Highlights of Astaxanthin - Premia Natural Astaxanthin · Astaxanthin clinical studies: The multibillion dollar beauty industry continues to flourish, spurred by consumers' desire

Highlights of Astaxanthin

The global astaxanthin market is estimated at about $257 million, with human uses market is

estimated at about $27-$40 million. Natural astaxanthin production and commercialization is

estimated to be a 1.2 billion dollar annual market. The annual worldwide aquaculture market

of this pigment is estimated at US$ 200 million with an average price of US$ 2500/kg.

Natural astaxanthin is sold for over $7000 per kg (BCC, 2009).

Table1: Market Sectors and Future Market Potential of Astaxanthin (BCC, 2009)

Market Sectors Market Size ( as

of 2009) ( Million

USD)

Potential Market(2020)

( Million USD)

Animal feed colouring agents 300 800

Antioxidant nutraceuticals 30 300

Pharmaceuticals Emerging 500

Cosmetics Emerging 30

Table 2. Major Astaxanthin production companies:

Company Location

Alga Technologies Israel

Cyanotech Hawaii

Jingzhou Natural Astaxanthin Inc China

Algaetech International Malaysia

Parry Nutraceuticals India

Mera Pharmaceuticals Inc., Hawaii

Fuji Chemicals Japan, Sweden

Valensa International Florida

Table . Astaxanthin products from various companies and its use for various purposes (Rao

et al. 2014).

Brand Name Dosage form Ingredients Company Name Purpose

Physician

Formulas

Soft gel/Tablets 2 mg/4 mg-AX Physician

formulas vitamin

company

Antioxidant

Eyesight Rx Tablet AX, vitamin-C,

plant extracts

Physician

formulas Vitamin

company

Vision function

KriaXanthin Soft gel 1.5 mg-AX,

EPA, DHA

Physician

formulas vitamin

company

Antioxidant

Astaxanthin Ultra Soft gel 4 mg-AX AOR Cardiovascular

health/gastrointestina

l

Astaxanthin

Gold™

Soft gel 4 mg-AX Nutrigold Eye/joint/skin/immu

ne health

Best Astaxanthin Soft gel 6 mg-AX, CX Bioastin Cell membrane/blood

flow

Dr.Mercola Capsules 4 mg AX, 325

mg Omega-3

ALA

Dr. Mercola

premium

supplements

Aging/muscle

Solgar Soft gel 5 mg-AX Solgar global

manufacture

Healthy skin

Astaxanthin Cream AX, herbal

extracts

True botanica Face moisturizing

astavita ex Capsules 8 mg AX, T3 Fuji Chemical

Industry

Agingcare

astavita SPORT Capsules 9 mg AX, T3 and

zinc

Fuji Chemical

Industry

Sports nutrition

AstaREAL Oil, powder,

water soluble,

biomass

AX, AX-esters Fuji Chemical

Industry

Soft gel, tablet,

beverages, animal

feed, capsules

AstaTROL Oil AX Fuji Chemical

Industry

Cosmetics

AstaFX Capsules AX Purity and

products

evidence based

nutritional

supplements

Skin/cardiovascular

function

Pure

Encapsulations

Capsules AX Synergistic

nutrition

Antioxidant

Zanthin Xp-3 Soft gel capsules 2 mg, 4 mg-AX Valensa Human body

Micro Algae

Super Food

Soft gel 4 mg AX Anumed intel

biomed company

heart/eye/joint

Astaxanthin clinical studies:

The multibillion dollar beauty industry continues to flourish, spurred by consumers' desire to

look and feel forever-young. Several categories exist within the beauty industry, but none

more vibrant than the anti-aging segment which includes products to reduce or reverse visible

signs of aging such as wrinkles, age spots, and freckles. While aging is natural and cannot be

avoided, there are factors such as solar radiation and physical and mechanical damage that

accelerate the propensity of visible aging. Today, humans face increasing exposure to

chemical pollution, ultraviolet radiation and ozone levels, all of which can damage the skin's

dermal layer causing wrinkles and enhancing the risk of malignant skin cancer. These

negative effects are compounded with increasingly poor diets and lifestyle habits which are

not conducive to maintaining the skin's natural repair process and antioxidant network.

Clearly, there is opportunity for natural ingredients to help improve long term skin health

management through topical application and nutritional supplementation.

In the past, Beta-carotene (provitamin A) and Vitamin E have been extensively studied.

Recent focus, however, has switched to other carotenoids such as astaxanthin, (derived from

the microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis), which is shown to have potent quenching and anti-

lipid-peroxidation properties; a weakness of Beta-carotene and Vitamin E (Miki, 1991). In

human trials, astaxanthin has been shown to reduce visible signs of UV-aging through both

topical and dietary supplementation within 4 to 6 weeks of use. This data is supported by a

number of in-vitro and animal studies. Research suggests potential skin benefits from the use

of astaxanthin to maintain a youthful appearance, reverse premature signs of aging and

prevent UV induced skin cancer. Naturally, further investigation is necessary to elucidate the

mechanism of action and to replicate results using significantly larger clinical trials. To date,

the astaxanthin potential is promising.

Cosmetic benefits of Astaxanthin on humans was studied by Tominaga et al. (2012) and they

reported that Astaxanthin derived from the microalgae, Haematococcus pluvialis can

improve skin condition in all layers such as corneocyte layer, epidermis, basal layer and

dermis by combining oral supplementation and topical treatment. Moisture content and

sebum oil level at the cheek zone showed strong tendencies for improvement in their studies.

These results suggest that astaxanthin derived from Haematococcus pluvialis may improve

the skin condition in both men and women.

Rao, et al. (2013) evaluated the potential for astaxanthin to inhibit or attenuate skin cancer

development in a rat model of chemical-induced skin carcinogenesis. This study supports

astaxanthin in skin protection and chemoprevention.

The somatic effects on human skin by 4mg per day astaxanthin supplementation were

demonstrated in a single blind placebo controlled study using forty-nine US healthy middle-

aged woman. There were significant improvements in fine lines/wrinkles and elasticity by

dermatologist’s assessment and in the moisture content by instrumental assessment at week 6

compares to base-line initial values (Yamashita, 2006).

Carotenoids are used for systemic photoprotection in humans. Regarding mechanisms

underlying photoprotective effects of carotenoids, here we compared the modulation of

UVA-related injury by carotenoids. Human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) were exposed to

moderate doses of UVA, which stimulated apoptosis, increased levels of reactive oxygen

species and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, decreased antioxidant enzymes activities,

promoted membrane perturbation, and induced the expression of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1).

The data indicate that the oxo-carotenoid AX has a superior preventive effect towards photo-

oxidative changes in cell culture Camera et al.2009).

Lyons and O’ Brien (2002) studied the ability of an algal extract to protect against UVA-

induced DNA alterations was examined in human skin fibroblasts (1BR-3), human

melanocytes (HEMAc) and human intestinal CaCo-2 cells. The protective effects of the

proprietary algal extract, which contained a high level of the carotenoid astaxanthin, were

compared with synthetic astaxanthin. This work suggests a role for the algal extract as a

potentially beneficial antioxidant.

Yamashita, 2002. Beauty From Within: A Synergistic Combination Of Astaxanthin And

Tocotrienol For Beauty Supplements. Both astaxanthin and tocotrienols are found naturally

in daily foods we consume. By concentrating these into an oral beauty supplement, it can

provide an excellent source of protection in addition to the daily skincare regime. Results in 4

weeks supplementation indicated reduction in fine wrinkles, increased skin moisture and

increased skin elasticity compared to placebo.

Thibodeau and Edouard (2003) have performed a clinical trail in which a topical cream

formulation and a dietary/nutritional supplement were concomitantly administered. The

dietary/nutritional supplement provided proteoglycans, collagen, glucosamine, carotenoid

pigment (astaxanthin esters) and omega-3 essential fatty acids (EPA and DHA). The efficacy

of this regimen was demonstrated on the visual appearance of signs of aging as well as by the

amelioration of functional properties of the skin.

Béguin, (2005) To test the efficacy and safety of a novel micronutrient supplement (Estime®

containing BioAstin Natural Astaxanthin) in skin aging. The study demonstrated that the

supplement appears to be effective and safe as an oral supplement to protect the skin and

support its repair process. Recommendations are made for further evaluations.

Yamashita (2006) review covers cosmeceutical benefits of astaxanthin that is one of the most

abundant carotenoids in nature, particularly in marine based life. The anti-oxidant properties

of astaxanthin without any pro-oxidative nature working at cell membrane and cosmeceutical

effects such as anti-hyperpigmentation, anti-photoaging, melanin inhibition and visual

wrinkle reduction by topical or internal use and one of the action mechanisms of astaxanthin

on NF-kB dependent inflammation are introduced. And current and future cosmeceutical

applications of astaxanthin particularly from a green microalgae Haematococcus pluvialis

that is the most ideal source in the earth are discussed describing actual examples of

astaxanthin containing skin care products in Japanese market.

Arakane (2002) reviewed that reactive oxygen species generated by exposing the skin to

sunlight are responsible for sunburn, lipid peroxidation and degenerative changes in dermal

connective tissues. This causes premature aging of the skin. A researcher from a Japanese

company called KOSE Corporation compared astaxanthin to other commonly used

ingredients in cosmetics that are thought to protect the skin from the damaging effects of

sunlight. He found that astaxanthin potentially offers greater antioxidant protection against

premature signs of aging.

Kumi Arakane (2006) showed the possibility of astaxanthin as a cosmetic ingredient and the

useful formula for maintaining the stability of astaxanthin in the preparation.

Using hairless mice irradiated with UVB to produce photoaged skin, we investigated the

inhibitory effect of astaxanthin on wrinkle formation, decrease of skin elasticity,

ultrastructural change of dermal collagen fiber bundles and elastic fibers and the level of

matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1) activity. These results indicated that the astaxanthin had

the superior protection effect on photoaging as a ROS scavenger. This research demonstrated

the superior anti-aging effects by carotenoids and this is the first time for carotenoids to be

practically applicable to cosmetic formulation (Yuki et al. 2005).

Taisuke et al . (2001) studied the ffects of astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis on

human subjects were tested. No serious adverse effects were observed by patch testing and

sequencing applied test on human skin. In a pilot study, the skin repeated application test of

cream containing astaxanthin on human skin showed the visual wrinkle reduction. The

present paper described about patch testing, skin repeated application test, and a pilot study

evaluating the wrinkle reduction effect on human skin.

Kumi, (2003)demonstrate that reactive oxygen species quenchers play an important role in

reduction of UV-induced wrinkles formation using a carotenoid, astaxanthin, which has no

pro-vitamin A activity unlike .BETA.-carotene, and a new iron chelator, N-(4-

pyridoxylmethylene)-L-serine (PYSer), which consists of biomimetic molecules and

effectively suppresses production of hydroxyl radical by chelating iron in skin. The

demonstrable and potential roles of antioxidants for suppression of UV-induced wrinkles

formation effectively are summarized here.

Suganuma et al. (2010) examined the effects of a potent antioxidant, astaxanthin (AX), on the

induction of MMP-1 and SFE by UVA treatment of cultured human dermal fibroblasts. They

hypothesize that AX would have a significant benefit on protecting against UVA-induced

skin photo-aging such as sagging and wrinkles

Oxygen radicals formed from UV radiation attack skin cells in a variety of ways. As

demonstrated by O'Connor & O'Brien (1998), UVA light is capable of producing oxidative

stress in living cells in-vitro. By monitoring catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD)

levels and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), Astaxanthin is capable of

reducing oxidative stress (p<0.01, n=6) after UVA light irradiation at very low concentrations

(5-10 nM). Astaxanthin has shown to be approximately 100-200 times more effective than

other carotenoids, including lutein and beta-carotene (1.0 μM). Similar reports by Lyons et

al., (2002) demonstrate that UVA irradiated skin cells pretreated with astaxanthin (10 μM)

suffered significantly less DNA damage. Furthermore, astaxanthin protected the skin's

endogenous antioxidants SOD and glutathione (GSH) from oxygen radical attack. Topical

restoration of the skin's natural antioxidant balance is one method to maintaining healthy

skin. UV radiation and air borne pollutants tend to strip away the nutrients essential to

maintain the skin's hydrolipidic barrier. As a result, the skin will become dry and unhealthy in

appearance.

Topical Wrinkle Reduction

In a study using hairless mice, Arakane (2002) demonstrates astaxanthin's ability to suppress

the formation of UVB photoinduced wrinkles. UVB doses of 65-95 mJ/cm2 were applied five

times per week for 18 weeks on the back skin of the mice. After each UVB treatment, topical

application of astaxanthin (350 μM) was coated on the exposed areas. After only 5 weeks, the

appearance of new wrinkles were significantly reduced up until the end of the study period

(P<0.01 at 18 weeks). Concurrently, stained skin sections revealed that astaxanthin preserved

the integrity of the dermal layer by protecting the collagen network. In a preliminary human

study, Seki et al., (2001) demonstrates the same anti-wrinkle observations in female human

subjects (n=3) using a topical cream containing astaxanthin. A dermatological assessment

revealed significant reduction of wrinkles and puffiness on the lower eye and cheeks after 2

weeks of use. In a separate test using female subjects (n=11), instrument analysis recorded

significant moisture improvement (P<0.05) after 3 weeks of use (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Cheek moisture retention after 3 weeks application of astaxanthin cream (0.07% of

5% astaxanthin extract; Seki et al.,

2001). Increased

moisture content in 8 out of 11 subjects.

Skin Health that can be Swallowed

"Beauty from within" or improved skin condition through nutrition and supplementation is a

worldwide trend that is on the increase. The market for beauty supplements is currently worth

800 million dollars, and rapid growth in this segment is expected over the next 10 years. Two

human clinical trials established the use of astaxanthin to improve visible signs of premature

aging and general skin health. The first, a double-blind placebo controlled study (Yamashita

2002), showed that astaxanthin in combination with tocotrienol, (a superior form of vitamin

E), improved several aspects of overall skin condition. Eight female subjects with dry skin

conditions (mean age 40 yrs) received daily doses containing 2 mg astaxanthin and 40 mg

natural tocotrienols. Several types of data were collected at 2 and 4 weeks and compared to

the initial baseline readings. Measurable differences were observed starting just 2 weeks after

supplementation. By the 4th week, the treated subjects with dry skin characteristics exhibited

the following: increased moisture levels (P<0.05), (Figure 2); consistent natural oils;

reduction of fine wrinkles, (Figure 3); and a reduction in pimples (P<0.01).

Figure 2. Beauty supplement results for the cheek and eye region (Yamashita,

2002) Moisture levels

increased in treated groups at 2 and 4 weeks. Control groups got worse.

In the second study by Yamashita (2006), female subjects with a variety of skin types (n=49,

mean age 47 yrs) were given either 4 mg (2 x 2 mg) astaxanthin or placebo in a single-blind,

randomized, controlled study. After six weeks of consuming 4mg astaxanthin per day, the

results of a standard questionnaire showed that the treated group of women all felt that their

skin condition had improved significantly

Astaxanthin and Skin Cancer

The risk of skin cancer is increased in skin which is frequently damaged by the sun. Although

skin cancer is almost 99% curable if detected early, 1 out of 90 people in the US or 1 out of

150 people in the UK will develop melanomas. Those in the highest risk category are people

exposed to frequent short bursts of strong sunlight. Sun screens can block the UV rays, but

dietary carotenoids such as astaxanthin can be vital for skin protection as well.

In another study on hairless mice, Black (1998) demonstrates that astaxanthin significantly

delays the UV ray formation of skin lesions and tumors (p<0.05). A possible explanation is

that astaxanthin is preferentially accumulated over beta-carotene and lycopene. Epidermal

analysis determined that the quantity of astaxanthin was 133 times that of lycopene and 28

times that of Beta-carotene.

Further support comes from Savoure et al., (1995) which shows that hairless mice (SKH1)

deficient in vitamin A, fed 10 mg/kg/feed astaxanthin alone or in combination with retinol,

show enhanced skin protection after UVA and UVB irradiation. Astaxanthin significantly

inhibited accumulation of putrescine (p<0.05) more than retinol and lowered spermidine and

spermine.

Astaxanthin defends against Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS)

Oxygen present in our cells can form harmful radicals known as ROS or active oxygen when

sufficient energy from UV rays is applied. ROS include singlet oxygen, superoxides and

hydroxyl radicals (leading to peroxyl radicals) and they attempt to steal electrons from

neighboring molecules such as DNA, phospholipids, enzymes and protein in order to

stabilize. Fortunately, astaxanthin is able to quench singlet oxygen reactions and supress lipid

peroxidation much more effectively than other well known antioxidants and thus control the

presence of ROS. In vitro singlet oxygen quenching activity of Astaxanthin was found to be

superior when compared to Catechin, Vitamin C, Alpha Lipoic Acid, Coenzyme Q10,

Tocopherol, Lutein and Beta Carotene (Nishida et al., 2007).

Astaxanthin Dominance against Singlet-Oxygen compared to other antioxidants

Singlet oxygen depletes the antioxidant defense system of fibroblasts, especially CAT and

SOD. Fibroblasts secrete collagen, a main component of extracellular matrix which provides

structural support to the cells. Exposing fibroblasts to singlet oxygen is a widely used

technique to model ageing and UV oxidative stress. Furthermore, viability of the fibroblasts

remains vital to the maintenance of healthy skin appearance. Tominaga et al (2009a) showed

evidence on the ability of Astaxanthin to protect human dermal fibroblasts through in-vitro

study. Human dermal fibroblasts were pre-incubated with Astaxanthin and other antioxidants

and then exposed to singlet oxygen (Figure 8). Cell viability was restored to more than 80%

when the cells were treated with Astaxanthin.

In another study, Camera et al. (2008) compared the photoprotective properties of astaxanthin

to other antioxidants on human dermal fibroblasts. After a physiological dose of UVA was

applied, roughly equal to a UV dose accumulated within 1-2 hours on a sunny day.

Astaxanthin was considerably superior at preventing cell death (reduction of caspase-3

activity at protein level) compared to Canthaxanthin and Beta Carotene.

Gaining Customers' Hearts with Tangible Results - Astaxanthin Inner and Outer

Treatment

Complementing astaxanthin oral administration with astaxanthin topical treatment (dual

treatment) can have enhanced synergistic effects against premature skin aging since

astaxanthin is effective at all layers of skin, the skin surface, epidermis and dermis.

According to studies conducted by Tominaga et al. (2009b), astaxanthin "dual treatment" was

found to be effective in all layers of skin. In a study with 28 subjects aged 20-55 years,

astaxanthin effectively reduced wrinkles as well as improved skin elasticity. Replica analysis

after 6 mg of astaxanthin supplementation combined with topical application for 8 weeks

showed a reduction in the overall average wrinkle depth.

Anti-inflammatory Action

Inflammation that normally follows sun exposure can be modulated by a powerful

antioxidant. Yamashita (1995) shows in healthy male subjects (n=7), that topical natural

astaxanthin significantly reduces burn level (erythema) by 60% at 98 hours after UVB

exposure. We now know that astaxanthin works by suppressing the proinflammatory

mediators and cytokines via the IκB kinase dependant NF-κB activation pathway (Lee et al.,

2003).

Safety for Topical & Nutritional Use

Natural astaxanthin is determined safe for topical and nutritional use. A total of forty-five

subjects (males and females) were exposed to the Standard Japanese Patch test and results

were reported 24 and 48 hours after application. Dermatitis was only induced by the adhesive

plaster and not astaxanthin itself (Seki et al., 2002). Furthermore, Koura (2005) reports no

adverse topical reactions in animal sensitization models. Astaxanthin is listed in the JP

Cosmetics and INCI name as astaxanthin.

Scientific research has shown that astaxanthin protects against collagen degradation, i.e.

wrinkles, sunburn and general skin health. It is a true anti-aging and anti-wrinkling wonder.

Unlike Vitamin E, whose over-dosage could lead to negative side-effects, there has been

known known adverse side-effects found in taking astaxanthin.

Seki et al. (2001) showed in one study that astaxanthin can increase in moisture level as

well as visual wrinkle reduction after four weeks of application.

A preliminary clinical trial of 25 individuals by Lorenz (2002) indicated Cyanotech’s

BioAstin supplement, which is an oil-based extract of the carotenoid of the microalgae

Haeamatococcus pluvialis, can significantly increase in the amount of irradiation needed to

cause reddening of the skin. Based on the results of 21 subjects, BioAstin significantly altered

the minimal erythemal dose (MED) following daily ingestion for a period of two weeks.

Spec-Chem Industry, Inc. manufactures specialty chemicals for Personal Care and Cosmetics.

One of the products include astaxanthin emulsion. 0.5% Astaxanthin Emulsion is a grade of

Astaxanthin, which is regarded as the strongest antioxidant vitamin in nature. It is well

known for its “super vitamin E content. The antioxidant content is 550 times more effective

than vitamin E, and it prevents UA induced skin cancer. Furthermore, astaxanthin protects the

skin from dangerous free radicals and reduce wrinkle & freckles. This product is used in

cosmetic applications and it performs the function of skin care, emulsion and so on.

Retrieved from: http://www.ulprospector.com/en/la/PersonalCare/Detail/5737/204612/05-

Astaxanthin-Emulsion

In 2006, the global producer of cameras and film Fujifilm entered the cosmetics field, in the

following year launching its Astalift series of skin-care products. Since then the company has

stretched its product line up beyond the skin-care series to also include base makeup. Astalift

continues to develop as a global brand sold in China, Southeast Asia, and European countries

as well as in Fujifilm’s home market of Japan.

This antioxidant can be used for both film and skincare because the same oxidation from

ultraviolet rays that causes color photographs to fade also leads to the aging of a person’s

skin. Ultraviolet rays increase melanin in the skin, producing spots, and cleave the fibrous

proteins collagen and elastin that serve to maintain skin tautness, thereby causing wrinkles

and sagging.

Retrieved from: http://www.nippon.com/en/features/c00511/

Savoure et al. (1995) fed various combinations of astaxanthin, beta-carotene and retinol to

hirless mice for four months. After irradiation, astaxanthin alone or in combination with

retinol was substantially effective in preventing skin damage.

Astaxanthin is a more powerful antioxidant than other carotenoids and vitamin E and may

confer numerous health benefits. A clinical study was conducted by Gene at al. (2004) to

investigate human safety study with a Haematococcus pluvialis algal extract with high levels

of astaxanthin. Thirty-five healthy adults age 35-69 years were enrolled in a randomized,

double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of 8 weeks' duration. All participants took three gelcaps

per day, one at each meal. Nineteen participants received gelcaps with an algal extract in

safflower oil, containing 2 mg of astaxanthin each (treatment); 16 participants received

gelcaps containing safflower oil only (placebo). Blood pressure and blood chemistry tests,

including a comprehensive metabolic panel and cell blood count, were conducted at the

beginning of the trial and after 4 and 8 weeks of supplementation. These results reveal that 6

mg of astaxanthin per day from a H. pluvialis algal extract can be safely consumed by healthy

adults.

Gene A. Spiller and Antonella Dewell. (2004) Safety of an Astaxanthin-Rich Haematococcus

pluvialis Algal Extract: A Randomized Clinical Trial Journal of Medicinal Food. March

2003, 6(1): 51-56. doi:10.1089/109662003765184741.

Savoure, N., Briand, G., Amory-Touz, M., Combre, A., Maudet, M. (1995). "Vitamin A

status and metabolism of cutaneous polyamines in the hairless mouse after UV irradiation:

action of beta-carotene and astaxanthin." International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition

Research. 65(2):79-86.]

www.skincancer.org

www.skincancerfacts.org.uk/facts.asp

Yamashita(2006). The Effects of a Dietary Supplement Containing Astaxanthin on Skin

Condition. Carotenoid Science, 10:91-95.

Koura(2005). Skin sensitization study of Astaxanthin in Guinea Pigs. Study No. 05035. New

Drug Research Center Inc., Hokkaido Japan.

Lee et al., (2003). Astaxanthin Inhibits Nitric Oxide Production and Inflammatory Gene

Expression by Suppressing IκB Kinase-dependent NF-κB Activation. Molecules and Cells,

16(1):97-105.

Arakane (2002), Superior Skin Protection via Astaxanthin. Carotenoid Sci., 5:21-24.

Lyons & O'Brien et al., (2002). Modulatory effects of an algal extract containing astaxanthin

on UVA-irradiated cells in culture. Journal of Derma. Sci., 30(1):73-84.

Yamashita (2002). Cosmetic benefit of the supplement health food combined astaxanthin and

tocotrienol on human skin. Food Style 21, 6(6):112-117.

Seki et al., (2001). Effects of astaxanthin from haematococcus pluvialis on human skin.

Fragrance J., 12:98-103.

Black (1998). Radical Interception by carotenoids and effects on UV carcinogenesis.

Nutrition Cancer., 31(3):212-217.

O'Connor & O'Brien (1998). Modulation of UVA light induced oxidative stress by beta-

carotene, lutein and astaxanthin in cultured fibroblasts. J. Derma. Sci., 16(3):226-230.

Savoure et al., (1995). Vitamin A status and metabolism of cutaneous polyamines in the

hairless mouse after UV irradiation: action of beta-carotene and astaxanthin. International J

Vit. and Nutr. Res., 65(2):79-86.

Yamashita (1995). Suppression of post UVB hyperpigmentation by topical astaxanthin from

krill. Fragrance J., 14:180-185.

Miki (1991). Biological functions and activities of animal carotenoids. Pure & Appl. Chem.,

63(1):141-146.

Camera et al., (2009). Astaxanthin, canthaxanthin and beta carotene differently affect UVA-

induced oxidative damage and expression of oxidative stress-responsive enzymes.

Experimental Dermatology. Vol. 18 (3), Pages 222 - 231 .

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