Maki TSUJIMURA, Maki TSUJIMURA, Ph.D. Ph.D. • • Associate Professor in Hydrology and Hydrogeology, Doctoral Prog Associate Professor in Hydrology and Hydrogeology, Doctoral Prog ram in Sustainable ram in Sustainable Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences; Sciences; • • Executive Leader, EDL Education Program, University of Tsukuba Executive Leader, EDL Education Program, University of Tsukuba • • Co Co - - Chairholder Chairholder , UNESCO , UNESCO - - Chair on Sustainable Management of Groundwater in Mongolia Chair on Sustainable Management of Groundwater in Mongolia Environmental Diplomatic Leader (EDL) Environmental Diplomatic Leader (EDL) Education Program, University of Tsukuba Education Program, University of Tsukuba
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Hillslope Hydrology and Headwater Control (by Maki TSUJIMURA, Ph.D )
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Maki TSUJIMURA, Maki TSUJIMURA, Ph.D.Ph.D.••Associate Professor in Hydrology and Hydrogeology, Doctoral ProgAssociate Professor in Hydrology and Hydrogeology, Doctoral Program in Sustainable ram in Sustainable Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Life and EnvironmentalEnvironmental Studies, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences; Sciences; ••Executive Leader, EDL Education Program, University of Tsukuba Executive Leader, EDL Education Program, University of Tsukuba ••CoCo--ChairholderChairholder, UNESCO, UNESCO--Chair on Sustainable Management of Groundwater in MongoliaChair on Sustainable Management of Groundwater in Mongolia
Environmental Diplomatic Leader (EDL)Environmental Diplomatic Leader (EDL)Education Program, University of TsukubaEducation Program, University of Tsukuba
Contents� Introduction - rainfall runoff process in watershed
� Transformation from rainfall into runoff
� Infiltration
� Runoff characteristics
� Runoff components: End Members Mixing Analysis
� Subsurface flow process in hillslope and runoff
� Role of bedrock groundwater in runoff
� Residence time of groundwater and spring water in headwaters
2
Headwater: Transform from rainfall to
runoff / Recharge-discharge area
3
Runoff
Rainfall
Time
Runoff
Time
Rainfall
Hydrograph
Hyetograph
Evapotranspiration
Groundwater flow
PrecipitationEvapotranspiration
Runoff
Groundwater
Divide
Water balance of watershed(Precipitation)=(Evapotranspiration)+(Runoff)+(Change of storage)
(Hewlett and Nutter, 1970) Example of water level -
discharge relation curve in a
headwater
Water level sensor
(a) A gauging station at Hubbard Brook Watershed
(USA)
(b) A gauging station at Sleepers River Watershed
(USGS)
A weir and parshall flume
at stream of Shiranui
Watershed in Kumamoto,
Japan
A parshall flume at
stream of Shiranui
Watershed in
Kumamoto, Japan
0
5
10
15
20
6-Sep 8-Sep 10-Sep 12-Sep 14-Sep 16-Sep
日付 (2001)
流量 (mm/h)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
雨量 (mm/h)
流量
雨量
Date (2001)
Runoff (m
m/h
)
Rain
fall
(mm
/h)
Observed in a headwater, Nikko, Japan
Rainfall
Runoff
Hydrograph and hyetographRunoff characteristics reflecting hydrological processes
18
Urban watershed (0.4
ha) covered by
pavement
RR: 100%Runoff (m
3/h
)
Rain
fall
(cm
/h)
Runoff (m
3/h
)R
unoff (m
3/h
)R
unoff (m
3/h
)
Rain
fall
(cm
/h)
Rural watershed (58
ha) covered by grass
and cultivated area
RR: 3.6%
Forested watershed
(182 ha) covered by
birch and fir underlain
by silt
RR: 3 - 30%Rain
fall
(cm
/h)
Rain
fall
(cm
/h) Watershed in Kenya
(53 ha) by volcanic
ash (no vegetation
information)
RR: 2%
Time (min)
Time (hr)
Time (days)
Time (days)
RR: Runoff ratio
to rainfall in one
rainfall event
Kayane (1980)
19
(b) South western Japan (Kyushu Island)(a) Central Japan (Kanto Plain)Runoff
(mm d
-1)
0.1
1.0
10
100
300
□:Quat. Volc. rock
△:Tertial. Volc. rock
○:Granite
●:Mesozoic
■:Paleozpic
0.5
50
5.0
I II III IV V VI VII
□:Quat. Volc. rock
○:Granite
■:Paleozoic
I II III IV V VI VII
(I) annual maximum runoff, (II) 35-day runoff, (III) runoff with high water level, (IV) runoff with ordinary water level, (V) runoff with low water level, (VI) draught runoff, (VII) annual minimum runoff
20
Onda, Tsujimura et al. (2006)
Runoff
(L s
-1km
-2)
Rain
fall
(mm
h-1)
Days (Sep - Oct, 1993)
Schematic diagram showing
relationship between runoff
characteristics and subsurface
flow processes in shale and
granite watersheds. (Onda,
Tsujimura et al., 1999)
Shale Granite
Delayed response Quick response
Subsurface flow in bedrockSubsurface flow in soil layer
Runoff
Runoff
Rainfall
Soil
layer
Where does water come from?
21
Time
Rainfall
Runoff
Time
Kirchner et al (2001)
Mass balanceEnd Members Mixing Analysis (EMMA)
23
Qn, Cn
Qo, Co
Qt, Ct
Qo, Co
oonntt
ont
QCQCQC
QQQ
+=
+=
t
no
nt
o QCC
CCQ
−
−=
24
Tracer concentration C
Tra
cer concentration C
End member a
Mixture (total discharge)
100
0Contrib
ution ratio o
f end m
em
ber b to
tota
l dis
charg
e (%
)
1000Contribution ratio of end member b to
total discharge (%)
End member b
X%
100-X
%
X% 100-X%
oonntt
ont
QCQCQC
QQQ
+=
+=
t
no
nt
o QCC
CCQ
−
−=
25
Concentration of tracer 1: C1
Concentration of tracer 2: C2
End member aMixture(total discharge)
End member b
End member c1=++ cba QQQ
tccbbaa CQCQCQC 1111 =++
tccbbaa CQCQCQC 2222 =++
Exercise 2
26
Time Runoff
Event water (rainfall)
Pre-event water (groundwater)
The data in the left table shows temporal change of δ18O in stream water (runoff: L/s/km2) during a rainstorm in a small headwater basin, Seto, Aichi, Japan. Calculate contribution rate of pre-event water to runoff water using EMMA and show the results by graph.
t
no
nt
o QCC
CCQ
−
−=
Exercise 2 -Answer
27
Total runoff
Pre-event water component
Granite Watershed
Shale Watershed
28
Case in a headwater� Contrasting runoff components separation using 18O
between the watersheds underlain by shale and granite� Shale watershed: >98% coming from pre-event water
� Granite watershed: 64% coming from pre-event water
The parameters of a1,a2,a3,b1,b2,b3 are taken from Warner and Weiss
(1985).
Excess air throughfissurs of bedrock Decomposition by microorganism
Aquitard
不透
水層
Confined aquifer
Aquitard
Unconfined aquiferUnconfined GW
CFCs contamination
River Spring
Recharge altitude
Recharge temperature
Well
Urban airThickness of unsaturated zone
Aq
uitard
Age of spring and GW in Mt. TsukubaAge of spring and GW in Mt. Tsukuba(Matsumoto, T., 2009)(Matsumoto, T., 2009)
Geological map (Miyazaki et al., 1996)
Granite
Gabbro
Deposit
Metamorphic
CFC-11(pg/kg)
100
500
1000
CFC-11 concentration
Spatial distribution of CFCs and chemical componentsSpatial distribution of CFCs and chemical components
Chemical characteristics
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year
Tra
cer concentration (pptv
) CFC-12CFC-11CFC-113SF6×100
Age of spring and GWAge of spring and GW
Granite
Gabbro
Deposit
Metamorphic
Western slope
Southern slope
Age of spring and GW in a mountainous watershed facing ocean Age of spring and GW in a mountainous watershed facing ocean ((OhtaOhta, K., 2008), K., 2008)
Hokuto city,
Yamanashi Pref.
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
18002000
2200::::降水降水降水降水::::大気大気大気大気サンプルサンプルサンプルサンプル
Headwater of R Jingu
←Spring
(J-1)
Main stream→ (J-10)
SpringMain stream
BranchWatershed
boundary
R. Jingu
R. Kamanashi
R. OjiraR. Tazawa
R. Matsuyamazawa
Precipitation
Atmosphere
17
18
14
20
J-1
17
1410
14
14
7
12
8
13 10
Branch
Main
stream
Spring
2km
松山沢川 神宮川
田沢川 尾白川
釜無川
:湧水:河川水(本流)
:河川水(支流):流域界
Age of spring / river waters in low flow
10
19
Spring:14~20 years
Branch:
10~17 years
Main stream:
7~19 years
y = 1.1958x - 8.3709
R2 = 0.7888
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 10 20 30
SiO2 [mg/L]
Resi
dence tim
e [
year
s]
Spring
Main stream
BranchWatershed
boundary
2km
松山沢川 神宮川
田沢川 尾白川
釜無川
:湧水:河川水(本流)
:河川水(支流):流域界
Age of spring / river waters in high flowAge of spring / river waters in high flow
12
11
7
12
J-1
11
1110
13
11
6
8
11
10 8
Branch
Main
stream
Spring
11
6
15
16J-0
15
15
18
19
Spring:
7~16 years
Branch:
10~19 years
Main stream:
6~18 years
Spring
Main stream
BranchWatershed
boundary
Spring: 14 - 20 years
Branch: 10 - 17 years
Main stream: 7 - 19 years
Spring: 7 - 16 years
Branch: 10 - 19 years
Main stream:
6 - 18 years
Behavior of subsurface Behavior of subsurface
water and residence time water and residence time
in mountainous watershedin mountainous watershed
High flow season
Low flow season
Summary
� Rainfall-runoff characteristics suggest subsurface flow processes occurring in hillslope.
� Groundwater is dominant in runoff during rainstorms in warm humid regions.
� Role of bedrock groundwater is important in runoff during rainstorms in headwater catchments.
� Residence time of groundwater and spring water varies dynamically according with hydrological regime in headwaters.