevermake much progress. Most of the Kansaris areDevi worshippers and eat fleshmeat. Like theKamars,the Kansaris are sometimes employed to slaughter ani

mals for sacrificial purposes.

2 . The Kasaras and l atheras of lVorthern India.

The Kasaras and Thatheras of Northern India have,generally speaking, the same characteristics and socialstatus as the Kansaris of Bengal . Some of the Kasarasof Behar worship the Mahomedan saints called PanchPiriya.

3. The Gejyegora and Kanchugora of Southern India.

The Gey egoras are the makers of the small bellsworn by dancing women round their ankles. TheKanchugoras are also called Bogaras . They are the

braziers and coppersmiths.

CHAP. IX.—THESANKHA BANIKSOF BENGAL .

THE designation Sankha Banik literally signifies a

conch shell merchant. The Sankha Baniks are

popularly called Sankaris. Their chief business isthemanufacture of the shell bracelets which the poorerHindu women of East Bengal wear for ornamentalpurposes, and which even the richest Hindu ladies haveto wear at the time of theirmarriage and certain otherauspicious occas ions. The Sankaris make also thoseshell bugles which the Hindu warriors of ancient timesused on the battle-field, and which are now used onlyin connection with religious ceremonies. The casteposition ofthe Sankaris is exactly the same as that of theGandha Baniks and Kansa Banika. The Sankaris areto be found in only a few of

.

the large towns of Bengal.Their numerical strength is very small, and, generallyspeaking, they are ver poor, and quite illiterate. Theprofession of the Sank a Banik was never a very lucrative one, and it has of late been injuriously afl

'

ected bythe introduction of glass bracelets which are now in

fashion among all classes of Indian women . The glassbracelets are very cheap, and they do not lose theirlustre by use like the shell ornaments .

( 250 )

2 52 THE GRAIN muons-as .

There are two classes of Kahars called Dhimar andGond, who are also grain parchers. The grain parching castes,mentioned above, are to be found chiefly inthe United Provinces and Behar. In Bengal proper

ckMayaras act both as grain patchers and sweetmeat

m ers.

CHAP. XI.—THE DIBJ ISOR THE TAILORS.

THERE is a caste in some parts of the Panjab, N -W .

Provinces, Rajputana and Deccan who are called Dirji .They usually live b working as tailors . The Dir isof the Panjab take t e sacred thread . In Bengal t e

tailors are all Mahomedans. W ith regard to the Dirj isof Mysore, the following account is given in the lastCensus Report of the StateThe order is divided into two sub-divisions, viz Dirji, Chippiga

orNamDev and Rangare. The first three, known by the collectivename of Dir

'

i, are professional tailors, while the Rangares are alsodyers. The irjis are immigrants fromthe Maharatta country andworshipVitthoba orKrishna

( 253 )

PART XII.

THE MANUFACTURING AND ARTISAN

CASTES THAT ARE REGARDED AS

UNCLEAN SUDRAS.

CHAP. I.—THE BREWERS, TADI-DRAWERS

AND SELLERSOF SPIRITUOUS LIQUORS.

OF the several unclean castes, the most importantare those connected with the manufacture and sale of

spirituous liquors. Of these the following deservespecial notice

l . Sunri (Found in Ben I, Assam, Madras and

Central Provinces . otal population1 ' Brewers.2 . Kalwar (Found in every part of Northern

India. Total populationShanar and Illawar (Found in Southern Indiaonly). Total population :

BhanarIllawar

2 . Tadi orBa wa

4. Bhandari (Foundn

only in the Bombay Presipalmj uicd dency . Total population, 70.Ql4).

5. Pasi (Palm juice drawers ; found chiefly inBehar).

TiyanIdiga l % ,901 Found in the Deccan .

Ganadla

All these occupy a very low position in the Hinducaste system,

and although a greatmany of themhavein recent times become very wealthy, through the

( 254 )

256 THE BREWERS AND TADl-DRAWERS.

the Vishnuvite faith in order to have a share of theirlar esses, albeit the condition on which the are given issai to be that the doneemust partake of t e hospitalityof the donor. To comply with such a sine ad non mustbe very humiliatin to every Brahman, an it is hard tobelieve that love 0 lucre has sufficed in any case yet to

overcome Brahmanical pride to such an extent. Withregard to the relig

ion of the Sunris, Mr. Risley , on theauthority of the ate Dr. Wise, makes the followinobservations which are remarkably in accordance witfithe actual factsAccording to Dr. Wise almost every member of the caste is a

follower of Chaitani a, and the rich are celebrated for the ostenta

tious observance of t eSankirtana chants in honour of Krishna afterthe decease of any relative. The chief rites observed in EasternBengal are the worship of Ganesa on the lat Baisakh (April—May ),and the 1 st of A han (November—December) ; of Gandeshwari onthe 10th of Asia eptember—October) ; of D urga at the time of theD urga Puja in October ; and of Ganga whenever their boats are

starting on a trading voyage. The majorit being Vaishnavas ,animals are rarely ofiemd to any deity ; but w an th e is done, thevictimis afterwards released. Shabas are very fond of pigeons , andin the courtyard of almost every house a dovecot is fixed , as theybelieve that the air fanned by pigeous

’

.

wxngs watts good luck. Theyare also devoted worship ers of Kartikeya, the Hindu od of war,constructing annually in ovember a life-size emgy of t 0 god , andkeepin it within the female enclosure for a year. OtherHinducastes5a the image into the river immediately after the KartikPuja, but the Shahas allege that their special veneration of the godis often rewarded, the barren rejoicing and the husband becomingthe jo ul father of children. It is easy to understand in whatway t is figure

'

ves rise to scandalous stories among Bengalis ,andflaw the Sha becomes a butt for the wit and sarcasmof his

ne'

ours.

e BeharSauris follow the average Hinduismof that part of thecountry , and worship most of the regular gods as occasion offers.

Theirminor gods are very numerous. DharamRaj , Bandi Goraiya,

Govindji, Hanuman , KasiPanjiar, J oti Panjiyar, Apurba Pan'

iar.Mira, Saiyed, Julg

a, Sokha, Hosan Khan , and Panch Pir. ice

cooked inmilk an sugar, cakes of ghi (part), and various kinds offruit are offered to them. and afterwards eaten b the worshippers.Kids are sacrificed to Bandi. On Sunda s mil and flowers are

offered to the Sun. In Ben I, says Dr. ice. the B rahman , pecu

liar to the caste, boasts that e never accepts aims fromanyone not

a Sunri, but it is quite certain that none of the clean castes wouldresent himwith charity. These Brahmans , who assume the bomgestic titles of Vidyasagar, Vidyalankar, Chakravarti and Pathak,like the Purohits of the other low castes , read the funeral service atthe burning ghat, and are looked down upon by othermembers ofthe sacred order. The Sunris of Behar are served by a low class

ran KALWARS. 257

of Maithila Brahmans , who also minister to the re'

ous neces

sities of the Teli caste. No other Brahmans will eat an drink withthese men, who are known by the contemptuous epithet of TeliaBabhan . In ChutiaNagpurthe Brahmanswho serve the Sauris callthemselves Kanojias , but they have no right to the name, and no

other Brahmans will have anything to do with them.—Risley

’s

M a and Castes of Bengal , Vol. II, pp. 278-279.

The Sunris of Bengal bein Vishnuvites are strictvegetarians and teetotalers. here are a few Vishnuvite Bhagats amon those of Behar also. But themajority of the Behar nuris eatmutton, goat

’

s flesh andfish . Some eat even field rats. Most of themindulgefreely in strongdrink . The total numberofSunris in thedifferent provmces is as shown in the following table

BengalAssam 51 ,970Central Provinces

Total

The usual family names of the Sunris are Saba, Roy,Das

,&c.

2 .— The Kalwars of Northern India.

The Kalwars of Northern India have the same castestatu s as the Sunris of Bengal, and like themhavemany richmen among them,

as, for instance, Babu RamPrasad Chowdry, of Monghyr, and Babu Tejnarain, ofBhagalpur, the founder and endower of the TejnarainCollege, Bhagalpur. The Kalwars aremore numerousthan the Sunris, and themajority of themare now pettyshopkeepers having nothing to do with their ances

tral profession . A very large portion of the Beharioccra and pedlars of Calcutta are Kalwars. On

Being first questioned the generally profess to be

Ban iyas, and they confess t eir real caste status onlywhen sufficiently pressed . The Kalwars are dividedinto many sections, as, for instance, the following

l . Biyahut. 4. Khalsa.

2 . Ja swar orAjodhyabaSi. 5. Khoridaha.

3. Banodhya.

B , Ho

2 58 ms Ba nBs AND TADI-DRAWERS.

The Biyahuts and the Jaiswars have now no concernwith themanufacture or sale of spirituous liquors, andas the Biyahuts do not allow their widows to re-marthey are generally treated as a semi-clean cas te . T c

Jaiswar’

s profession is similarly unexce

gtionable, but

the worship the Mahomedan saints called anch Piriya,an chiefly on that account, but partly also on accountof theirmarrying their widows, the are regarded as

having a lower status than the iyahuts. As the

Jaiswars worshi some of the Mahomedan saints theBiyahuts and oridahas take a delight in goingdirectly a ainst the fundamental points of the Islamicfaith, by oflbring pigs and wins to a l divinity calledGoriya.

‘ The Banodhyas worship the Brahma Deo,i.e., the spirits of Brahmans dying in the unmarriedcondition .

The Kalwar ulation of India is souls .

In theCentrago

lii'ovinces, theKalwars are the brewers,and the Mahars are the tadi-drawers. The Kalwarsare there generally very rich as in other parts of the

countIn ePunjab themajority of the brewers are Kallals.

Some members scavenger caste, called Choorha,also practise the some profession.

3. The Shanars and Illavars of D ravira.

The Shanars and Illavars are identical in cas te.

They are a very rich community, and are very numerous in the southern districts of the Indian Peninsula.

The caste is called Illavar in the northern art of thetract where they are found, and Shenar in t e extremesouth. In South Kanara the Illavars are calledBillavars.

The Goriya is worshipped in the formof littlemounds or plat

forms of clay to be foun in man Behar villages. The precisenature of the Goriya

’s claimto wora ip is not generall known. He

seems to be theEresi

'

ng dsi of you or tombs. e andwine which are o ered to the ri are not eaten ordnm’k theM 08 : but given to the lowcaste whose god he is.

2 60 THE BREWERS AND TADI-DRAWERS.

spread themselves over Tinneveli on the invitation of the Nadansand other proprietors of land , who, without the help of their poorerneighbours, as climbers, could derive but little profit from theirimmense forests of palmyra. Some of these immigrations have probably taken place since the Christian era ; and it is asserted by theSyrian Christians of Travancore, that one portion of the tribe,the Illavars, were brought over fromCo lon by their ancestors forthe cultivation of the cocoanut palm. e Shanars, though probably immigrants fromCeylon are Hindus, not of the Brahmanicalbut of the Tamil or aborigin race.

The casts of Shanars occupies amiddle position between the Vellalars and theirPariah slaves. The majority of the Shanar confinethemselves to the hard and weary labourappomted to their race. Buta considerable number have become cultivators of the soil, as landowners or farmers, or are engaged in trade.

—Dr. Caldwell’s Essayon the Tinneveli Shanars, pp. 4—7.

Good Brahmans never minister to the Shanars as

priests, and their religious ceremonies are usually performed by the Paudarams.

4.—l Bhandaris of Western India.

The tadi-drawers of the Kankan and Bombay are

called Bhandari. Their total number is about one hundred and seventy thousand souls . They themselves donot drink the juice of the palmin the fermented state .

5.-The Pasis of B ehar.

The Pasis are the tadi- drawers of Behar. They eat

fowls and field rats, and indulge freely in spirituousand fermented liquors. Many of themhave taken tocultivation , and hold lands as occupancy or non-cocu

pancy ryots . Others are employed as day labourers,porters and coolies. The good Brahmans never ofi ciate

at their religious ceremonies, and at their sacrifices,funerals and marriages, they get either a degradedBrahman , or amember of their own caste, to act as the

priest. They allow their widows to t e-marry in the

sagai form. They allow also divorce and the re—marriage of divorced wives. The Pasis worship all the

minor gods of Behar,as

,for instance, Bandi Goriya

and Sokha. In themonth of Jeth the sickle (kanauli)used for cutting the palm tree is regularly worshippedby themwith flowers and grain .

THEmrsAs AND GAUNDLAs. 2 61

6.—The Tiyans of Southern India.

The Tiyans of Malabar and Travancore are almcultivators and tadi-drawers like the Shanars and lla

vars . TheTiyans, however, are regarded as even moreunclean . They are generally very handsome, but theyare treated as Pariahs. They practise polyandry . Thetotal number of the Tiyans exceeds five hundred thousand souls.

7 The Idigas of Mysore and the Telugu country .

The tadi-drawers of Mysore and the Telugu countryare called Idigas. They do not seemto be regardedas a very unclean caste, as they are now freely employed ia domestic service . They were formerly employedas soldiers under the local Palligars. The number of

persons returned as Idigas by the last Census is

8 . The Gaundla and the Gamalla of the Telugu

country.

The Gaundlas of Hyderabad are a numerous community. They number persons . The Gamallasof the Telugu country are the same as the Gaundlas .

There are no Shanars or Kalwars in the Telugucountry . The Idigas and the Gamallas are the tadidrawers, while the Sunris are the brewers. There is inthe Telugu country another caste named Sittigadu ,

who have the same occupation as the Idigas.

CHAP. II.- THE OIL MANUFACTURERS.

THE oilmanufacturing castes are called Teli, Kaluand Ghanchi in Northern India. In the northern partsof the Deccan the oil-makers are called Ganigas and TelKalu Varlu . In the extreme south the name of the

caste is Vanikan . They are all regarded as more or

less unclean everywhere.

‘

1 .— The Telis of B engal.

The Telis of Bengal have now nothing to do withthe manufacture of oil

, and they claimto derive theirname fromTula

,which means the shopman ’

s scale,instead of fromTaila, whichmeans oil. But the derivation of Teli fromTula is grammatically impossible ,and the suggestion is strongly contradicted by the factthat the Telis in other parts of the country are actuallyoil-pressers. However thatmay be, the Telis of Bengalare

, as stated in a previous chapter, included amongNava Sayakas, and regarded as clean Sudras.

In speaking of the Telis of Ben I, Mr. Risley says

Their ori inal profession was probe. ly oil-pressing, and the castsa be rcga ed as a functional grouprecruited fromthe respectablemi dle class of Hindu society . Oil is used by all Hindus fordomestic and ceremonial purposes , and itsmanufacture could onlybe carried on by men whose social urit was beyond dispute.

”

Risley’

s Tribes and Castes of Bengal, 01. I,pp

. 305, 306.

The above shows how difficult it is for an nglish author to'

ve

a correct view of the mechanismof our society . The fact is t at

ghi and oil are not contaminated or rendered unfit for a Hindu’suse by the touch of even the lowest castes .

( 2 62 )

2 64 THE OIL—MAKING own s.

a somewhat hi her status than that of thebrewers. TheKalus are all i iterate, and though there are very fewwealthymen among them, they are generally quite abovewant. In the Nadiya district there is atTihatta a Kalulandholder of the class called Talukdars. The usualsurnames of the Kalu are Gorai, Sagari, Sadhu, Khanand Set.The Kalus number persons in Bengal. They

are chiefly Vishnuvites. A special class of degradedBrahmans minister to themas priests. Their spiritualguides are the Chaitanite Gossains.

3. The Telis and Ghanchis of Upper India.

In Upper India the oil-pressers are called Teli andalso Ghanchi. Their position is nowhere higher thanthat of the Kalus of Bengal .

4. The Tel Kulu Varlu of the Telugu country .

The oilmen of the Telugu country are called TelKulu Varlu. They take the sacred thread .

5. The Ganigas and Vanihans of Southern India.

The oil-pressers are called Vanikan in the Dravira

country. n Mysore the name of the caste is Ganiga.

In the Kanarase country they are called also Jotiphanaor Jotina ora, i.e.

, the tribe of light. They have alsoin some ocalities different names according to peculiarities of theirmachines, or the method of workingthem. For instance, those whose mills are made of

stone and worked b yoking pairs of oxen are calledHeggani as ; Kiru- (ianigas is the name of those whowork wit wooden mills while those who yoke onlyone bull to the mill are called Vantiyettu Ganigas .

The Linga-wearing Ganigas called Sajjanas, hold no

social intercourse with the other sections. There are

both Vishnuvites and Sivites among the other Ganigas .

CHAP. III.—THE SALT MANUFACTURERS.

THE Luniyas or Nunias of Northern India are, as

their names indicate, primarily salt manufacturers .

The salt industry of Bengal being very nearly ruinedby the fiscal regulations which give greater facilitiesto the importation of Cheshire salt than to indigenousmanufacture, the practice of their caste profession bythe Luniyas has become well-nigh impossible. The

rity of themare now saltpetremakers and navvieslike the Beldars and the Koras . The

yare a numerous1community as will appear fromthe fo owing table

N.-W . Provinces

0 0 0 318’M l

In some parts of Behar the Luniyas are treated as

clean Sudras. But the practice is not uniform,and

generally they are regarded as semi-cleanSudras . The

inferiority of their caste status is due, not to their ro

fession which is a clean one, but to the fact of t eir

being a non-Aryan race, and to their habit of eating

gork and drinking spirituous liquors. They are chieflyaktas, and there are ver few Vishnuvite Bhakats

amon them. They allow divorce, and the re-marriageof wi ows and divorced wives.

The saltmanufacturing casts of theMadrasPresidencyare called Uppilian, U para andUpaliga. The salt-petremaking casts of Nor ern India are called Rehgar andShoragar.

( 2 65 )

CHAP. IV .—THE LEATHER WORKERS.

1 .— The Chamars and Muchis of Northern India.

THE Chamars and Muchis aregenerally regarded

as identical in caste. The name Chamar is derivedfromthe Sanskrit word Charmalcar, which means a

maker of leather.

”The meaning of the name Muchi

is not very clear. The suggestion that the name isconnected with the Sanskrit word Matsga is contradicted by the fact that the Muchis have nothing to dowith the catching of fish. The Chamar population of

Northern India is very large, and exceeds elevenmillionpersons as will appear fromthe following table

N.-W . Provinces

Punjab 1 2 16337BengalCentral IndiaCentral ProvincesRajputana

The Muchis are less numerous and number aboutonemillion persons . They are distributed as shewnbelow

BengalPunjabBombay

The Chamars and the Muchia have a variety of

occupations. Primarily, they are Skinners, tanners,shoemakers, and musical instrument makers . Theypractise also the weaving of coarse cotton cloths and

mats of reed . In Northern India, the Chamars servefor hire as agricultural labourers and workers . In

( 2 66 )

2 68 THE LEATHER-WORKING CASTES.

Deebhaga and Others, between whomthere is no intermarrific . The

former acknowledge the Sri Vaishnava Brahmans as their urus, towhomthey pay extraordinary homage on all ceremonial occas ions.TheMadigs in the province are decidedly an indigenous class. Theyaremostly field laboure rs , but some of themtill land , either leased or

their own . In urban localities , on account of the rise in the value ofskins, the Madigs have attained to considerable affluence —MysoreCensus Reportfor 1891 , pp. 254-55.

3. The Leather-working Castes of Rajputana and

Central India.

Besides the Chamars and Muchis there are someother leather-working classes in Rajputana having the

following names1 . Baimbi. 2 . Jatia. 3. Sargara

In Bikanir the Chamars are called Balai . The Bambis are workers in leather, weavers, and village servants,and receive the skins of all unclaimed dead animals.

The Jatias, like the Muchis of Bengal, eat the flesh of

dead animals. The Sargaras are cultivators and drumbeaters. The worship of the snake goddess Manasha

is considered by the Muchis in some parts of the countryas their speciality . Some Muchis regularly beg fromdoor to door with an image or emblemof either thesnake goddess or of the small-pox goddess . A Muchiof Bikanir who lived in the early part of the presentcentury, founded a religious sect.

CHAP. V .- THE MAT-MAKERS AND BASKET

MAKERS.

1 . The Mat-makers .

basket-making are clean arts . But

they are generally practised by the aboriginal castes,whose low social status is duemore to their non-Aryanblood and their non-observance of the Shastric restric

tions regarding diet and drink, than to the nature of

their professions. The celebrated Sitalpatis (Lit. coolmats) ofEast Bengal aremanufactured by a caste calledPatiyals.

The Masnudpatis of Cossrj arah are notmade by anyparticular caste, and the art is said to be practised byeven the local Brahmans. The nicer varieties of theseand the Sitalpatis are very costly but they are

cool, and in summer they are considered as anecessitthe Indian aristocracy . Iamnot aware whether t ore

is any demand for themin foreign countries.

2 . The Bushet-mahers.

The following are the castes that usually makebaskets

l . Dom, Found everywhere in Northern India.

Found in Ben I.

3. Moths.Koran Found in the ad Pre sidency .

4. Bansphor, A branch of the D om tribe, foundchiefly in Northern India.

5. Turi, Found in Bengal and Assam.

6. B ind Found in almost eve

? part of theUnited Provinces . he Binds n otonly makemats , but are tadi-drawers , boatmen and fishermen also.

( 2 69 )

PART XIII.

THE CLEAN AGRICULTURAL CASTES.

CHAP. I.-THEKURMISAND THEKUNBIS.

THEmost important a ricultural castes of NorthernIndia are those called urmis and Kunbis. They are

divided intomany sections, which, for practical urposes,are independent castes. But the status of t ese sec

tions is, generally Speaking, the same, and as they all

designate themselves asKurmis orKunbis, theymay betreated as a single caste. The derivation of their nameis not very clear. It may be traceable to some abori

'

nal language, or to an abbreviated formof thegimskrit compound Kriski Kurmi, which means an

agriculturist.The Kurmi population of India is ver large, the

total exceeding ten millions. They are istributed as

followsBombayN.

-W . Provinces

CentralProvinces

There are no Kurmis in Bengal proper or Punjab.

Taking a bird’s-eye view of the ethnology of NorthernIndia

,it would appear that the principal elements in the

rural population of the country are the Kurmis, Gapas,( 2 70 )

2 72 'ms AGRICULTURAL CASTES.

In Raipore 4. Singrowlo.

5. Tirola.

The religion of the Kurmis in Behar is the same asthat of the other local Sudra castes. They ofl

'

er worshi to the gods of the Hindu pantheon, and also tosuch local deities as Sokha, Sambhu Nath, Goriya, &c .

The majorit of themare, however, mainly followersofKabir an Ramanand . Some of theKurmisworshipalso the Mahomedan saints called Panch Firiya.

The altar of the Panch Piriya consisting of a platform of earth, is erected outside the dwelling-house.

A Mahomedan priest officiates at the worship, and the

animal ofi'

ered is sacrificed in the usual method of the

Mahomedans. If a fowl is sacrificed, it is taken away bythe priest. Sometimes castrated goats and pigeons are

offered, and these, after theirj abaz'

or ceremonial slaughter, according to Mahomedan ritual, are eaten by the

votaries. In accordance with vows previouslymade forthe health of children or some other similar object, theKurmis of Behar sometimes celebrate also the Mahomedan Maharamfestival.Some of the Kurmis eat fowls and field rats ; but

they do not eat pork or beef, and are generally regarded as clean Sudras. The ordinary Sudra YajakaBrahmans minister to themas priests, and they are

deemed by the highest castes as eligible for domesticservice.

The Kurmis are an illiterate class. But the makegood soldiers, and there are many big land_oldersamong them. The

(poor and landless members of the

caste live chiefly by omestic service .

The Kurmis have no peculiar surnames. But whenany one of themattains such wealth or position as to be

THE xvnms. 2 73

respected by the local people, he would add to hisname one or other of the following adjuncts

6. Morar.

7. M ukhya.

8. Pramanika.

9. Rout.10. Sarkar.

l l . Sing.

In almost all the sub-castes of the Kurmis, exceptingthe Ayodhya Bansi, Gbamola and Kochaisa, awidowisallowed to re-marry . If shemarry a youngerbrother orcousin of her late husband, she cannot forfeit her claimto a share of her husband’s estate, or her right to theuardianshipof her children . If shemarry an outs ider

,

t ese rights are forfeited . Divorce is permitted amongthe Kurmis, anda divorced wifema marry a ain in the

samemanner as a widow. The urmis 0 NorthernIndia usually employ a Brahman to ofiiciate as priestat theirmarria es. In Chota Nagpore and Orissa, thepractice is diflgrent. There the work of the priest, onsuch occasions, is done b some elderlymember of thehouse or by the Laya of the village.

The Kurmis burn theirdead, and performtheir shradsin the same manner as other high caste Sudras. The

period for which they observemournin varies according to local practice, fromten days to

'

rty days.

CHAP. II.—THEKOERISOF NORTHERN INDIA.

THE Kurmis and Koeris difi'er in nothin exceptthat the formerare producers of the agriculturfistaples,while kitchen gardening is the speciality of the latter.

In the vicinity of the large towns in Northern India,

the Koeris raise the fruits and kitchen vegetablesrequired for local consumption . They take a part alsoin rearing tobacco, opium, and other a ricultural stufi

'

s

requiringmore care and skill than tfie staple cr0ps.The never serve in amenial capacity .

T e caste status of the Koeris is similar to that ofthe Kurmis. In the matter of food, the majority ofboth these castes conformto the rules laid down in the

Shastras. But it is said that, like some classes of theKurmis, fowls and field rats are eaten by some of the

Koeris also .

The SudraYajakaBrahmans of all classesminister tothe Koeris as riests. Themajority of the Koeris are

Sivites and S tas, and there are notmany Vaishnavasamong them. They are regarded as a clean Sudracaste, and the Brahmans will take drinking water fromtheir hands without any hesitation. The Koeris willeat both lu cid and pakki food cooked by a Brahmanbutwill not eat the leavings of a Brahman ’

s plate as theShast inculcate the Sudras to do, and is practicallydone bymany of the betterSudra clans.

The Koeris are quite as illiterate as the Kurmis .

TheKoeris are ver numerous in Behar, and are foundalso in the N Provinces. Their total numericalstrength is nearly one and three-quarters of amillion.

( 2 74 )

2 76 THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES.

buy the requisites fromaMali, or to procure themfromthe garden of a neighbour. In the vicinity of the

sacred shrines the demand for flowers, garlands and thesacred leaves enables the Mali to carry on a brisk and

profitable trade. The Malis of Ben

gal are also the

manufacturers of the tinsel with whio the clay idolsare usual] decorated. They are likewise suppliersof yrotec ic works, and the tinsel crown whicha Hindu has to wear at the time of marriage. TheMalis are an illiterate class . They are a clean caste .

The Malis of the Central Provinces and Berar are veryskilful cultivators. They eat flesh and drink spirits.

CHAP. IV .— THE RACHIS.

THE Kachis are found chiefly in the central districtsof Northern India. They are very much like the

Koeris . They are very good cultivators. There are

many sub-divisions among them,as, for instance, the

following1 . Kanona2 . SakyaSeni

3. B ardiya

4. M urao

5. Kachchwaba.

6. Balloria.

7. Anwar.

The Kachis number persons distributed asstated in the following table

N.-W . Provinces 7M,“

Central ProvincesCentral India

These figures do not, it seems, include the Muraos

who were separately enumerated at the last Census.

The Muraos number persons, and are foundon ly in the United Provinces. The Kachis are verynumerous between Rai Bareli and Kanoj .

( 2 77 )

FromKanoj .Fromthe ancient town of Sankinain Farakkabad .

Said to derive their name fromthe fact of their cultivatinghuldi or turmeric).

Said to be so named fromthe factof their cultivating male or

radish .

CHAP. V .— THE LODHASAND THELODHIS.

LIKE the Kachis, the Lodhas are found chiefly in thecentral districts of Northern India. They are dis

tributed as shown in the following tableN.

-W . ProvincesCentral ProvincesCentral India

The caste status of the Lodhas is somewhat lowerthan that of the Kurmis. Like the other agriculturalcastes they aremostly illiterate. There are a few landholders among them. The following are the names oftheir principal sub-divisions

l . Patoria, found chiefly in the 3. Sankallajaria.

districts of Delhi, Alighar 4. Lakhia.

and Etah . 5. Khoria.

2 . Mathuria, so named fromthe 6. Pania.

ancient town of Mathuria.

The Lodhis are a different tribe. They are to be foundin Jhansi, Lalitpore Sagor, Damoh, and Hosungabad.

The Lodhis are very turbulent and rever

igleful and are

very unlike the peaceable Kurmis. e principallandowners of the district of Damoh are Lodhis.

( 2 78 )

2 80 THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES.

such a necessity of human life as salt. The word monopoly beinga bugbeartoEnglish people, they were easilydeceived, and the a

'

tationists , finding sympathy fromthe Press and the C urch, could not fail to secure theirobject. As amatter of fact, the monopoly systemon

which salt was manufactured by the East India Company, since the days of Clive whose genius first adoptedit, was a boon to the country ; and its abolition has notbeen productive of any good to any class of Indianpeople, though it has been highly beneficial to Englishship-owners and saltmerchants. Now that the princils of Free Trade is about to divert the salt trade of

engal so as to mainly benefit Germany and Arabia,it is to be hoped that the questionmay be reconsidered,and themonopoly re-establis‘hed on its ancient footing.

In the Metropolitan districts of Nadiya and TwentyFeurPergunnahs, theKaibartas formthe lower layer ofthemiddle classes. In the former district the may benowsaid to have even a higherposition . In t e palmydays of indigo cultivation there

,many of the local

Kaibartas obtained thoseministerial employmen ts in thefactories of theEnglish planters which were very lucrative, but were too risky to have much attraction for

Brahmans and Kayasthas. B

?the practice of every

kind of Oppression to compe the ryots to cultivateindigo, the Kaibarta employé s of the Eu lish factorsmade themselves the greatest favourites wit theirmasters. To such an extent was this the case that in the

drama called Indigo .Mz'

rror— forthe translation ofwhichthe philanthrophic English missionary, Mr. Long, wassentenced to suffer incarceration as a criminal a Kayastha Dewan of an indigo planter ismade to brag beforehismaster by saying that, although of the writer casteby birth, he was qualified and prepared to render the

very same kind of service as aKewat. The plantershave been ruined chiefl by the litigation in which theyinvolved themselves. ut the descendants of their employé s are generally in very easy circumstances. Some

THE KAIBARTAS or BENGAL . 2 81

of themare now big landholders, while, with theirancestral reputation for op ressing the people, and theirwillingness to run the ris of criminal rosecutions, a

goodmany of themare able to secure highofi ces in theservice of those parvenu zemindars who seek to improvetheir rent-rolls by the simplemethod of forcibly evicting the freeholders and permanent tenants from theirlands. Some of the Kaibartas of Nadiya have of latebeen competing for University distinctions, and haveattained also high offices in the service of Government .In Calcutta the millionaire Marh family of Jaun Bazar

are of the Kaibarta caste. They possess very valuablehouse pro t ty in the town, and also extensive zemindaries in t e interior of the countThe Kaibarta population of In

'

dia is very large, thetotal beingmore than three millions. The MidnaporeKaibartas have the following surnames

l . Myti.2 . Bera.

3. J ana.

Aasumya.

yal

The usual surnames of the Nadiya Kaibartas are

Das, Biswas, and Bhaumik. Math, as a surname, is

not very common either in Midnapore or in Nadiya.

In the Census reports and in Mr. Risley ’s Tribes andCastes of B engal a distinction ismade between Kaibartas and Kewats. As amatter of fact, the name Kewatis only a corrupted formof Kaibarta, and is appliedto designate themonly when the speaker’s contemptfor themismeant to be implied.

Though regarded as somewhat unclean , yet in Bengaland in Tirhoot also, the poorerKaibartas are now and

then to be found employed as domestic servants in the

households of the higher castes. The Kaibartas havespecial Brahmans, but in Midnapore the ordinary SudraYajaka Brahmans minister to them as priests in all

ceremonies excepting Sradha.

CHAP. VII.—THE SADGOPAS.

THEmajority of the actual tillers of the soil in Benare Mahomedans. The only Hindu castes inproper that are chiefly devoted to agriculture are

following1 . Kaibarta. 3. Koch .

2 . Sadgopa. 4. Agari.

Of these, the A uris and the Koch have been spokenof already in the c apters devoted to themilitary castes.

The Sadgopas are a small community, their total pcpulation bein slightly above half a million. They are

found chie in the districts of Burdwan, Midnapore,Hooghly, Nadiya, Twenty-FourPergunnahs and Bankoora. The majority of themlive by agriculture or

menial service, but there are among themman biglandholders and men of culture. Amon the S gopazemindars the names best known are the ollowing

l . The Rajas of Narjole in Midnapore.2 . The Sarlrars of Peosara in Hoo

ghly.

3. The Ro s of Madhavpore near umlok.

4. The H dars of Bad la in Midnapore.

5. The Panjas of Jala Bindu in Pergunnah Saboug,M idnapore.

Of the Sadn

as who have attained high oflices in

the service 0 government, the followingmay bementioned here

1 . Babu Grish Chunder Chowdhry, Subordinate J udge,

Sharat Chandra Ghose, Bahadoor, Execu

( 2 82 )

CHAP. VIII—THE CHIEF AGRICULTURALCASTESOF THE CENTRAL PROVINCES.

THE chief agricultural castes of the Central Provincesare the following

The bi gest tenure-holders are the Kunbis, Telis andMalis. he Puars are celebrated for their skill in theconstruction of reservoirs of waterand aqueducts. TheTelis are the best agriculturists.

In the Central Provinces the Lodhas are found chiefly in Hosungabad. The Lodhis are a distinct cas te.

They are very good agriculturists and are foundin Jabbalpore, Saugor, Narsingpore, Bosun

Bhandara, Chindwara, and Damoh. The population of

the principal agricultural tribe of the Central Provincesis as stated below

KunbiMaliLodhaTeli

The Teli ’s proper profession is the manufacture of

oil . But themajority of the Telis of the Central Province are eugao

red in agricultural pursuits. Thereare many big Teli landholders in the districts near

Nagpore and Raipore. The Koltas are found chieflynear Sambalpore.

( 2 84 )

CHAP. IX—THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES

OF THE PANJAB .

THE chiefagricultural castes of the Panjab are the

Jats and theKambohs. An account of the Jats has been'

ven already. The Kambohs have two divisions amongtgliem one practisingagriculture, and the othermakinand selling confectionery. The latter take the sacrefithread, but the former do not.In the Census Reports, the Arrains, Sainis and

Ghiraths are included among the a icultural castes ofthe Panjab . The Arrains are main y kitchen gardeners like the Koeris andKachis of Northern India. Mostof the Arrains are now Mahomedans. The Sainis are

sellers of fodder, and the Ghiraths are a mountaintribe who are employed enerally as domestic servants.In the Pan

'

ab some of t e Sarswat Brahmans till thesoil with t eir own hands. Among the agriculturalclasses of the province must be included also the

Tagus who profess to be a section of the GourBrahmans. For an account of these Tagus see p. 53, ante.

The total po ulation of each of the chief agriculturalcastes in the anjab is as stated below

( 2 85 )

CHAP. X.—THE AGRICULTURAL CASTESOF

THE TELEGU COUNTRY.

THE agricultural castes of the Telegu country“ are

the following1 , 4. ReddiVaru.

2 . Varu.

3. KammaVaru. 6.

These are all high caste Sudras . They enlist in thearmy as common soldiers. The Reddis at one timewere the rulers of the country. Most of the Paligarsbelong to one or other of the agricultural castes mentioned above. BamDev RaoNagamaNaidu, zemindarofVallura in theKrishnaDistrict, is aTelega.YarlagadaUnkinira, zemindar of SallaPalli in the same district

,

is a Kamma Varu. The zemindars of Vanaparti andYadwal in the Nizam’

s Dominions are Reddi Varus.

The zemindars of'

Venkatagiri, Noozbid, Pittapur andBobili belong to the Vellamma caste.

The agricultural Sudra castes mentioned above follow the local Ksatriyas in all matters relating to

religion and diet. They eat almost every kind ofmeatexcepting beef. They also drink s irituous liquors

,

though in privacy, and with greatmo eration .

As to the geographical boundaries of the Telegu country , see

p. 98, am.

( 2 86 )

CHAP. J UL—THE AGRICULTURAL CASTES

OF THE DRAVIRA COUNTRY.

IN the Dravira countr agriculture is practisedchiefly by the Vellalars, V ugas,Maravans and Ahamndiane. These have been described already, the firsttwo as writer castes, and the last two as semi-militarycastes. Besides these there aremany other castes whoseprincipal occupation is agriculture. Of these themostimportant are the following

1 . The Bali1 ° Ram“

2 . The Totigiar orKambalatters.

2 . Raplliliano 60 F5I1“.

3. Vunnia orPulli.4. Oddar orWaddava.

5. Upparava.

With regard to the Kavaris, Mr. Sherring gives thefollowing accountThis is a very extensive tribe with at least eighteen branches , some

of which are so important and numerous as to deserve to rank asseparate tribes . The Kaveris were original] devoted entirely to

agriculture, in the capacity of landowners, w ile their lands werecultivated by inferior races ; but, althou

gh most are still engaged

in their hereditary callin s,uniting wit it the tilling of the soil,

there are several clans w ich pursue other avoca ions, and are

sailors, small traders, pedlars and the like. They are properly a

Telegu peo ls , wh ich language nearly all of themspeak yet somehaving sett ed in the Tamil coun now ca on the business oflife in the latter tongue. Two branc es of the vari tribe are thefollowing

1 . and so forth .

2 .

The Tottiyars are said to beant up into nine clans , differing

considerabl fromone another. ey are very industrious and ener

getic as cu tivators, and in other ursuits many of themoccupyan important position in the city of res .

( 2 88 )

TEE KAVABIS AND KAPILIANS. 2 89

Several clans of Tottiyars entered the District of Madura as

colonists four or five hundred ears ago, where theytinguished themselves as agricu turists especially in reclaiminwaste lands. They are fond of cock-fighting and hunting, an

have a Character for d issoluteness beyond that of other castes. Theworship of Vishnu is popular among them, and they have greatreverence for relics, are very superstitious and are peculiarly addicted to the practice of magic. The people generally regard themwith awe, because of their mystical rites , which are said to besingularzs

successful in curing snake-bites. In feature, theTottiyars

have a tinctiveuess of their own , separating themin a markedmanner fromnei hbonring tribes. The men wear a bright colouredhead -dress, and t e women cover themselves with ornaments , neglooting to cover the upper part of their persons. The marriageceremonies of the Tottiyars are curious. Pol

andry in reali

s,

though not professedly , is practised by them. ey never cons tBrahmans, as the

.

have their own spiritual guides, called RodangiNayakkans , who rect their religious ceremonies , reside at theirfeasts , cast their horoscopes, and enjoy man pri ages in return,some of which are not of themost reputable C aracter.

The Kapilians are a respectable class of Canaresecultivators. With regard to the Vannias orPullis, thefollowin observations are to be found in the MadrasCensus port for 1 871Before the British occupation of the country, they were slaves to

the Vellalar and Brahman cultivators ; but a large number of themare now cultivators on their own account, or also work the lands ofthe higher castes on a systemof sharing half the not produce withthe proprietors. Others are simpl labourers ; and many of thembytaking advances fromtheir emp oyers , are still practically serfs

o the soil. and unable to extricate themselves from the bondageof the landlord . In all respects, these people have the characteristics of abo inal tribes. As a rule, they are a very dark-skinnedrace, but g field labourers , excellent farmservants and cultivators.They abound largely in the Tamil D istricts of Trichna ii andTanjore .

—TheMadras 0mm Report for 1871 , Vol. I, p. 15

Of the several classes of agricultural labourers inthe Dravira country, themost imortant are thePallans.

Re arding these the following escription is given inNe son

’

s Madura Manual

Their rincipal occu tion is ploughiu the lands ofmore fortunate mils. Thong nominally free, t ey are usually slaves inalmost eve sense of the word , earning by the sweat of their browa bare han ful of grain to stay the pangs of hunger, and a ragwithwh ich to part] cover their nakedness. They are to be found in

ahnost every vi 0, toiling and moiling for the benefit of Vellalarsand others, and with the Pariahs doing tientl nearly all the hardand dirty work

.

that has to be done. erson contact with themis carefuuy avoided by all respectable men ; and they are never

B, no 1 9

2 90 'ms AGRICULTURAL CASTES.

w itted to dwell within the limits of a village ; but their hutscm a small detached hamlet, removed to a considerable distancefromthe houses of the respectable inhabitants , and barely se ratedfromthat of the Pariahs.—Nelson’s Madura Manual, Part I p. 58.

The palmcultivators of the Dravira country are

the tadi-drawing castes, namely, the Shanars, Illavars,Billawars and Tiyans. For an account of themsee page259 et se

The Oddars are an aboriginal race .-They serve as

agricultural labourers and also as navvies. Theyprofess

to be worshippers of Vishnu and bear upon their reaststhe trident marks of that deity. But they drink spiritsand eat pork and field rats . They are very industrious,and work readil with their wives. Polygamy is largelypractised by t em. Divorces are very fre(

}uent in

their community. The Upparavas are proper y cultivators, but are employed in themanufacture of salt andsaltpetre.

2 92 'ma BETEL LEAF snowsas.

Mahomedan and the guest a Hindu, then spices are

offered instead of an .

In some parts 0 India, as, for instance, Up erAssamand the southern parts of the Madras Presulbncy, thehotel leaf grows in the open air as a creeper to the arecanut palm, or to bamboo posts set upin their midst. In

these parts of the count there is no such caste asBaruj l but throughout the greater art of India

,the

pan creeper requires very considera lo care, and the

pan-

growers, who have to devote their whole time totheir gardens called Baroja, have become a separatecaste with the designation of Baruyl . The exteriorof pan gardens may be seen very often by the IndianRailway traveller, when , through the window of his

carriage, he takes a view of the aspect of the countrythrough which he may be passing. The outside is notvery attractive, but the scenery inside is very picturesque, and well worth the trouble of visiting.

The Barnis are a clean caste, and the ordinarySudra Yajaka Brahmans minister to themas riests .

Their total population is, according to the last‘

susus,

as stated belowBengal

N. ProvincesCentral ProvincesAssam

The Barnis are, generally speaking, quite illiterateand the few among themwho have lately attained somedegree of culture are trying their best to pass as

Kayasthas.2 .

-The Tambula's.

The Tambulis derive their name fromthe Sanskritword Tambul, which means betel leaf. The roperprofession of the caste is the sale of the beta leaf,and in some

parts of the country the Tambulis still

practise their ereditary avocation . But the Tambulisof Bengal are a well- to-do class, and, like the

Telis, have long since given up theirancestral business.

'ma ru inou s. 2 98

The now carry on either wholesale or retail tradein good-grains and oil- seeds, and at present theyneither know, nor would admit, that their caste statusis the same as that of the Barui. As both Telis and

Tambulis generally carry on the same kind of business,the popular idea in Bengal is that the two are sub-divisions of the same caste, if not uite identical . In factthere are reasons for supposing t at someTambuli families have got themselves admitted into the Teli caste,and have given up their connection with their owncaste. For instance, it is well known that the founderof thePal Chowdry family ofRanaghatwas oneKrishnaPanti, who had been originally a pan

- seller, but subsequently became a big merchant, and still later a bizemindar, by purchasing, at the time of confusion whichfollowed what is called the Permanent Settlement of

Bengal by Cornwallis, the extensive estates belongingto the Nadiya Raj . Krishna Panti was not only a panseller originally, but his surname also indicates that hewas of the pan

-selling caste . The family, however,rofess to be Telis, and have, since becoming landholders, created and assumed the aristocratic Teli surname of Pal Chowdry .

The last Census gives the following figures regardingthe Tambuli population of India

BenN. ProvincesCentral India

The Tambulis of Behar, N.-W . Provinces and Central

India are generally quite illiterate. In Bengal, theirmore aristocratic castemen stand on almost the samefooting with the Telis in point of culture and refinement. The usual surnames of theTambulis of Bengalare Pal, Panti, Chail and Rakshit, and those of theBeharTambulis are Khiliwala andPanti.

PART XIV .

THE COWHERDSAND SHEPHERDS.

CHAP. I.—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

THE total population of the several castes whoseprimary occupation is cattle breeding is very large,amounting to nearly twenty millions in all. Aboutthree-fourths of the number are cowherds . They are

variously called Goala, Goli, Golla, &c., which designations are all colloquial forms of the Sanskrit wordGopala (lit. keeper of cows) .The majority of the cowherd castes live on the

income of the dairyproduce of the flocks they keep

,

supplemented by t at of agriculture which the alsopractise to a very considerable extent. I

’

Vith t e ex

ception of the Allirs, almost all the other cowherdcastes are more or less notorious for their thievingpropensities. Although the Gopas or cowherds are

included among the upper n ine of the Sudra castes,

yet, with the exception of the Ahirs, they are regardedas somewhat unclean . They have special priests, and agood Brahman cannotminister to any of themwithoutbeing degraded for ever. Their low status in the castesystemis due partly to theirbeing suspected as criminaltribes, and partly also to the fact that they are in the

habit of castrating their bull—calves, and brandingtheir cattle with red-hot iron . In the modern towns

( 2 94 )

CHAP. II.- THE ABHIRSOR AHIRS.

THE Abhirs are themost numerous and the cleanestof the several castes of cowherds. Their total numberexceeds eight millions, and they are to be found inalmost ever part of India to the north of the riverNarmada. Prom the extent of country over whichthey are spread, and fromthe references to theminthemost ancient Sanskrit works, it seems very probablethat they had been settled in the countr long beforethe Brahmans and the Ksatriyas found t air way intoit. There is abundant evidence also as to the ancientAbhiras having been capable of wielding the swordas well as the crock. Krishna, the great hero and

statesman of ancien t India, who is now worshiptped by

the majority of the Hindus as their chief was,if not actually an Ahhire himself, at least bre upfromhis infancy in the house of an Abhira cowherd. TheNarayni arm which he organised, and which madehimso powerful that his friendship was eager] soughtby the greatest kings of his time, is describedin theMahdbha

'mat as being all of the Abhirs caste. Thestory of the Sanskrit drama Mrichakatika

” may betaken to warrant the conclusion that for aman of the

cowherd cas te to be a king, was not an uncommonevent in ancient India. Further

,it is established by

authentic history, that a dynasty of Ahir kings ruledover Nepal at the beginning of the Christian era.

But whatever the political importance or the militaryprowess of the Abhirasmay have been in ancient times,

( 2 96 )

'ms seams. 2 97

they are now simple cattle breeders and tillers of the

soil. There are a few landholders among them,but

the majority of them are very poor and illiterate .

The three main divisions among the Ahirs are the

followingl . Nand Bans—found chiefly in the Central Doab .

2 . Yadu Bans— found chiefly in the Upper Doab and tothe west of the riverYamuna.

3. Gwal Bans—found chieli in the Lower Doab and inthe districts adjoining one

The practice of marrying the widows of an elderbrother prevails among some of the Ahir tribes in theUpper Doab, as among the Jats and Gujars of the locality . In the neighbourhood of Delhi, the Ahirs eat,

drink and smoke with the Jats and the Gujars. TheRajputs generally repudiate all connection with theAhirs,though it seems very probable that the Yadu BansiKsatriyas were originally Ahirs .

The Ahars, who are found chiefly in Rohilkhand,seem to be a sub-class of the Ahirs, though theydisclaimsuch connection .

CHAP. III.— THE GUJARS.

THE Gujars are a pastoral tribe of Western India,the majority of whomhave in recent times espousedthe Mahomedan faith . With the Jats they formthe

backbone of the rural population of the Panjab,though

inferior to them in civilization , industry, and agricul

tural skill. The Gujars possessed at one time greatimportance, as appears from the fact that they gavetheir name to the peninsula of Gujrat, and also tothe district of the same name in the Panjab . As theGujars are at present, they are believed to be one of

the criminal classes, there being among themmanywho are said to be cattle- lifters and gang robbers.

The name of the tribe seems to be derived fromthe

compound Gouchor which might mean a grazier of

cows.

”In Scinde the Gujars keep cows, while the

Gowars sell milk and its preparations . The Gujar

population of India exceeds two millions, and is distriuted as follows

Pan’

abN. ProvincesRaj utana

Kas mirCentral India

The Gujars are an illiterate caste . There are veryfew big men among them. It is quite possible thatamon the minor chiefs and landholders there are a

few w 0 were originally Gujars. But as these now

claim to be Ksatriyas, it is very rare to find any( 2 98 )

CHAP. IV .—THE GOALAS OF THE LOWER

PROVINCES.

1 . The Goalas of B engal.

Tun common name of the several cowherd castes isGoala. Even the Ahirs and the Gu

'

ars are spoken of

enerally as only sub-divisions of the (icala caste. It is,owever, not

'to be supposed that the Goalas of thedifferent provinces are completely identical in caste.

Even in the same province there are generally as

many different sections amon them as among the

higher castes. The Goala pcpu tion of Bengal is verylarge. According to the last Census their numberexceeds fourmillions.The Goalas form the principal Hindu element in

the agricultural population of Bengal proper. Themajority of the cultivators in the eastern and centraldistricts of Bengal are Mahomedans. Of the Hinduryots by far the lar

gest number are Goalas among

whommay be inclu ed the Sadgopas . The 0

other Hindu castes that usually earn their livinagriculture are the Kaibartas, Aguris, Kapalis anPaliyas. The Goalas are generall illiterate and poor.

There are, however, some among t emwho hold possession of valuable tenures, and there are a few zemiudarsalso among them. Instances are known also of Goalasbavin attained University distinctions, and boldinsuch igh offices as are now usually allowed to be filleby the natives of this country.

( 300 )

run scams or BENGAL. 301

The usual surnames of the Goalas of Bengal are thefollowing

2 . Fill.

The Goalas of Bengal are divided into the followingclasses

Pallava—found chiefly in Calcutta and its vicinity.

Bagri or U’

aini—these are believed to castrate bulll .

2 .calves , an are therefore treated as somewhat unclean.

3. Bamndra Goalas—the Goalas of North Bengal.

ifBarhi Goalas—the Goalas of Burdwan .

Maghai—Goalas of Maghadha or Behar. These are said

to extract butter fromunboiledmilk, and are therefore rded as somewhat unclean .

6. Godos ound chiefly in the Nadiya District7. Ban pa

—found chiefly in the Burdwan Division.

An account of the Sadgqpa tribe has been given

already in connection with e agricultural castes of

Bengal. Of the othersections of the Bengal Goalas onlythe Godos require special notice.

The Godos of B engal.

The name of this class seems to be derived fromtheGada, which means a fort. From their very name,and fromwhat other facts are known relating to them,

it seems robable that formerl they served in the armiesof the Hindu and Mabom n kin of the country.

Their services are still utilised by t e landholders of

Ben al for those little boundary warfares which usuallyinvo ve themin the most ruinous litigations, civil andcriminal. The Godos of the tract of country to theeast of the famous field of Flassy are a criminal tribeof the worst They are hereditary gang robbers,assassins and rec lances. Aftermore than a centuryof British rule, highway robberies are still so frequentin the locality, that no one can, even now, safely travelalone throu h the pergunnah inhabited by them. Someof the Go 09 practise agriculture ; but, like the Irishpeasants, they neverpay any rint to their landlords,

302 run sca ms or cam .

and have brought about the ruin of many capitalistswho had invested their money in taking perpetualleases of the pergunnah fromits zemindar.

Like the other criminal tribes, some of the Codes

ive regular trainin to their children in the arts of

t ieving and gang ro bery. On occasions of festivityin the houses of the local nobility

,they sometimes

exhibit their skill in their art,and amuse and astonish

the spectators by their feats . Reclining on a bamboostick, about six feet long, one would get to the top of a

house,while another with a similarweapon would wardoff any number of brickbats that might be hurledagainst him. The imortance of such gymnastic skillto a burglarmust be obvious .

2 .—Tke Goalas of B ehar.

Like the Goalas of Bengal, those of Behar also are

divided into a large number of sub- tribes . They all

appear to be looked upon as ood Sudras, and the

ordinary Sudra Yajaka priests of'gBeharminister to them

as priests. in other arts of India, the Goalas of

Behar are, generally speaking, an illiterate class. Thereis, however, among thema section who usually acquirea sufficient knowledge of the three R.

’

s to be qualifiedfor book-keeping in the vernacular. The Separis,as they are called, are employed b the landholders as

Putwaris or village accountants. hey are looked uponas an inferior class by the other Goala sub- castes. TheGoalas cf Behar allow their widows to re-marry .

The usual family names of the Behar Goalas are thefollowing

1 . Bhandari.2 . Bhagats .

3.— The Goalas of Orissa.

Among the Goalas of Orissa there are threemain diviasions, namely, theKrishnaut, the Mathura Bansi and theGauraBansi. They are all generally very poor. The

CHAP. V .- THE COWHERDSOFSOUTHERN

INDIA.

IN the Telegu country the cowherds are called Gollalu

,in Mysore Golla, and in the Tamil country

Mattu Edia. Among the Gollalus there are manysub-divisions, one of which is called Yathavas. TheYadava clan ofKsatriyas in Northern India is robablyan offshoot of these pastoralYathavas. Among t eMattuEdias there are two classes, one of which profess theVaishnava faith, and the others are Sivites. There can

be nomarriage alliance between these two sub-divisionsof the Mattu Edins, and practically they are separatecastes. The Gollas of Mysore are divided into two

sub-orders called Uru Golla and Kadu Golla, whoneither eat to ether nor intermarry. They are mostlyKrishna wors ippers. There are some very odd customsamong the Kadu Gollas of Mysore.

“It is said that onthe occurrence of a childbirth, themother with the baberemains unattended in a small shed outside the villagefrom7 to 30 days when she is taken back to her home .

In the event of her illness, none of the caste will attend on her, but a Nayak (Beda) woman is engaged todo so. Marriages among themare likewise performedin a temporary shed erected outside the village, and theattendant festivities continue for five days when the

married couple are brought into the village. Theirfemales do not, on the death of the husband, remove or

break the bangles worn at the wrists.

”

Mysore Camus Report, p. 248.304

CHAP. VI.—THE SHEPHERD CASTES.

THE following table gives the names of the severalshepherd castes of India

,together with the figures

relating to their numerical strengthGadaria, 830 f( ound

'

in Northern India).Dangar, 583

((found chiefly in the vicinity of the

MaratthaAttu Ediyar, 665 (found chiefly in Southern India).

The shepherds have a lower caste status than the cowherds. The family of the Maharaja B olhar are said bysome to be of the Dangar caste , but they take the

sacred thread, and the Brahmans accept their giftswithout any hesitation .

There are many Gadarias in and near some of the

old towns of Bengal such as Nadiya and Dacca. Thesedo not practise their caste profession, but live chieflyworking as

.bricklayers. Their females make the

paration of rice called chira described in page 246.

Thee shepherd castes are regarded as somewhat unclean

everywhere.

( 305 )

PART XV.

THE CLEAN AND THE UNCLEANCASTES EMPLOYED IN PERSONALAND DOMESTIC SERVICE.

CHAP. I.—THE BARBERS.

THOUGH the text referred to at p. 2 2 4, ante, includesthe harbors among the upper nine classes of Sudras,yet as they pare the nails of all the classes, the highercastes do not, inmany parts of the country, take evendrinking water fromtheir hands. In Bengal, Beharand Orissa the napz

'

t is regarded as a clean caste. In

the Telugu country, the corresponding caste of Mangliis regarded as clean also. In almost all the other provinces

,the barber is regarded as unclean . In Orissa the

barber caste is called Bhandari in the Tamil countrythe name of the caste isAmbatta in Mysore the designation of the class is Nayinde in Telin ana the

caste name of harbors is Mangali and in orthern

India their most common names are Nai, Nain and

Hajam. In the Panjab there are two classes of harbors.

The ordinary harbors are regarded as an unclean caste.

But there 1 8 a class who do only such work as is

required of the napit on occasions of marriage. Thesetake the sacred thread, and are re arded as a clean caste,

fromwhose hands a Brahman not only take drinking water, but even palch

'

food.

306

CHAP. II.—THEWASHERMEN.

THE Washermen are called Dhopa in Bengal, Dhobiin Northern India, Warthi and Pout in the CentralProvinces, Vaunan and Agasia in Southern India andChakli in the Telugu country . On account of the

unclean nature of their occupation, they are regardedas an unclean caste in almost every part of India ex

cepting the Telugu country where the Chakli are heldeligible for being employed as domestic servants.

They are, generally speaking, quite illiterate. But a

few of themhave recentl mana ed to get themselvesappointed to some very lligh oé ces in the service of

Government.Like the napz

'

t, the Dhobi has not only a regularsalary, but has claims to van ous per uisites on occa

sions of birth, death and marn age in(

hindu families.

The Dhobi ’s personal ex enses are not'

very considerable.

He expects and ets a ish of rice at least once everymonth fromeac of his constituents, and for purposesof clothing, be freely uses the clothes given to himforwashing. The s

ight of a Dhobi ’s face is, like that of

an oilman, consi cred as a bad omen at the commencement of a Journey, and is avoided.

( 308 )

CHAP. III.—THE CASTES USUALLY EMPLOYED

AS DOMESTIC SERVANTS IN HINDU

FAMILIES.

1 .—Bengal.

THE Dakshin Radhi Ks asthas of Bengal claim, as a

matter of honor, to have t e right of serving asmenialsto Brahmans. As a matter of fact, the Kayasthas are

very well-to-do people, and have too much pride tosteep to domestic service. Even the slave Kayasthasof Eastern Bengal are now trying to give up suchservice, and to be on the same level with the otherKayasthas . In Bengal the nine clean Sudra castesmentioned in page 2 24, ante, are generally consideredby the aristocratic Hindus asmost eligible for domesticservice. TheKansaris and the Sankharis who, pro or

ly speaking, belong to the mercantile caste, are old

eligible also for similar employment. The Sadgopasbeing included among the clean Gopas, are regarded asclean Sudras , and are held to be entitled to the samehonor. The Shekra, Sutar, and Kaibarta are regardedas clean castes in some laces, and unclean in others.

The Teli and the Goalie though included amongthe Nava Sayakas, are not in practice regarded as

clean everywhere. However, generally speaking, theNavasayakas with the Kansari, Sankhari, Sadgopa,Shekra, Sutar and Kaibarta may be, and are usually,employed as domestic servants in all Hindu families 1nBengal.

309

2 .—N. W. Provinces and Behar.

M an—This caste derives its name from the

Sanskrit word Skandhalcara,which means one who

carries things on his shoulders. The primary occupa

tion of this caste is carryin litters. But there are

several sub-castes among tfiem,and while some of

thesepractise their proper profession ,

the others areeither oatmen ,

fishermen,grain parchers,basket-makers,

or weavers. The most important sub-castes of the

Kahars are the Rawani and the Turah . The Rawanisare to be found in large numbers in every townof Northern India. They serve as litter carriers,punks -pullers, scullions, water-carriers and personalattendants . In every well- to-do family there is at leastone Rawani to serve as the maid of all work .

”The

Turahs,who are boatmen andfishermen, are to be found

chiefly in Behar and N -W . Provinces. They havesome colonies in Bengal, in the ancient towns of DaccaandNadiya

,and in themarket town of Shah Ganj near

Hooghly, founded by AzimOshan , the randson of

Aurangzehe, who was for some cars the governor of

Bengal. The Turahs of Bengal ave, however, formedthemselves into a separate caste, and the fact that theyare a branch of the Kahar caste is not even known tothem. Of the Rawanis very few are domiciled inBen al. Those found in this part of the country are

chiefly natives of Gaye, who come over year in the

beginning of the winter season ,and go aok to their

native home in June or July, or when they deemitconvenient.N0 class of Kahars can he said to have the ri ht of

being regarded as clean Sudras. The fishing (gassesare certainly unclean , and they are treated as such.

Although the Rawanis do not catch fish, yet even theyought not to stand in a better position . A great manyof themare in the habit of drinking 8 irits, and eatingfield rats and even pork . But it is d

'

cult to getmore

31 2 nomssn o sssvm'rs.

domestic servants. The two sections do not intermarry.

The Maithila Brahmansminister to both as priests .

3.— The Servant Castes of the Panjab.

The castes that in the Panjab are usually employedby the Hindu aristocracy as domestic servants are thefollowing

4. Rambo.

5. Bora.

6. Salariya.

The proper profession of the Jh iwar is the catchingof fish but in the Punjab they are not on thataccount regarded as unclean, and, in fact, are generallythe only men in their country who serve as watercarriers. The Hindu Kambos claimto have come fromAfghanistan . The Mahomedan Kambos call themselvesthe descendants of the old Kai sovereigns of Persia.

4.— The Servant Castes of the Telugu co untry.

The castes held eligible in the Telugu country foremployment as domestic servants are the following

1 . Mangli Barber.

2 . Chakli Washermen .

3. Idiya4. Gone. Cowherd .

5. The Servant Castes of Maharashtra and Central

Provinces.

The castes usuall employed by the higher classes ofthe Hindus in theMhharatta country and in the CentralProvinces are the inferior Maharattas and the Kunbis.

In the Central Provinces the aboriginal Gonds, thoughthey eat beef and are regarded as unclean,

are yet employed as domestic servants for such kinds of work as

do not require the touching of drinking water.

CHAP. IV .- THE CASTE OF THE DOMESTICS

IN ANCLO-INDIAN HOUSEHOLDS.

THE domestics who domenial work in Anglo-Indianhouseholds are recruited from low class Mahomedansand the very lowest class Hindus. Au up

-countryBrahman or Ksatriya may be found to do the work of

a gate-keeper ororderly in the house of an En lishman,but will never do any work that must compo him to

touch hismaster’ s plates, dining table, clothes or shoes.

If a high caste and orthodox Hindu accidentally touchany of these things, he will neither enter his cook-roomnor eat any food without washing away the contamination by bathing. The plates containing cooked meatare an absolute abomination to a good Hindu,

and the

very sight is shocking to him. According to orthodoxHindu notions, the din ing table itself remains unfit tobe touched even when the plates are taken off. But

in this respect the prejudices of all classes of Hindusare fast wearing off, and not only Hindu officials butindependent Hindu gentlemen ma in those days oftenbe found sitting by the side of an nglishman

’

s diningtable, and afterwards drinking water or chewing panwithout bathing or change of dress. Such being the

case, the high caste Hindu peons and orderlies have not

at present the same amount of objection to touch theirmaster’s furniture that they had formerly . But even

at the resent they will not, either for love or money,

touch t eirmaster’s shoes or clothes, orhave anything todo with the arrangement of his furniture and bedding.

( 313 )

31 4 nonsen o ssavms or Anew -mums.

In Hindu households, a poor Brahman may do thework of a cook ; but under no circumstances will aBrahman or a Rajput do such menial service as is fitonly for Sudras and low castes. Almost the onlykind of work which a high caste Hindu will do in an

English household is that of a letter carrier or doorattendant for announcing the presence of visitors .

With regard to the caste of the other classes of

domestics in Anglo-Indian households, it may be oh

served, generally, that the Mahomedans have themonocly of such as appertain to the stable . Even inHinduhouseholds, the coachmen and the footmen are alwaysfollowers of Islam. The cooks, scullions and butlersare either Mahomedans (or Aracanese) orMadrasis ofthe low castes called Paria and Tiyan . The unkapullers are eitherGoalas of Orissa orKabars of char.

Oriyas and Kahars are employed also as farashes forwiping off the dust fromthe furniture, and for cleansingand lighting the lamps . The washerman is the HinduDhobi

,Vannan orAgasia while the scavengers and the

nightsoilmen are all usuall of such aboriginal tribesas are called Hari

,Mother, hurha

, &c .

In Calcutta the Oriya is the maid of all work inEuropean households in every department exce t thekitchen and the stable but it is said that the hfadrasiParis and Tiyan are stillmore pliant and useful thanthe cowherds of the land of Jaganath.

31 6 n sussmmAND scum .

Hallahs are divided into many sections of which thefollowing are the best known

1 . Gaure. 4. Kanojia.

2 . Banar. 5. Barou ya.

3. Tirhutia. 6. Mariyari.

The Jhiwars who are found in Panjab and Scinde areconsidered there as a clean caste. They are not onlyfishermen, but serve also as water-carriers to high casteHindu families. The boatmen of thePanjab aremostlyMahomedans.

3.-The Fishermen of Gujrat.

The fishermen of Gujrat are called Machi .

4.—The Fishermen of the Malabar Coast.

The following are the fishermen castes of the Malabar Coast

l . Vellamar, live by fresh water fishing.

2 . Marakan , enjoy themono oly of the sea-fisheries.

3. Shembadan, fishermen of alabar.

5. The Fishermen, B oatmen and Litter-carriers of

The caste that generally work as fishermen, boatmenand litter-carriers in Mysore are there called Besta.

With reference to these, the following account is givenin the last Census Report ofMysoreThese (the Betta are fishermen, boatmen and

plalanquin

-bearers.Their number is ,897, or a little short of one undred thousand

persons, absorbinga little over two er cent. of the total and are

more than 5 r cent. of the class. ese are known by differentnames acco in to localities. In the Eastern districts , the are

called Besta (fis ermen); in the Southern Toraya, Ambica and ange

Makkalu . The Telugu-s

psaking population call themParivora

(boatmen) ; while in the estern parts their names are Kalyaraand Bhau. There are a few other sub -divisions returned , withinsignificant numbers, under the names of Belli, Chammadi, Bayaravuta and Surmakalu. These are acknowled to be of a lowerrank . Their chief occupations are fishing, pa auquin

-bearing andlime-burning. Some of themare employed b Government as

peons, &c.,whilst a large number is engaged in ag cultural pursuits.

CHAP. II.—THE CRIMINAL TRIBES.

AMONG the Goalas who are cowherds by caste, andare to be found in almost every part of India, thereareman bad characters, but the class as awhole cannotbe calle a criminal tribe. The Gujars, who are to befound chiefly in Rajputana and Scinde, and who are

also cowherds by caste, are believed to be addicted tothieving. Besides these there are particular castes andtribes in every rovince of India who are believed to

be professional t ieves and ang robbers. In Bengalthe following castes furnish y far the largest numberof criminals

1 . Bagdi An aboriginal caste, generally employed asnavvies and wood -cutters.

2 . Baori An aboriginal caste, found in large numberin West B urdwan .

3. Kaora Found chiefiéin the tracts to the South

4. Pod and South ast of Calcutta.

5. D ome Aboriginal tribes whose ostensible occupaNolo tion is basket andmat-making.

6. Hari Sweepers.

7. Bedia Herbalists and snake-catchers.

The criminal tribes of Behar are the following1 . Dome. 2 . Bind.

The following are the criminal tribes of the UpperGangetic Doab

l22

5. Mehter.

6. M00 (mostly Mabomedans now, though observing Hindufestivals and rites).

7. Bahelya.

317

31 8 'ms CRIMINAL m us.

The undermentioned are the criminal tribes of

putana

The following are the criminal tribes of the MadrasPresidency

1 . Kallau (found in the D ravira).2 . Koravar (Do . do.)3. Gerakalas (found in Telingana).4. Chaphon (found chiefly in the valley of theKrishna river).

The following are the criminal tribes of the BombayPresidenc

l . Ramusi (found chiefly in Maharashtra).2 . Katha Kavi (found in Northern Konkan).3. Katori (found in Northern Konkan).4 . Banjari5. Lambanis.

6. Waddar.

7. Bedar (found in the Southern Maharatta country).8. Pardhi (found in Khandesh and Berar).9. Bheels (found in Khandesh ).10. Bompti (found in the Maharatta countr

y).

1 1 . Pindari (found everywhere in the eccan. Not a

separate caste, but originally an association ofvagabonds and robbers).

HINDU SECTS.

the functions of the internal organs of the human bodyor the manner in which the rocks have been formedcannot be known by direct observation, so it is impossible, by the samemeans, to give a satisfactory answertomany of the vexed questions of theolo We can

not depute anyone to any place beyond t is earth toascertain whether our so-called prophets were in factwhat they professed to be, or whether they were not

mere men like ourselves though possessed of greatershrewdness. The only wa open in such cases to arriveat the truth is to start wit a hypothesis which is basedon probability . If the hypothesis which is adoptedsuffice to explain all the known facts connected withthe subject, no scientificmind can hesitate to accept it.At any rate when an hypothesis fails to explain the

phenomena which it ismeant to account for, itmust berejected at once.

The belief of every orthodox erson that his own

religion was brought direct from eaven by an incar

nation of GodAlmighty, or by a trusted agent speciallydeputed by the Most High, has primafacie the sameelement of improbability as the Ptolemaic theory of

astronomy. It is perhaps much more reasonable tosuppose that the sun and the planets revolve roundour poor earth, than to believe that although thislittle orb of ours, is as a speck compared with the

entir the universe, yet it is the place whereGod ty delights tomake long sojourns in humanform.

To a man whose common sense has not been perverted by early training, and who knows the ways ofthe world, the assertion ' that any particular religionhas had its origin in a special message of Divinefavour to any race or nation, might appear to beopen to question . When a stock-broker or company promoter issues a rose-coloured prospectus t e

garding the present condition or probable future of a

commercial concern, noman who understands business

INTRODUCTION. 32 1

thinks of buying its shares without satisfying himselfby roper in quiriesthat the persons recommending itto t e public are cometent to forma correct forecast,and are not interested

)

in misrepresenting the facts.

When a quack advertises a medicine as having thepower to cure every kind of malady that the humansystemis heir to, he is always looked upon with suspi

cion,though hemay du e many poor sufferers who, in

their ho elessness,ma he disposed to rely u on him.

The alc emists and anyasis, who claimto ave the

power of converting the baser metals into gold, veryseldomfind in these days anyone foolish enough to betaken in by them. When a cute loafer appears in a

native court, and pretends to be a near relative or

secret agent of the Viceroy, he is seldomtrusted evenby the weakest of our Princes. If then it is a wisepolicy in otherde artments of life to look with sus icionupon the men w o promise too much and pro ess to

possess extraordinary powers, itmust be difi cult to seeany reason why we should make an exception in favourof the professors of the theocratic art

,who apparently

lived and died in exactl the same manner as anyordinarymortal, and yet c

'med to be the incarnations,representatives or trusted agents of the Most High.

Primt‘l facie they stand on no better footing than the

alchemist, the company promoter, the quack medicinevendor, and the loafer without credentials.

To those who have had op ortunities for studying theways of sharpers, theman ofreli '

onmust appear to beevenmore unreliable than thosew o practise on the credulity of the people in other spheres. The honesty of

the lattercan be tested in various ways, and as they knowwell that if they fail to achieve what they promise theymiil

j

lt become legally punishable, none but the mostrec ess among themcan feel inclined to cheat men byalchemy or a commercial bubble. But the priests of

modern times ve seldommake any promise whichthey can be calle

l

dyupon to fulfil in this world . They2 1

82 2 HINDU sscrs.

'deal in salvation and the spiritual happiness of the soulafter death, and, for the purpose of avoiding an audit,they have a far safer vantage ground than even theengineers of the Indian Public Works Department, andthemooktears or attorneys of the Indian county courts.The P. W . D . official who attemts to enrich himselfby the pretence that the emban ment which he hadbeen commissioned to build on the sea-coast has beenwashed away by a storm-wave, or the mooktear of theold type who attempts to cheat his master by pretending to have bribed the Police for him, runs a chance ofdetection whichmight lead to his utter ruin. But suchfears need not disturb the priest’s deep repose .

Such being the case, and the profession of the priestbeing calculated to bring farmore honour, power andwealth than any other calling, his temptations are great.So he cannot reasonably claim frommen even thatamount of confidence which can be reposed on thequack or the alchemist. It is true that the curers of

our souls very often affect to be quite indifi'

erent tod worldly comforts, and from this fact it

is argued that the motive to cheatmen being wanting,they may be treated with confidence. But toone who has studied the ways of the priests, itmustbe evident that they have all amorbid cravinleast, being honoured bymen, and that though,outset, they may profess to be above the vulgar loveof lucre, yet as soon as their power is sufficiently established, they betray an amount of avarice and cravingfor luxurious living that is not to be found in thegreatest secular rulers. While the latter are satisfied with asmall fraction of the income of their subjects, the priestwill bring complete ruin on his victims, if by doingso he can turn an extra penny. Even the lawyer

’

s feeshave a limit. But there is no limit whatever to the

demand of a priest. He pretends to have the power ofenriching his followers. But the actual result of hisqperations is only to impoverish them.

324 HINDU snore.

'

presumtionmay ormay notbe rebutted by the evidenceaddu to support their case. That is not the questionwhich Iamgoing to deal with just now. But in orderto discuss it properly, Imust first of all try to analysethe way in which, according to the evidence affordedby history, reli ions systems have been actually developed . I shall t en show that their course is consistentonly with the doctrine that they have their origin inthe polic ofmen, and not in any extraordinarymeasureadapted y the Most High through Hismercy towards11 8 .

CHAP. II.—THE EVOLUTION OF THE

THEOCRATIC ART.

ON the supposition that our religions have been givento us by God Almighty, the cannot possibly have anycourse of development. T ey must have existed, at

the beginning, in the same state as now. As the

speculations of Laplace, Lyell and Darwin are shut outaltogether on the supposition that the universe wascreated in themannerdescribed in the ancient scripturesand codes of law, so a faith in divine revelationprecludes all inqui as to the origin and evolution of

the theocratic art.I

Tut the evidence afforded by historyshows that religious have had a regular course of evolu

tion, and Ipropose first of all to trace its successive steps.With reference to the subject which I purpose to

deal with here, there are at present two quite oppositetheories which, forwant of better names, Imay call theorthodox theory and themodern theory. According tothe orthodox theory, religion was in its highest state of

purity in the be'

nuing of creation, and, through thegrowing wicke ness of men, it is becoming moreand more corrupt, as the world is advancingma

According to the other theory,which is favoured byfirephilosophers ofmodern Europe, and by those of our

countrymen who blindly follow them,religious ideas

were extremely crude in the primitive times, and, ascivilisation has advanced, its inevitable progress has beenfromfetichism, idolatry ytheismto monotheismpure and simple. With to the orthodox theory,

325

32 6 run rusocnarrc AM .

I need not say anything. But with regard to the

modern theory it must be observed that it is open toexception on more grounds than one. It assumes that,as in other departments

,the progress of religion is

determined solely by the advancement of men in philoSophical thoughtfulness. This view is directly contradicted by one of the greatest of English historians.

Macaulay saysThere are branches of knowled

ge with respect to which the law

of the humanmind is progress . nmathematics , when once a proosition has been demonstrated , it is never afterwards contested .

very fresh story is as solid 9. basis for a new superstructure as theoriginal foundation was. Here, therefore, is a constant addition to

the stock of truth . In the inductive sciences again , . the law is

progress. Every day furnishes new facts, and thus brings theorynearer and nearer to perfection. There is no chance that, either inthe purely demonstrative, or in the purely experimental sciences,the world will ever go back or even remain stationary . Nobodyever heard of a reaction against Taylor

’s theorem, or of a reac

tion against Harvey’s doctrine of the circulation of the blood .

But with theology the case is very different As respects naturalreligion

—revelation being for the present altogether left out of the

question—it is not easy to see that a hilosopher of the present day

is more favourably situated than T ales or Simmonides. He hasbefore himjust the same evidences of design in the structure of theuniverse which the early Greeks had. We say just the same, for thediscoveries of modern astronomers and anatomists have reallyadded nothing to the force of that ar ument which a reflectingmindfinds in every beast, bird , insect, fis leaf

,flower and shale. The

reasoning by which Socrates , in Z enophon s hearin confuted thelittle atheist Aristodemus, is exactly the reasoningof aley

’

s NaturalTheolo As to the other great questions, the uestion, what he‘

comes 0 man after death ? we do not see that ahi ly educatedEuro

pean, left to his unassisted reason , ismore like y to be in the rightthan a Blackfoot Indian. Not a single one of the man sciencesin which we surpass the B lackfoot Indians throws the sma lest lighton the state of the soul after the animal life is extinct. In truth,all the philosophers, ancient and modern , who have attempted,”Without the hel of revelation , to prove the immortality

ofman , fromPlato down to ranklin , appear to us to have failed eplorably.

The great English historian, in his usual way, goeshere a little too far. There are clearlymarks of pro-

gressive development in the theocratic art. However,the historian is certainly right in the view that thepro ress of theology has not been in the same linesas t at of the hysical or the mathematical sciences.The reason of t '

s is not far to seek. The progress of

the sciences depends upon the progress of the human

82 8 'mmrnsocss 'rlc ART.

men de end to a great extent on chance, so long as the

medica science is not sufficiently advanced,and so

long again as we are unable to predict or controlmeteorological phenomena, the human mind must bepreparedmore or less to submit to the exactions of thepriest, the quack and the fortune- teller. The jurisdiction of these is becoming more and more narrowedwith the progress of the sciences, and of the arts of

shi building, navigation and canal irrigation, coupledwit such institutions of modern civilization as insur

ance omces, fire brigades, poor-houses and hospitals.

When anyone gets fever now, whatever may be hisorthodoxy, he depends more upon quinine than uponthe Batuka Vairaba or the Aparajita incantations of

his priests. Therewas a time when, in order to avoid thevisitation of heaven ’s wrath in the formof the thunderbolt, every Hindu caused a label to be stuck up on the

upper parts of the door frames in his house, containing

a ew Sanskrit verses. But the science of electricityhas of late been teaching the people to depend moreupon the lightningrod, than on the names of the fivethunder-preventing saints. In order to prevent lossby fire or boatwreck, Indian traders, in many places,still spend ver large sums of money to secure thefavour of Brama, Ganga and Vallabhachari. But the

advantages of brick buildings and insurance are beingunderstoodmore andmore, and, in Ben al at least, therage for BrambaPu

'

a and Ganga Pujahas diminishedver materially . hether the clearances of the Yallab achari shrine at Nathdowra frommarine policies,vowed to it by the traders of Gujrat and Bombay,have diminished or not, is amatter as to which Ihavenot been able to get any reliable information . In anycase, the sphere of the priests’ operations is becomingmore and more circumscribed. However, his domainis still wide enough.

But because there was, and still is, a natural inclination inmen to believe in, and rely on, the supernatural,

ITS EVOLUTION.

it does not follow that their religious‘beliefs have a

spontaneous course as the European thinkers seemtoassume. History proves that the empires of the priestsare established in the very samemanner as those of thesecular monarchs. However much a settled Government may be desired by men , yet history does not

furnish a single instance in which the blessing of a

stron ruler at the head has not been more or lessforce upon the people who are placed under his sway.

Similarly,however much a religionmay be valued by

those who profess it, it had never been wanted until itwas forced upon them by the literary genius or political tact of some great teacher. In fact, in religionand politics, as in every other sphere, it is the artistthat creates the demand for the inventions of his art.Upon a careful surve of the religious systems of the

world, it appears that allthe primitive religions inculcats the worship of either the friendly powers of

nature or of demons. Generally speaking, the priestcannot approach the savage, who lives by hunting,fishing or cattle breeding, except by themostmercilessbullying. The savage can have nomomor ambition foracquiring wealth or hi

gh office, and as he has en hypo

thisz'

e no idea of any ind of luxury, the promise of

heaven can have no influence on him, and he can have no

motive to worship friendly gods. The only way tomake himamenable to priestly discipline, lies in leadinghimto believe that diseases and deaths are caused by aset of fierce and bloodthirsty gods who can be pro

itiated only by the sacrifice of goats, igs, sheep, &c.

His cattle being his rincipal, if not is sole, wealththat is the only met cd of worship which his priestcan turn to account. Hence the demon-worship and

the sacrifice of animals in the pre-agricultural stage of

civilization .

W ith the development of society,men become subjectto hopes, influences and fears which had been unknown tothembefore. When agriculture begins to be practised,

330 'mamsocns 'no an .

the tillers of'

the soil find that rain is necessary for

their operations, and that it does not take place inall years when most wanted . At this stage the

shrewdermembers of society, who hate manual labourand desire nothing somuch as to live on the fruits ofother people’s industry, can easily persuade the primitive ploughmeu to believe that rainfall depends uponthe will or caprice of a deity who, like most mortals,has his price. The belief being impressed, the primitive priest has only to invent a plausible and attractiveprogramme. The expedient which he has usuallyrecourse to is the kindling of a fire, and the burnin of

butter or incense on the altar. These are the eastbulky goods that the primitive agriculturist could becalled upon to supply to his priest. The process issomewhat wasteful if carried out under toomuch vigilance. But in the operations of the priest, as in thoseof the politicaladventurer, wastefulness is inevitable.

The primitive priest is comelled b the necessit of

his position to romise tangi 10 goodservice, sucilasrainfall to the tifiers of the soil, health to the sick, and

children to barren women . His constituents cannot

appreciate the value of salvation. Moksha, Nirvana or

spiritual happiness of the soul afterdeath, and in order

tomake themvenerate himand submit to his exactions,he is obliged to promisemore substan tial services. In

doing so he has to tread upon very treacherous ground.

But rainfallmay take place at the required time in thecourse of nature the sickmanmay be restored to health

Eynature and a woman believed to be barrenmayso bear a child in the course of nature. If the eventbe such as to support the priest’s pretensions, he knowshow to take the credit. If there be disappointment, heknows how to transferthe responsibility to amalignantstar, or to want of faith on the part of his dupe.

Nevertheless the priest cannot but be conscious thatit is not safe to promise the rendering of worldlyvice. He therefore takes the earliest opportunity

332 THE THEOCRATIC ART.

it is simply impossible that they should be allowed toreign unmolested for ever, and, sooner or later, theirsuccess leads others to play a holder ame. Theseautocratic and ambitious teachers generaIly succeed ingiving a rude shock to the fabric ouilt by the natureworshi pers. They claimto be worshipped as ods

themse ves, and cannot tolerate the practice of accor ingany homage to the dumb material objects and powers.

So they proclaim,more or less direct] that men mustworship them, and not Indra or oden, Jupiter or

Thor, who might serve as convenient shams in the

beginnin but are, like the Bahadoor Shahs and the

Wajid A is, quite useless when the adventurer’s poweris completel established. Whether this view of the

origin of t e man-worshipping religions, and of the

process by which they supersede the nature-worshippin

cults, be accepted ornot, thismuch at least is estab ishebeyond doubt

,by the evidence of histo that the

former have always followed the latter, an that thereis not a single instance in which they have appearedin the contrary order.

According to the ideas generally favoured by themodern thinkers,monotheismis the highest development that religion is capable of. This view is uitenatural in those who are more conversant with C ris

tianity and Mahomedanismthan with any of the otherreligions. The Mahomedans never take the troubleto study other religions, and Euro cans are placedamidst such surroundings, that, wit all their inquisitiveness and industry, it is well -nigh impossible forthem to make an accurate estimate of the severalsystems, or to arrive at a correct determination regarding their relative position . Europe knows only one

formof faith, and that cult is an exotic plant so stuntedand dwarfed by the Lutheran Reformation, that it hasnever found scope for developing all its potentialities.

Europe is, in fact, nomore the place forthe study of religions than the desert ofSahara is for thestudy of botany.

ITS EVOLUTION. 333

The evidence afforded by history goes very far toprove that monotheism is only the usual appendageof the man-worshipping religions. The apostle of

monotheismsays There is but one God and I amhis viceroy.

” On the supposition that such preaching is not based upon genuine revelation , it mustbe admitted to have for its object the creation of a

strict monopoly. The truth seems to be thatmonotheismis nomore an advanced idea in theology thanthe absolute monarchies set up by Julius Caesar and

Cromwell were institutions in advance of the RomanSenate, and the British Long Parliament.

In our experience of every-day life, we see that whentoomuch wer is acquired by any individual, its abuseis inevita le, and priestly power is no exception tothe rule. The success with which the nature-worshi

ping and the man-worshipping priests are able to pi)

their trade, emboldens some adventurers to pla sti lmore daring games, and to inculcate the worship of

,

suchabominations as enable themto create ever ossible

opportunity for gratifying their depravedfirst bycorrupting the morale of their dupes. The cults invented by themare, generally speakin of very recentorigin,

and cannot but be taken to be t e highest developments that the theocratic art is ca able of

Fromwhat is stated above,it wi l appear that the

usual transition of all religions is fromnature-worshiptoman-worshi

p,and fromman-worship to abomination

worship . ln ndia all these forms of faith are to befound in the living condition . In Europe natureworship has been since long suppressed alto ether, andthe Lutheran Reformation, combined with t e commonsense of the laity, has smothered the inevitable ten

deney to abomination-worship . Perhaps it was renderedunnecessary by the confessional rites of the RomanCatholic Church. But the fact of there having beensuch tendencies even in Europe is abundantly proved

334 THE THEOORATIO ART.

by history. Perhaps no class of priests have beenmoreprone to abuse their power than the Popes and theirlieutenants In speaking of the See of Rome Mlay saysD uring the generation which receded the Reformation that

Court had been a scandal to the hristian name. Its annals are

black with treason ,murder and incest. Even its more res tablemembers were utterly unfit to beministers of religion. The r yearslided by in a soft dreamof sensual and intellectual volu

ptuousness .

ahoice cookery , delicious wines lovely women, houn s falcons,horses , newly-discoveredmanuscripts of the classics and burlesqueromances in the sweetest Tuscan , Just as licentious as a fine sense ofthe graceful would permit, these th were the deli ht and even

the serious business of their lives .

gs

0g

When these circumstances, and the history of suchearly sects as the Marcionites and the Car ocratians"

are taken into consideration, it seems that urope has

had a very narrow escape fromabomination-worshipof the a gravated type with which we are unfortunatelytoo fami iar in this country. However that may be,the existence of the abomination-worshipping sects inthe world cannot be ignored, and, if their origin and

history he studied, it would appear that they have, inall cases, followed the man-worshipping cults, as theymust do on the hypothesis that the religious have hadtheir origin in human policy.

See Gibbons’ Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.

CLASSIFICATION OF RELIGIONS.

4. ABOEINAH ON-WORSHIP Found only in countriesthat have an ancient

civilization combinedwith the ignorance of

themasses.5. MmmRELIGIONS.

Viewing the reli ons in connection with their influence on the morfiity of men, they fall under the

following groups1 . Religions having little or nothing to do with the preach

ing of morality .

2 . Religions encouraging chiefly puremorality according tothe lights of their teachers .

3. Religious encouraging immorality more or less ,inculcating somemorality also .

4. Religions directly inculcating the grossest immoralities .

5. Religions indirectly encouraging immLooked at from the point of view of the services

which the priests offer to perform, their faiths may beclassified as follows

l . Tangible-service promisingrel' '

ons .

2 . Intangible-service-

promising re igions .

3. Mischief-making religions.

Looked at fromthe point of view of the subsidiesand services claimed by the priests, the religiousmaybe classified as follows

Almost all the ancientl . Ghi, incense,meatand wine religions are of this

demanding religions character, and favourindirect taxation .

2 . Religions demanding the Most of the man -worshipbuilding of monasteries ping and abominationand temples in addition worship ing religions areto other votive offerings. of this c aracter.

3. More alms-taking religions. These may be said to iavour direct taxation .

The religions of the Maho4. Religious demanding mili medans, the Sikhs, and

tary comes. the Na are more or

less of t is character.‘

Looked at fromthe point of view of church government, the religionsmay be rouped in many difi'erentways, as, for instance, the fo lowing

1. Aristocratic religions, ofwhich theministers are heredin ests.

2 . Repu lizan religions, of which theministers are ordainedby nomination or election.

3. Religions that profess to have no priests.

CLASSIFICATION or RELIGION. 337

If the attitude of the several religions towards eachother be taken into consideration, then they may bec lassified as follows

1 . Federal religions showing due toleration to every formof faith .

2 . Autocratic religions teu bing their followers to hateevery cult, not their own, as false superstition.

The man-worshipping religions are generally themost autocratic, though founded by

teachers who pushup the lower classes in order to estroy the

power of

the nature-worshipping priests. Like the urk the

$0t who claim adoration for themselves cannotar a brother near their throne.

Having regard to the visible objects and symbols towhich worship is offered, the most important forms of

faith are the following1 . Tree, bird , beast and serpent

-worship ing religions.

2 . Sun,moon and planet-worshipping religions3. River, hot s ring, lake and sea-worshipping religions.4. M ound-wo ipping religions.5. Fire-worshipping religions.

6. Children-worshipping religions.7. Decent image-worshipp

ingreli ions.8. Obscene symbol-won p mg re gions .

9. Altar-worshipping, boo -worshipping and monasterysubsidising rehgions.

10. Guru-worshipping religio

Of these, the first four are found chiefly among halfcivilized and savage nations. The fifth form, namely,fire-worship, finds great favour among some of themostadvanced races of men in the world. Its only drawbacks are

1 . It involves great waste.

2 . It is not a convenient way for appropriating bulky andidentifiable s.

3. It cannot enab the priest tomake unlimited demandson public charity .

The sixth form is not well suited for purposes of

priestcraft, and is very rare. The seventh and the

eighth forms enable the priesthood not only to acquire

every kind of property, ut also to corrupt themoralsof their female votaries. The abuse which the image

B, no 2 2

338 an sn vn unnrrs or runmsrnam srsrms.

worshipping priests make of their powers and oppor

tunities leads, however, very often to revolts thatthreaten tomake a clean sweep of idolatry. But theso-called reformations are, generally more apparentthan real, the operations of the iconoclasts serving,in nine cases out of ten , to establish only altar-worship

,

book-worship, monas tery-worship, or ru-worship,which are, inmany respects, worse than i clatty.

Q uite recently some very earnest attempts have beenmade by teachers like the late Pundit Dayanand to

replace idolatry by the ancient Vedic cult. But idolworship is amuchmore effective and useful weapon to

the priest than fire-worship, and is nomore like] to besuperseded by it than railways ofmodern times y the

ancient means of locomotion the dak thepostchaise and the bullock-cart. Idol-wors maygive way only to monasteries and churches claimingendowments of propertv and State subsidies while likeidolatrous shrines, servin also as permanent contrivances for drawing towarfs themthe small charities ofthe public.

340 DEFINITION or RELIGION.

means of threats and h0pes held out in the names ofsuperior and unseen powers. In its other aspect, itbe defined only as the sum total of the beliefs, sen

timents and practices to which the laity are led bypriestly influence and art. In fact, religion is to a

great extent the same thing as litics, the only difi'

er

ence being that the rewards an punishments by whichthe politician acquires and maintains his power are allof an earthly nature, whereas the priest terrorises and

consoles men by implanting in theirminds a belief insupernatural influences for good and evil. Where thepriests have for their object the imrovement of the

morality of men, or of their social an domestic virtues,they are generally able to do great good to society.

But, like most worldly men, they usually seekmore toag randise themselves than to do any good tomankind,an they not only do very little to improve the moralit ofmen, but sometimes encourage the grossest immoralit either to gratif their own carnal appetites, or

simply to attract foflowers. They profess to makemen happy, and, b the h0pes of future bliss which they

out, they no oubt actually impart a re of li ht inthe darkest hours of ourwoes. But, genera y speaiing,they take a deli ht in wan ton cruelty, and, like some ofthe greatest po

'

tical t an ts,do more to increase the

stock of ourmiseries thin to alleviate them. , Fasting,hook-swinging, bathing in cold water in wintermomin 8

,living on half rations, eatin the most unpalat

abIe food, roasting under a mi day sun or amidstartificial fires, standin erect on one leg, keeping one

armconstantl upli — these are some of the torturesto which the dupes of the priest are subjected . He hasthe satisfaction of finding that the discipline imposed onsociety by himis being conformed to. But, in practisinsuch cruelty, he betrays akind of hard-heartedness whiois not to be found even in the worst of secular rulers.Sometimes, as in encouragin indiscriminate charityand restricting usury, the ant ors of the religions may

DEFINITION or RELIGION. 341

be credited with philanthropicmotives . But the prac

tical result of their legislation is that the do a greatdeal of mischief, though with the best of

yintentions.For such teachings we cannot blame them. But theycertain ly prove that either the modern sciences are

fraught with errors, or that the so-called prophets wereonly ordinarymen, and very far frompossessing thatomniscience which they claimed . In fact there is hardly a single religion in the world which is based on

infallible knowledge or unexceptionable morality.

Considering the forms of faith with which we are aoquainted, it seems impossible to define religion in anyother way than as mentioned above. It has certain lynothing to do with the perception of the Infinite .

CHAP. V .—THE TRUE ORIGIN OF RELIGIONS.

IT is believed bymostmen that religion has its originIn the will of Divine Providence ; but a careful examination of the tenets of the several religions wouldlead inevitably to the conclusion that our faiths havehad their source in human policy, and not in Divine

any rate, the theory deriving it fromhumanpolicy can alone give a satisfactory explanation of suchtheological questions as the following

1 .

several religions as are to be found in themnow?5. Wh is it that some religions actually encourage immor

6.2

Whr

is it that the ancient religions recommendedt e sacrifice of animals and of even human beings !

7. Why is it that the modern r

eligions do not, generally

speaking, encourage the sac cc of animals !8. Why is it that the ancient religions insisted upon the

burning of 0M and incense ?9. Why is it that the Hindus believe in ten Avatars or

successive incarnations f10. Why is it that even when actuated by the best ofmotives

the so-called prophets and incarnations have not beenable to give any indication of their knowin even themost elementary of the economi and the

physical sciences

On the theo that the religions have their ori'

n in

human policy,l

there cannot possibly be any difi cu ty inexplaining these questions ; but on any other suppositionthey are quite insoluble

CHAP. VI.-THE ALLEGED NECESSITY OF RE»

LIGION FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF THE

HIGHEST STANDARD OF MORALS.

Is religion necessary for giving tomen the highestideal of moral life ? This question is very often asked

,

but the answers given regarding it are extremal con

flicting. There is no doubt that no system 0 law,

however cleverly devised or efliciently administered,can go far enough to elevate themoral nature of manbeyond a very limited range. But it does not followthat there ever has been any reli '

ou which enablesman to attain anything like the biggestmoral altitude.

On the contrary,many of the so-called religions ofmentend more to corrupt theirmorality, than to purif it.There are in fact some reli ions as, for instance, t oseof the Tantrics, Kauls, arta Bhajas, Bija Margis,Jalaliyas, Aghoris, &c . , which have perhaps not one

redeeming feature in them, and which tend only tomake their followers wallow in themire of abominations.There are no doubt some religions which sincerelyat improving the character ofmen in all their relations.

But even the best of these fall far short of the ideal ofgood citizenship taught by the exigencies of modernsocial life. Aman ma not violate the ten commandments of Moses or the such Sila of Buddha, and stillhis charactermay be such as to make hima sore spotin the commonwealth .

Upon a careful examination of the foundation of

ethics, itmust appear to every reasonable and unbiased344

RELIGION AS A FOUNDATION OF ETHICS.

mind that the princi is of utility is the only source of

morality, and that e character of men is regulatedmore by public opinion,

than by the rules imposed onsociety by any revealed scri

gture. By threats of future

evil or promises of future liss, religion can no doubtgo a great way to enforce the rules ofmorality onmen .

But experience shows that public opinion, when it iswide awake and is of a healthy nature, has far greaterinfluence than any terror or hope that a risstmayout. Religion may do good by moul ing the views

ofmen but, apart frompublic opinion, it is never productive of any important result. According to the

religion of both Hindus and Mahomedans there is nota greater sin than the drinking of spirituous liquors.But public opinion treats the vicemore leniently thanthe Koran and the Smritis enjoin, and it is certainlynot quite so rare as it on ht to be. Take, however, the

of beef-eating by agindu. The sin involved in theact is, according to the Shastras, not at all of a seriousnature. But popular feelin is strong on the subject,and till lately there was peliaps not a single beef-eating Hindu in the country. Among the Mahomedansthere is perhaps still not a single pork-eater. Thesefacts clearly show that it is public opinion,, and not an

religious code,that has the greatest influence in builtz

figupwhat is called the conscience ofmen. Whateveruence religion has, is due chiefly to its bein

grzn

important factor inmouldin the opinions ofmen . e

prOper authorities to regulate public Opinion on the

subject are the philosophers, historians, statesmen and

lioista. The sooner the priests cease tomeddle inmatter, the better for the world. It is not at all

desirable thatmorality should be based on false hopesand false terrors, however effective they may prove tobe at times. The experience of the whole world showsthat men who can Invent falsehoods for the ood of

the world, are never slow to have recourse to e samemeans for attaining their own selfish objects. At any

346 'ms NEORssrrr or RELIGION.

a.

rate there is not a single reli '

ou in the world whosemoral standard is sufficiently igh for the exigenciesof civilized life.

To be a good citizen themost important thin is tohave a deep sense of moral responsibility for a our

acts and omissions. Amanma not be an actual thief,liar ormurderer

,but the resu t is all the same if he

has not sufi cient firmness and sense of duty. A shipsurveyorgives a certificate of seaworthiness to a ship,without carefully examining her condition. The vessel8 rings a leak while on a voyage, and is wrecked with

her crew, cargo and passengers. If the real causeof the disaster be ascertainable b any evidence, thesurveyor may be 10 ally punished: But, whether hepays the enalty forhis negli ence, or is able to escapesoot-free, is delinquency hardly comes within the purview of any revealed code of morals.

Then, again, su pose that an engineer in charge of

the construction of)

a brid e fails to supervise the workof the contractors propelfly The iers are not sunk

to the required depth, or are bui t with unsuitablematerials. The structure is finished, and is somehowable to go throu b a test. But, 10 l when one day the

river is In high ood through abnormal rainfall, and a

heavily laden train passes over the brid c, it gives way,and there is one of those disasters whio cast a gloomover the whole country . Yet the engineer may bereckoned as a highly moral man, if jud ed by thestandard of the so- called religious teachers 0 the world.

If a king or oliticalminister needlessly declares wara ainst an uno ending nation

,and wastes the resources

0 his own country in spreading misery and desolon his neighbours, be yet ma be regarded as a good

and the priestmay not nd anything in the religious codes to justify even a proposal for thement of excommunication which perhaps no one

deservesmore than be. He ought certainly to be boycotted and execrated by society while alive, and to die,

348 'ms. NEOEssI'rY or RELIGION.

mischief done by encoura

ging able-bodied men to

ne

glect the proper work of ife, and live as drones on

pu lic charity, is simly incalculable. It is not like theact of a thief ormurd

rerer which affects only a limitednumber of victims. Its effects are far-reaching, andits baneful influence continues, from generation to

generation , very often increasin in momentumin thecourse of its progress . That is,iowever, not the onlyway in which the so-called religious teachers of mankind havemade their condition far worse than it wouldotherwise have been . They profess to make menha py. But

,as amatter of fact, their teachings serve

on y to increase the sumtotal of human misery . Asif our natural afl ictions were not enough for us, the

riests have inventedmethods of self- torture— like fasts,ooh- swinging, cold baths in win ter, and exposure forwhole days under an Indian sun—which, on account oftheir fiendish character, surpass everything that theimagination of the worst of secular tyrants has everdevised.

The worst result of the teachings of the ao-calledprophets is, perhaps, the had blood which they exciteagainst those who refuse to be their followers. It is

easy enough for a shrewd man to create bitter feelingsbetween difl

'

erent nations and classes of men . But

the prophets who afl'

ect to bring tidings of joy and

peace from heaven, ou ht certainly to have a bettersense ofmoral responsibi ity than that which they showby kindlin the hell-fire of sectarian bigotry.

As are t e prophets, so are theirmin isters and tools.

The persecution to which the great philosopher Galileowas subjected by the authorities of the Roman CatholicChurch is one of the typical cases that reflect ever-o

lasting disgrace on the spiritual rulers of men. Themischiefmay be all the same even without the practiceof any kind of positive tyranny . A play-wright, publicist or temple promoter, who, for the sake of money or

mere popularity, encourages any of the forms of abomi~

as A FOUNDATION OF ETHICS. 349

nation-worship, may succeed in securing popular praiseor reverence . But, whetherhe simpl gives countenanceto Yoni worship, Linga worship an Radha worship

, or

actually recommends themby some ingenious plea putforward on their behalf, he deserves to be stigmatised asonly an evil genius of mankind . When we findmanyof our educated countrymen now-a-days patrolling thestreets in connection with Sankirtan parties, or offeringpuja to those emblems of obscenity and immodestycalled Kali and Siva, it on ht to be obvious to everythoughtfulmind how little t ore is of common sense, or

of a consciousness of responsibilit among our publicmen . If only in order to be on t e safe side they, atleast, ought to keep themselves aloof fromKali, Siva andRadha. Primd facie there can be nothing in themtodeserve the devotion of the pious. That fact aloneought to place every one on his guard. No doubtmany esoteric explanations are suggested to whitewashthe things. But no one can

, I suppose, honestly say

that he is so satisfied with those pleas, as not to enter

tain anymisgivings in his heart of hearts . And if hehave anymisgivings, the propercourse forhimcertainlyis to be not too enthusiastic . But he takes up a

different line, and by his zeal proves only that religioncan very seldomimpress onmen the value of a propersense of moral responsibility. Religion teaches blindfaith and blind fervour, the result being that it is veryseldomconducive towards the development of a capacityfor discrimination between good and evil.

CHAP. VIL—GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ABOUT

THE SECT FOUNDERS.

THE religious sects founded and existing in India are

too numerous to be catalo ed with anything like completeness in a book like t is. India is pro-eminentlythe land of prophets and ods in disguise.

”In

EurOpe the autocratic and overs adowing power of thePopes of Imerial Rome kept under a wholesomecheck the wou d-be vice crouts of the Divinity. Whilepunishin

gwith merci ess severity every tendencytowards eresy, the rulers of the Vatican, with their

usual wisdom, conferred high ofi ces and honours on suchpersonsas appeared to possess the necessar ability and

energy to organize a successful schism. bus was theempire of the Popesmaintained in undiminished gloformore than a thousand years, and the hold whit

-

hthe Christian religion thus acquired on the Europeanmind has been , even after the Reformation , so strongthat no power has yet arisen that has applied itself tothe task of shaking it ofl

'

or setting up in its place anew cult. The position of Christianit in EurOpe stillis what that of the Emcrots of Delhi was durin the

last century. As the aharattas, the Naboba of udh

and the English, with all their powers at the time, re

cognized the supremacy of the Mogul, so the sectfounders ofmodern Europe,while settingat defiance theauthority of the Po 9, have never been able to claimdivine worshi for emselves instead of for Christ.In India t 0 case has been very different, especially

since the commencement of Mahomedan rule. Here

( 350 )

352 THE PROPHETIC ART.

fabric built by him after years of arduous labourmay be demolished in the course of a single day by a

Madame Coulomb .

The sect founders generally claim to derive theirinspiration from some invisible teachers. The KutHumis and Aulia Gossains are so ve useful that theyare almost indispensable to the prophets in the beginning of their careers. When the oun Avatar’s oweris sufi ciently established, then a one e can shake off

the fiction of such subordinate alliance.

The event which the biographers of the prophetfind itmost diflicult to explain , and account for, is hisdeath . There is certainly nothing which hard swearinand combined action cannot accomplish in this

.worlf

But the prophet must leave some friends survivinghim, who would undertake for his sake, or for promoting their own interest, the task of inventing and

circulating legends about hismiraculous disappearancefromearth.

The difliculty of playing the rfile of a prophet beingreat, and the number of the competitors being many,516 careers of those who attempt the game are veryseldomattended withmore than partial success. Evenwhen a great religious kingdomis successfully established, on an apparently sound footing, it usually provesquite as ephemeral as the secularmonarchies founded

.in the last centur by political adventurers of the ty e

of Hyder Ali. hut in spite of all the checks on t eovergrowth of the sects, their number at the presenttime is not at all inconsiderable. In fact so numerousare they, and so comlicated is the history of theirowth, that I cannot ope to give in this book more

a brief account of the most important among

CHAP. VIII.—THE INDUCEMENTS HELD OUT

BY SECTFOUNDERSTO ATTRACT FOLLOWERS

THE sect founders of our country attract followerschiefly by relaxing the discipline of the ancient Shastras, and by throwing open to them the re

'

ected ele

ments of pure Hinduism. The Brahmanicalcodes laydown that the acceptance of a gift froma de radcdperson or amember of a low caste is a very sin ul act.

The Brahmans accordingly refuse theirmimstrations tothe vintners and the courtesans, and treat themas

beyond the pale of humanity. But the Tantric and

Vishnuvite prophets have, in different ways, suppliedthemuch-needed pretexts for overcomin such scruples.

The Tantrics actually enjoin the wors ip of courtesans, and lay down also that when sitting to other for

the practice of the Bacchanalian rites w '

oh theyinculcate, themembers of their or

'

os have all a higherposition than even that of the Bra mans. In the samemanner the Vishnuvite teachers profess themost largehearted philanthropy, and declare that, with such a

potent remedgas the name of Hari for curing the souls

ofmen, they ave no right to refuse theirministrationsto any class, however low or degraded . The wealth of

the sinners, which is rejected by the Brahmans, beingthus made lawful prize, almost all the sect founders,

Buddha to Chaitanya, have been able to attractvery lar e numbers of followers. Buddha himselfcepted t e hospitality and the gifts of a courtesan, justas some of the Chaitanite Gossains of Calcutta are

known to do at present.The rich pastures and virgin fields opened by ourpro

phets to their disciples, were in themselves sufi cient toR,no 353 23

354 THE LATTER DAY PBOPHETS or INDIA.

attract followers. Butwith aview to remove all possibledifi culties fromthe way, and to hold out other inducements, almost all our sect foundershave admitted femalesinto theirecclesiasti orders,andhave done theirutmostto promote the building of monasteries which mightserve as barracks and recruitingcamps for their fellowers. The Brahmanical Shastras lay down that amarriedwoman has no right to practise ang

religious rite, ex

cept in the company of her bus and, and that thehighest duties of a widow are the preservation of her

chastity, and the performance of such rites as benefitthe soul of her deceased husband in the next world.The great Hindu ls islators strictly prohibit the association of females, on amiliar terms, with even suchmalesas are ve near relatives. The sect founders set as idethesewho esomo ordinances,and admitted nuns intotheirmonasteries. What the result has been is well known,With a view to render the cultivation of learning

possible, our ancient law-

givers laid down that it wasproper fora Vedic student to live by begging, Thatwas good and noble indeed. But the sect founderscould not have any justification in letting loose on theworld their armies ofmendicants whose only functionsare to advertise and glorify them, and tomisap ropriate

the fund which properly belongs to the aged, theand the helpless.

The sect founders are, at the resent time, regardedb many as entitled to great cre it for having elevatedthye lower castes. But caste distinctions among the

laity are'

reco pized by the modern sects in the samemanneras by t e Brahmans professing the ancient formsof Hinduism. It is only amon themonks and nuns

that caste distinctions are ignore tpagreat extent butthey can have ng legitimate children, and their ille

' timate and semi- legitimate progeny have necessari y a,

vex low status. Thus, in practice, the low castes are

stil in the same position as before, in spite of the

so-called reformations of the latter-day prophets,

356 THE PROPHETS, ANCIENT AND MODERN.

to the birth, death and outward appearance of theirmaster.

Fromprofessingto have thepowerofworkingmiracles,the next step is to invent legends for fri htening men,

and for leading themto fool’

s paradise. ut even thesecannot directly serve the purposes of priestcraft in a

material degree. What ismost important to the priestis to invent incantations and complicated rituals. Bymeans of the latter, he is enabled to demand heavy payments in advance. He is placed in a position to sa

“Imay not be given any fee for my services lint Icannot be expected tomake bricks without straw. Bysuch representations, hemanages to have himself remunerated indirectly in anticipation, and he does not losemuch if the rite fails to be productive of any good tothe

'party celebrating it. At an early stage the laityare made to believe that the ceremonies and formulasof the priest are capable of yielding the result whichhis so-called sacred books promise. But soon he shiftshis ground, and begins to recommend them as usefulfor their own sake . The Vedic hymns and the Tantricformulas were evidently valued at first as means toan end. But it is now very seldompretended that themystical words, phrases orsyllables, in any book of ritual,can cause the destruction of an hostile army, or add

one pice to the wealth of the votary. TheHindu is lednow-a-days to receive the sacrament of the mantrafromhis Guru, not by any hOpe that themeaninglesssyllables whispered into his cars would be productiveof

‘

any worldly good , but by the belief that they areuseful for spiritual purposes. The transition that isthusmade to take place in the opular view regardingtheir utility, is very similar to w at commonly happensin secular spheres in the courts of the Indian rinces.Ahigh official has a favourite to provide for. e is te

presented as having great influence ou the refractorysubjects of the State, and on persons having the ears ofthe British Resident. He is appointed, and when it

THEIR METHODS or OPERATION. 857

becomes apparent that it is quite beyond his power to redeemhis romises, his retention is justified by some suchplea as t he is a member of a very respectablefamily, and that, though unable through bad luck torender any tangible good work, yet the very fact of hisbeing in the service of the State adds dignity to it.Closely allied to the powerof workingmiracles is the

healingart. Incantationsmay fail to cure a disease, butwith goodmedicines theman of religion might achievebetter success. The kind of medicine, however, thatcan serve the purpose of the prophet is, or at least was,very rare before the days of Hahnemann . Au homceopatbic dropmight be administered as consecrated water,but not so any other drug. Frommiracles, incantations andmedicines, theman of religion therefore shiftshis ground to asceticism, gymnastics and antomimicexhibitions. By professing absolute indifference to

wards worldly ha pinose, he puts a decent veil on his

poverty, and, at t 0 same time, secures the confidence ofmen as to his being disinterested in cheatin them.

The attitude of silent contemplation in whic he is

always seen serves the same purposes, and also impressesthe spectators with awe and faith. But thesemethodshave great disadvantages. To begin with, they are veryirksome, and it is quite impossible formost ordinarymen to go through the tortures of such semi-starvation and solitary imprisonment mo mate for anylength of time. The ascetic may, when he has established a character for superior sanctity, give up hisself- imposed restraints, and try to enjoy a little ofworldly pleasures. But as soon as he puts off his harness, be is lowered in the estimation of his followers.

Moreover, theShastric canon , once an ascetic always anascetic, renders it very difficult forhimto be readmittedto society or to getmarried. Hemay pass the remaining years of his life as amember of the class calledhouseholderascetics. But they are a disreputable order,and he feels great reluctance to associate with them. At

858 THE LATTER DAY PROPHETs.

any rate, he is precluded forever fromenjoying thatrespect of his fellow-castemen and fellow-villagers whichis the ambition of every Hindu. Such being the case,absolute asceticism, with all its advantages, cannot havemuch attraction to theman of religion.

Fine speeches are sometimes as effective as the

pantomimic exhibitions of Yoga and the practice of

asceticism. But the gift of oratory is a rare one, and

the man who has the ambition to be a leader of themob, and yet does not ossosa the fair-spoken tongue ofa demagogue,must see for otherweapons. Moreover,for the prOper display of oratorical powers, town ballsand expensive furnitures are absolutely necessar

i. And

these are very rare in India. It is also to be orne inmind that while 3 seek is silver, silence is often equivalent to gold. e Tantrics therefore adopted somemystical syllables and gestures which serve as the

ingredients of an imposing and awe-inspiring liturgy.

But their laconic syllables and silent gesticulationscannot stir the fervour of themob. So the laterHinduprophets invented other weapons which are far moreeffective, and, at the same time, are capable of beingeasily wielded . One of these consists in attachinggreat importance to the constant repetition of the nameof some deity. The other, which has been of late ver

ysuccessfull Imitated , in amodified form, by GeneralBooth, is t e kind of reli '

ous procession called Sankirtan . There cannot possibly be any difliculty in organis

ing such a arty of musicians to patrol the streetswith flags, diums and bugles. Themusic of the Sankirtan has itself an attraction, and when combinedwith the frequent repetition of the names of the cherishedHindu gods, its efl

'

ect on the people is simplymaddening. It generates an irresistible mania in themfor

joining the procession . It acts like a great ocean wavewhich dissolves in its progress the most refractoryelements.

360 THE HINDU sEOTs.

an earthen or a brass pot, or a hemispherical portionof a cocoanut shell, or a basket, or a cooking pot, or abag of cotton cloth. Some have a staff and a water potin addition to the alms bowl, while there are others whodo not encumber themselves with any of these things,but will receive in the palm of their hand the foodthat is offered to them. Themendicants of most of ,tbe

sects take uncooked rice, or pice, or whatever also of

value is offered to themexcepting cooked food. But

there are some sects the monks and nuns of whichwill accept only a spoonful of cooked rice, while thereare others whose ecclesiastics will not, in order toshow their indifference to wealth, take eitherpice orrice,but will only eat cooked food if offered by a Brahmanwith due honour. Some of the religious mendicantsrove about for alms during daytime only ; while withothers night is the favourite time for such excursions.Some pass through the streets repeating the name of

Some god or that of the founder of their sect or onlysome queer phrase, and the people give themalmswithout any further solicitation on their part. Somecarry about their person small bells by the tinklingof which the people are apprised of their presence.

Butgenerally they stop at every door on the road side,and use one or other of the followingmeans to induceor cOmpel the inmates of the tenements to submit totheir demands

l . Singin songs impressing npon men the uselessness ofwea th to Its owner after his death .

2 . Singing, in the names of the odeand goddem amoroussongs which are neoessa y very agreeable to the ears

El yog

ngmen and women, and forwhich they gladlyvs ams.

3. Singing songs relatin toRama’s exile , D nrga’smarriage

with Siva, and Krishna’s neglect of his foster parentssuch songs being calculated to awaken the tenderestsentiments in thematrons.

4. Singing songs calculated to impress uponmenthe ideathatgreat dangermight arise by slightrng themendicants.

6. Paradingan idol representing one of themischief-makingods or goddesses , as, for instance, those that are besved to have the power of causing the death of their

sccfiers bymeans of cholera, small-pox or snake-bite.Q

6. By simply lavishing good wishes.7. By offering holy water or consecrated food brought from

some sacred place.

8. Playing on the credulity of the people by fortune-tell

and palmistry .

9. By professing to be only collectors of subscriptions for

the feeding of r pilgrims.10. By professing to an routs to, or from, a place of pil

grimage.

l l . Terri'

ng the people by threatening to commit suicidein t err presence.

12 . Carrying snakes , carrion and ordure to disgust and horrity the people.

The last twomethods are not very common . Someof the Sankarite monks are well versed in Sanskritlore. But the mendicants of most of the other sectsare enerally quite illiterate. There are a few goodand armless men among them. But the majority of

themaremen of very low morals. The have amongthemex-convicts, criminals wanted y the Police,and persons outcasted for making illicit loves. Theteaching of morality by suchmen is out of the question .

Their sect marks and uniforms serve to rehabilitatethemto some extent, and, in their new character, theyare very often able to become the heads of monasterieswith harems full of so-called nuns.

A. good many of the mendicants have to pass theirlives in great misery . Those who lack the requiredamount of shrewdness can never rise above the condition of beggars, and when age or infirmity overtakesthemtheir condition becomes very deplorable. Somefind an asylumin themonasteries of their sects. Someet a still more precarious shelter in the public restouses and temples. But the majority, being withoutfriends and relatives, die in greatmisery. In theplacesof pilgrimage, and by the sides of the roads leadmg tothem, may very often be seen the ghastly spectacle ofthe body of some mendicant being torn and devouredby jackals and vultures. Sometimes the feast is commenced even before death.

In spite , however, of the sad fate of a great manyof themonks and nuns, the profession has had great

362 'ms awnu ssc'rs .

attractions in every age. In former times, the headsof the mendicants became, in some cases, recognisedas important powers in the country. They acted as thes ies of the kings, and very often supplied recruits toem in times of war. Under British rule their

political importance is well-nigh gone. But in theirown spheres, they still flourish as before. Some attainalmost princely positions by becoming the abbots of

the existiu monasteries. Some establish new monasteries an place themselves in charge. They all

begin their career as beggars. Some of themsuc

coed in ingratiating themselves in the favour of the

superiors of their sects, and become their successors

sooner or later. A few of themonks and nunsmanageto attain a high position by means of fortune-telling,or by developing the curious power of swooning on

the mere mention of the name of some god. When a

mendicant has acquired a character for sanctity by anyone of the usual processes, he has only to give out

that he has found an idol b miracle, with injuncttions to erect a temple to it. e necessary funds forthe purpose being never supplied miraculously to thedevotee, he invites subscriptions fromthe pious ; andwhen the temlo is built, a part of it naturally becomeshis dwelling-house. With the further contributionsmade by the visitors to the shrine, he is enabled tolive in comfort. When a shrine is in the strugglin

stage, the high priest generally leads a pure life, andspends a large part of his income in feeding the poorilgrims. But the hi h priests of the temples thatave awell-established c racter for sanctity are usuallyjust the kind of men that they ought not to be. Thereare thus five stages in the careers of the successfulmonks and nuns. First, the beggar ; then the charlatan ;then the temple promoter ; then the princely highpriest ; and last of all the debauchee. The themeIs one to which justice could be done only by the geniusof aShakespeare.

CHAP. XI.—CLASSIFICATION OFTHESECTS.

BEFORE enumerating the classes under which the

several sects now existingmay be grouped, Imust warnthe reader against supposing that every Hindu is necossarily amember of some particular brotherhood. As amatter of fact themajority of the high caste Hindus inNorthern Indiado not belong to any of themodern sects

,

but worship all the gods of their pantheon , givingspecial importance either to Siva or to one of his con

sorts, or to Vishnu . The aristocratic Brahman usuallykeeps in his private chapel an ammonite Salagramrepresenting Vishnu, and a

gir of

plhallic emblems

representingSivaandhis wife. e wors i

ps,these every

day after bathing, and before breakfast. hen he goesto any place of pilgrimage, like Benares, Brindaban or

Puri, he pays his homage both to the Sivite and theVishnuvite shrines there . He does not admit thepretensions of the latter-day prophets like Chaitan a

and Vallabhachari. But, whatever deit may 9

entitled to special adoration by his family, he does not

hesitate to worshipany of the other gods of the ancientHindu pantheon . In fac t, it is very common for Vishnuvites to celebrate the Dnrga Puja, and for Sivitesand Saktas to have images of Krishna in their privatechapels.

Sectarian bigotry and exclusiveness are to be foundchiefly among the professional leaders of the modernbrotherhoods, and among their low caste disciples whoare taught to believe that theirs are the only true gods,

364

CLASSIFICATION or run 83 01's . 365

and that the rest do not deserve any reverence whatever. Some sectarians avoid even the utterance of thenames of the deities worshipped by their opponents,and this kind of bigotry is carried so far by the Chaitanites of Bengal that, when they have to use an equiva

lent for the word ‘ ink,’ they use the Persian word

and would never 8 eak of it by its Bengali namekale; that word bein a the name for the goddessworship ed by the Sa tas. A Chaitanite would ratherstarve t an eat an food that has been ofi

'

ered to Kalior Durgi . The in Saivas or Lingaits of SouthernIndia carry their bigotry to the same extent. Theywould on no account repeat the name of Hari, andwould avoid every form of Vishnu worship as the

greatest of abominations in the world.

The existing Hindu and quasi-Hindu sects may bedivided into the following principal groups

l . W orshippers of Siva.

2 . Worshippers of Siva’

s consorts.3. Worshippers of Rama.

4. Worshippers of Krishna and his wives and sweethearts.5. Worshippers ofmodern incarnations of Krishna.

6. Worshippers of great teachers , ancient andmodern .

The Rama-worshi ping religion, and some of the

faiths falling under t e last mentioned group, are puremap-worshi ping religions. The others are man-wor

shi ping cu ts also. But they aremore or less combinedabomination-worship.

CHAP. XII. -THEMODEOFASCERTAINING THE

SECT TO WHICH A MONK BELONGS.

ACCORDING to our social etiquette, any Hindu householderma be asked to mention his name, his father’sname, hisactra, hisVedas, and his caste. Butareli '

ous

mendicant cannot be properly asked any uestion a ut

his name, or his family, or his caste. Amonk may,however, be asked to give such information regardinghis sect as may be required of him. Generally the

sectmay be ascertained fromthemarks on his foreheadand fromhis dress. The proper forms of 'the questionsthatmight be asked with a view to elicit the necessa

information are not the same for all the sects.

Chaitanitemonk or nun of Bengalmay be interrogatedin the followingmanner

1 . Who is the Lord of the family towhich you belong?2 . Where is yourSripat l

To a Sankarite, the following queries may be putwithout any breach of decorum

What is yourKshettra lWhat is yourDeva?What is yourDevi 1What is yourTirtha 1What is your VedasWhat is yourMaha Bakyl !What is yourMarhi l

( 366 )

368 'ms ESSENTIAL NATURE or SIVA woasmr.

their adoration to only the images of the Linga. Theseare cylindrical pieces of stone, mounted in most caseson a perforated circular piece representing the Yoni.The Sivite cult is themost common and ancient form

of abomination-worship.

‘ It has been established bythe researches of antiquarians that the worshi of Siva,in the formof Linga, prevailed in India long efore the

commencement of the era of Christ. In all probabilitythe worship of the phallic emblems of the grimgodwas one of the common institutions of theAryan nationsin their original home. The Greek god Bacchus and

the Eg ptian god Osiris were worshipped in the very

same germ. I1 rom the account which Megasthenes

has given of the Hindu pantheon,it is evident that

in speaking of the worshi of Bacchus in India, hemeant onlySiva’s Lingait hismuch at least is certainthat Siva-worship was in a very flourishing conditionat the time of the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni :

f The nomenclature that Ihave used here is somewhat oflensive.

But In the EnglIsh language there does not seemto be an othertermthatmight express what Imean, without wounding the ealingsof any class.

See Ancient Ind ia as described 6 u “M “and AP 1 1 1 By J . w. McCrindle, M .A.

’9 man.

IThe Sivite shrine of Somnath destroyed by Mahmud was, andin its restored condition is , reckoned as one of the twelve chiefSivite shrines In India. The following are the other eleven

2 . Mallikarjuna ofSriSaila, in the District of K Ithe Madras Presidency .

uraco in

8. Mahakala in Uj iayin .

4 OmkaraNath on the banks of the Ramada.

g. Amareshwara near Ujiayin .

7

8

Vaidyanath on the Chord Line, E. I. Railway .

9. Tryambakabu the Gomati.10. Goutamesha.

l l . Kedarnatha on the Himalayan slopes, in the District of

rrs PREVALENCE. 369

The worship of Siva is still the most prevailing ele

ment in the religion of all classes of Hindus, exceptinghigh caste Brahman has an image

of the Linga among his penates, and there is hardly asingle Hindu village in the count that has not a

Sivite shrine. In connection withl

these village idolsofSiva, it ma bementioned here that, for some daysin the year, t ey are touched and worshipped by suchmembers of the low castes as dedicate themselves, forthe time being, to their service. The season for theirsaturnalia is the second week of April. During thatperiod the low castemen,who take the vow,

are requiredto observe the discipline of the Sanyasis or asceticsand to sub '

eet themselves to a variety of self-inflictedtortures. e hook-swinging, which was themost cruelfeature of the programme, has been happily sto ped bythe British Government. But walking u onheaps oflive charcoal and rolling upon cushions of thornsare still allowed to be practised . The Sivite low casteswho enlist themselves as Sanyasis in the last week of

the Bengali year subject themselves to various othertortures, as, for instance, piercing the tongue and the

sides with heavy javelins. The higher castes are accustomed frominfancy to enjoy such spectacles as a fun .

CHAP. II.—THE PROBABLE ORIGIN OF THE

SIVITE RELIGION.

THE Sivite religion being the one most prevalentamong the Hindus in every part of India, the time andmanner in which it first came into existence are questions of very considerable interest to the theologicalstudent. Siva worship is beyond doubt an ancientcult, and, considering some of the" characters in whichthe deity is represented, it does not seem impossiblethat the recognition of his godhead is a survival of someancient form of demon-worship directly degeneratinginto abomination-worship . Destruction is still held tobe the principal function of the god, and, although insome places he is described as having been an asceticand a contemplative philosopher, the very op ositocharacter is given to himquite as often in the Hindumgthologies.

“He is a wild and jovial mountaineerirata), addicted to hunting and wine drinking, fond

of dancing (Nritya Priya, also called Natesvara, ‘ lordof often dancing with his wife the Tandavadance, and surrounded by dwarfish, bufl

'

oon- like troops(Gana) of attendants, who, like theirmaster, are fond ofgood living and occasionally inebriated by intoxicatIn

gliquors . Such conceptions of the deit and his

t o e of tiger skin, as also the snakes used y himas

apron strings and ribbons, are clearly of the demon

See Brahmanic" : and Hinduism, bySirMonierW illiams, pp. 8285. See also the Datuku Bhairava hymn in the Tantra Sara, p. 209,BattolaEdition.

370

372 THE sIvrrE RELIGION.

lend, the stories summarised above have a deepmeaning.

They can certainly be made very intelligible by thetheory that they are the inventions of amendicant. Thestory of Sati is clearlymeant to secure for the San asisthe sympathy of the matrons. The story of Da ha

and the agencies that marred his festive preparations,aremeant to bully the kings and the aristocracy, and

to secure for themendicants a proper invitation to theirfeasts. The story of Kama, trying to excite a desireformarriage in Siva, is evidently intended to make thepeople believe that ordinarily the Sanyasis are quiteabove the vulgarappetites of ordinarymen . The storyof the courting of Siva by Parvati gives an audibleexpression to a wish which erhaps lurks in the mindsof all classes ofmen, fromt e greatest of kings to thepoorest of beggars. Considering the amount of worryand trouble which most men have to go through inorder to secure the favour of their future partners, it isimpossible for any one of the sterner sex not to wish thatthe order of things were reversed . To the beggars whocannot possibly hope to secure theirobject by any kind ofattention orhumiliation, themere dreamof such j 0 can

not but be a source of ecstasy. The story of the imalayan King, feelinghimself honoured by being allowedto give his daughter to Siva, is clearlymeant to implythat otherkings should follow his example bymaking themendicants their sons-in-law. The legend about Kartikfighting the battles of the gods, and never takin awife,suggests that if the kings would give their dang ters inmarriage to themendicants, theymight expect to have,by the issue of such marriage, very able generals fortheir armies who would never be a source of dan er to

themor to their successors in the male lines. ff themeaning of the Sivite ls ends be not as stated above,theymust, it seems, he saidto be incapable ofanyrationalexplanation.

The formin which Siva is usually worshipped, combinod with the mahabakya of the Sivite mendicants,

ITS PROBABLE ORIGIN. 373

points also to the conclusion that their cult is the

invention of some clever beg ar of their brotherhood .

TheSivite is required by his rehgion to assert ever now

and then that he is Siva. Hismahabakya, Iam iva,”

when taken in connection with Liuga worship, rendersthe object of repeating the formula intelligible enough .

But looked at separatel and fromthe point of viewof those who regard t e religion as a pure and nobleone, neither the hallic

.

worshipnor themahabakya can

na meaning.

CHAP. III.— THESIVITE FOLLOWERSOFSANKARACHARYA.

FROM the literature of the Sankarite sects , it appearsthat even before the time of the great champion of

Brahmanism, there were several SivIte sects embracingwithin their folds a very large portion of the Hindupopulation of the country. Sankara did not found anySivite sects pro erly so—called . His primary objectwas to root out uddhism" fromthe country, and, inorder to attain that end, he countenanced every formof Hinduism

,includin the worship of Siva, Sakti,

Vishnu, Sun and Ganes He himself had greatin the Vedantic doctrine of one God,manifesting himself by the creation of the universe, without the helpof pralm

'

tz'

ormaterial basis. But he did not discardthe gods and goddesses of the Hindu pantheon, and itseems very probable that either he himself or his

disciples gave great encouragement to Siva worshi in

order to render Buddha worship obsolete. Now ere

is Sankara represented as a destroyer of Buddhistictemples and images. In all probability he and his

discxples took those shrines under their protection, andfound itmuch safer to represent the idols worshippedtherein as images of the Hindu god Siva, than to throwthemaway into the streets, or to destroy them. Evennow there aremany shrines bearing the designation of

Dharma Raj, where the Hindus daily ofl'

er worship, in

See Bt ibat Dharma Pitfall.374

376 ms sANxARrrEs.

they paint on their foreheads, and the Sivitehymns which they recite, point to the conclusion thatthey are in reality worshippers of Siva. Sankara didnot admit any nuns into his monasteries. The monksof the orders founded by himare called Dasnamis fromtheir using one or other of the following surnames

l . Sarswati The name of the oddess of learning.

2 . Bharati Anothername of t e goddess of learning.

3. Puri Lit. Town.

4. Tirtha5. Asram Lit. Refuge.

6. Bans. Lit. Forest.7. Giri Lit. Hill.8. Aranya Lit. Forest.9. Parvata Lit . Mountain.

These surnames are derived fromthe names oracademic titles of the ten disciples of Sankara’s immediatepupils . The first three, namely, Sarswati, Bharatiand Puri are supposed to be attached to the Sringerimonastery. The Tirthas and the Asrams look up to theSharoda Math of Dwarika as their chiefmonaster theBans and Aranyas profess to be connected wit the

Goverdhan Math of Puri and the Joshi Math on the

Himalaya is the chief centre of monks bearing the

surnames Giri, Parvata and Sagara. Monks bearingthe titles of Aranya, Sagara and Parvata are not

usually to be found now-a-days.

These different surnames do not imply an differenceof reli '

on or religious raetics . The c assification

of theS’

ankaritemonks w ich is based on a difierence

of Observances, is as followsl . Dandi. 3. ParamaHausa.

2 . Sanyasi. 4. Brahmachari.6. Grihastha Gossains.

The actual diiferences between the first four of the

above orders are very trivial. They are only slightlymodified forms of the Asramas, ormodes of passing life,which the ancientHindu legislators recommended, butunder conditions that checked every possible tendencytowards vagrancy . In our holy codes it is laid down

THEIR nmrnm sus-nrvrsmNs. 377

that everymember of the three superior castes shouldpass through the following conditions

1 . As a Brahmachari orVedic Generally speaking fromstudent living on alms. the 8th to themyear.

2 . As a Grihastha or house Durin the entire periodofholderwith wife. youthful vigour.

3. As a Banaprastha or forestrecluse with or withoutwife, living on the spon nripg

what is called thetaneous products of the part of life.

earth collected by his ownindustry .

4. As a Sanyasi or begging}Dnrin the closing years

mendicant. of 0.

Fromthe ordinances on the subject contained in our

ancient codes, it might seemat first sight that our

Rishis encouraged vagrancy pro tanto. But readingtheir texts between the lines, it would appear that whatthey really intended was to encourage men to marryand live as peaceful householders, instead of observingcelibacy and running the risk of drifting into a disre

course of life. Asceticismhas naturally a

great attraction for such adventurous men as have acraving for being venerated by the mob for their holycharacter. But it is impossible to fight against nature,and thesemen generally failmostmiserably inmaintaining their original vows. Itwas not, however, consistentwith the policy of our holy law-

givers to declare thatthere was no merit whatever in the life of an ascetic.

They knew too well how tomaintain the dignity of the

holy orders, to expose even the impostors to infamy

.

So instead of discrediting asceticism,they actual y

recommended it, though at a period of life when it canhave no attraction even to themost adventurous spirits.

Mann says1 . When the fatherof a family perceives hismuscles become

flaccid and his hair grey , and sees the child of hischild , let himthen seek refuge in a forest .

2 . Abandoningall food eaten in towns and all h is householdutensils let himrepair to the lonely wood .

16. Let himnot eat the produce of ploughed land thoughabandoned by any man , nor fruits and roots produced in a town , even though hunger oppresses him.

29. For the purpose of uniting his soul with the divinespirit, let himstudy the various Upanishads.

THE SANKARITE HOUSEHOLDERS.

33. Having thus perfqrmed reli ous acts in a forest duringthe third portion of li 3 , let himbecome a Sanyasifor the fourth portion of it, abandoning all sensualaffections.

37. If a Brahman have not read the Veda,.

if he have notbegotten a son , and if he have not rformed sacrifices, yet shall aimat final heatitu e, he shall sink123

amplace of degradation.—Manu VI, vs. 2 , 3, 16,

These ordinances clearly show that the real object ofthe law-

giver was not to encourage the practice of

asceticism,but to check it to the utmost extent possible.

The sage distinctly gives preference to the life of a

householder. He says77. As all creatures subsist by receiving support fromair,

thus all orders of men exist by recesvmg supportfromhouse-keepers.

78. And sincemen of the three other orders are each daynourished by them, a house-keeper is for this reasonof themost eminent order—Hana III, 77, 78.

The GrihasthaGossains represent, it seems, the secondstage of life spoken of and recommended in the ancientHindu codes. They marry and live as householders.

They act as Gurus to the lay members of their sect,administering the sacrament of the mantra to theirdisciples. They never serve as purohits or priests.

In fact, in the religious ceremonies celebrated in theirown houses, the functions of the purohit are performedby Brahmans who are not of their order. Unlikethe mendicants, the Grihasthas wear the sacred thread,and dress like householders. Generally speakin theirujas and prayers are the same as those of

8other

Sivite Brahmans, and their only eculiarit lies in thefact that they do not perform t 0 Sand ya prayer.

They keep among their penates a Sivite Linga and aSal ram

, and worship these emblems of Siva and

Vishnu in the samemanner asmost of the high casteBrahmans do. They do not worship Krishna, RadhikaorKali in their own houses, but show due honour to theidols representing them in the public shrines. Theonly female divinity that receives their special adoration is Sarswati, the goddess of learning. They wear

CHAP. IV .-THE DANDIS.

THE Sankarite ascetics called Dandis are so designated on account of their bearin a Danda or wand,like the ancient Vedic students. one but a fatherless,motherless, wifeless and childless Brahman can be ini

tisted as aDandi. The process of initiation to the sect isan elaborate one, ofwhich the burningof the neophyte’ssacred thread, and the eating of the ashes thereof byhim, are themost important parts. By theseand certainother ceremonies indicative of a new birth, he is su

ppsed to pass into the condition of a

'

god, and e'mself constantly expresses his belief in such transformation by re eating the Sohamformula. After hisbaptism,

he ta es a newnamewith one of the followingsurnames

l . Tirtha. 3. Bharati.2 . Asrama. 4. Sarswati.

The usual dress of a Dandi consists of five pieces of

cotton cloth dyed red with ochre. Of these one smallpiece serves as a cover for the loins, and another ofthe same size as a girdle to keep the other in position .

The other three pieces are of larger size, being eachabout two yards in length, and a yard in breadth .

One of these is tied round the waist, and serves tocover the thighs and the legs ; another is tied roundthe breast and hangs down like a barrister’ s gown ;

the third piece is wrapped round the head to serve thepar ose of a turban .

T e Dandis are not required by their religion toworship any god. But, in actual practice, they carry

380

THE DANDIS OR STAFF-BEARING MONKS.

about themeither an image of Vishnu in the formof

a Salgram, or a phallic emblemof Siva. The Dandisare found in lar e numbers in Benares, where they are

fed with great honour by the il rims. But it is saidthat a greatmany of the M 1 Dandis of Benares

are pure shams, being in fact the poorest of beggarswhomthe local lodging house-keepers and guides palmoff as Dandis to partake of the hospitahty and the

largesses of the pilgrims. What is eaten by thembecomes theirs irrevocably as a matter of course but

the new clothes, water-pots, and other things which aregiven to themby their hosts fall to the share of the

parityacting as broker in securin theminvitations.e Dandis afl’ect that they 0 not accept pecuni

ary gratuities. But they have usually with themsuch companions as would readily acce t, on theirbehalf, an coins thatmight be ofiered to themby anyone. Wit a view to strengthen their claim to the

hospitality of the laity, the Dandis pretend also thatthe do not touch fire on any account. not even for

coo'

n their food . But when they fail to procuredresse food b begging, their spiritual companionsdress their foo for them. Likemost of the severalclasses of mendicants, the Dandis are allowed toonly onemeal in twenty-four hours.

CHAP. V.-THESANYASIS.

A BRAHMAN alone can become a Dandi properly so

called. But the order called Sanyasi is open not onlyto the three superior castes, but to some extent to evenSudras. Some persons take up the garb of the Sanyasiwithout being initiated to the order. A person who

has a wife or an infant son or aged parents cannot beadmitted to be a mendicant of any class. When a

man duly qualified desires to be a Sanyasi, the propercourse for himis to apply to a Guru or superior of the

sect, and to go through a ceremony in the course of

which he has to put off his sacred thread, if he haveany, and to Shave ofi

'

the tuft of hair which eve

orthodox Hindu keeps at the central part of his heal-

IiThe Guru whispers into the ears of the neophyte thewords Namah Siva

-ya or 0mNamah Sz'

vaya, and a

Sanskrit couplet, the purport of which is as followsO thou wise man ! Please contemplate yourself and myself as

identical with the Divine essence, and roamabout without pride or

aflection according to your inclination.

The formula which the neophyte has to recite, atthe time of saluting the Guru, is still more curious.Its purport is as followsSalutation to you and salutation tome. Salutation again to both

you and my ownself. Thou art thou , and I amidentical with the

great soul pervading the Universe. Therefore Isalute thee.

At the conclusion of these ceremonies, the neophytereceives a new name with one of the following sur

names1 . Oifi .

2 . Puri.3. Bharati.

7. Sagara.

332

384 'ma SIVITE smn sts.

necklaces of little stone beads calledThumra, andadorntheir hair by ametallic substance called Swarna Makshi (lit. golden fly). Similar beads are obtainablealso at the hot 8 rings of Manikarnika on the Himalayan slopes, an are worn by Sanyasis who havevisited that shrine. A pilgrimage to Rameshwara inthe extreme south is indicated by a ring of conch shellworn on the wrist. There are various other odds andends of the same kind which are used similarly by theclass of mendicants that are being spoken of here.

As the Sivite Sanyasis have no ob'

ection to touchfire, they generally cook their own fo They would

,

without any hesitation eat cooked food offered to themby a Brahmans . In fact, some of themprofess thatthey are prepared to eat any kind of food offered tothemby an one. Whatever the theoretical injunctionsmay be, t e Sivite Sanyasis accept both coins anduncooked eatables. Generally speaking, they are quiteilliterate. Some of themhave a little knowledge of

therapeutics, and there are among thema few whohave perhaps the best medicines for some of themostobstinate diseases that man is heir to . Unfortunatelythey never divulge the secrets of their healing art for

the benefit of the ublic.

The Dandis and)

ParamHansas are mostly Sankarites. But among the Sanyasis there aremanyVishnuvite s and Tantrics. Those who become Sanyasis in an

irregularmanner are called AbadhutaSanyasis.

CHAP. VL—THEPARAMA HANSA.

AFTER a period of probation which properly ought to

extend to twelve years, the Dandi an the Sanyasibecome qualified to be a Parama Hausa. The wordHausa ordinarilymeans a oose .

”But it is also one

of the names of Vishnu, an the expression ParamaHausa

”evidentlymeans the Supreme Vishnu . Pro

perly s g, the Parama Hausa is neither aSivitenor a ishnuvite. He is in fact a self-worshipper. TheSivite prayers, which forma

Jart of the Dandi’s ritual,

are omitted by the Parama ansa. The latter has onlyto repeat constantly themystic syllable 0m. Like theDandis, the Parama Hansas are required also to assert,every now and then, their identity with the DivineSpirit.The Parama Hansas are of two kinds. Those who

enter the order after having been Dandis are calledDandi ParamaHansas, while those who are promotedfromthe ranks of the Abadhuta Sanyasis are calledAbadhuta Parama Hansas. A few of the ParamaHansas go about naked . But the majority of themare to be found gracefully clad in the same manner asthe Dandis. With reference to the clas s of asceticsunder notice, Professor Wilson in his Hindu Sect;makes the following observationsAwarding to the introduction of the Dwadasa Nahuatl-yo by a

Dandi author, Vaikantha Pun . the Sanyasi is of four kinds. theKatie/tam, Ballade-ta, Ham and Param Kama the diflerencebetween whom, however, is onlwhe graduated intensity of theirself-mortiflcatiou and profound a n ot on. The Param Ham isthemost eminent of these gradations and is theasceticwho is solely

B, ac 385 25

386 THE srvrrs mu mHansas.

occu ied with the investigation of Brahma, or spirit, and who isequally indiflerent to pleasure or pain, insensible of heat or cold,and inca ble of satiet orwant.Agrees. ly to this d nitica, individuals are sometimes n ot withwho pretend to have attained such a degree of action : in roofof it theme naked in all weathers, never and never in icateany natu want 3 what is brought to themas alms or food, by anyperson, is received by his attendants, whomtheir su

gposed sanctity

or confederation of interest attaches to them, andtv these atten

dants they are fed and served on all occasions. as i they were ashelpless as infants. Itmay be supposed that there ismuch knaveryin their hel iessuess but there are many Hindus whose simpleenthusiasmnduces themhonestly to practise such self-denial, andthere is little risk in the attempt, as the credulity of their countrymen, or rather countrywomeu, will, in most places, take care thattheirwants are amply supplied.

Some of the Sanyasis and Parama Hansas pretendthat they do not eat an kind of food. One of thisclass visited the late Ba 11 RamRatan Roy ofabout the ear 1 854, with a iar e number of comanions. abu Roy kept himnu or close surveillanceformore than amonth, and was ultimately so satisfiedas to hismiraculous powers that he gave his followersa bonus of one thousand rupees. Some years laterwhen the Babu was roceedmg to Benares, and hisboats were anchored 0 some place nearMonghyr, oneof his attendants who went on shore found the quondamParama Hausa, and some members of his arty

, en

gaged in ploughing some adjacent fields. hen questioned, one of themnot only admitted his identity, butmade a clean breast of the whole secret. He confessedthat theman had sustained himself on food vomited byhis companions.

‘

Like the Dandis, the ParamaHansas are found inlarge numbers in and near Benares. They live in

convents, and some of themare very learned men.

The head of aParamaHausa convent is called Swamiji.By courtesy, even the juniors are sometimes called

I believe there are still somemen livingwho can vouch to the

authenticity of the story narrated above. heard it fromseveralofficers connected with

’

the service of the Narail Babus, and alsofromone of the old Valnls of Jessorewhowas the chief legal adviseroi Babu RamRatan.

CHAP. VII.- THE BRAHMACHARIS.

CLOSELY allied to the several orders noticed in thelast three chapters is that of the Sivite Brahmacharis.

Properly s aking, a Brahmachari is a Vedic studentwho, after is initiation with the sacred thread, has toobserve certain rules as to diet and dress, and to live bybegging, until he hasmastered the Vedas . In actualpractice Brahmanical policy has very nearly su

ppressed

the study of the Vedas, and neither the few V icdents to be found at present, nor the Brahman boys whodevote their scholastic years to the study of the farmoredifficult sciences of grammar, bilosophy, logic andtheology, are now required to 0 we the rules as to

diet and dress prescn bed for the Brahmachari or thereader of our holy scriptures. The long observance ofBrahmacharya disci line is ac prohibited by thelater codes of the indus as unsuited to the present

present time the formis gone through,thread ceremony, for a period varying from

only three to eleven days. In Calcutta, some of theBrahmana boys are initiated with the thread in thelocal shrine of Kali, and those who go through theceremon in that way are made to throw away theirstafi

'

an Brahmachari’s arb on the very day of theirinitiation. Such being t 0 case, Brahmacharis, pro

so-called, are very rare in these days. But the

genius of Sankara created four new ordersof Brahmacbaris, one to be attached to each of hisfour principal monasteries. These Brahmacharis are

388

'ma sm'rn Bssm cusars. 389

theoretically ersonal assistants and companions to theDandis and the Parama Hansas. As the latter are not

allowed to touch fire or coin, the Brahmacharis serveas their cooks and as receivers of alms for them. In

actual practice, the line of demarcation between the twoclasses is not very broad, andman of theBrahmacharislive by be '

ng independently. he usual surnames oftheSivite rahmacbaris are Anand, Chaitanya, PrakashandSwamps . They dress like the Dandis and ParamaHansas in red robes.

The Tantric Brahmacharis are a diflerent order altogether, and will be spoken of in their proper place.

CHAP. VIIIa—sTHE HOUSEHOLDER SANYA81 8.

THEword Sanyasi denotes apersonhis connection with the world and his family, and theexpression Householder Sanyasi is a contradictionin terms. But in Benares and in otherplaces

persons called Dandis and Sanyasis whomarry, orwith female associates, like other.men of the world.

The fact is that in the days of youthful enthusiasmmen are led to take the vow ofmendicancy whichsoon find themselves quite unable to maintain .

a character for sanctity, or

cost, he tries tot a female, for constant association,

eased wife, or as a pious sister. The progenyunionsmultiply fast, and the ultimate tendency of each

order is toch

become d endogamous group ; an castes

position . The householder con

ounded with the Grihastha f on

The latter are a very c class.

( 390 )

392 'ms AGHORIS.

the credulity of the i orant ortimid. Theyare believedto hold converse wit all the evil spirits frequentingtheburning ghats and a funeral

partymust be poorly off

orverystrong-minded which re ses themsomethin“The various meanings of the termAgbori are eld

to be, one who is solitary, separate, distinct fromothermen. All castes can become Agbori Panthis. Notwithstandin the astounding wickedness of their teachings, they 0

‘mfor themthat they are the doctrines ofequality and humanity . Indifference to all that isshould be the all-in-all of existence. No one reallyhas a father ormother ‘ it is allmore accident. ’ If a

well comes in one’s way, he shouldwalk into it. Celibacy is strictly en

'

oined but the Census returns of

1 881 fortheCon Provinces and theN.-W.Provinces

show that in this respect disciplinemust be veryTheAghoris are avery ancient sect. There is

reference to it in the Sanskrit drama called MalatiMadhava, the hero of which rescues his mistress frombeingoffered as a sacrifice by one namedAgbori Chants .

The French writer M. d’Anville alludes to the Agbori

as ame dem are. The author of that extraordinary ersian work, the Dabz

'

stan, or School of Man

ners, writing probably about the middle of the l 6th

century, gives a brief but clear description of the

Aghoris who practised acts of “atilia”or“Agbori,

”

says that the sect originated with Gorakshanath, andthat he saw one of them“singing the customary songand seated u on a corpse, which he ate when it becameutrid. M.filevenot, whose travels were republished inondon in 1 687, alludes a parently to a community of

these cannibals, establish at a place called Debea, inthe Breach district, and Kazi Sahabadiu, for

merly Dewan of Baroda, ascertained that there is a

tradition still extant among the people that a colony ofcannibals did exist in the village of Walwad, on the

Statesman, March 7, 1898.

mamFILTHY HABITS. 393

Mahi river, a century or two ago. In the early art of

this centu there were several Agbori Pantiis inBaroda, an the remains of a temple dedicated to theAghoreshwari Mata, their tutelary goddess. At the

present day there is an Agbori Sthan between Ahmedabad and Kadu. In his Travels in Western India

Colonel Todd came across some Aghoris, “the jackalof their species, and his account of the superstitiousdread with which the Kalika shrine on Girnar and the

Agbori Panthia were re arded, exactly coincides withthe statementsmade to t e late Mr. Leith by Gossainsof the present day.

The initiation ceremony of the Aghori Panthia issaid to be very terrible and onl practised in lonelyspots ; but the rofessors of t e sect in Benares,Allahabad and ot er places, now-a-days seemto haveto content themselves with making the neophyte go

through a ceremonial that is made as filthy and loathsome as possible. In Benaresmany oldmen state thatthey have seen Agbori Panthis eating deadmen

’

s flesh,and afi rm that the custom yet prevails, especiallyamong drunkenmen, who will seize upon corpses floating in the water and bite ofl”the flesh. One AgboriPanthi boldly admitted to Mr. Leith in that city thatthis is a fact, and offered to swallow man ’s flesh himself. On the 2 9th December 1 884, one Krishna DasBabaj i was fined Rs . 15 b Mr. Ishan ChandraSen, Deputy Magistrate of Berhampore, Moorshedabad

district, for committing a public nuisance, namely,devouring part of a woman ’

s cor e before a numberof people at Khagra cremation g at. Some AghoriPanthis say that their religion prompts themto the act,and,moreover, that if at initiation they refused to eat

deadmen’s flesh, they would be dismissed by the Guruas unfit for their calling. One excuse sometimes ofl'

eredby an AgboriPanthiis that by the taste of such flesh, hecan acr

gure the knowledge ofjadu ormagic. The fact is

that as rahmanisminculcated cleanliness and the eating

394 THEmuon s.

of wholesome food the Aghoris, who formed one of thesects setting u opposition sho as it were, insistedon the utmost egree of filth, an hoped to get alms byhorrifying the peo lo, and not by gaming theirSome of the Xghoris have

female Aghorinis, and these people are extremelyshameless. The doctrine enunciated by Burke in one

of his famous speeches that the quality of modestywas the attribute which, more than reason, distinguished men frombeasts, is certainly not applicableto some of the Indian sects. They are the post of

societ and it ismuch to be regretted that of late theyhavebeen receiving very conslderable encouragementfromsome educated men of the country . The puremorals and the noble discipline, im sed on the societyb the Brahmanic Shastras, are t gs of which theindusmay be justly proud. But the beastl

yAgbori,

the Bacchanalian Tantric and the dissolute aishnava

are a disgrace to the Hindu name. With all his cleanliness, ve etarianismand teetotalism, the Vaishnava isperhaps t emost dangerous in the whole list. He hasdone great good service in civilizing the lower classesto some extent, and in suppressin the horrors of theTantric worship . But the mora laxity which theVaishnava encourages by the stories of the illicit lovesbetween his gods and goddesses, and by the strongtendenc

yto imitate themwhich his teachings generate ,

ontweig s the good done by Everyman of common sense naturally feels a horror at the Tantric and

the Agbori. But the Vaishnava insinuates himself inamanner which is irresistible.

396 run LINGAITS.

repaired to Kalyan, the metro lis of the ChalukyaEmpire, and theremarried the aughter of the Damianayaka or the chief magistrate of police. He suc

ceeded to the post himself after the death of his fatherin-law, and made use of his official sitiou to attractround hima crowd of followers. is chief disci leMachaya had been condemned by the king to su er

death for having killed a child. But Basava refusedto carry out the order on the plea that it would beunavaihng to offer an harmto a worship er of SinThe king thereupon or ered some of his ot er officersto execute the sentence, and the legend as usual goes onto state that Machaya saved himself miraculously.

Two other Sivite citizens were condemned by the kingThis led to the de ar

and the fixing 0 his

theShastri river, in the

grimages and fasts were declareduseless, and he rejected altogethertransmigration of souls. But with all these atheisticviews,” as they would be called bysi s on one of the least attractiidolatry, and in his zeal for the phallic emblemwent sofar as to enjoin that his followers s 0 ways carry

rams ms'rmc'nvn rm'mnns. 39'

about their raon ome lin as by fastenin them0

the neck and,0

the arms withwhat is called8the Ling

Sutram, as Opposed to Yajna Sutramor sacred throsof the Brahman . The object of the founder was 1

doubt to create a new badgeJ n. place his 191 car

followers on a ootin of equality or rival to tW e“ The Vi uvite sect founders ave a

given similarly new badges to their followers. I

neither the Lin Sutram of the Lingaits, nor

necklace of basil s worn by theVaishnavas, norSheli of the Kanfat Yo

'

s have been able to commhatthe veneration that the ajua Sntramof the

enj'pz

s.

0 Lingaits, like most 0s

to ’ thfismall bells attached to their arms, so nostpass through the streets the peoplejog

a

f their being in the neighbourhood, t

bestow their alms to themwithout‘“Ddsolicitation on their rt. The la Lin

'

ts carry 19veneration for the aders to an extent which is?l theunusual, and would hardly be believed by theHinPHOONorthern India. Guru-worship is naturally fai thereby the priest-ridden Hindu everywhere. But itamongthe Lingaits that an image of a god wo

l' Yaj

humihated for the glorification of the Guru.

e not onl humiliatlvselves, but their very idols.

yThe Vadirs are fez

ed m

the laymen on all important occasions, and wht his 1011;is a guest of that class in the house, the host pl in thatown linga on ametal tray, and the cat

’s feg

placed on the vessel are washed by5135host, tcontained in the same being ultimately swallhig nosthe host and his family with great reverence. ga g, and

3398 runmoms.

Narasimmayengarfig: report on the last Censusto ‘

s a community the Lingaits are in t. sober, industrious,ity and clannish. The have bro t some departments of

una ara literature to a high egree of culture, and as tradesmen theirThe ’ is in the van of Hindu society. As a race some of their divi

are nnmistakabl Aryan in descent, their women being, a s

to e : object lessons in’female loveliness and grace. To themas a

to 8 also belongs the credit ofmaintainingthe strictest sobriety andtlooholim—l lmn0m Reportfor 19 1. Vol. XXV , p. ass.

awlg‘ie bitterness of the Lingaits is still as great as

turetowards the Brahmans. But curiously enough,

residclaimed at the last Census to be included among

modgmans. They made some des rats efl'

orts to-e that honour. But in the en they had to beged with bein se

parately enumerated as Lingaits.

d t

¥hoe

r§are very ew ingaits amongthe regularpopuNorthern India. The Rawal or high riest of

wé irine of Kedarnath, on the Himalayan s opes infi tn ct of Garwal, is a Jangama. So are the riests

m‘

; J,temple of Kedarnath mBenares. A

’

t

the latow and then 'be seen in Behar lead

mvaleatly caparisoned bull,

h the animal performmany cut ion

“an

imating it as the favouritec hargerof Siva. Thesebeg rs are taken b the peo le of Bengal tomiss 0 the shrine of aidyanath

far as to

400 'ma srvrrn roars.

while repeating certain formula mentally, he shouldwith his open nostril inhale asmuch air as possible.

(0) When the lungs are inflated to the utmost degree sible, the Yogi is required to shut up both thenostrils

)

,

e

the open one being closed by pressing the thumbof his right hand.

(4) In the condition mentioned above, die Yo hasto repeat the prescribed formula a certain numer oftimes a sin.

(e) hen the recitation mentioned above is completed, then the Yogimust remove his fingers fromthenostril first closed, and go on repeating the mysticformula a certain number of times a sin.

The whole Operation is very simp e and at the sametime very imposing. It does not r uire any extraordinary quality of either the head or e heart, and yettheman, who can go through it with a little pantomimicskill and seriousness, can, at a very little cost, acquirea character for superior sanctit The rules relatin

to the exercise require that it s ould be gone throughin a secluded place. But in practice many men maybe found engaged in the exercise in the most cpen

places on the banks of the holy rivers, and in the premises of the great shrines. Such persons, however,never attain a very high place in the estimation of theircc-religionists. It is those who are believed to practiseYoga in privacy that are usually credited with the

possession of miraculous powers. Some of themare

supposed to have the power of floating in the air, and of

beingable, if so inclined, to become immortal or to die atsuch time and place as they deemfit, death bein a

matter of option with them. The Yogi is liberate in

his livingbody fromthe clog ofmaterial incumbrance,andacquires an entire command overall worldly desires.He canmake himself lighter than the lightest substances,heavier than the heaviest, can become as vast or as

minuteas he pleases, can traverse all space, can animateany dead body by transferring his spirit into it from

THEIR PBRTENBIONS. 401

his own frame, can renderhimself invisible, can attain allobjects, becomes equally ac uaintedwith the ast,p

resentand future and is finafiy united with Siva.

’

Topretend that some particular Yo is have achieved immortality, and are living on theHimalayan slopes froma remote period of antiquity, is easy and convenientenough. It is very difi cult, if not absolute] impossible, to explode such legends, and the char atan whoseeks to exact some money fromcredulous persons bpretending to have seen their great-great-great-granfathers in Thibet cannot be prevented fromplyin his

trade. As to the other powers claimed by the ogis,they do not enjoy any similar vantage ground for

maintaining their credit. At any rate, even amon the

most revered Yogis, there is not, Ifear, one sing e in

dividual who has ever, by actual performance, provedhis possession of the power of aerial navigation to a

greater extent than is exhibited bythe jug lers of the

country . W ith regard to the ogis an their art

ProfessorWilsonmakes the following remarksTh specially practise the various

'

culations andTun es of

whicle

i

yit consists ,and labour assiduou y to su press their reath and

fix their thoughts until the effect does ron ow at realize expectation,and the brain , in a state of overwrought excitement, bodies forth ahost of crude and wild conceptions, and ves to airy nothinguessa local habitation and a name.

—Wilson’s indu Scots, p. 132 .

Theremust be a great deal of truth in these observations, though the case of RanjitSing

’

s famousYogimustremain amystery in the present state of the science of

physiology . As to the case of the Madras Yo "

I’ who

floated in the air with the help of a rod fixe to theearth, suflice it to say that similar feats are daily exhi

bited by the poor jugglers of the country who do not lay

claimto any su rnatural powers. Even Ranjit Sing sYogi is said to ave been more a mercena

gcaterer

than a holy saint, and similar performances, ough for

SeeWilson’s'I' See Akshoy Religious Bods, Vol II, n

p. 123 ; Wilson’sHinds 8m, p. 133.

B, no

402 THE sm'f s roots.

shorter periods, are given now and then by the rusticmagicians. Upon the whole, it seems that the so-calledYoga, even in itsmost astonishin aspects, is only a formof gymnastics and magic, and t at it has as little con

nection with religion as the feats of Vaneck, Maskelyn, Hossain Khan orAnderson . As for the Yoga of theordinary charlatans, itmay, like gravity,

”be defined

as a mysterious carriage of the body for hiding the

defects of themind .

”

The exercise of Yoga is allowed not only to mendicants, but to householders and family men as well.According to some authorities, Yoga cannot be efl’ective

in this Kali Yuga or age of sin . Themajority of the

so-called Yogis are regarded as mere charlatans, and

they neither claimto be, nor are looked upon as,men of

superior sanctity.

404 mmemos YOGIS.

Large numbers of Kanfat Yogis are often met within many parts of Northern India They profess tohave renounced the world. But many of them carryon trading business on a very extensive scale. TheKanfats sometimes enlisted in the army under theHindu kings.The Kanfats say that some of their saints are immor

tal, and are in existence in this world for thousands of

years. ’

The names of some of these immortal saintsroaming on the Himala an 810 s are given in the HathaPradz

'

pilca. Madame Blavats y ’s Kat Humi is not expresslymentioned in this list, nor does it include thename of King Bhartri Hari, whomevery Kaufs t pretends to have seen .

The usual surname of themale Kanfats is Nath, andof the females, who are admitted to the order, Nathini.There is reason to suppose that the Yugi caste of Bengaland Assamare the rogeny of the Kanfats .

Aghore PanthilYogis — The Aghore Panthi Yogis

are exactly like the Aghoris, the only difference beingthat the former wear rings on their ears like the Kanfats.

Kanipa Yo z'

s. Some of the snake-charmers dressexactly like tlie Kanfats, and call themselves KanipaYo is. These are familymen, and th

iylearn themeans

of t eir livelihood chiefly by the e'bitiou of their

skill inmanaging snakes.

CHAP. XIII.—THE SECTSTHAT PRACTISE

SEVERE AUSTERITIES.

THE adult males among the inferior castes enlistthemselves as Sivite ascetics in themiddle ofApril everyyear, and during the week that they remain under thevow, they prac tise the most severe self-tortures and

privations. See p. 369.

Besides the above who are householders there are somepermanent ascetics who subject themselves to peculiarkinds of self-torture in order to be revered by the

people. The practice of austerities, and not the worshipof any articular deity, forms the most importantart of t eir religions discipline. Upon the whole,however, they seemto bemore addicted to the worshipof Siva than to that of any other god or goddess. Themost important classes of permanent ascetics professingthe Sivite faith and practising the severe austeritiesare the following

U rdha BahuTharasri

3. Urdhamukhi

4. Panchadhnm

Jalashayi

6. Jalad haraTapashi.

Ascetics with uplifted hands .

Ascetics who always remain in a standing posture.

Ascetics who with their feet attached to

the hough of a tree, keep their headshanging downwards.

Ascetics who kee themselves in all

zeasons constant y surrounded by fiveres.

Ascetics who kee themselves in allseasons imme inwaterfromsunsetto sunrise.

Ascetics who keep themselves in allseasons under a jet of water fromsunset to sunrise.

( 405 )

406 m sm onruamc ssonn os.

who live only on fruits.8. D ndhahari Asoetics who live only on milk .

9. Alana A533?“ who never eat salt with their

The number of such ascetics is very small ; and ofthe few that profess to practice the terrible austerities of theirrespective orders, agreatmany are suspectedto bemere pretenders. But there aremanymisguidedsimpletons who are genuine ascetics, and who actuallyobserve their vow even at times when they are not

watched by outsiders. The tortures to which suchticsmust subject themselves are terrible indeed. Thepenance of Simon Stylites was child’s lay comparedwith, for instance, the sufferings of the arasri. It isbad enough to be perched on the top of a pillar forthirty years and exposed to

Rain, wind , frost, heat. hail, dampand sleet and snow.

But to remain in a standing posture for cars togetherwithout enjoying for amoment the delig

t of sleepingon a bed, or of even sitting down, is a ind of refine

ment in cruelty which, perhaps,has neverbeen surpassedby the greatest of secular tyrants, ancient or modern .

Bad as the record may be of the Indian Police and the

Indian Jails, they allow even the greatest criminals theprivilege of enjoying

Tired Nature’s sweet restorer, balmy sleep.

A sus coted person may now and then be subjectedby a zealhus thief-catching ofi cial to the same kind of

o orations as those to which the Panchadhuni, the Jalashayi, and the Jaladhara Tapashi voluntarily subjectthemselves. But if a single instance of such cruelty,though practised for an hour or two, ever becomesknown to the outside world, the com laint is heard ineverybody’s mouth, and not only t e Police but theBritish Government of Indiawould be abused as a curse

to the country. The far worse and quite gratuitoustyrannies of religion are, however, not only condoned,but actually admired.

408 sumwonsmr.

completely divested of her clothing. The followingare used as substitutes

l . The Yantra or triangular plate of brass or copper keptamong the penates of every Tantric Brahman .

2 . A triangle painted on a copper dish . Thepainting is

madeandworshipped onl

lymthe absence 0 a regular

plate among the cuacho d penates.

Thenaked female, theYantra, and the painted triangleare worshi ped only in private services. In public theTantric oiihrs his adoration to the naked ima e of a

female deity called by various names such asKali, Tara,&c., and usuallymade to stand erect on the breast of ahalf-sleeping image of Siva in a similar state of nudity .

The true nature of such images is not generall known ,

though it is defined in unmistakable terms in t e Uh an

or formula for contemplating the goddess Kali . he

popular ideas on the subject are as stated belowShe (the

(goddess Kali) is represented as awoman. with four arms.

In one han she has a weapon, in another band the head of the giant

she has claim—with the two others she is encouraging herworshippers. For earrings she has two dead bodies ; she wears a necklace

of skulls, her only clothing is a garlandmade ofmen’s skulls. After

her victo over the giants she danced so furiously that the earthtrembled neath herweight. At the request of the gods Siva askedher to stop ; but , as owing to the excitement she did not notice him,

he lay down among the slain. She continueddancingHtill she caught

sight of her husband under her feet ; upon which , in indu fashion ,

she thrust out her tongue to express surprise and regret.—Murdoch

on Swami Vivekananda, p. 40.

As amatter of fact, the image ofKali, that Mr. Mur

doch, of the Madras Mission , has attempted to hold upto ridicule in the above passage, is a thing far worsethan he has taken it to be. What its real meaning iscannot possibly be explained here. Those inclined to diveinto such filthmust study the ritual for Kali worship.

CHAP. II.—THE DIFFERENT CLASSES OF

SAKTAS AND THEIR METHODS OF WORSHIP.

THE Saktas are chiefly householders, and there are

very few mendicants among them. They are dividedinto various classes according to the extent to which theyallow drinking, debauchery and slaughter of an imals asparts of their ritual. The classes of Saktas best knownin the country are the following

1 . Dakshinachari or the Right-handed Saktas .

2 . Ban achari or the Left-handed3. Kowls or the Extreme Saktas.

Some of the Saktas performtheir worship in exactlythe samemanneras the Vaishnavas . They do not offer

wine to their goddess, and, to avoid even the semblanceof bloodshed, they conduct theirritual without any kindof red flower, or any stuff of blood colour like red sandalwood . The majorit of the respectable Saktas are

Dakshinacharis, and t ough they do not avoid red flowersand red sandal-wood, they offer neither wine nor fleshmeat to the deity. The number of Bamacharis in the

countr

iis not very large, and even among those who

are so y family custom, the majority are so moderatethat

,instead of offering wine to their goddess, the

use, as its substitute, cocoanut water in a copper vessel:such liquor being, according to the Shastras, equivalentto wine

,for puja pur oses. The extreme Bamacharis

ofl'

er wine to their go dess, and when it is consecratedthey sprinkle it on every kind of cooked and uncookedfood brought before her. The quantity actually drunk

( 409 )

410 ssxn woasmrrnns.

by the worshipper and his family very seldomexceedsa few drops. Bamacharis of all classes generally offer

some kind of sacrifice to their goddess . It is usuallya kid . Some offera large numberofkids, with orwithouta buffalo in addition . In all cases the head of the

slaughtered animal is placed before the grimdeity withan earthen lamp fed by glu

‘ burning above it. In the

case of a bufl'

alo being sacrificed, the body is given to

the Muchimusicians. If the animal sacrificed is agoat,then the body is skinned and chopped, and when the

flesh is cooked, it is consecrated again before the goddess. The meat is ultimately served to the invitedguests, along with the other delicacies consecrated to thegoddess. Some of the Bamacharis do not offer anyanimal, and instead of slaughtering kids and buffaloes,as they are required to do by their Shastras, they cut

with due ceremony a pumpkin,a cocoanut or a sugar

cane. This substitution may in some cases be due to

compassion for the poor animals, but is generally owingto the superstitious fear entertained by all Hindus as tothe result that must follow the executioner’s failing tosever the head of the animal at one stroke. The sacrificeof an animal before a goddess is an occasion of greatrejoicing to some young folks but to the votary, it isa sore trial . As a preliminary, special services are heldsupplicating the goddess that the ceremonymight passoff without any hitch . Even at the time of the sacrifice ,when the arena before the puja hall is filled with theshouts of the bye

- standers . and the discordant music of

the village Muchi band, the head of the housemay befound standing in one corner muttering prayers withan air of deep devotion, if not actually with tears.

If, in spite of such prayers and supplications, thewrath of the deity is indicated by the failure of the

executioner to make a clean cut through the neck of

the an imal by his first stroke, then the whole family isthrown into a deep gloomby the apprehension of a

great catastrophe within the year following. Like the

41 2 THE ROWLS.

dissolved in ghi. The Dakhinacharis have generally anUrdhapundra,or perpendicular streak, in the central partof the forehead

,the colourin material bein either a

paste of sandal-wood, or a solution in ghz'

0 charcoalobtained froma Homfire. All classes of Saktas weara necklace of Rudraksha seeds like the Sivites .

The extreme Kowls are almost quite as fiendish as

the Aghoris, though in ublic they appear to be moreclean and respectable in t eirhabits . TheKowls do noteat carrion or ordure. It is, however, said of themthat, in the hope of attaining supernatural owers

, someof thempractise what they call Sava Sad an

, or devotional exercise with a dead body. But

,as the ceremony

must be held at midnight, and at a burial or cremation yard farremoved fromthe habitations of men ,

veryfew have, it is su posed, the hardihood to undertake it.The belief that t ose who undertake it, and fail to gothrough the programme to the end, become insane fromthat moment, also serves to deter novices, and to

heighten the glory of those who claimto have aecomplished the feat. The Kowls are, however, well-knownto be in the habit of holding those bacchanalian or ies

which are 3 oken of in theirShastras as Bhairavichafitraand Lata gadhan . These ceremonies are of such a

beastly character that it is impossible even to thinkof themwithout horror. It is impossible in this bookto give their details. Sufi ce it to state that theyadmit such females as are available for the purpose,and begin with the exhibition of every formof indecencythat both themales and females are capable of. In the

beginning some so-called religious rites are also seriously erformed which, to an ordinaryman,must appearbig ly comic. What fol ows may well be imagined,and, strange to say, that all this passes under the nameof religion .

The Tantric cult prevails to a greater extent inBengal, Behar and Assamthan perhaps in any otherpart of India. In Southern India, the Hindus are