HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMER and COMPOSITION

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PREFACETOTHENEWEDITION

Wren and Martin’s monumental work High School EnglishGrammar and Composition now appears in two editions. One is adeluxeedition, illustrated in full-colour,and theother isanordinaryeditionwithoutillustrations.

Thematerial in the book has been further updatedwhere calledfor.Ithasbeenfeltnecessaryinparticulartorevisesomematerialinthechaptersdealingwithadjectives,activeandpassivevoice,articlesandprepositions.

Itwas in theyear1972 that the shrewdvisionaryMrShyamLalGuptaobtainedthepermissionofManecjiCooperEducationTrustfortherevisionofthisbookandcommissionedmetoreviseitthoroughly.Therevisededitioncameoutin1973andwaswellreceived.Oneofthemain features of the revised editionwas the addition of a greatdealofnewmaterial (suchas the threechaptersonstructures)basedonthenewdevelopmentsinthestudyofEnglishstructureandusage.Subsequentlythebookwasrevisedeveryfourorfiveyearsandmostextensivelyin1999.

Unlikemany traditional grammar books, the book in the presentformhelpsthestudenttouse thelanguageaswellasgivingdetailedinformation about the language. It provides ample guidance andpractice in sentence building, correct usage, comprehension,writtencompositionandotheralliedareassoastoequipthestudentwiththeabilitytocommunicateeffectivelyinEnglish.

It is gratifying to learn that this classic work, though primarilyintendedforuseintheIndiansubcontinent,isalsousedinSriLanka,

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Malaysia,Singapore,Mauritius,etc.Itishopedthatthebookwillbefound useful in many more countries where English is used as asecondorforeignlanguage.

Dr.N.D.V.PrasadaRao

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1. THESENTENCE2. SUBJECTANDPREDICATE3. THEPHRASEANDTHECLAUSE4. PARTSOFSPEECH5. THENOUN:KINDSOFNOUNS6. THENOUN:GENDER7. THENOUN:NUMBER8. THENOUN:CASE9. THEADJECTIVE10. COMPARISONOFADJECTIVES11. ADJECTIVESUSEDASNOUNS12. POSITIONOFTHEADJECTIVES13. THECORRECTUSEOFSOMEADJECTIVES14. ARTICLES15. PERSONALPRONOUNS16. REFLEXIVEANDEMPHATICPRONOUNS17. DEMONSTRATIVE,INDEFINITEANDDISTRIBUTIVEPRONOUNS18. RELATIVEPRONOUNS19. INTERROGATIVEPRONOUNS20. THEVERB21. VERBSOFINCOMPLETEPREDICATION22. ACTIVEANDPASSIVEVOICE23. MOOD24. TENSES:INTRODUCTION25. THEUSESOFTHEPRESENTANDPASTTENSES26. THEFUTURE27. THEVERB:PERSONANDNUMBER28. THEINFINITIVE29. THEPARTICIPLE

CONTENTSBOOKI.GRAMMAR

CHAPTER

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30. THEGERUND31. IRREGULARVERBS32. AUXILIARIESANDMODALS33. CONJUGATIONOFTHEVERBLOVE34. THEADVERB35. COMPARISONOFADVERBS36. FORMATIONOFADVEBS37. POSITIONOFADVERBS38. THEPREPOSITION39. WORDSFOLLOWEDBYPREPOSITIONS40. THECONJUNCTION41. SOMECONJUNCTIONSANDTHEIRUSES42. THEINTERJECTION43. THESAMEWORDUSEDASDIFFERENTPARTSOFSPEECH

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1. ANALYSISOFSIMPLESENTENCES

2. PHRASES

3. CLAUSES

4. SENTENCES:SIMPLE,COMPOUNDANDCOMPLEX

5. MOREABOUTNOUNCLAUSES

6. MOREABOUTADJECTIVECLAUSES

7. MOREABOUTADVERBCLAUSES

BOOKII.COMPOSITIONPARTI

ANALYSIS,TRANSFORMATIONANDSYNTHESIS

Exercises1-7

AdjectivePhrasesExercises8-12

AdverbPhrasesExercises13-19

NounPhrasesExercises20-22

AdverbClausesExercises23-26

AdjectiveClausesExercises27-30

NounClausesExercises31-34Exercises35-36

Exercise37

Exercises38-39

Exercises40-42

AdverbclausesofTimeExercise43

AdverbclausesofPlaceExercise44

AdverbClausesofPurposeExercise45

AdverbClausesofCauseorReason

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8. ANALYSISOFCOMPLEXSENTENCES(ClauseAnalysis)

9. ANALYSISOFCOMPOUNDSENTENCES(ClauseAnalysis)

10. TRANSFORMATIONOFSENTENCES

11. TRANSFORMATIONOFSENTENCES(Contd.)

Exercise46AdverbClausesofCondition

Exercise47AdverbClausesofResultandConsequence

Exercise48AdverbClausesofComparison

Exercises49-50AdverbClausesofSuppositionorConcession

Exercise51Exercises52-55

Exercise56

Exercise57Exercise58(Miscellaneous)

SentencescontainingtheAdverb“too”Exercise59

InterchangeoftheDegreesofComparisonExercise60

InterchangeofActiveandPassiveVoiceExercises61-63

InterchangeofAffirmativeandNegativesentencesExercises64-65

InterchangeofInterrogativeandAssertivesentencesExercises66-67

InterchangeofExclamatoryandAssertivesentencesExercises68-69

InterchangeofonePartofSpeechforanotherExercise70

ConversionofSimplesentencestoCompound(Double)sentencesExercises71-72

ConversionofCompound(Double)sentencestoSimplesentencesExercises73-74

ConversionofSimplesentencestoComplexExercises75-78

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12. SYNTHESISOFSENTENCES

13. SYNTHESISOFSENTENCES(Contd.)

14. SYNTHESISOFSENTENCES(Contd.)

15. THESEQUENCEOFTENSES

16. DIRECTANDINDIRECTSPEECH

17. AGREEMENTOFTHEVERBWITHTHESUBJECT

18. NOUNSANDPRONOUNS

19. ADJECTIVES20. VERBS

21. ADVERBS

22. CONJUNCTIONS23. ORDEROFWORDS

24. IDIOMS

ConversionofComplexsentencestoSimplesentencesExercises79-82

ConversionofCompoundsentencestoComplexExercises83-84

ConversionofComplexsentencestoCompoundExercises85-86Exercise87(Miscellaneous)

CombinationoftwoormoreSimplesentencesintoasingleSimplesentence

Exercises88-93Exercise94(Miscellaneous)

Exercise95

Exercises96-100

Exercises101-103

Exercises104-109

PARTIICORRECTUSAGE

Exercise110

Exercises111-114

Exercise115

Exercise116

Exercises117-118

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25. IDIOMS(Contd.)26. PUNCTUATION

27. SPELLINGRULES28. THEFORMATIONOFWORDS

29. FIGURESOFSPEECH

30. VERBPATTERNS

31. QUESTIONTAGS,SHORTANSWERS,ETC.

32. MORESTRUCTURES

33. PARAGRAPH-WRITING

34. STORY-WRITING

35. REPRODUCTIONOFASTORY-POEM

Exercises119-122

Exercises123-124

Exercise125

PARTIIISTRUCTURES

Exercise126

Exercises127-130

Exercise131

PARTIVWRITTENCOMPOSITION

IntroductoryRemarksPrinciplesExamplesTheWritingofSingleParagraphs

Exercise132

IntroductoryRemarksHintsSpecimen

Exercise133

IntroductoryRemarksHintsSpecimens

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36. LETTER-WRITING

37. COMPREHENSION

38. PRECIS-WRITING

39. EXPANSIONOFPASSAGES

Exercise134

IntroductoryRemarksTheformofLettersClassificationoflettersSocialLettersFriendlyLetters

Exercise135Exercise136Exercises137-139Exercises140-141

NotesofInvitationsBusinessLetters

Exercise142LettersofApplication

Exercise143OfficialLetters

Exercise144LetterstoNewspapers

Exercise145Exercise146

IntroductoryRemarksSpecimen

Exercise147

IntroductoryRemarksUsesofPrecis-WritingMethodofprocedureToSumupSpecimens

Exercise148

IntroductoryRemarksMethodofprocedureSpecimens

Exercise149

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40. ESSAY-WRITING

41. AUTOBIOGRAPHIES

42. DIALOGUE-WRITING

43. THEAPPRECIATIONOFPOETRY

44. PARAPHRASING

IntroductoryRemarksCharacteristicsofagoodSchoolEssayClassificationofEssaysHintsonEssay-writingMethodofCollectingMaterialsBareOutlineFullOutlineWritingtheEssay

Exercises150-151

IntroductoryRemarksSpecimens

Exercises152-154

IntroductoryRemarksMethodofProcedureSpecialHintsSpecimens

Exercises155-162

IntroductoryRemarksSpecimens

Exercise163

IntroductoryRemarksUsesofParaphrasingCharacteristicsofagoodParaphraseTheParaphraseofPoetrySpecialHintsMethodofProcedureSpecimens

Exercise164

Anauthenticandusefulsolutionofthisbookentitled.“AKeytoWrenandMartin’sHighSchoolEnglishGrammarand

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Composition”isalsoavailable.

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HIGHSCHOOL

ENGLISHGRAMMAR

CHAPTER1

THESENTENCE1.Whenwespeakorwriteweusewords.Wegenerallyusethese

wordsingroups;as,

LittleJackHornersatinacorner.

Agroupofwordslikethis,whichmakescompletesense,iscalledaSentence.

KindsofSentences2.Sentencesareoffourkinds:(1)Thosewhichmakestatementsorassertions;as,

HumptyDumptysatonawall.

(2)Thosewhichaskquestions;as

Wheredoyoulive?

(3)Thosewhichexpresscommands,requests,orentreaties;as,

Bequiet.Havemercyuponus.

(4)Thosewhichexpressstrongfeelings;as,

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Howcoldthenightis!Whatashame!

A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called aDeclarativeorAssertivesentence.

A sentence that asks a question is called an Interrogativesentence.

Asentence that expressesacommandor anentreaty is calledanImperativesentence.

AsentencethatexpressesstrongfeelingiscalledanExclamatorysentence.

CHAPTER2

SUBJECTANDPREDICATE3.Whenwemakeasentence—(1)Wenamesomepersonorthing;and(2)Saysomethingaboutthatpersonorthing.In other words, we must have a subject to speak about and we

mustsayorpredicatesomethingaboutthatsubject.Henceeverysentencehastwoparts—(1) The part which names the person or thing we are speaking

about.ThisiscalledtheSubjectofthesentence.(2)ThepartwhichtellssomethingabouttheSubject.ThisiscalledthePredicateofthesentence.4.TheSubjectofasentenceusuallycomesfirst,butoccasionally

itisputafterthePredicate;as,

Herecomesthebus.Sweetaretheusesofadversity.

5.InImperativesentencestheSubjectisleftout;as,Sitdown.[HeretheSubjectYouisunderstood].

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Thankhim.[HeretootheSubjectYouisunderstood.]

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR-1

InthefollowingsentencesseparatetheSubjectandthePredicate:1. ThecacklingofgeesesavedRome.2. Theboystoodontheburningdeck.3. TubalCainwasamanofmight.4. Stonewallsdonotmakeaprison.5. Thesingingofthebirdsdelightsus.6. MissKittywasrudeatthetableoneday.7. Hehasagoodmemory.8. Badhabitsgrowunconsciously.9. Theearthrevolvesroundthesun.10. Natureisthebestphysician.11. Edisoninventedthephonograph.12. Theseahathmanythousandsands.13. Wecannotpumptheoceandry.14. Borrowedgarmentsneverfitwell.15. Theearlybirdcatchestheworm.16. Allmatterisindestructible.17. IslamabadisthecapitalofPakistan.18. Weshouldprofitbyexperience.19. AllroadsleadtoRome.20. Aguiltyconscienceneedsnoexcuse.21. Thebeautifulrainbowsoonfadedaway.22. Nomancanservetwomasters.23. Asickroomshouldbewellaired.24. Thedewdropsglitterinthesunshine.25. Ishotanarrowintotheair.26. Abarkingsoundtheshepherdhears.27. Onthetopofthehilllivesahermit.

CHAPTER3

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THEPHRASEANDTHECLAUSE6.Examinethegroupofwords“inacorner”.Itmakessense,but

notcomplete sense.Suchagroupofwords,whichmakes sense,butnotcompletesense,iscalledaPhrase.

In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics arePhrases:

Thesunrisesintheeast.HumptyDumptysatonawall.Therecameagianttomydoor.Itwasasunsetofgreatbeauty.Thetopsofthemountainswerecoveredwithsnow.Showmehowtodoit.

7. Examine the groups of words in italics in the followingsentences:

Hehasachainofgold.Hehasachainwhichismadeofgold.

WerecognizethefirstgroupofwordsasaPhrase.Thesecondgroupofwords,unlikethePhraseofgold,containsa

Subject(which)andaPredicate(ismadeofgold).Such a group of words which forms part of a sentence, and

containsaSubjectandaPredicate,iscalledaClause.In the following sentences, the groups of words in italics are

Clauses:

Peoplewhopaytheirdebtsaretrusted.Wecannotstartwhileitisraining.Ithinkthatyouhavemadeamistake.

CHAPTER4

PARTSOFSPEECH

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8.Wordsaredivided intodifferentkindsorclasses,calledPartsofSpeech,accordingtotheiruse;thatis,accordingtotheworktheydoinasentence.Thepartsofspeechareeightinnumber:

1. Noun.2. Adjective.3. Pronoun.4. Verb.5. Adverb.6. Preposition.7. Conjunction.8. Interjection.

9.ANounisawordusedasthenameofaperson,place,orthing;as,

AkbarwasagreatKing.KolkataisonthebanksoftheriverHooghly.Therosesmellssweet.Thesunshinesbright.Hiscouragewonhimhonour.

Note—Theword thing includes (i) all objects thatwe can see,hear,taste,touch,orsmell;and(ii)somethingthatwecanthinkof,butcannotperceivebythesenses.

10.AnAdjectiveisawordusedtoaddsomethingtothemeaningofanoun;as,

Heisabraveboy.Therearetwentyboysinthisclass.

11.APronounisawordusedinsteadofanoun;as,Johnisabsent,becauseheisill.Thebooksarewhereyouleftthem.

12.AVerbisawordusedtoexpressanactionorstate;asThegirlwrotealettertohercousin.

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Kolkataisabigcity.Ironandcopperareusefulmetals.

13.AnAdverbisawordusedtoaddsomethingtothemeaningofaverb,anadjective,oranotheradverb;as,

Heworkedthesumquickly.Thisflowerisverybeautiful.Shepronouncedthewordquitecorrectly.

14. APreposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun toshowhowthepersonorthingdenotedbythenounorpronounstandsinrelationtosomethingelse;as,

Thereisacowinthegarden.Thegirlisfondofmusic.Afairlittlegirlsatunderatree.

15.AConjunctionisawordusedtojoinwordsorsentences;as,RamaandHariarecousins.Twoandtwomakefour.Iranfast,butmissedthetrain.

16. An Interjection is a word which expresses some suddenfeeling;as,

Hurrah!Wehavewonthegame.Alas!Sheisdead.

17.Somemoderngrammarsincludedeterminersamongthepartsof speech. Determiners are words like a, an, the, this, that, these,those,every,each,some,any,my,his,one,two,etc.,whichdetermineorlimitthemeaningofthenounsthatfollow.Inthisbook,asinmanytraditionalgrammars,alldeterminersexcepta,anandtheareclassedamongadjectives.

18. As words are divided into different classes according to theworktheydoinsentences,itisclearthatwecannotsaytowhichpartofspeechawordbelongsunlessweseeitusedinasentence.

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Theyarrivedsoonafter.(Adverb)Theyarrivedafterus.(Preposition)Theyarrivedafterwehadleft.(Conjunction)

Fromtheaboveexamplesweseethatthesamewordcanbeusedasdifferentpartsofspeech.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR2

Name thepartof speechof each italicizedword in the followingsentences,givingineachcaseyourreasonfortheclassification:1. Stillwatersrundeep.2. Hestilllivesinthathouse.3. Afterthestormcomesthecalm.4. Theaftereffectsofthedrugarebad.5. Theuptrainislate.6. Itweighsaboutapound.7. Hetoldusallaboutthebattle.8. Hewasonlyayardoffme.9. Suddenlyoneofthewheelscameoff.10. MuslimsfastinthemonthofRamzan.11. Hekeptthefastforaweek.12. Heisonthecommittee.13. Letusmoveon.14. Sitdownandrestawhile.15. Iwillwatchwhileyousleep.16. Theywhileawaytheireveningswithbooksandgames.

CHAPTER5

THENOUN:KINDSOFNOUNS19.ANounisawordusedasthenameofaperson,placeorthing.Note.—The word thing is used to mean anything that we can

thinkof.

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20.Lookatthefollowingsentence:Asokawasawiseking.

The noun Asoka refers to a particular king, but the noun kingmightbeappliedtoanyotherkingaswellastoAsoka.WecallAsokaaProperNoun,andkingaCommonNoun.

Similarly:

SitaisaProperNoun,whilegirlisaCommonNoun.HariisaProperNoun,whileboyisaCommonNoun.KolkataisaProperNoun,whilecityisaCommonNoun.IndiaisaProperNoun,whilecountryisaCommonNoun.

ThewordgirlisaCommonNoun,becauseitisanamecommontoall girls, while Sita is a Proper Noun because it is the name of aparticulargirl.

Def.—ACommon Noun is a name given in common to everypersonorthingofthesameclassorkind.

[Commonheremeanssharedbyall.]Def.—AProperNoun is thenameofsomeparticularpersonor

place.[Propermeansone’sown.HenceaProperNameisaperson’sown

name.]

Note1—ProperNounsarealwayswrittenwithacapitalletteratthebeginning.

Note2—ProperNounsaresometimesusedasCommonNouns;as,

1.HewastheLukman(=thewisestman)ofhisage.2.Kalidas isoftencalled theShakespeare (= thegreatestdramatist)ofIndia.

Common Nouns include what are called Collective Nouns andAbstractNouns.

21.ACollectiveNounisthenameofanumber(orcollection)ofpersonsorthingstakentogetherandspokenofasonewhole;as,

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Crowd, mob, team, flock, herd, army, fleet, jury, family, nation,parliament,committee.Afleet=acollectionofshipsorvessels.Anarmy=acollectionofsoldiers.Acrowd=acollectionofpeople.Thepolicedispersedthecrowd.TheFrencharmywasdefeatedatWaterloo.Thejuryfoundtheprisonerguilty.Aherdofcattleispassing.

22.AnAbstractNounisusuallythenameofaquality,action,orstateconsideredapartfromtheobjecttowhichitbelongs;as.

Quality. — Goodness, kindness, whiteness, darkness, hardness,brightness,honesty,wisdom,bravery.Action.—Laughter,theft,movement,judgement,hatred.State.—Childhood,boyhood,youth,slavery,sleep,sickness,death,poverty.

The names of the Arts and Sciences (e.g., grammar, music,chemistry,etc.)arealsoAbstractNouns.

[Wecanspeakofabravesoldier,astrongman,abeautifulflower.But we can also think of these qualities apart from any particularpersonorthing,andspeakofbravery,strength,beautybythemselves.So also we can speak of what persons do or feel apart from thepersons themselves, and give it a name. The word abstract meansdrawnoff.]

23.AbstractNounsareformed—(1)FromAdjectives;as,

Kindnessfromkind;honestyfromhonest.[Mostabstractnounsareformedthus.]

(2)FromVerbs;as,

Obediencefromobey;growthfromgrow.

(3)FromCommonNouns;as,

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Childhoodfromchild;slaveryfromslave.

24. Another classification of nouns is whether they are“countable”or“uncountable”.

Countable nouns (or countables) are the names of objects,people, etc. that we can count, e.g., book, pen, apple, boy, sister,doctor,horse.

Uncountable nouns (or uncountables) are the names of thingswhich we cannot count, e.g., milk, oil, sugar, gold, honesty. Theymainlydenotesubstancesandabstractthings.

Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns donot.Forexample,wesay“books”butwecannotsay“milks”.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR3

Point out theNouns in the following sentences, and saywhethertheyareCommon,Proper,CollectiveorAbstract:—1. Thecrowdwasverybig.2. Alwaysspeakthetruth.3. Wealllovehonesty.4. Ourclassconsistsoftwentypupils.5. Theelephanthasgreatstrength.6. Solomonwasfamousforhiswisdom.7. Cleanlinessisnexttogodliness.8. Wesawafleetofshipsintheharbour.9. Theclassisstudyinggrammar.10. TheGodavarioverflowsitsbankseveryyear.11. Acommitteeoffivewasappointed.12. JawaharlalNehruwasthefirstPrimeMinisterofIndia.13. Thesoldierswererewardedfortheirbravery.14. Withouthealththereisnohappiness.15. Hegavemeabunchofgrapes.16. Irecognizedyourvoiceatonce.17. Ourteamisbetterthantheirs.18. Nevertellalie.

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19. Wisdomisbetterthanstrength.20. Hesetsahighvalueonhistime.21. Ibelieveinhisinnocence.22. Thisroomisthirtyfeetinlength.23. Ioftenthinkofthehappydaysofchildhood.24. Thestreetsofsomeofourcitiesarenotedfortheircrookedness.25. Whatisyourverdict,gentlemenofthejury?

EXERCISEINCOMPOSITION4

WritetheCollectiveNounsusedtodescribeanumberof(1)Cattle;(2)Soldiers;(3)Sailors.Writethequalitiesthatbelongtoboyswhoare(1)Lazy;(2)Cruel;(3)Brave;(4)Foolish.


FormAbstractNounsfromthefollowingAdjectives:

FormAbstractNounsfromthefollowingVerbs:

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FormAbstractNounsfromthefollowingCommonNouns:

CHAPTER6

THENOUN:GENDER25. You know that living beings are of either the male or the

femalesex.Nowcomparethewordsinthefollowingpairs:

Whatdoyounotice?Thefirstwordofeachpairisthenameofamaleanimal.Thesecondwordofeachpairisthenameofafemaleanimal.AnounthatdenotesamaleanimalissaidtobeoftheMasculine

Gender.[GendercomesfromLatingenus,kindorsort.]AnounthatdenotesafemaleanimalissaidtobeoftheFeminine

Gender.26.Anounthatdenoteseitheramaleorafemaleissaidtobeof

theCommonGender;asParent,child,friend,pupil,servant,thief,relation,enemy,cousin,person,orphan,student,baby,monarch,neighbour,infant.

27. A noun that denotes a thing that is neithermale nor female(i.e.,thingwithoutlife)issaidtobeoftheNeuterGender;as,

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Bachelor

Masculine Feminine

Book,pen,room,tree.[Neutermeansneither,thatis,neithermalenorfemale]

ItwillbethusseenthatinModernEnglishtheGenderofanounisentirelyamatterofsexortheabsenceofsex.Ithasnothingtodowiththe form of a noun, which determines its gender in many otherlanguages, e.g., in Urdu where bagiche is masculine and lakri isfeminine.

28.Objectswithoutlifeareoftenpersonified,thatis,spokenofasiftheywerelivingbeings.Wethenregardthemasmalesorfemales.

TheMasculineGender isoftenapplied toobjects remarkable forstrengthandviolence;as,

TheSun,Summer,Winter,Time,Death,Thesunshedshisbeamsonrichandpooralike.

TheFeminineGenderissometimesappliedtoobjectsremarkableforbeauty,gentleness,andgracefulness;as,

TheMoon,theEarth,Spring,Autumn,Nature,Liberty,Justice,Mercy,Peace,Hope,Charity.Themoonhashiddenherfacebehindacloud.Springhasspreadhermantleofgreenovertheearth.Peacehathhervictoriesnolessrenownedthanwar.

This use is most common in poetry but certain nouns arepersonifiedinprosetoo.Ashipisoftenspokenofasshe;as,

Theshiplostallherboatsinthestorm.

WAYSOFFORMINGTHEFEMININEOFNOUNS29.TherearethreewaysofformingtheFeminineofNouns:(1)Byusinganentirelydifferentword;as

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Boy girlBrother sisterBuck doeBull(orox) cowBullock heiferCock henColt fillyDaddy MummyDog bitchDrake duckEarl countessFather motherGander gooseGentleman ladyHart roeHorse mareHusband wifeKing queenLord ladyMan womanMonk(orfriar) nunNephew niecePapa mamma(olduse)Ram eweSir madamSon daughterStag hindUncle auntWizard witch

Author authoressBaron

Masculine Feminine

(2)Byaddingasyllable(-ess,-ine,-trix,-a,etc.)as,

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Baronbaroness

Count countessGiant giantessHeir heiressHost hostessJew jewessLion lionessManager manageressMayor mayoressPatron patronessPeer peeressPoet poetessPriest priestessProphet prophetessShepherd shepherdessSteward stewardessViscount viscountess

Actor actressBenefactor benefactressConductor conductressEnchanter enchantressFounder foundressHunter huntressInstructor instructressNegro negressAbbot abbessDuke duchessEmperor empressPreceptor preceptressPrince princessSongster songstressTempter temptressSeamster

Masculine Feminine

[Notethat inthefollowing-ess isaddedafterdropping thevowelofthemasculineending]

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Seamster seamstressTiger tigressTraitor traitressWaiter waitressMaster mistressMurderer murderessSorcerer sorceress

Hero heroineTestator testatrixCzar czarinaSultan sultanaSignor signoraFox vixen

Masculine Feminine

Grandfather grandmotherGreatuncle greatauntManservant maidservantLandlord landladymilkman milkwomanpeacock peahensalesman saleswomanwasherman washerwoman

Masculine Feminine

Note— The suffix -ess is the commonest suffix used to formfemininenouns, fromthemasculine,and is theonlyonewhichwenowuseinforminganewfemininenoun.

(3)Byplacingawordbeforeorafter;as,

CHAPTER7

THENOUN:NUMBER

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30.Noticethechangeofforminthesecondwordofeachpair:

Thefirstwordofeachpairdenotesonething,thesecondwordofeachpairdenotesmorethanone.

A Noun that denotes one person or thing, is said to be in theSingularNumber;as,

Boy,girl,cow,bird,tree,book,pen.ANounthatdenotesmorethanonepersonorthing,issaidtobein

thePluralNumber;as,Boys,girls,cows,birds,trees,books,pens.

Thus there are two Numbers in English—the Singular and thePlural.

HOWPLURALSAREFORMED31.(i)ThePluralofnounsisgenerallyformedbyadding-stothe

singular;as,

(ii)ButNounsendingin-s,-sh,-ch(soft),or-xformthepluralbyadding-estothesingular;as,

(iii)MostNounsendingin-oalsoformthepluralbyadding-estothesingular;as,

(iv)Afewnounsendingin-omerelyadd-s,;as,

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(v)Nounsendingin-y,precededbyaconsonant,formtheirpluralbychanging-yinto-iandadding-es;as,

(vi)The following nouns ending in -f or -fe form their pluralbychanging-for-feintovandadding-es;as,

Thenounsdwarf,hoof,scarfandwharftakeeither-sor-vesintheplural.

Otherwordsendingin-for-feadd-s;as,

32.Afewnounsformtheirpluralbychangingtheinsidevowelofthesingular;as,

33.Thereareafewnounsthatformtheirpluralbyadding-en tothesingular;as,

ox,oxen;child,children.

The plural of fish is fish or fishes. In current English fish is theusualplural.Fishesissometimesusedtotalkaboutdifferentkindsoffish.

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34.Somenounshavethesingularandthepluralalike;as,Swine, sheep, deer ; cod, trout, salmon; aircraft, spacecraft, series,species.Pair, dozen, score, gross, hundred, thousand (when used afternumerals).Iboughtthreedozenoranges.Somepeoplereachtheageofthreescoreandten.Thesaricostmefivethousandrupees.Stone,hundredweight.Heweighsaboveninestone.Twentyhundredweightmakeoneton.

35.Somenounsareusedonlyintheplural.(1)Namesofinstrumentswhichhavetwopartsformingakindof

pair;as,Bellows,scissors,tongs,pincers,spectacles.

(2)Namesofcertainarticlesofdress;as,Trousers,drawers,breeches,jeans,tights,shorts,pyjamas.

(3)Certainothernouns;as,Annals, thanks, proceeds (of a sale), tidings, environs, nuptials,obsequies,assets,chattels.

36.Somenounsoriginallysingulararenowgenerallyusedintheplural;as,

Alms,riches,eaves.Richesdomanythings.

37.Thefollowingnounslookpluralbutareinfactsingular:(1)Namesofsubjects

mathematics,physics,electronics,etc.(2)Thewordnews(3)Namesofsomecommondiseases

measles,mumps,rickets(4)Namesofsomegames

billiards,draughtsMathematicsishisfavouritestudy.

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Commander-in-chief commanders-in-chiefCoat-of-mail coats-of-mailSon-in-law sons-in-lawDaughter-in-law daughters-in-lawStepson stepsonsStepdaughter stepdaughtersMaidservant maidservants

Singular Plural

Nonewsisgoodnews.Indiawonbyaninningsandthreeruns.Measlesisinfectious.Billiardsismyfavouritegame.

‘Means’ is used either as singular or plural.Butwhen it has themeaningof‘wealth’itisalwaysplural;as,

He succeeded by this means (or, by these means) in passing theexamination.Hismeansaresmall,buthehasincurrednodebt.

38.CertainCollectiveNouns,thoughsingularinform,arealwaysusedasplurals;as,

Poultry,cattle,vermin,people,gentry.Thesepoultryaremine.Whosearethesecattle?Vermindestroyourpropertyandcarrydisease.Whoarethosepeople(=persons)?Therearefewgentryinthistown.

Note—As aCommonNoun ‘people’means a ‘nation’ and isusedinbothsingularandplural;as,

TheJapaneseareahard-workingpeople.TherearemanydifferentpeoplesinEurope.

39.ACompoundNoungenerallyformsitspluralbyadding-stotheprincipalword;as,

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(but manservant, pluralmenservants)

Passer-by passers-byLooker-on lookers-onMan-of-war men-of-war.

Erratum,errata; formula,formulae(orformulas):index,indices; memorandum,memoranda;radius,radii; terminus,termini(orterminuses).

Axis,axes; parenthesis,parentheses;crisis,crises; hypothesis,hypotheses;basis,bases; phenomenon,phenomena;analysis,analyses; criterion,criteria.

Wesayspoonfulsandhandfuls,becausespoonfulandhandfulareregardedasoneword.

Note that the Proper Nouns Brahman and Mussulman are notcompounds of man; therefore their plurals are Brahmans andMussulmans.

40.Manynounstakenfromforeignlanguageskeeptheiroriginalpluralform;as,

FromLatin—

FromGreek—

FromItalian—

Bandit,banditti,(orbandits)

FromFrench—

Madame(madam),mesdames;monsieur,messieurs.

FromHebrew—Cherub,cherubim(orcherubs);seraph,seraphim(orseraphs).

41. Some nouns have two forms for the plural, each with asomewhatdifferentmeaning.

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Singular PluralBrother brothers,sonsofthesameparent.

brethren,membersofasocietyoracommunity.Cloth cloths,kindsorpiecesofcloth.

clothes,garments.Die dies,stampsforcoining.

dice,smallcubesusedingames.Index indexes,tablesofcontentstobooks

indices,signsusedinalgebra.Penny pennies,numberofcoins.

pence,amountinvalue.

42.Somenounshavetwomeaningsinthesingularbutonlyoneintheplural.

43. Some nouns have one meaning in the singular, two in theplural:

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Air:atmosphere. Airs:affectedmanners.Good:benefit,well-being. Goods:merchandise.Compass:extent,range. Compasses : an instrument for

drawingcircles.Respect:regard. Respects:compliments.Physic:medicine. Physics:naturalscience.Iron:akindofmetal. Irons:fetters.Force:strength. Forces:troops.

Singular Plural

44. Some nouns have differentmeanings in the singular and theplural:

45.Letters, figuresandothersymbolsaremadepluralbyaddinganapostropheand;as,

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Therearemoree’sthana’sinthispage.Dotyouri’sandcrossyourt’s.Addtwo5’sandfour2’s.

46.Itisusualtosay—TheMissSmiths.(Singular,MissSmith.)

47.AbstractNounshavenoplural.Theyareuncountables.Hope,charity,love,kindness.

When such words do appear in the plural, they are used ascountables;as

Provocations=instancesorcasesofprovocation.Kindnesses=actsofkindness.

Namesof substances are alsouncountables andarenot thereforeusedintheplural.

Copper,iron,tin,wood.

Whensuchwordsareused in theplural, theybecomecountableswithchangedmeanings;as,

Coppers=coppercoins;irons=fetters;tins=cansmadeoftin;woods=forests.

CHAPTER8

THENOUN:CASE48.Examinethesesentences:

1. Johnthrewastone.2. Thehorsekickedtheboy.

Insentence1,thenounJohnistheSubject.Itistheanswertothequestion,“Whothrewastone?”

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ThegroupofwordsthrewastoneisthePredicate.ThePredicatecontainstheverbthrew.Whatdid John throw ?—Astone.Stone is theobjectwhich John

threw.ThenounstoneisthereforecalledtheObject.Insentence2,thenounhorseistheSubject.Itistheanswertothe

question,‘Whokickedtheboy?”The noun boy is the Object. It is the answer to the question,

‘Whomdidthehorsekick?”49.Whenanoun(orpronoun)isusedastheSubjectofaverb,itis

saidtobeintheNominativeCase.Whenanoun(orpronoun)isusedastheObjectofaverb,itissaid

tobeintheObjective(orAccusative)Case.

Note—TofindtheNominative,putWho?orWhat?beforetheverb.

TofindtheAccusative,putWhom?orWhat?beforetheverbanditssubject.

50.AnounwhichcomesafteraprepositionisalsosaidtobeintheAccusativeCase;as,

Thebookisonthedesk.

The noun desk is in the Accusative Case, governed by theprepositionin.

51.Readthefollowingsentences:Haribrokethewindow.(Object)Thewindowwasbroken.(Subject)

Itwillbeseen thatNouns inEnglishhave thesame form for theNominativeandtheAccusative.

The Nominative generally comes before the verb, and theAccusativeafter theverb.Hencetheyaredistinguishedbytheorderofwords,orbythesense.

52.Compare—

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Shakespeare’splays = the plays written byShakespeare.

Amother’slove

1. Ramagaveaball.2. RamagaveHariaball.

IneachofthesesentencesthenounballistheObjectofgave.In the second sentence we are told thatHari was the person to

whomRamagaveaball.ThenounHariiscalledtheIndirectObjectoftheverbgave.Thenounball,theordinaryObject,iscalledtheDirectObject.It will be noticed that the position of the Indirect Object is

immediatelyaftertheverbandbeforetheDirectObject.

Note—RamagaveHariaball=RamagaveaballtoHari.Willyoudomeafavour?=Willyoudoafavourtome?IboughtRamaaball=IboughtaballforRama.Fetchtheboyabook=Fetchabookfortheboy.ShemadeRuthanewdress=ShemadeanewdressforRuth.Getmeataxi=Getataxiforme.

We see that the Indirect Object of a verb denotes the person towhomsomethingisgiven,orforwhomsomethingisdone.

53.Examinethesentence:ThisisRam’sumbrella.

Ram’sumbrella=theumbrellabelongingtoRama.The form of the noun Rama is changed to Rama’s to show

ownershiporpossession.TheNounRama’sisthereforesaidtobeinthePossessive(orGenitive)Case.

ThePossessiveanswersthequestion,‘Whose?’

Whoseumbrella?—Rama’s.

54.ThePossessiveCasedoesnotalwaysdenotepossession. It isusedtodenoteauthorship,origin,kind,etc.as,

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Amother’slove =thelovefeltbyamother.ThePresident’sspeech = the speech delivered by the

President.Mr.Aggarwal’shouse = the house whereMr. Aggarwal

lives.Ashok’sschool =theschoolwhereAshokgoes.Achildren’splayground =aplaygroundforchildren.Aweek’sholiday =aholidaywhichlastsaweek.

FORMATIONOFTHEPOSSESSIVECASE55.(1)WhenthenounisSingular,thePossessiveCaseisformed

byadding’stothenoun;as,

Theboy’sbook;theking’scrown.

Note—The letter s is omitted in a fewwordswhere toomanyhissingsoundswouldcometogether;as,

Forconscience’sake;forgoodness’sake;Forjustice’sake;forJesus’sake;Moses’laws.

(2)WhenthenounisPlural,andendsins,thePossessiveCaseisformedbyaddingonlyanapostrophe;as,

Boys’school;girls’school;horses’tails.

(3)WhenthenounisPluralbutdoesnotendins, thePossessivesignisformedbyadding’sas,

Men’sclub;children’sbooks.

56. When a noun or a title consists of several words, thePossessivesignisattachedonlytothelastword;as,

TheKingofBhutan’svisit.ThePrimeMinisterofMauritius’sspeech.

57.Whentwonounsareinapposition,thepossessivesignisputtothelatteronly;as,

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ThatisTagorethepoet’shouse.

58.Alsowhentwonounsarecloselyconnected,thepossessiveisputtothelatter;as,

KarimandSalim’sbakery.WilliamandMary’sreign.

59. Each of two or more connected nouns implying separatepossessionmusttakethepossessivesign;as,

RajaRao’sandR.K.Narayan’snovels.Goldsmith’sandCowper’spoems.

USEOFTHEPOSSESSIVECASE60. The Possessive Case is now used chieflywith the names of

livingthings;as,TheGovernor’sbodyguard;thelion’smane.

Sowemustsay:

Thelegofthetable[not,thetable’sleg].Thecoverofthebook[not,thebook’scover].Theroofofthehouse[not,thehouse’sroof].

61. But the Possessive is used with the names of personified*objects;as,

India’sheroes;Nature’slaws;Fortune’sfavourite;atduty’scall;atdeath’sdoor.

62.ThePossessiveisalsousedwithnounsdenotingtime,spaceorweight;as,

Aday’smarch;aweek’sholiday;inayear’stime;astone’sthrow;afoot’slength;apound’sweight.

63.Thefollowingphrasesarealsoincommonuse:Athisfingers’ends;formercy’ssake;tohisheart’scontent;athiswit’send;aboat’screw.

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64.Thepossessiveofapropernameorofanoundenotingatrade,profession,orrelationshipmaybeusedtodenoteabuildingorplaceof business (church, house, school, college, shop, hospital, theatre,etc.);as,

Shehasgonetothebaker’s(=baker’sshop).TonightIamdiningatmyuncle’s(=uncle’shouse).CanyoutellmethewaytoSt.Paul’s(=St.Paul’sChurch)?IattendtheTownHighSchoolbutmycousinattendsSt.Xavier’s.HewaseducatedatSt.Joseph’s.

65.Whenyouareindoubtwhethertouseanouninthepossessivecaseorwith theprepositionof, remember that,asageneral rule, thepossessivecaseisusedtodenotepossessionorownership.Thusitisbettertosay‘thedefeatoftheenemy’than‘theenemy’sdefeat’,eventhoughnodoubtastothemeaningwouldarise.

Sometimes,however,anouninthepossessivecasehasadifferentmeaningfromanounusedwiththeprepositionof;as,

‘ThePrimeMinister’sreceptioninDelhi’meansareceptionheldbythePrimeMinisterinDelhi.‘ThereceptionofthePrimeMinister inDelhi’meansthemannerinwhichthepeoplewelcomedhimwhenheenteredDelhi.Thephrase‘theloveofafather’maymeaneither‘afather’sloveofhischild’or‘achild’sloveofhisfather’.

NOUNSINAPPOSITION66.Readthefollowingsentence:

Rama,ourcaptain,madefiftyruns.Wesee thatRama andourcaptain areoneand thesameperson.

The noun captain follows the nounRama simply to explain whichRamaisreferredto.

When one noun follows another to describe it, the noun whichfollowsissaidtobeinappositiontothenounwhichcomesbeforeit.

[Appositionmeansplacingnear.]

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A noun in apposition is in the same case as the noun which itexplains.

IntheabovesentencethenouncaptainisinappositiontothenounRama, and is in the Nominative Case (because Rama is in theNominativeCase).

Furtherexamples:

1. Kabir,thegreatreformer,wasaweaver.2. YesterdayImetyouruncle,thedoctor.3. HaveyouseenGanguli,theartist’sdrawings?

Insentence1,thenouninappositionisintheNominativeCase.In sentence 2, the noun in apposition is in theAccusativeCase.

[Why?]In sentence 3, the noun in apposition is in the Genitive Case.

[Why?]* When an inanimate thing has ascribed to it the attributes of aperson,itissaidtobepersonified.(See§28).

CHAPTER9

THEADJECTIVE67.Readthefollowingsentences:

1. Sitaisaclevergirl.(Girlofwhatkind?)2. Idon’tlikethatboy.(Whichboy?)3. Hegavemefivemangoes.(Howmanymangoes?)4. Thereislittletimeforpreparation.(Howmuchtime?)

Insentence1,‘clever’showswhatkindofgirlSitais;or,inotherwords,‘clever’describesthegirlSita.

Insentence2,‘that’pointsoutwhichboyismeant.

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Insentence3,‘five’showshowmanymangoeshegaveme.In sentence 4, ‘little’ shows how much time there is for

preparation.A word used with a noun to describe or point out, the person,

animal,placeorthingwhichthenounnames,ortotellthenumberorquantity,iscalledanAdjective.

SowemaydefineanAdjectiveasawordusedwithanountoaddsomethingforitsmeaning.

[Adjectivemeansaddedto.]68.Lookatthefollowingsentences:

1. Thelazyboywaspunished.:2. Theboyislazy.

Insentence1,theAdjectivelazy isusedalongwiththenounboyas an epithet or attribute. It is, therefore, said to be usedAttributively.

Insentence2,theAdjectivelazyisusedalongwiththeverbis,andforms part of the Predicate. It is, therefore, said to be usedPredicatively.

SomeAdjectivescanbeusedonlyPredicatively;as,

Sheisafraidofghosts.Iamquitewell.

KINDSOFADJECTIVESAdjectivesmaybedividedintothefollowingclasses:69. Adjectives of Quality (orDescriptive Adjective) show the

kindorqualityofapersonorthing;as,

Kolkataisalargecity.Heisanhonestman.Thefoolisholdcrowtriedtosing.ThisisaGrammaroftheEnglish*language.

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[*Adjectives formed from Proper Nouns (e.g., French wines,Turkish tobacco, Indian tea, etc.) are sometimes called ProperAdjectives.TheyaregenerallyclassedwithAdjectivesofQuality.]

AdjectivesofQualityanswerthequestion:Ofwhatkind?70.AdjectivesofQuantity showhowmuchofa thing ismeant;

as,

Iatesomerice.Heshowedmuchpatience.Hehaslittleintelligence.Wehavehadenoughexercise.Hehaslostallhiswealth.Youhavenosense.Hedidnoteatanyrice.Takegreatcareofyourhealth.Heclaimedhishalfshareofthebooty.Therehasnotbeensufficientrainthisyear.Thewholesumwasexpended.

AdjectivesofQuantityanswerthequestion:Howmuch?71. Adjectives of Number (orNumeral Adjectives) show how

manypersonsorthingsaremeant,orinwhatorderapersonorthingstands;as,

Thehandhasfivefingers.Fewcatslikecoldwater.Therearenopicturesinthisbook.Ihavetaughtyoumanythings.Allmenmustdie.Herearesomeripemangoes.Mostboyslikecricket.Thereareseveralmistakesinyourexercise.Sundayisthefirstdayoftheweek.

AdjectivesofNumberanswerthequestion:Howmany?72. Adjectives of Number (or Numeral Adjectives) are of three

kinds:

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One,two,three,etc. ThesearecalledCardinals.First,second,third,etc. ThesearecalledOrdinals.

AdjectivesofQuantity AdjectivesofNumberIatesomerice. Someboysareclever.Hehaslostallhiswealth. Allmenmustdie.Youhavenosense. Therearenopicturesinthisbook.Hedidnoteatanyrice. Arethereanymango-treesinthis

garden?Ihaveenoughsugar. Therearenotenoughspoons.

(i)DefiniteNumeralAdjectives,whichdenoteanexactnumber;as,

[ACardinaldenoteshowmany,andanOrdinaltheorderofthingsin a series. It will be seen that Ordinals really do the work ofDemonstrativeAdjectives.See74]

(ii)IndefiniteNumeralAdjectives,whichdonotdenoteanexactnumber;as,

All,no;many,few;some,any;certain,several,sundry.(iii)DistributiveNumeralAdjectives,whichrefertoeachoneof

anumber;as.,

Eachboymusttakehisturn.Indiaexpectseverymantodohisduty.Everywordofitisfalse.Eitherpenwilldo.Oneithersideisanarrowlane.Neitheraccusationistrue.

73.ThesameAdjectivemaybeclassedasofQuantityorNumber,accordingtoitsuse.

74.DemonstrativeAdjectivespointoutwhichpersonorthingismeant;as,

ThisboyisstrongerthanHari.Thatboyisindustrious.

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Thesemangoesaresour.Thoserascalsmustbepunished.YonderfortoncebelongedtoShivaji.Don’tbeinsuchahurry.Ihatesuchthings.

DemonstrativeAdjectivesanswerthequestion:Which?[ItwillbenoticedthatthisandthatareusedwithSingularnouns

andtheseandthosewithPluralnouns.]75.What,whichandwhose,whentheyareusedwithnounstoask

questions,arecalledInterrogativeAdjectives;as,Whatmannerofmanishe?Whichwayshallwego?Whosebookisthis?

[Itwillbeseenthatwhatisusedinageneralsense,andwhichinaselectivesense.]

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR6

Pickoutall theAdjectives in the followingsentences,andsay towhichclasseachofthembelongs:1. Theshipsustainedheavydamage.2. Ihavecalledseveraltimes.3. Everydoghashisday.4. Aliveassisbetterthanadeadlion.5. Everymanhashisduties.6. Saythesamethingtwiceover.7. Severalpersonswerepresentatthetime.8. Heisamanoffewwords.9. Neitherpartyisquiteintheright.10. Whattimeisit?11. Whichpendoyouprefer?12. Thewaywaslong,thewindwascold,theminstrelwasinfirmandold13. Hecomeshereeveryday.14. Ihavenotseenhimforseveraldays.

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Thisgirlsings. Thesegirlssing.

15. Thereshouldnotbemuchtalkandtittlework.16. Abdulwonthesecondprize.17. Thechildfelldownfromthegreatheight.18. Hewasabsentlastweek.19. Hediedagloriousdeath.20. Asmallleakmaysinkagreatship.21. Goodwineneedsnobush.22. Ilikethelittlepedlarwhohasacrookednose.23. KingFranciswasaheartyKing,andlovedaroyalsport.24. Inthefurrowedlandthetoilsomeandpatientoxenstand.25. Myunclelivesinthenexthouse.26. Somedreamsarelikereality.27. Acrosschildisnotliked.28. Itisanillwindthatblowsnobodyanygood.

76.InthefollowingsentencesthewordsownandveryareusedasEmphasizingAdjectives:

Isawitwithmyowneyes.Hewasbeatenathisowngame.Mindyourownbusiness.Heishisownmaster.Thatistheverythingwewant.“Whenallelseleftmycause,Myveryadversarytookmypart”.

77. The word what is sometimes used as an ExclamatoryAdjective;as,

Whatgenius!Whatfolly!Whatanidea!Whatablessing!Whatapieceofworkisman!

78. As already pointed out (§ 74), this and that are the onlyAdjectiveswhichareinflectedorchangedinformtoshownumber.

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Thatboyplays. Thoseboysplay.

Boy boyishFool foolishCare carefulPlay playfulHope hopefulVenture venturesomeTrouble troublesomeShame shamelessSense senselessSilk silkenGold goldenDirt dirtyStorm stormyPardon pardonableLaugh laughableOutrage outrageousCourage courageousGlory gloriousEnvy enviousMan manlyKing kinglyGift gifted

Noun Adjective

Tire tirelessTalk

Verb Adjective

This,theseindicatesomethingneartothespeaker.That,thoseindicatemoredistantobjects.

FORMATIONOFADJECTIVES79.(i)ManyAdjectivesareformedfromNouns.

(ii)SomeAdjectivesareformedfromVerbs.

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Talktalkative

Cease ceaselessMove moveable

Tragic tragicalWhole wholesomeThree threefoldBlack blackishWhite whitishSick sickly

Adjective Adjective

(iii)SomeAdjectivesareformedfromotherAdjectives.


SupplysuitableAdjectives:

1. Thetownstooda____siege.2. The____prizewaswonbyaHindu.3. The____womanlivesinawretchedhut.4. Thisisavery____matter.5. ThebattleofWaterlooendedina____victory.6. Suddenlytherearosea____storm.7. Itisa____lie.8. The____tidingswereaheavyblowtotheoldman.9. HereisRs50:paythefareandkeepthe____money.10. Hisreadingisofavery____range.11. Theinjuredmanwants____advice.12. Youcannothaveit____ways.13. Indiaexpects____mantodohisduty.14. The____birdcatchestheworm.15. Haveyouany____reasontogive?16. ____anxietyhasunderminedhishealth.17. Therewereriotsin____places.18. An____manwillnotreasoncalmly.19. Hestands____feetinhisstockings.

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20. Nelsonwonforhimself____fame.21. Ihaveno____cash.22. Healwayswalkswitha____step.23. ____errorsarenoteasilycorrected.24. Everycloudhasa____lining.25. Hewasamanof____ambition.26. Hewaslistenedtoin____silence.


FormAdjectivesfromthefollowingNouns:AttacheachAdjectivetoasuitablenoun.

Ease, pity, time, heaven, health, wealth, love, hill, need, green, room,cost, pain, doubt, wonder, peace, child, prince, mountain, ridicule,picture, labour,wood,pomp,artist,progress, slave, contempt, tempest,sense,quarrel,thought,hope,friend.


UseeachofthefollowingAdjectivesinasentence:Models—Asoftanswerturnethawaywrath.

Hispolitemannershaveendearedhimtoall.Swimmingisahealthyexercise.Acertainmanfellamongthieves.

Happy,sad,industrious,lazy,big,small,soft,harsh,hard,polite,rude,wise,foolish,rich,poor,young,new,old, long,short,quick,slow,strong,weak,handsome,ugly,clever,dull,kind,cruel,healthy,dutiful,distant,certain.


UseasuitableAdjectivewitheachofthefollowingNouns:Models.—Aviolentstorm.

Alongsiege.Adecisivevictory.Apopulouscity.

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Adevotedhusband.Storm, siege, sleep, victory, advice, blow, silence, hands, water, servant,flower,city,artist,dealer,voice,husband,subject,child,king,dog.


Use as many suitable Adjectives as you can with each of thefollowingNouns:

Models—Anarrowstreet,awidestreet,acrookedstreet,adirtystreet.

Acleanstreet.Adeliberatelie,ablacklie,awhitelie.Fortune,man,news,storm,health,novel,progress,room,incident


WritedowntheAdjectivesoppositeinmeaningtothefollowing:

Courageous,many,wild, hot, lean, heavy, costly, barren, beautiful,patient,honest,civilized,careful,strong,experienced,slow,friendly,cruel,soft.

CHAPTER10

COMPARISONOFADJECTIVES80.Readthesesentences:

1. Rama’smangoissweet.2. Hari’smangoissweeterthanRama’s.3. Govind’smangoisthesweetestofall.

In sentence 1, the adjective sweet merely tells us that Rama’smangohasthequalityofsweetness,withoutsayinghowmuchofthisqualityithas.

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In sentence 2, the adjective sweeter tells us that Hari’s mango,comparedwithRama’s,hasmoreofthequalityofsweetness.

In sentence 3, the adjective sweetest tells us that of all thesemangoesGovind’smangohas thegreatestamountorhighestdegreeofthequalityofsweetness.

We thus see that Adjectives change in form (sweet, sweeter,sweetest) to showcomparison.Theyarecalled the threeDegreesofComparison.

TheAdjectivesweetissaidtobeinthePositiveDegree.TheAdjectivesweeterissaidtobeintheComparativeDegree.TheAdjectivesweetestissaidtobeintheSuperlativeDegree.ThePositiveDegreeofanAdjectiveistheAdjectiveinitssimple

form.Itisusedtodenotethemereexistenceofsomequalityofwhatwespeakabout.Itisusedwhennocomparisonismade.

TheComparativeDegreeofanAdjectivedenotesahigherdegreeofthequalitythanthePositive,andisusedwhentwothings(orsetsofthings)arecompared;as,

Thisboyisstrongerthanthat.Whichofthesetwopensisthebetter?Applesaredearerthanoranges.

TheSuperlativeDegreeofanAdjectivedenotesthehighestdegreeof the quality, and is used whenmore than two things (or sets ofthings)arecompared;as,

Thisboyisthestrongestintheclass.

Note1—Thereisanotherwayinwhichwecancomparethings.Insteadofsaying‘RamaisstrongerthanBalu’,wecansay‘BaluislessstrongthanRama’.Insteadofsaying‘Hariisthelaziestboyintheclass’,wecansay‘Hariistheleastindustriousboyintheclass’.

Note 2—The Superlative withmost is sometimes used wherethere is no idea of comparison, butmerely a desire to indicate thepossessionofaqualityinaveryhighdegree;as,

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Thisismostunfortunate.Itwasamosteloquentspeech.Truly,amostingeniousdevice!

This usage has been called the Superlative of Eminence, or theAbsoluteSuperlative.

FORMATIONOFCOMPARATIVEANDSUPERLATIVE

81.MostAdjectivesofonesyllable,andsomeofmore thanone,formtheComparativebyaddingerandtheSuperlativebyaddingesttothePositive.

WhenthePositiveendsine,onlyrandstareadded.

When the Positive ends in y, preceded by a consonant, the y ischangedintoibeforeaddingerandest.

When thePositive isawordofonesyllableandends inasingleconsonant, preceded by a short vowel, this consonant is doubled

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beforeaddingerandest.

82.Adjectives ofmore than two syllables form theComparativeandSuperlativebyputtingmoreandmostbeforethePositive.

Two-syllable adjectives ending in ful (e.g. useful), less (e.g.hopeless), ing (e.g.boring)anded (e.g...surprised)andmanyothers(e.g.modern,recent,foolish,famous,certain)takemoreandmost.

Thefollowingtakeeithererandestormoreandmost:

Sheispoliter/morepolitethanhersister.Heisthepolitest/mostpoliteofthem.

83. The Comparative in er is not used when we compare twoqualities in the same person or thing. If we wish to say that thecourageofRamaisgreaterthanthecourageofBalu,wesay,

RamaisbraverthanBalu.

ButifwewishtosaythatthecourageofRamaisgreaterthanhisprudence,wemustsay,

Ramaismorebravethanprudent.

84. When two objects are compared with each other, the lattertermofcomparisonmustexcludetheformer;as,

Ironismoreusefulthananyothermetal.

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Ifwesay,

Ironismoreusefulthananymetal,

that is thesamethingassaying‘Ironismoreuseful thaniron’sinceironisitselfametal.

IRREGULARCOMPARISON85. The following Adjectives are compared irregularly, that is,

theirComparativeandSuperlativearenotformedfromthePositive:

Note:Theformsnigh,nigher,nighest,foreandutterareoutdated.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR13

ComparethefollowingAdjectives:

Black, excellent, ill, gloomy,mad, safe, bad, unjust, gay, able, dry,timid, ugly, true, severe, exact, agreeable, difficult, little, few,numerous,merry.

86.Thedouble formsof theComparative andSuperlativeof theAdjectivesgivenin§85areusedindifferentways.

Later, latter; latest, last—Laterand latest refer to time; latterandlastrefertoposition.

HeislaterthanIexpected.

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Ihavenotheardthelatestnews.Thelatterchaptersarelackingininterest.Thelastchapteriscarelesslywritten.Oursisthelasthouseinthestreet.

Elder,older;eldest,oldest—Elderandeldestareusedonlyofpersons,notofanimalsorthings;andarenowconfinedtomembersofthe same family.Elder is not used with than following.Older andoldestareusedofbothpersonsandthings.

Johnismyelderbrother.Tomismyeldestson.Heisolderthanhissister.Ramaistheoldestboyintheeleven.ThisistheoldesttempleinKolkata.

Farther,further—Both fartherand furtherareusedtoexpressdistance.Further,notfarther,isusedtomean“additional”.

Kolkataisfarther/furtherfromtheequatorthanColombo.Afterthishemadenofurtherremarks.Imusthaveareplywithoutfurtherdelay.

Nearest, next.—Nearestmeans the shortest distance away.Nextreferstooneofasequenceofthingscomingoneaftertheother.

MumbaiistheseaportnearesttoEurope.Whereisthenearestphonebox?Karim’sshopisnexttothePostOffice.Myunclelivesinthenexthouse.


(a)Filltheblankspaceswith‘later’or‘latter’:

1. Themajorityacceptedthe____proposal.2. The____partofthebookshowssignsofhurry.3. Ata_____date,hewasplacedinchargeofthewholetaluka.4. Ipreferthe_____propositiontotheformer.

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5. Isthereno____newsthanlastweek’s?

(b)Filltheblankspaceswith‘older’or‘elder’:

1. Ihavean____sister.2. Ramais____thanHaribytwoyears.3. His____brotherisintheIndianPoliceService.4. Sheisthe____ofthetwosisters.5. Thenephewis_____thanhisuncle.

(c)Filltheblankspaceswith‘oldest’and‘eldest’:

1. Rustamisthe____ofmyuncle’sfivesons.2. Heisthe____memberoftheSchoolCommittee.3. ThatisAntonio,theduke’s_____son.4. The____mosqueinthetownisneartherailwaystation.5. Mr.Smithisthe_____teacherintheschool.

(d)Filltheblankspaceswith‘farther’or‘further’:

1. Ican’twalkany____2. No____reasonsweregiven.3. Hewalkedoffwithout______ceremony.4. Until_____orders Mr. K.S. Dave will act as Headmaster of Nira High

School.5. Tolet,abungalowatRidgeRoad.For___particularsapplytoBoxNo.65.

(e)Filltheblankspaceswith‘latest’or‘last’:

1. The_____newsfromChinaisverydisquieting.2. The____timeIsawhim,hewasinhighspirits.3. To-dayisthe_____dayforreceivingtenders.4. Weexpecttogetthe_____newsinafewhours.5. The_____MoghulEmperorcametoanignominiousend.

(f)Filltheblankspaceswith‘nearest’or‘next’:

1. Thisisthe_____PostOfficetomyhouse.2. Thepillar-boxis____tomyhouse.3. Theburglarwastakentothe____policestation.4. Hishouseis____tomine.

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5. The____railwaystationistwomilesfromhere.

87. Certain English Comparatives have lost their comparativemeaningandareusedasPositive.Theycannotbefollowedby than.Theseare:

Former,latter,elder,upper,inner,outer,utter.Both the tiger and the leopard are cats; the former animal ismuchlargerthanthelatter.

Theinnermeaningofthisletterisnotclear.Thesoldiersrantodefendtheouterwall.Myelderbrotherisanengineer.Thismanisanutterfool.

88.CertainComparativesborrowedfromLatinhavenoPositiveorSuperlativedegree.Theyallendinor,noter.Theyaretwelveinall.Five of them have lost theirComparativemeaning, and are used asPositiveAdjectives.Theseare:

Interior,exterior,ulterior,major,minor.Theexteriorwall of the house ismadeof stone; the interiorwalls are ofwood.Hisageisamatterofminorimportance.Ihavenoulteriormotiveinofferingyouhelp.

The other seven are used as Comparative Adjectives but arefollowedbytoinsteadofthan(See§89)

89. The comparative degree is generally followed by than; butComparativeAdjectivesendingin-orarefollowedbytheprepositionto;as,:

Inferior,superior,prior,anterior,posterior,senior,junior.HariisinferiortoRaminintelligence.Rama’sintelligenceissuperiortoHari’s.Hismarriagewaspriortohisfather’sdeath.Heisjuniortoallhiscolleagues.Allhiscolleaguesareseniortohim.

90.Adjectives expressingqualities that donot admit ofdifferent

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degreescannot,strictlyspeaking,becompared;as,

Square,round,perfect,eternal,universal,unique.

Strictly speaking, a thing cannot be more square, more round,moreperfect.Butwesay,forinstance,

ThisisthemostperfectspecimenIhaveseen.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR15

Point out theAdjectives andname theDegreeofComparisonofeach:1. Thepoorwomanhadseenhappierdays.2. Donottalksuchnonsense.3. Makelessnoise.4. Thatchildhasaslightcold.5. Aliveassisstrongerthanadeadlion.6. Saythesamethingtwiceover.7. Solomonwasoneofthewisestmen.8. Hungeristhebestsauce.9. Hissimplewordisasgoodasanoath.10. Therewasnottheslightestexcuseforit.11. Myknifeissharperthanyours.12. Smallpeoplelovetotalkofgreatmen.13. Oftwoevilschoosetheless.14. Ihopethematterwillbeclearedupsomeday.15. Yoursonmakesnoprogressinhisstudies.16. Openrebukeisbetterthansecretlove.17. Weneverhadsuchsport.18. Ihaveotherthingstoattendto.19. Hariistheidlestboyintheclass.20. Ipromiseyouafairhearing.21. Thereismuchtobesaidonbothsides.22. Hegavetheboysmuchwholesomeadvice.23. Hethinksheiswiserthanhisfather.24. Nonewsisgoodnews.

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25. Bangladeshhasthelargestteagardenintheworld.26. Leadisheavierthananyothermetal.27. Icongratulatedhimonhisgoodfortune.28. Hehasmanypowerfulfriends.29. Thelongestlanehasaturning.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR16

Make three columns and write the following Adjectives in thePositive,ComparativeandSuperlativeDegrees:

[Becareful touse the formofcomparison that ispleasing to theear.]

Shameful, clever, pretty, interesting, hopeful, honest, important, patient,rude,delightful,stupid,attractive,heavy,beautiful,fortunate,pleasant.


Supply the proper form (Comparative or Superlative) of theAdjective:

[Note—TheComparativeandnottheSuperlativeshouldbeusedtocomparetwothings.]1. Good—Howisyourbrotherto-day?Ishe____?2. Hot—Mayis____herethananyothermonth.3. Pretty—Herdollis____thanyours.4. Idle—Hariisthe____boyintheclass.5. Sharp—Yourknifeissharp,butmineis____.6. Dear—Honouris____tohimthanlife.7. Rich—Heisthe_____maninourtown.8. Old—Maniistwoyears_____thanRati.9. Large—Namethe____cityintheworld.10. Good—Heisthe_____friendIhave.11. Bad—Heisthe______boyofthetwo.12. Bad—Raman’sworkisbad,Hari’sis_____,butGovind’sisthe_____.13. Ferocious—Thereisnoanimal_____thanthetiger.14. Bad—Thetradeisina_____conditionto-daythanitwasayearago.

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15. Tall—Heisthe_______ofthetwo.16. Dry—Sindisthe_____partofPakistan.17. Useful—Ironis_____thananyothermetal.18. Useful—Ironisthe_____ofallmetals.19. Great—Whoisthe_____livingpoet?20. Nutritious—Ithinkherequiresa_____diet.21. Proud—Itwasthe_____momentofhislife.22. Good—Thepublicisthe______judge.23. Little—Thatisthe______priceIcantake.24. Light—Silveris_______thangold.


Supply appropriate Comparatives or Superlatives to each of thefollowing:-1. Preventionis______thancure.2. Akbarhada______regionthanBabar.3. Whoisthe____________batsmanintheworld4. Thepenis_______thanthesword.5. The______buildingsarefoundinAmerica.6. ThePacificis______thananyotherocean.7. Whichofthetwogirlshasthe______dress?8. Honouris______tohimthanlife.9. Thispenis______thantheother.10. Whoisthe_____boyintheclass?11. TheEiffelToweris______thanQutabMinar.12. Myuncleis______thanmyfather.13. ThemultimillionaireMr.Senisthe______inthistown.14. Wordsworthisa______poetthanCowper.15. Baluisthe______bowlerintheeleven.16. ThestreetsofMumbaiare______thanthoseofAhmedabad.17. Ootyis______thanChennai.18. Thepianowasknockeddowntothe______bidder.19. MountEverestisthe______peakoftheHimalayas.20. Hewritesa______handthanhisbrother.21. Hewritesthe_____handinhisclass.

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Superlative —Leadistheheaviestofallmetals.Comparative —Leadisheavierthanallothermetals.Comparative —MahabaleshwariscoolerthanPanchgani.Positive —PanchganiisnotsocoolasMahabaleshwar.Positive —HeisaswiseasSolomon.Comparative —Solomonwasnotwiserthanheis.

22. Heisoneofthe_______speakersinPunjab.23. Whowasthe______general,AlexanderorCaesar?24. The_______fablesarethoseattributedtoAesop.25. TheArabianNightsisperhapsthe______story-book.26. Shakespeareis______thananyotherEnglishpoet.27. Ofallcountries,Chinahasthe______populationintheworld.28. Cloudsfloatintheskybecausetheyare______thantheair.29. Therearetwowaysofdoingthesum,butthisoneisthe______30. Itisgoodtobeclever,butitis______tobeindustrious.31. Thisisthe______ofmytwosons.32. Thisisthe_____thatIcando.


Change the followingsentencesbyusing ‘less’or ‘least’withoutchangingthemeaning:1. Themangoissweeterthanthepineapple.2. Silverismoreplentifulthangold.3. Thisisthemostuselessofallmybooks.4. Wolframisoneoftherarestminerals.5. Thewild-appleisthesourestofallfruits.6. Ironismoreusefulthancopper.

INTERCHANGEOFTHEDEGREESOFCOMPARISON

91.As the followingexamplesshow, it ispossible tochange theDegree of Comparison of an Adjective in a sentence, withoutchangingthemeaningofthesentence:

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Superlative —ShakuntalamisthebestdramainSanskrit.Comparative —Shakuntalamisbetterthananyotherdramain

Sanskrit.Positive —No other drama in Sanskrit is so good as

Shakuntala.Superlative —ChennaiisoneofthebiggestofIndiancities.Comparative —Chennai is bigger than most other Indian

cities.Positive —VeryfewIndiancitiesareasbigasChennai.Positive —SomepoetsareatleastasgreatasTennyson.Comparative —Tennysonisnotgreaterthansomeotherpoets.

—SomepoetsarenotlessgreatthanTennyson.Superlative —Tennysonisnotthegreatestofallpoets.


Change the Degree of Comparison, without changing themeaning:1. MalaccaistheoldesttowninMalaysia.2. Soyabeansareatleastasnutritiousasmeat.3. NootherplanetissobigasJupiter.4. VeryfewboysareasindustriousasLatif.5. Hewouldsoonerdiethantellalie.6. Indiaisthelargestdemocracyintheworld.7. ShakespeareisgreaterthananyotherEnglishpoet.8. SamudraGuptawasoneofthegreatestofIndiankings.9. Thetigeristhemostferociousofallanimals.10. Australiaisthelargestislandintheworld.11. Leadisheavierthananyothermetal.12. Somepeoplehavemoremoneythanbrains.13. Awiseenemyisbetterthanafoolishfriend.14. TheMarwariesarenotlessenterprisingthananyothercommunityinIndia.15. Iknowhimquiteaswellasyoudo.16. YoudonotknowhimbetterthanIdo.17. NoothermanwasasstrongasBhim.18. SomeboysareatleastasindustriousasSuresh.

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19. MountEverestisthehighestpeakoftheHimalayas.20. Veryfewanimalsareasusefulasthecow.21. Americaistherichestcountryintheworld.22. Itiseasiertopreachthantopractise.23. Ironismoreusefulthanalltheothermetals.24. Openrebukeisbetterthansecretlove.25. Thisisthetallestbuildinginthecity.26. SirSurendranathwasatleastasgreatanoratorasanyotherIndian.27. OotyisashealthyasanyresortinIndia.28. Thepenismightierthanthesword.

CHAPTER11

ADJECTIVESUSEDASNOUNS92.AdjectivesareoftenusedasNouns.(1)AsPluralNounsdenotingaclassofpersons;as,

Thecautious(=cautiouspersons)arenotalwayscowards.Therich(=richpeople)knownothowthepoor(=poorpeople)live.Thewicked (=wicked people) fleewhen noman pursueth, but therighteous(=righteouspeople)areboldasalion.Blessedarethemeek.

(2)AsSingularNounsdenotingsomeabstractquality;as,

Thefuture(=futurity)isunknowntous.Heisaloverofthebeautiful(=beautyingeneral)

(3)SomeAdjectivesactuallybecomeNouns,andarehenceusedinbothnumbers:

(a)ThosederivedfromProperNouns;as,Australians,Canadians,Italians.

(b)Somedenotingpersons;as,juniors,seniors,mortals,inferiors,superiors,nobles,criminals,savages,elders,minors.

(c) A few denoting things generally; as, secrets, totals, liquids,solids,valuables.

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[Some adjectives are used as Nouns only in the plural; as,valuables,eatables.]

(4)Incertainphrases;as,

Ingeneral;infuture;inshort;insecret;beforelong;atpresent;forgood;atbest; throughthickandthin;forbetterorforworse; inblackandwhite;rightorwrong;frombadtoworse;thelongandshort.InfutureIshallchargeyouformedicaladvice.Inshort,weknownothing.Thenegotiationswerecarriedoninsecret.Ishallseeyoubeforelong.Beforelong,hewillbeappointedtoahigherpost.Atpresent,heisinpecuniarydifficulties.Idonotwantanymoreatpresent.HehasleftIndiaforgood.Wecan’tarrivebeforeSaturdayatbest.Itmustbesaidtohiscreditthathestoodbyhisfriendthroughthickandthin.Imusthaveyourtermsdowninblackandwhite.Rightorwrong,mycountry.Iamafraidtheyoungmanisgoingfrombadtoworse.ThelongandshortofitisthatIdistrustyou.

NOUNSUSEDASADJECTIVES93.TheuseofNounsasAdjectivesisverycommoninEnglish;as,

Imetalittlecottagegirl.Heisalwaysplayingcomputergames.

CHAPTER12

POSITIONOFADJECTIVES94. An Adjective used attributively is generally placed

immediatelybeforethenoun;as,

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KingFranciswasaheartyking,andlovedaroyalsport.Where are you going, my pretty maid, with your rosy cheeks andgoldenhair?OCaptain!myCaptain!ourfearfultripisdone.

Observethedifferenceinmeaningbetween:

(i)agreatnobleman’sson,and(ii)anobleman’sgreatson.

95.Inpoetry,however,theAdjectiveisfrequentlyplacedafterthenoun;as.

Childrendear,wasityesterday?Weheardthesweetbellsoverthebay.Omanwithsistersdear!

96. When several Adjectives are attached to one noun they aresometimesplacedafteritforemphasis;as

Theredweltamillerhaleandbold.TheKing,fearlessandresolute,atonceadvanced.Franklinhadagreatgenius,original,sagacious,andinventive.

97. When some word or phrase is joined to the Adjective toexplainitsmeaning,theAdjectiveisplacedafteritsnoun;as,

Hewasamanfertileinresource.ASikh,tallerthananyofhiscomrades,rushedforward.

98.IncertainphrasestheAdjectivealwayscomesafterthenoun;as

Heir apparent, time immemorial, lord paramount, viceroy elect,letters patent, knights temporal, notary public, body politic, GodAlmighty.

CHAPTER13

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THECORRECTUSEOFSOMEADJECTIVES99. Some, any—To express quantity or degree some is used

normally in affirmative sentences, any in negative or interrogativesentences.

Iwillbuysomemangoes.Iwillnotbuyanymangoes.Haveyouboughtanymangoes?

Butanycanbeusedafterifinaffirmativesentences.

IfyouneedanymoneyIwillhelpyou.

Someisusedinquestionswhicharereallyoffers/requestsorwhichexpecttheanswer“yes”.

Willyouhavesomeice-cream?(Offer)Couldyoulendmesomemoney?(Request)Didyoubuysomeclothes?(=Iexpectyoudid.)

100.Each, every.—Each andevery are similar inmeaning,butevery is a stronger word than each; it means, ‘each withoutexception’.Each isused inspeakingof twoormore things;every isusedonlyinspeakingofmorethantwo.Eachdirectsattentiontotheindividualsforminganygroup,everytothetotalgroup.Eachisusedonly when the number in the group is limited and definite ; everywhenthenumberisindefinite.

Everyseatwastaken.Fiveboyswereseatedoneachbench.Eachoneofthesechairsisbroken.Leapyearfallsineveryfourthyear.Hecametoseeuseverythreedays[i.e.,onceineveryperiodofthreedays].Itrainedeverydayduringmyholidays.Iwasawaytendaysanditrainedeachday.

101.Little,alittle,thelittle.—Notecarefullytheuseof—

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(1)little,(2)alittle,(3)thelittle.

Little=notmuch(i.e.,hardlyany).Thus,theadjectivelittlehasanegativemeaning.

Thereislittlehopeofhisrecovery,i.e.,heisnotlikelytorecover.Heshowedlittleconcernforhisnephew.Hehaslittleinfluencewithhisoldfollowers.Heshowedlittlemercytothevanquished.Hehaslittleappreciationofgoodpoetry.

Alittle=somethoughnotmuch.‘Alittle’hasapositivemeaning.

Thereisalittlehopeofhisrecovery,i.e.,hemaypossiblyrecover.Alittletactwouldhavesavedthesituation.Alittleknowledgeisadangerousthing.

Thelittle=notmuch,butallthereis.

Thelittleinformationhehadwasnotquitereliable.Thelittleknowledgeofcarpentrythathepossessedstoodhimingoodstead.[Thesentencemeans—Theknowledgeofcarpentryhepossessedwasnotmuch;butallthatknowledgestoodhimingoodstead.]


Insert‘alittle’,or‘thelittle’whicheverissuitable:1. _____graintheyhadwasdamagedbyseawater.2. _____precautionisnecessaryinhandlingthatmachine.3. _____carecouldhavepreventedthecatastrophe.4. _____influencethathehas,heusestothebestadvantage.5. _____knowledgeofFrenchthathehasislikelytobeveryusefultohimon

theContinent.

102.Few,afew,thefew—Notecarefullytheuseofthefollowing:

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(1) few,(2) afew,(3) thefew.

Fewpersonscankeepasecret.Fewpeoplearesohopelessasdrunkards.FewtownsinIndiahavepubliclibraries.Few works of reference are so valuable as the EncyclopaediaBritannica.Fewmenarefreefromfaults.Fewmenreachtheageofonehundredyears.FewParseeswriteGujaraticorrectly.

Afew=some.‘Afew’hasapositivemeaning,andisopposedto‘none’.

Afewwordsspokeninearnestwillconvincehim.AfewParseeswriteGujaraticorrectly.

Thefew=notmany,butallthereare.

Thefewremarksthathemadewereverysuggestive.[Thesentencemeans—Theremarksthathemadewerenotmany;butallthoseremarkswereverysuggestive.]Thefewfriendshehasareallverypoor.Thefewclothestheyhadwerealltatteredandtorn.


Insert‘afew’or‘thefew’whicheverissuitable:1. ____publiclibrariesthatwehavearenotwellequipped.2. ____daysthatarelefttohimhespendsinsolitudeandmeditation.3. ManyHindusstudySanskrit,butonly____ParseesstudyAvesta.4. ____days’restisallthatisneeded.5. Haveyougot_____potatoesleft?6. Itisaquestionofspending____rupees.7. ____hintsonessay-writingarequitetothepoint.8. ____monthsthathespentinOotydidhimalotofgood.9. WhenImethim____yearsafter,helookedoldandhaggard.

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10. ____shortpoemsinthevolumeshowsignsofgenius.11. In____wordsheexpressedhisgratitudetohisfriends.12. _____AmericanshavetheirofficesinKolkata.13. _____trinketsshehasarenotworthmuch.14. _____poemshehaswrittenareallofgreatexcellence.

CHAPTER14

ARTICLES103. Thewordsa oran and the are calledArticles. They come

beforenouns.104. TherearetwoArticles—a(oran)andthe.105. A or an is called the IndefiniteArticle, because it usually

leavesindefinitethepersonorthingspokenof;as,

Adoctor;thatis,anydoctor.

106. TheiscalledtheDefiniteArticle,becauseitnormallypointsoutsomeparticularpersonorthing;as,

Hesawthedoctor;meaningsomeparticulardoctor.

Theindefinitearticleisusedbeforesingularcountablenouns,e.g.,

Abook,anorange,agirl

Thedefinitearticleisusedbeforesingularcountablenouns,pluralcountablenounsanduncountablenouns,e.g.,

Thebook,thebooks,themilk

AORAN107. Thechoicebetweenaandanisdeterminedbysound.Before

awordbeginningwithavowelsoundanisused;as,

An ass,an enemy,an ink-pad,an orange,an umbrella,an hour,anhonestman,anheir.

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Itwill be noticed that thewordshour, honest, heir beginwith avowelsound,astheinitialconsonanthisnotpronounced.

108.Beforeawordbeginningwithaconsonant sounda isused;as,

Aboy,areindeer,awoman,ayard,ahorse,ahole,also a university, a union, a European, a ewe, a unicorn, a usefularticle.

because thesewords (university, union, etc.)beginwith a consonantsound,thatofyu.Similarlywesay,

Aone-rupeenote,suchaone,aone-eyedman.

becauseonebeginswiththeconsonantsoundofw.109.Somenativespeakersuseanbeforewordsbeginningwithh

ifthefirstsyllableisnotstressed.

Anhotel(Morecommon:ahotel)anhistoricalnovel(Morecommon:ahistoricalnovel)

USEOFTHEDEFINITEARTICLE110.TheDefiniteArticletheisused—(1)Whenwetalkaboutaparticularpersonorthing,oronealready

referred to (that is,when it is clear from the contextwhich onewemean);as,

Thebookyouwantisoutofprint.(Whichbook?Theoneyouwant.)Let’sgotothepark.(=theparkinthistown)Thegirlcried.(thegirl=thegirlalreadytalkedabout)

(2)Whenasingularnounismeanttorepresentawholeclass;as,

Thecowisausefulanimal.[Orwemaysay,“Cowsareusefulanimals.”]Thehorseisanobleanimal.Thecatlovescomfort.Theroseisthesweetestofallflowers.

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(a) oceansandseas,e.g.thePacific,theBlackSea(b) rivers,e.g.theGanga,theNile(c) canals,e.g.theSuezCanal(d) deserts,e.g.theSahara(e) groupsofislands,e.g.theWestIndies(f) mountain-ranges,e.g.theHimalayas,theAlps(g) a very few names of countries, which include words like

republic and kingdom (e.g. the Irish Republic, the UnitedKingdom)also:theUkraine,theNetherlands(anditsseatofgovernmenttheHague)

Thebanyanisakindoffigtree.[Donotsay,“akindofafigtree”.Thisisacommonerror.]

The two nounsman andwoman can be used in a general sensewithouteitherarticle.

Manistheonlyanimalthatusesfire.Womanisman’smate.

Butinpresent-dayEnglishamanandawoman(ormenandwomen)aremoreusual.

Awomanismoresensitivethanaman.

(3)Beforesomepropernames,viz.,thesekindsofplace-names:

(4)Beforethenamesofcertainbooks;as,

TheVedas,thePuranas,theIliad,theRamayana.

Butwesay—

Homer’sIliad,Valmiki’sRamayana.

(5)Beforenamesofthingsuniqueoftheirkind;as,

Thesun,thesky,theocean,thesea,theearth.

Note—SometimestheisplacedbeforeaCommonnountogiveit

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themeaningofanAbstractnoun;as,

At last the warrior (the warlike or martial spirit) in him wasthoroughlyaroused.

(6)BeforeaPropernounwhenitisqualifiedbyanadjectiveoradefiningadjectivalclause;as,

ThegreatCaesar:theimmortalShakespeare.TheMr.Roywhomyoumetlastnightismyuncle.

(7)WithSuperlatives;as,

Thedarkestcloudhasasilverlining.Thisisthebestbookofelementarychemistry.

(8)Withordinals;as,

Hewasthefirstmantoarrive.Theninthchapterofthebookisveryinteresting.

(9)Beforemusicalinstruments;as,

Hecanplaytheflute.

(10)Beforeanadjectivewhenthenounisunderstood;as,

Thepoorarealwayswithus.

(11) Before a noun (with emphasis) to give the force of aSuperlative;as,

TheVerbistheword(=thechiefword)inasentence.

(12)AsanAdverbwithComparatives;as,

Themorethemerrier.(=byhowmuchmore,bysomuchthemerrier)Themoretheyget,themoretheywant.

USEOFTHEINDEFINITEARTICLE

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111.TheIndefiniteArticleisused—(1)Initsoriginalnumericalsenseofone;as,

Twelveinchesmakeafoot.Notawordwassaid.Awordtothewiseissufficient.Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhebush.

(2)Inthevaguesenseofacertain;as,

AKishoreKumar(=acertainpersonnamedKishoreKumar)issuspectedbythepolice.Oneeveningabeggarcametomydoor.

(3) In the sense of any, to single out an individual as therepresentativeofaclass;as,

Apupilshouldobeyhisteacher.Acowisausefulanimal.

(4)Tomakeacommonnounofapropernoun;as,

ADanielcometojudgement!(ADaniel=averywiseman)

OMISSIONOFTHEARTICLE112.TheArticleisomitted—(1) Before names of substances and abstract nouns (i.e.

uncountablenouns)usedinageneralsense;as,

Sugarisbadforyourteeth.Goldisapreciousmetal.Wisdomisthegiftofheaven.Honestyisthebestpolicy.Virtueisitsownreward.

Note—Uncountable nouns take the when used in a particularsense(especiallywhenqualifiedbyanadjectiveoradjectivalphraseorclause);as,

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Wouldyoupassmethesugar?(=thesugaronthetable)ThewisdomofSolomonisgreat.Ican’tforgetthekindnesswithwhichhetreatedme.

(2)Beforepluralcountablenounsusedinageneralsense;as,

Childrenlikechocolates.Computersareusedinmanyoffices.

Note that suchnouns take thewhenusedwithaparticularmeaning;as,

Wherearethechildren?(=ourchildren)

(3) Before most proper nouns (except those referred to earlier),namely, names of people (e.g.Gopal, Rahim), names of continents,countries, cities, etc. (e.g. Europe, Pakistan, Nagpur), names ofindividualmountains (e.g.MountEverest), individual islands, lakes,hills,etc.

(4)Beforenamesofmeals(usedinageneralsense);as,

Whattimedoyouhavelunch?Dinnerisready.

Note—We use a when there is an adjective before breakfast,lunch,dinner,etc.Weusethewhenwespecify.

Ihadalatelunchtoday.ThedinnerwehadattheTouristHotelwasverynice.

(5)Beforelanguages;as,

WearestudyingEnglish.TheyspeakPunjabiathome.

(6) Before school, college, university, church, bed, hospital,prison, when these places are visited or used for their primarypurpose;as,

IlearntFrenchatschool.

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WegotochurchonSundays.Hestaysinbedtillnineeverymorning.Myuncleisstillinhospital.

Note—Theisusedwiththesewordswhenwerefertothemasadefinite place, building or object rather than to the normal activitythatgoesonthere;as,

Theschoolisverynearmyhome.Imethimatthechurch.Thebedisbroken.Iwenttothehospitaltoseemyuncle.

(7)Beforenamesofrelations,likefather,mother,aunt,uncle,andalsocookandnurse,meaning‘ourcook’,‘ournurse’,as,

Fatherhasreturned.Auntwantsyoutoseeher.Cookhasgivennotice.

(8) Before predicative nouns denoting a unique position, i.e., apositionthatisnormallyheldatonetimebyonepersononly;as,

HewaselectedchairmanoftheBoard.Mr.BanerjibecamePrincipaloftheCollegein1995.

(9)Incertainphrasesconsistingofatransitiveverbfollowedbyitsobject;as,

to catch fire, to take breath, to give battle, to cast anchor, to sendword,tobringword,togiveear,tolaysiege,tosetsail,toloseheart,tosetfoot,toleavehome,tostrikeroot,totakeoffence.

(10)Incertainphrasesconsistingofaprepositionfollowedbyitsobject;as,

athome,inhand,indebt,byday,bynight,atdaybreak,atsunrise,atnoon,atsunset,atnight,atanchor,atsight,ondemand,atinterest,onearth,byland,bywater,byriver,bytrain,bysteamer,byname,onhorseback,onfoot,ondeck,injest,atdinner,atease,underground,

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aboveground.


Complete the following sentences by filling ina oran or the asmaybesuitable:1. Copperis___usefulmetal.2. Heisnot____honourableman.3. ____ablemanhasnotalwaysadistinguishedlook.4. ____reindeerisanativeofNorway.5. Honestmenspeak_____truth.6. Rustumis_____youngParsee.7. Doyousee_____bluesky?8. Varanasiis_____holycity.9. Aladdinhad____wonderfullamp.10. Theworldis____happyplace.11. Hereturnedafter_____hour.12. ____schoolwillshortlycloseforthePujaholidays.13. ____sunshinesbrightly.14. Ifirstmethim_____yearago.15. Yesterday_____Europeancalledatmyoffice.16. Sanskritis_____difficultlanguage.17. ____Gangais____sacredriver.18. ____lionis____kingofbeasts.19. Youare_____fooltosaythat.20. Frenchis_____easylanguage.21. Whois____girlsittingthere?22. Whichis___longestriverinIndia?23. Ramahascomewithout____umbrella.24. Mumbaiis_____verycostlyplacetolivein.25. Sheis_____untidygirl.26. Thechildrenfound____egginthenest.27. Ibought____horse,____ox,and____buffalo.28. Ifyouseehim,givehim____message.29. Englishis___languageof__peopleofEngland.30. Theguideknows____way.

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31. SriLankais____island.32. Letusdiscuss____matterseriously.33. Johngot____bestpresent.34. Man,thouart____wonderfulanimal.35. Indiaisoneof____mostindustrialcountriesinAsia.36. Helooksasstupidas____owl.37. Heis_____honourtothisprofession.


InsertArticleswherenecessary:1. Whilethereislifethereishope.2. HerknowledgeofmedicinehadbeenacquiredunderagedJewess.3. Sunrisesineast.4. Thebravesoldierlostarminbattle.5. Thedoctorsaysitishopelesscase.6. Iliketoliveinopenair.7. Getpoundofsugarfromnearestgrocer.8. Setbackclock;itishourtoofast.9. Thepoorwomanhasnotrupee.10. Youmusttakecare.11. Eskimosmakehousesofsnowandice.12. Wheredidyoubuyumbrella?13. Haveyouneverseenelephant?14. DrawmapofIndia.15. Donotlookgifthorseinmouth.16. Haveyoutoldhimaboutaccident?17. Tagorewasgreatpoet.18. Howblueskylooks!19. Whowishestotakewalkwithme?20. Whatbeautifulscenethisis!21. ThemusicianwasoldMussalman.22. Theriverwasspannedbyironbridge.23. Moondidnotrisetillafterten.24. Liketruesportsmentheywouldgiveenemyfairplay.25. Theyneverfailwhodieingreatcause.26. Thereisnothinglikestayingathomeforcomfort.

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27. Helikestopicturehimselfasoriginalthinker.28. Itisneverthankfulofficetoofferadvice.29. Umbrellaisofnoavailagainstthunderstorm.30. Ihavenotseenhimsincehewaschild.31. ForBrutusishonourableman.32. NeilArmstrongwasfirstmantowalkonmoon.33. Manhasnomorerighttosayuncivilthingthantoactone.34. Westartedlateinafternoon.35. Itisastrangethinghowlittle,ingeneral,peopleknowaboutsky.36. Schemefailedforwantofsupport.37. Tiger,animalequaltolioninsize,isnativeofAsia.38. Timemakesworstenemiesfriends.39. Myfavouriteflowerisrose.40. Timeweliveoughtnottobecomputedbynumberofyears,butbyusethat

hasbeenmadeofthem.41. Mumbaiislargestcottontextilecentreincountry.42. Menaretoooftenledastraybyprejudice.43. Onlybestqualityissoldbyus.44. Whatkindofbirdisthat?45. Wildanimalssufferwhenkeptincaptivity.46. Maywehavepleasureofyourcompany?47. Itwasproudestmomentofmylife.48. AndamansaregroupofislandsinBayofBengal.49. Hestartedschoolwhenhewassixyearsold.50. He neglects attending church, though church is only few yards from his

house.51. Marchisthirdmonthofyear.52. Dr.ArnoldwasheadmasterofRugby.53. Mancannotlivebybreadalone.54. Whenwillfatherbeback?55. AppeninesareinItaly.

REPETITIONOFTHEARTICLE113.IfIsay—

Ihaveablackandwhitedog.

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Imeanadogthatispartlyblackandpartlywhite.ButifIsay—

Ihaveablackandawhitedog,

Imeantwodogs,oneblackandtheotherwhite.Hence when two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, the

Article isusedbefore the firstadjectiveonly;butwhen theyqualifydifferentnouns,expressedorunderstood,theArticleisnormallyusedbeforeeachadjective.

114.Compare:1. TheSecretaryandTreasurerisabsent.2. TheSecretaryandtheTreasurerareabsent.

ThefirstsentenceclearlyindicatesthatthepostsofSecretaryandTreasurerareheldbyoneperson.

The repetitionof thearticle in the second sentence indicates thatthetwopostsareheldbytwodifferentpersons.

Henceweseethatwhentwoormoreconnectednounsrefertothesame person or thing, the Article is ordinarily used before the firstonly ; but when two or more connected nouns refer to differentpersonsorthings,theArticleisusedbeforeeach.

Alsoexaminethefollowingsentences:

SirSurendranathwasagreatoratorandstatesman.There are on the committee among othersa great economist andagreatlawyer.

115.Wemayeithersay—

Thethirdandthefourthchapter.[Or]Thethirdandfourthchapters.

116. In expressing a comparison, if two nouns refer to the samepersonorthing,theArticleisusedbeforethefirstnounonly;as,

Heisabettermechanicthanclerk.Heisabetterpoetthannovelist.

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Iamyoung. Weareyoung.Youareyoung. Theyareyoung.He(she,it)isyoung.

Heisabetterthinkerthandebater.Hewouldmakeabetterengineerthanlawyer.

Butiftheyrefertodifferentpersonsorthings,theArticlemustbeusedwitheachnoun;as,

Heisabettermechanicthanaclerk(wouldmake).Hewouldmakeabetterstatesmanthanaphilosopher(wouldmake).

CHAPTER15

PERSONALPRONOUNS117.Wemaysay—

Hariisabsent,becauseHariisill.

ButitisbettertoavoidtherepetitionoftheNounHari,andsay—

Hariisabsent,becauseheisill.

Aword that is thus used instead of a noun is called aPronoun[Pronounmeansfor-a-noun.]

Def.—APronounisawordusedinsteadofaNoun.118.Readthefollowingsentences:

I, we, you, he, (she, it), they are called Personal Pronounsbecausetheystandforthethreepersons,

(i)thepersonspeaking.(ii)thepersonspokento,and(iii)thepersonspokenof.The Pronouns I and we, which denote the person or persons

speaking,aresaidtobePersonalPronounsoftheFirstPerson.ThePronounyou,whichdenotesthepersonorpersonsspokento,

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issaidtobeaPersonalPronounoftheSecondPerson.Youisusedbothinthesingularandplural.The pronouns he (she) and they, which denote the person or

persons spoken of, are said to be Personal Pronouns of the ThirdPerson. It, although it denotes the thing spoken of, is also called aPersonalPronounoftheThirdPerson.[ThePersonalPronounsoftheThirdPersonare,strictlyspeaking,DemonstrativePronouns.]

FORMSOFTHEPERSONALPRONOUNS119. The following are the different forms of the Personal

Pronouns:

FIRSTPERSON(MasculineorFeminine)

SECONDPERSON(MasculineorFeminine)

THIRDPERSON

Note1—ItwillbeseenthatthePossessiveCasesofmostofthePersonal Pronouns have two forms. Of these the forms my, our,your, her, their are calledPossessiveAdjectives because they areusedwithnounsanddotheworkofAdjectives;as,

Thisismybook.Thoseareyourbooks.

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Thisishisbook. (PossessiveAdjective)Thisbookishis. (PossessivePronoun)

Thatisherbook.

Possessive Adjectives are sometimes called PronominalAdjectives,astheyareformedfromPronouns.

Note 2—The word his is used both as an Adjective and as aPronoun;as

In the following sentences the words in italics are PossessivePronouns:

Thisbookismine.Thosebooksareyours.Thatbookishers.Thatideaofyoursisexcellent.

120.ThePronounoftheThirdPersonhasthreeGenders:

121.It—ThePronounitisused—(1)Forthingswithoutlife;as,

Hereisyourbook;takeitaway.

(2)Foranimals,unlessweclearlywishtospeakofthemasmaleandfemale;as,

Heloveshisdogandcannotdowithoutit.

Thehorsefellandbrokeitsleg.(3)Forayoungchild,unlessweclearlywish to refer to thesex;

as,

WhenIsawthechilditwascrying.Thatbabyhastornitsclothes.

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(4)Torefertosomestatementgoingbefore;as,

Heistellingwhatisnottrue;andheknowsit.Hedeservedhispunishment;andheknewit.

(5)Asaprovisionaland temporary subjectbefore theverb tobewhentherealsubjectfollows;as,

Itiseasytofindfault.[Tofindfaultiseasy.]Itisdoubtfulwhetherhewillcome.Itiscertainthatyouarewrong.

(6)Togiveemphasistothenounorpronounfollowing;as,

Itwasyouwhobeganthequarrel.ItwasIwhofirstprotested.ItwasatVersaillesthatthetreatywasmade.Itisasillyfishthatiscaughttwicewiththesamebait.Itisanillwindthatblowsnobodygood.

(7)Asanindefinitenominativeofanimpersonalverb;as,

ThePronounithereseemstostandfornonounwhatever,thoughthiscanbereadilysuppliedfromtheverb.Thus,‘Itrains’means‘Therainrains.’

It so used is called an Impersonal Pronoun. So also the verbrainsisherecalledanImpersonalVerb.

(8)Inspeakingoftheweatherorthetime;as,

Itisfine.Itiswinter.Itisteno’clock.

122.SinceaPersonalPronounisusedinsteadofaNoun,itmustbeof thesamenumber,genderandpersonas theNounforwhich itstands;as,

Ramaisakindboy.HehaslenthisbicycletoGovind.Sitahelpshermotherinhouseholdwork.Shealsodoesherlesson.

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Thosebeggarsareidle.Theyrefusetoworkfortheirliving.

123.WhenaPronoun*standsforaCollectiveNoun,itmustbeintheSingularNumber (andNeuterGender) if theCollectiveNoun isviewedasawhole;as,

Thearmyhadtosufferterribleprivationsinitsmarch.Thefleetwillreachitsdestinationinaweek.Thecrewmutiniedandmurdereditsofficers.Afterafewminutesthejurygaveitsverdict.

If the Collective Noun conveys the idea of separate individualscomprising the whole, the Pronoun standing for it must be of thePluralNumber;as,

Thejuryweredividedintheiropinions.Thecommitteedecidedthematterwithoutleavingtheirseats.

124.When two or more Singular Nouns are joined by and, thePronounusedforthemmustbePlural;as,

RamaandHariworkhard.Theyarepraisedbytheirteacher.BothSitaandSavitriaretired;theyhavegonehome.

But when two Singular Nouns joined by and refer to the samepersonorthing,thePronounusedmustofcoursebeSingular;as,

TheSecretaryandTreasurerisnegligentofhisduty.

125. When two Singular Nouns joined by and are preceded byeachorevery,thePronounmustbeSingular;as,

Everysoldierandeverysailorwasinhisplace.

126. When two or more Singular Nouns are joined by or oreither...or,neither...nor,thePronounisgenerallySingular;as,

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RamaorHarimustlendhishand.EitherSitaorAminaforgottotakeherparasol.NeitherAbdulnorKarimhasdonehislesson.

127.WhenaPluralNounandaSingularNounarejoinedbyorornor,thePronounmustbeinthePlural;as

Eitherthemanagerorhisassistantsfailedintheirduty.

128.Whenapronounreferstomorethanonenounorpronounofdifferentpersons,itmustbeofthefirstpersonpluralinpreferencetothesecond,andofthesecondpersonpluralinpreferencetothethird;as,

YouandIhavedoneourduty.YouandHarihaveidledawayyourtime.

129.Goodmannersrequirethatweshouldsay—‘YouandI’not‘Iandyou’.‘Youandhe’not‘heandyou’.‘HariandI’not‘IandHari’.‘HeandI’not‘Iandhe’.YouandImustworktogether.Youandhemustmendyourways.HariandIareoldschoolfriends.HeandIcanneverpullontogether.

130. Each of the personal pronouns, I, he, she, we, they, has adifferentformfortheaccusativecase,namely,me,him,her,us,them.It is a common mistake to use I for me, when the pronoun isconnected by a conjunction (and, or) with some other word in theaccusativecase.

Studythefollowingcorrectsentences:

Thepresentsareforyouandme.(not,I)Myuncleaskedmybrotherandmetodinner.

131.Notethatbutisaprepositioninthefollowingsentence:

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Nobodywillhelpyoubutme.(not:I)

Takecaretousetheaccusativeformafterbutinsuchcases.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR25

InthefollowingsentencespointoutthePronounsandsayforwhateachstands:1. Alicewasnotabithurt,andshejumpedupontoherfeetinamoment.2. Thereweredoorsallroundthehall,buttheywerealllocked.3. Aliceopenedthedoorandfoundthatitledintoasmallpassage.4. “IwishIhadn’tcriedsomuch,”saidAlice.5. “Youarenotattending”,saidtheMousetoAliceseverely.“Whatareyou

thinkingof?”6. “Comeback!”theCaterpillarcalledafterher.Aliceturnedandcameback

again.7. Haribroughthisbookandlaiditonthetable.8. Karimhaslosthisdogandcannotfindit.9. Sureshisattheheadofhisclass,forhestudieshard.10. Rama,youarealazyboy.11. Thecamelisabeastofburden.Itisusedtocarrygoodsacrossthedesert.12. Thefemalelioniscalledalioness.Shehasnomane.13. Thehorsefelldownandbrokeitsleg.14. Birdsbuildtheirnestsintrees.15. Ifthethiefiscaught,hewillbepunished.16. Trainupachildinthewayheshouldgo.17. AndNathansaidtoDavid,Thouarttheman.


In the following sentences use Pronouns in place of nounswhereveryoucan:1. Ramahadtakenhiswatchoutofhispocket,andwaslookingatthewatch

uneasily,shakingthewatcheverynowandthen,andholdingthewatchtohisear.

2. Theboyswentintothegarden,wheretheboyssawasnake.

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3. VerysoontheRabbitnoticedAliceasAlicewenthuntingabout,andcalledouttoAliceinanangrytone.


Writethecorrectformofpronouninthefollowing:1. Wescoredasmanygoalsas_____.(They,them)2. Ramaand_____werepresent.(I,me)3. Canyousingaswellas_____?(They,them)4. Letyouand_____trywhatwecando.(I,me)5. WaitforHariand_____.(I,me)6. Youknowthataswellas_____.(I,me)7. Itwas_____thatgaveyouthealarm.(I,me)8. Betweenyouand_____,Idonotbelievehim.(I,me)9. Wearenotsopooras_____.(They,them)10. Ramaisasoldas_____.(I,me)11. Heisknowntomybrotherand_____.(I,me)12. Heisasgoodas_____.(I,me)13. Nobodybut_____waspresent.(He,him)14. Heand_____weregreatfriends.(I,me)15. WhomcanItrust,ifnot_____?(He,him)16. Let_____whocananswerthisquestion.(He,him)17. Thereisn’tmuchdifferencebetweenyouand_____(He,him)18. Nonesoblindas_____thatwillnotsee.(They,them)19. Itisn’tforsuchas_____todictatetous.(They,them)

* It will be noted that we use the word ‘Pronoun’ in § 123-128withoutobserving thedistinctionpointedout in§119between theforms, my, her, our, your, their (which are called PossessiveAdjectives)andtheformsmine,hers,ours,yours,theirs(whicharecalledPossessivePronouns).

CHAPTER16

REFLEXIVEANDEMPHATICPRONOUNS

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Ihurtmyself. Wehurtourselves.Youwillhurtyourself. Youwillhurtyourselves.Hehurthimself.Shehurtherself. Theyhurtthemselves.Thehorsehurtitself.

132.When-self isadded tomy,your,him,her, it,and-selves toour,your,them,wegetwhatarecalledCompoundPersonalPronouns.

TheyarecalledReflexivePronounswhentheactiondonebythesubjectturnsback(reflects)uponthesubject;as,

ItwillbenoticedthateachoftheseReflexivePronounsisusedastheObject of a verb, and refers to the same person or thing as thatdenotedbytheSubjectoftheverb.

133. Sometimes, in older English, especially in poetry, a simplepronounwasusedreflexively;as;

NowIlaymedowntosleep.

134.ThewordselfissometimesusedasaNoun;as,Tothineownselfbetrue.Hecaresfornothingbutself.Hethinksmuchofself.

EMPHATICPRONOUNS135.Nowlookatthefollowingsentences:

Iwilldoitmyself.Imyselfsawhimdoit.Wewillseetoitourselves.Youyourselfcanbestexplain.Hehimselfsaidso.Sheherselfsaysso.Itwastoldsobytheteacherhimself.WesawthePrimeMinisterhimself.Thetownitselfisnotverylarge.

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Theythemselvesadmittedtheirguilt.

ItwillbeseenthathereCompoundPersonalPronounsareusedforthesakeofemphasis,andarethereforecalledEmphaticPronouns.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR28

TellwhichPronounsinthefollowingsentencesareReflexiveandwhichEmphatic:

[EmphaticPronounsarealsocalledEmphasizingPronouns.]1. Iwillgomyself.2. Ramahashurthimself.3. Weoftendeceiveourselves.4. Imyselfheardtheremark.5. Youexpressyourselfveryimperfectly.6. IwashmyselfwhenIgetup.7. Theboyshidthemselves.8. Theyhavegotthemselvesintoamess.9. Boadiceapoisonedherself.10. Theylovedthemselvessomuchthattheythoughtofnooneelse.11. Theprisonerhangedhimself.12. Thepoorwidowpoisonedherself.13. Theyenjoyedthemselves.14. Don’tyoudeceiveyourself?15. Imyselfheardtheremark.16. Hesethimselfahardtask.17. Weexertedourselves.18. Thedogchokeditself.19. Theygavethemselvesalotoftrouble.20. Weseldomseeourselvesasothersseeus.21. Ahousedividedagainstitselfcannotstand.22. Hethatwrongshisfriendwrongshimselfmore.23. Somepeoplearealwaystalkingaboutthemselves.24. XerxeshimselfwasthelasttocrosstheHellespont.25. Hehaslandedhimselfindifficulties.26. Thoushaltlovethyneighbourasthyself.27. Acquityourselveslikemen.

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28. Whosoevershallexalthimselfshallbeabased.29. SinaiitselftrembledatthepresenceofGod.30. Icannotbringmyselftodoit.31. Praydonotinconvenienceyourself.32. Iwassittingbymyself.

CHAPTER17

DEMONSTRATIVE,INDEFINITEANDDISTRIBUTIVEPRONOUNS

136.Considerthefollowingsentences:Thisisapresentfrommyuncle.Thesearemerelyexcuses.Bothcarsaregood;butthisisbetterthanthat.MumbaimangoesarebetterthanthoseofBangalore.Makehaste,that’sagoodboy.[Herethat=onewhomakeshaste.]ThereisnoperiodinancientIndianhistorysogloriousasthatoftheGuptas.[Donotwrite,“astheGuptas”]My views are quite in accordance with those of the UniversityCommission.Imayhaveoffended,butsuchwasnotmyintention.He was the representative of the King, and as such (= therepresentativeoftheKing)theyhonouredhim.Thestrangeriswelcomedassuch.ThatistheRedFort.

ItwillbenoticedthatthePronounsinitalicsareusedtopointoutthe objects to which they refer, and are, therefore, calledDemonstrativePronouns.(Latindemonstrare,toshowclearly).

137.This,that,etc.are(Demonstrative)Adjectiveswhentheyareusedwithnouns;as,

Thisbookismine.Thatpenisyours.

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Thesebooksaremine.Thosepensareyours.Whatwasthatnoise?Thishorseisbetterthanthathorse.Allsuchpeopleoughttobeavoided.

138.Thisreferstowhatiscloseathand,andnearesttothethoughtor person of the speaker; that refers towhat is ‘over there’, fartheraway,andmoreremote.

Thisisbetterthanthat.

139.That,withitspluralthose,isusedtoavoidtherepetitionofaprecedingNoun;as,

TheclimateofBelgaumislikethatofPune.ThestreetsofthiscityareworsethanthoseofAhmedabad.Oursoldierswerebetterdrilledthanthoseofenemies.TheriversofAmericaarelargerthanthoseofEurope.

140. When two things which have been already mentioned arereferred to, this refers to the thing lastmentioned, that to the thingfirstmentioned;as,

Virtue and vice offer themselves for your choice ; this (i.e., vice)leadstomisery,that(i.e.,virtue)tohappiness.Alcoholandtobaccoarebothinjurious;thisperhaps,lessthanthat.

INDEFINITEPRONOUNS141.Considerthefollowingsentences:

Onehardlyknowswhattodo.Onedoesnotliketosayso,butitisonlytootrue.Onecannotbetoocarefulofone’s(not,his)goodname.Onemustnotboastofone’sownsuccess.Onemustuseone’sbesteffortsifonewishestosucceed.Onemustnotpraiseone’sself.Noneofhispoemsarewellknown.

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Nonebutfoolshaveeverbelievedit.[None isashortenedformofnotone;yet it iscommonlyusedwithpluralverbs].They(=peopleingeneral)sayhehaslostheavily.Theysaythatoneofthelocalbankshasstoppedpayment.[Theysay=itissaidbysomepersons.]Allweredrowned.Someareborngreat.Somesayheisasharper.Somebodyhasstolenmywatch.Nobodywastheretorescuethechild.Fewescapedunhurt.ManyofthemwereGurkhas.Wedidnotseeanyofthemagain.Oneorotherofuswillbethere.Dogoodtoothers.Didyouaskanybodytocome?Whatiseverybody’sbusinessisnobody’sbusiness.Hiswordsareineveryone’smouth.

AllthesePronounsinitalicsrefertopersonsorthingsinageneralway,butdonot refer to anypersonor thing inparticular.Theyare,therefore,calledIndefinitePronouns.

142.MostofthesewordsmayalsobeusedasAdjectives.

Iwilltakeyouthereoneday.Anyfoolcandothat.Heisamanoffewwords.Somemilkwasspilt.

143. In referring toanybody, everybody, everyone, anyone, eachetc.,thepronounheorsheisusedaccordingtothecontext;as,

Ishallbegladtohelpeveryoneofmyboysinhisstudies.Note that today it is more usual to use a plural pronoun

(they/them/their)exceptinveryformalEnglish.

Anybodycandoitiftheytry.Eachofthemhadtheirshare.

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DISTRIBUTIVEPRONOUNS144.Considerthefollowingsentences:

Eachoftheboysgetsaprize.Eachtookitinturn.Eitheroftheseroadsleadstotherailwaystation.Eitherofyoucango.Neitheroftheaccusationsistrue.

Each, either, neither are calledDistributive Pronouns becausetheyrefertopersonsorthingsoneatatime.Forthisreasontheyarealwayssingularandassuchfollowedbytheverbinthesingular.

Note—Eachisusedtodenoteeveryoneofanumberofpersonsorthingstakensingly.

Eithermeanstheoneortheotheroftwo.Neithermeansnottheonenortheotheroftwo.Itisthenegative

ofeither.Henceeitherandneither shouldbeusedonly inspeakingof two

personsor things.Whenmore than two are spokenof,any, noone,noneshouldbeused.

145.Thepositionof thepronouneach shouldbenoticed. Itmayhavethreepositions.

1. Eachofthemenreceivedareward.Eachofthesehorsescostfivethousandrupees.Iboughteachofthesemangoesforthreerupees.

2. Thesemenreceivedeachareward.Thesehorsescosteachfivethousandrupees.

3. Thesehorsescostfivethousandrupeeseach.Iboughtthesemangoesforthreerupeeseach.

Thethirdorderisusualafteranumeral.Wedonotsay,‘Themenreceivedarewardeach’;butwesay,‘Themenreceivedfivehundredrupeeseach’.

146.Inthefollowingsentences,each,eitherandneitherareused

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asAdjectives;theyarefollowedbynounsofthesingularnumber:Eachboytookhisturn.Neitheraccusationistrue.Ateitherendwasamarblestatue.(Hereeither=eachorboth.)

147.Studythefollowingsentences:

1. Thetwomenhateeachother.2. Theycheatedoneanother.

Ifweanalysethem,theymean—

1. Thetwomenhate,eachhatestheother.2. Theycheated,onecheatedanother.

Each andone reallybelong to the subject,other andanother areobjects. But each other and one another have become in practicecompound pronouns (called Reciprocal Pronouns) and are rarelyseparatedevenbyapreposition.Thuswesay:

Thebrothersquarrelledwitheachother.Theyallgaveevidenceagainstoneanother.

Note— The one-time rule that each other should be used inspeakingoftwopersonsorthings,oneanotherinspeakingofmorethan two is no longer strictly observed. ‘The three brothersquarrelledwitheachother’isnowacceptedasidiomatic.

CHAPTER18

RELATIVEPRONOUNS148.Readthefollowingpairsofsentences:

1. ImetHari.Harihadjustreturned.2. Ihavefoundthepen.Ilostthepen.3. Hereisthebook.Youlentmethebook.

Let us now combine each of the above pairs into one sentence.

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SingularandPluralNominative : whoGenitive : whoseAccusative : whom/who*

Thus:

1. ImetHariwhohadjustreturned.2. IhavefoundthepenwhichIlost.3. Hereisthebookthatyoulentme.

Now let us examine the work done by each of the words,who,whichandthat.

ThewordwhoisusedinsteadofthenounHari.It,therefore,doestheworkofaPronoun.

Thewordwhojoinsorconnectstwostatements.It,therefore,doestheworkofaConjunction.

The word who, therefore, does double work—the work of aPronounandalsotheworkofaConjunction.

Wemight,therefore,callitaConjunctivePronoun.It is, however, called a Relative Pronoun because it refers or

relates (i.e., carries us back) to some noun going before (here, thenounHari),whichiscalleditsAntecedent.

LetthepupilshowwhywhichandthatarealsoRelativePronounsinthesecondandthirdsentences.

WhatistheAntecedentofwhichinthesecondsentence?WhatistheAntecedentofthatinthethirdsentence?

FORMSOFTHERELATIVEPRONOUNS149.TheRelativePronounwhohasdifferentformsforAccusative

andGenitive.

Thisistheboy(orgirl)whoworkshard.Thisistheboy(orgirl)whoseexerciseisdonewell.Thisistheboy(orgirl)whom/whoallpraise.Thesearetheboys(orgirls)whoworkhard.

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Thesearetheboys(orgirls)whoseexercisesaredonewell.Thesearetheboys(orgirls)whom/whoallpraise.

It will be noticed that the forms are the same for singular andplural,masculineandfeminine.

150. The Relative Pronoun which has the same form for theNominativeandAccusativecases.

Thisisthehousewhichbelongstomyuncle.ThehousewhichmyunclebuiltcosthimRs.3,50,000.

TheRelativePronounwhich has noGenitiveCase, butwhose isusedasasubstitutefor‘ofwhich’;as

Atrianglewhosethreesidesareequaliscalledanequilateraltriangle.

151.TheRelativePronounthathasthesameformintheSingularandPlural,andintheNominativeandAccusative.IthasnoGenitivecase.

Hethatiscontentisrich.Theythattouchpitchwillbedefiled.Takeanythingthatyoulike.

152.TheRelativePronounwhatisusedonlyintheSingular,andhasthesameformintheNominativeandAccusative.

Whathashappenedisnotclear.IsaywhatImean.Hefailedinwhatheattempted.

USEOFTHERELATIVEPRONOUNS153.Asageneralrule,whoisusedforpersonsonly.Itmayrefer

toaSingularoraPluralNoun.

Themanwhoishonestistrusted.Blessedishewhohasfoundhiswork.Heprayethbestwholovethbest.Hewhohesitatesislost.

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Theyneverfailwhodieinagreatcause.Theyareslaveswhodarenotbe.Intherightwithtwoorthree.

Whoissometimesusedinreferringtoanimals.Whose (the Possessive form of who) is used in speaking of

persons,animalsandalsothingswithoutlife(see§150);as,

Thesun,whoseraysgivelifetotheearth,isregardedbysomepeopleasagod.This is the questionwhose solution has baffled philosophers of allages.[More properly, ‘This is the question the solution of which hasbaffledphilosophersofallages’.]

154.Whichisusedforthingswithoutlifeandforanimals.ItmayrefertoaSingularorPluralNoun.

Themomentwhichislostislostforever.The books which help you most are those which make you thinkmost.ThehorsewhichIrecentlyboughtisanArab.

Whichwassometimesformerlyusedtorefertopersons;as,OurFather,whichartinheaven.

Whichmayalsorefertoasentence;as,

Themanwassaidtobedrunk,whichwasnotthecase.Hesaidhesawmethere,whichwasalie.Heishere,whichisfortunate.

Note—Therelativepronounswhoandwhichcanbeused—

(i)Torestrict,limit,ordefinemoreclearlytheantecedent;thatis,where the clause introduced by a relative pronoun is restrictive ordefining;as,

Themanwhohadcheatedmewasyesterdayarrestedbythepolice.Thebookwhichyouseeonthetablecostmeninetyrupees.

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(ii) To give some additional information about the antecedent ;that is, where the clause introduced by a relative pronoun iscontinuativeornon-defining;as,

Theteachersentfortheboy,who(=andhe)cameatonce.Igavehimarupee,which(=andit)wasallIhadwithme.

Notethatnon-definingclausesareseparatedfromthemainclausebycommas.Compare:

MybrotherwhoisadoctorhasgonetoAmerica.Mybrother,whoisadoctor,hasgonetoAmerica.

The first sentence implies that the speaker has several brothers,andtheclausewhoisadoctordistinguishesaparticularoneofthem.Inthesecond,theclausedoesnotdefineandtheimplicationisthatthespeakerhasonlyonebrother.

155.Thatisusedforpersonsandthings.ItmayrefertoaSingularoraPluralNoun.(See§151).

Thathasnogenitivecaseand it isneverusedwithaprepositionpreceding.

ThisistheboythatItoldyouof.Iknowthehousethathelivesin.Uneasyliestheheadthatwearsacrown.Ihavelostthewatchthatyougaveme.Thriceishearmedthathathhisquarreljust.Acitythatissetonahillcannotbehid.Hethatisnotwithmeisagainstme.Happyisthemanthatfindethwisdom.Hethatisslowtoangerisbetterthanthemighty.Thecrowdthatgatheredcheeredhimtotheecho.Whothathasmethimcanescapehisinfluence?AllthatIsaidhadnoeffectonhim.HewasthemosteloquentspeakerthatIeverheard.

It will be noticed that the relative pronoun that is used only indefining clauses, i.e., clauses that restrict, limit, or define the

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antecedent.156.Thatmaybeusedasanadverbialaccusative=onwhich, in

which,atwhich;as,

Irememberthedaythathecame.Onthedaythatthoueatestthereofthoushaltsurelydie.

157. As the Relative Pronoun that has a restrictive force itsometimes becomes unsuitable as the substitute for who or which.ThusIcannotsay—

Myfatherthatisaschoolmasterisfiftyyearsold.Imustsay—

Myfather,whoisaschoolmaster,isfiftyyearsold.ButifIhappentohavemorethanonesister,Icansay—

Mysisterthathasbeenadoptedbymyuncleisill.158. The Relative Pronoun that is used in preference towho or

which—(1)AfterAdjectivesintheSuperlativeDegree;as,

HewasthemosteloquentspeakerthatIeverheard.Thewisestmanthateverlivedmademistakes.Thisisthebestthatwecando.

(2)Afterthewordsall,same,any,none,nothing,(the)only;as,

Allisnotgoldthatglitters.Heisthesamemanthathehasbeen.Itisonlydonkeysthatbray.Itwasnotfornothingthathestudiedphilosophy.Manistheonlyanimalthatcantalk.

(3)AftertheInterrogativePronounswho,what;as,

Whothatsawherdidnotpityher?WhoamIthatIshouldobject?Whatisitthattroublesyousomuch?WhatistherethatIdonotknow?

(4) After two antecedents, one denoting a person and the other

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denotingananimalorathing;as,

Theboyandhisdog thathad trespassedon theclubpremiseswereturnedout.

159.What refers to things only. It is usedwithout an antecedentexpressed,andisequivalenttothatwhich(orthethingwhich).

What(=thatwhich)cannotbecuredmustbeendured.Isaywhat(=thatwhich)Imean.ImeanwhatIsay.Whatisdonecannotbeundone.Whatmanhasdonemancando.Whatisoneman’smeatisanotherman’spoison.GivecarefulheedtowhatIsay.WhatIhavewritten,Ihavewritten.Hefoundwhathewaslookingfor.

It will be noticed that what is used in the Nominative andAccusativesingularonly.

160.InolderEnglishthewordaswasusedasarelativepronounaftersuch;as,

Tearssuchasangelsweepburstforth.ThesemangoesarenotsuchasIboughtyesterday.HeissuchamanasIhonour.Wehaveneverhadsuchatimeasthepresent.HisanswerwassuchasIexpectedhimtogive.

Thewordascanbeusedasarelativepronounaftersame;as,

Mytroubleisthesameasyours[is].Thisisnotthesameasthat[is].[But]Iplayedwiththesamebatthatyoudid.

‘Thesameas’usuallymeans‘ofthesamekind’.‘Thesame...that’means‘oneandthesame’.Thewordas isalsousedasaRelativePronounafterasfollowed

byanadjective;as,

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IcollectedasmanyspecimensasIcouldfind.

[Note—ThefirstasishereanAdverb.]161.InolderEnglishthewordbutwasusedasarelativepronoun

afteranegative;itoftenhadtheforceofarelativepronoun.

Thereisnonebutwillagreewithme.(butwillagree=whowillnotagree).There is noHindu but knows the story of the Ramayana. (That is,thereisnoHinduwhodoesnotknow,etc.)Thereisnomanbutwishestolive.Thereisnorosebuthassomethorn.(but=which...no)Thereisscarcelyachildbutlikescandy.Thereisnomanbutknowsthesethings.(but=whodoesnot.)

Itwillbeseenthatthepronounbutishereequivalenttowho...not,which...not.

OMISSIONOFTHERELATIVEPRONOUN162.TheRelativePronounisgenerallyomittedwhenitwouldbe

intheaccusativecase;as,

Fewandshortweretheprayers^wesaid.Acontentedmind is thegreatest blessing^ aman can enjoy in theworld.IammonarchofallÎsurvey.Menmustreapthethings^theysow.

“That isusedpreferablywith reference topersons.Thuswe tendto say ‘the meeting which I attended yesterday,’ rather than ‘themeetingthatIattendedyesterday.’Butmorefrequentlystilldowesay‘themeetingIattendedyesterday,’theAccusativeRelativebeingasaruleomittedaltogether.”—Onions.

ThistendencytoomittheAccussativeRelativeismoremarkedinthespokenlanguage.Inthewrittenlanguageitsomissionisoftenfelttobeundignified.

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163.InthefollowingexamplesfrompoetryaRelativePronouninthenominativecaseisomitted:

“Tisdistance^lendsenchantmenttotheview.”“Ihaveabrotherîscondemnedtodie.”

Note—Theomissionof aRelativePronoun in thenominativecaseisnowquiteexceptionalexceptincolloquialspeech.

There’ssomebodyatthedoor^wantstoseeyou.

OMISSIONOFTHEANTECEDENT164. In olderEnglish theAntecedent of aRelativePronounwas

sometimesleftout;as,

Whoworksnotshallnoteat.=(He)whoworksnotshallnoteat.Whomthegodslove,dieyoung.=(Those)whomthegodslovedieyoung.Whostealsmypurse,stealstrash.Wholaughslastlaughsbest.Whohaslostallhopehasalsolostallfear.Begood,sweetmaid,andletwhowillbeclever.

AGREEMENTOFTHERELATIVEPRONOUNANDITSANTECEDENT

165.AstheRelativePronounreferstoaNounorPronoun(calledits Antecedent) it must be of the same number and person as itsAntecedent.[RememberthattheverbshowsthenumberandpersonoftheRelativePronoun.]

Theboywhowaslazywaspunished.Theboyswhowerelazywerepunished.I,whoamyourking,willleadyou.Iamthepersonthatistoblame.

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Wewhoseekyourprotection,arestrangershere.OthouthatleadestIsrael!Youwhoaremighty,shouldbemerciful.Youwhoseekwisdom,shouldbehumble.Hethatisnotwithmeisagainstme.Hethatisdown,needsfearnofall.Hethateatstillheissickmustfasttillheiswell.Theywholiveinglasshousesshouldnotthrowstones.Theywhoseekonlyforfaultsseenothingelse.Theflowerswhichgrowinourgardensarenotforsale.Thisistheonlyoneofhispoemsthatisworthreading.[=Ofhispoemsthisistheonlyonethatisworthreading.]

ButthecaseoftheRelativePronoundependsuponitsrelationtotheverbintheclauseinwhichitoccurs.

Ramaistheboywhodidit.RamaistheboywhomIwant.RamaistheboywhosepencilIhave.RamaistheboytowhomIspoke.Hewhomweworship,bywhosegiftwelive,istheLord.

POSITIONOFTHERELATIVEPRONOUN166.Topreventambiguity,theRelativePronounshouldbeplaced

asnearaspossibletoitsAntecedent;as,

Theboywhowon the firstprize inEnglish is thesonofmy friend,Mr.Joshi.

It would mean something quite different if we separate theRelativePronounfromitsAntecedentandsay—

TheboyisthesonofmyfriendMr.Joshiwhowonthefirstprize.

Again such a sentence as “I have readGokhale’s speeches,whowasadiscipleofRanade”wouldbe improved ifchanged to“IhavereadthespeechesofGokhale,whowasadiscipleofRanade”.

Soalsothefollowingsentencerequirestoberearranged:

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IwithmyfamilyresideinavillagenearPunewhichconsistsofmywifeandthreechildren.

COMPOUNDRELATIVEPRONOUNS167.Pronounsformedbyaddingever,so,orsoevertowho,which

andwhatarecalledCompoundRelativePronouns.Theyare:Whoever,whoso,whosoever;whichever;whatever,whatsoever.

TheseRelativeshavenoantecedentexpressed.

Whosoever (= any and every personwho) exalteth himself shall beabased.Whosodiggethapitshallfalltherein.Whatsoeverthyhandfindethtodo,doitwiththymight.

168. The forms whoever, whichever, and whatever are nowordinarilyused;as,

Whoever(i.e.,anypersonwho)comesiswelcome.Takewhichever(i.e.,anywhich)youlike.Iwilltakewithmewhomsoeveryouchoose.Whatever(i.e,anythingwhich)hedoes,hedoeswell.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR29

Name the Relative Pronouns in the following sentences, tell thecaseofeach,andmentionitsantecedent:1. Thepenthatyougavemeisaverygoodone.2. Theanswerwhichyougaveisnotright.3. Iknowthewomanwhosechildwashurt.4. Bringmetheletterswhichthepostmanleft.5. ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.6. Harisawthemanwhohadbeenhurt.7. Wemetthesailorswhoseshipwaswrecked.8. HerearethebookswhichIfound.9. Thecatkilledtheratthatatethecorn.

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10. Bringmethebookswhichlieonthetable.11. Hereisthebookthatyoulentme.12. Ihatechildrenwhoarecruel.13. Showmetheknifethatyouhavebought.14. HehasnotbroughttheknifethatIaskedfor.15. Dogssoonknowthepersonsbywhomtheyarekindlytreated.16. Thisisthejugglerwhomwesawyesterday.17. Theythatseekwisdomwillbewise.


FilltheblankswithsuitableRelativePronouns:1. Wealwayslikeboys____speakthetruth.2. Wesawthedog____worriedthecat.3. He____doeshisbestshallbepraised.4. Iknow____youmean.5. ShehasgonetoChennai,____isherbirthplace.6. Ihaveseenthebird____youdescribe.7. Idonotknowtheman____hittheboy.8. Hegaveaway____hedidnotneed.9. Thereisnoone____hasnotlostafriend.10. Hereisthepen____youlost.11. Mostpeopleget____theydeserve.12. Time____islostisneverfoundagain.13. Ididnotknowtheperson____called.14. Heisaman____youcantrust.15. Whereisthebook____Igaveyou?16. Isthisthestreet____leadstothestation?17. Theletter____youwroteneverarrived.18. Listento____Isay.19. He____ismercifulshallmeetmercy.20. Didyoureceivetheletter____Isentyesterday?21. ____Ihavesaid,Ihavesaid.22. ____hewasIcouldneverfindout.23. ____doyoubelievehimtobe?24. Doyouknow____hashappened?25. ____isdonecannotbeundone.

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26. Dothesame____Ido.27. FormypurposeIneedsuchaman____heis.28. Godhelpsthose____helpthemselves.29. Nomancanlose____heneverhad.30. Youshouldnotimitatesuchaboy____he.


FilltheblankswithsuitableRelativePronouns:1. Thatman____willnotworkmuststarve.2. Suchaman____heshouldbehonoured.3. Thesemangoesarenotsuch____Iboughtyesterday.4. Itisnotsuchaprettyplace____Ihadexpected.5. Wehaveneedofmoresuchmen____he.6. Heplaysthegame____helikesbest.7. Idonotbelieve____yousay.8. Myuncle,____Iloved,isdead.9. Thefarmeriscuttingthecorn____hasripened.10. ____yousayisnottrue.11. Alady____Iknownursedthechild.12. Hesays_____hemeans,andmeans____hesays.13. ____pleasesyouwillpleaseme.14. Igaveittotheman____Isawthere.15. Iknow____youareseeking.16. They____touchpitchwillbedefiled.17. Youhavenotbroughtthebook____Iaskedfor.18. Onlyhe____bearstheburdenknowsitsweight.19. Suchbooks____youreadarenotworthreading.20. Whenyouspeaktohimrememberto____youarespeaking.21. Iregardthatmanaslost____haslosthissenseofshame.22. Wealthisnothis____hasit,buthis____enjoysit.23. People____aretoosharpcuttheirownfingers.24. Truthprovokesthose____itdoesnotconvert.25. Wedonotknow____heintendstodo.26. Itisanillwind____blowsnobodygood.27. Isthisadagger____Iseebeforeme?28. Iknowto____youarealluding.

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29. ____thegodswoulddestroytheyfirstmakemad.30. Heistheveryman____wewant.31. Pleaserecite____youhavelearned.32. Theyalwaystalk____neverthink.33. Such____havepureheartsshallinheritthekingdomofheaven.


JointogethereachofthefollowingpairsofsentencesbymeansofaConnective:1. Iknowaman.ThemanhasbeentoIceland.2. Thethiefstolethewatch.Thethiefwaspunished.3. Showtheroad.TheroadleadstoDelhi.4. Hereisthedoctor.Thedoctorcuredmeofmalaria.5. Imetaboy.Hewasverycruel.6. Hedoeshisbest.Heshouldbepraised.7. Themanishonest.Themanistrusted.8. Myfatherisdead.Ilovedmyfather.9. Theteachersentfortheboy.Theboycameatonce.10. Wellington was a great general. He defeated Napoleon at the Battle of

Waterloo.11. Thedogbittheburglar.Theburglarhadbrokenintothehouse.12. Once upon a time there lived a giant. The giant was very powerful and

cruel.13. Wemetagirl.Thegirlhadlostherway.14. Kalidasisfamous.Hewrotesomefinedramas.15. Heisarogue.Noonetrustshim.16. Thechildisdead.Thechildcamehereyesterday.17. Thechildisdead.Isawthechildyesterday.18. Iknowtheman.Hestolethebicycle.19. Themanstolethebicycle.Hehasbeenarrested.20. Ihavefoundtheumbrella.Ilostit.21. Isawasoldier.Hehadlostanarm.22. Thisisthepath.Hecamebythispath.23. Thehorsewaslame.Wesawthehorse.24. Thoseboyswerekeptin.Theyhadbeenverylazy.

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25. Isawagirl.Shewassinging.26. Thatboybowlsverywell.Youseehimthere.27. Hereisthebook.Youwereaskingforthebook.28. Hereisthepencil.Youlostityesterday.29. Themanisdeaf.Youspoketotheman.30. CoalisfoundinWestBengal.Itisaveryusefulmineral.


JointogethereachofthefollowingpairsofsentencesbymeansofaConnective:1. Thisisthebuilding.Itwasbuiltinasinglemonth.2. Theletterreachedmethismorning.Yousenttheletter.3. Karimisalwaysidle.Hewaspunished.4. Imetmyuncle.Hehadjustarrived.5. Thisisthehouse.Jackbuiltit.6. Theboyismycousin.Youseehimthere.7. Theladieshavearrived.Iwasspeakingofthem.8. Theboysclappedheartily.Theywerewatchingthematch.9. Theboytellslies.Hedeservestobepunished.10. Iheardasong.Thesongpleasedme.11. Iheardsomenews.Thenewsastonishedme.12. Iknowaman.Themanhasawoodenleg.13. Hereisabook.Thebookcontainspictures.14. Givemetheruler.Therulerisonthedesk.15. Thebicycleisanewone.Harirodeit.16. Wegotintoabus.Itwasfullofpeople.17. Hehasafriend.Heisacleverartist.18. Heisawell-knownman.Hisgenerosityisthetalkofthetown.19. Thecatcaughtthemouse.Thecatwaspursuingthemouse.20. CanIborrowthebook?Youarereadingit.21. Theboywasveryproud.Hehadwonthefirstprize.22. Little Red RidingHoodwent to visit her grandmother. Her grandmother

wasillinbed.23. Thisismycousin.Iwasspeakingofhim.24. Wealldespiseacowardlyboy.Heisone.

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25. Thisisthecat.Itkilledtherat.26. Thosegrapeswereverysweet.Youbroughtthem.27. Harispoketothesoldier.Thesoldier’sarmwasinasling.28. ThecaptainpraisedBalu.Balu’sbowlingwasverygood.29. Amancamerunningup.Heheardmecalling.


Spliteachofthefollowingsentencesintotwo:1. Theboysgavealoudshout,whichwasheardacrosstheriver.2. Bringmethebookthatisonthetable.3. Itwasawretchedhutinwhichshelived.4. Theboywhofelloffhisbicyclehashurthisleg.5. Theelephantthatwassickdied.6. Thefarmeriscuttingthecornwhichhasripened.7. Napoleon,whomtheFrenchhonour,diedatSt.Helena.8. Thecrowdroppedthecheese,whichthefoximmediatelysnappedup.9. John,whoismycousin,isadiligentboy.10. WhereistheparcelthatIlefthereyesterday?11. IhavefoundthebookwhichIlost.12. WevisitedCox’sBazar,whichisthemostattractivespotinBangladesh.13. Theboywhomyouseetheremadethetopscoreinthelastmatch.14. DadabhaiNaoroji,whowasthefirstIndiantoentertheBritishParliament,

wasaParsee.15. Heisapoetwhoseworksarewidelyknown.16. TheTajMahal,whichwasbuiltbyShahJahan,isthefinestmausoleumin

theworld.17. Last year we visited the Moti Masjid, which is a mosque of great

architecturalbeauty.18. Themeeting,whichwasheldintheTownHall,wasagreatsuccess.19. Therope,whichwasold,snapped.20. Thetaskwhichyouhavetodoiseasy.21. Peoplewholiveinglasshousesmustnotthrowstones.

*WhoreplaceswhomininformalEnglish.

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Whogaveyouthatknife? (Nominative)Whoseisthisbook? (Possessive)Whomdidyousee?/Whodidyousee?Towhomwereyouspeaking?/Whowereyou

(Accusative)

CHAPTER19

INTERROGATIVEPRONOUNS169.Considerthefollowingsentences:

Whoisthere?Whoareyou?Aboutwhomareyoutalking?/Whoareyoutalkingabout?Whomdoyouwant?/Whodoyouwant?Whoseisthisbook?Whichisthehouse?Whichdoyouprefer,teaorcoffee?Whatisthematter?Whatdoyouwant?Whatwillalltheneighbourssay?

ItwillbenoticedthatthePronounsinitalicsaresimilarinformtoRelativePronouns.Buttheworkwhichtheydoisdifferent.Theyarehere used for asking questions, and are, therefore, calledInterrogativePronouns.

170. In the following sentences the Interrogative Pronouns areusedinaskingindirectquestions.

Iaskedwhowasspeaking.Idonotknowwhoisthere.Tellmewhatyouhavedone.Askwhathewants.Saywhichyouwouldlikebest.

171.Againconsiderthefollowingsentences:

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speakingto?Whatisthat? (Nominative)Whatdoyouwant? (Accusative)Whichishe? (Nominative)Whichdoyouprefer? (Accusative)

Todaytheaccusativewhoismoreusualthanwhom,especiallyinspokenEnglish.

Whatandwhichdonothavedifferentformsfordifferentcases.172.Whoisusedofpersonsonly.

Whospoke?(Weexpecttheanswertobethenameofaperson.)Whogoesthere?Whomadethetopscore?Whoisknockingatthedoor?Whosaysso?Whoseisthisumbrella?Whomdidyousee?

173.Whichisusedofbothpersonsandthings.Itimpliesselection,thatis,itimpliesaquestionconcerningalimitednumber.

Whichisyourfriend?Whichareyourbooks?Whichoftheboyssawhim?Whichofyouhasdonethis?Whichofthesebooksisyours?Whichofthepicturesdoyoulikebest?Whichofyoubytakingthoughtcanaddonecubituntohisstature?Whichwillyoutake?

174.Whatisusedofthingsonly.Whathaveyou found? (Weexpect theanswer tobe thenameofathing.)Whatdoyouwant?Whatdidyousay?Whatwasitallabout?Whatissweeterthanhoney?

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Whatarethosemarksonyourcoat?

175. In such expressions as, ‘What are you ?’, ‘What is he ?’,‘Whatisthisman?’thewordwhatdoesnotrefertothepersonbuttohisprofessionoremployment*.

Whatareyou?____Iamadoctor.Whatishe?____Heisanengineer.

But,

Whoishe?(=Whatishisnameandfamily?)—HeisMr.K.P.Roy.

176. In the following sentences which and what are used asInterrogativeAdjectives:

Whichbookareyourreading?Whichwayshallwego?Whatbookshaveyouread?Whatpranksareyouplaying?Whatmannerofmanisthis,thateventhewindandtheseaobeyhim?

177. In the following sentences the words in italics are used asCompoundInterrogativePronouns:

Whoevertoldyouso?Whateverareyoudoing?

Note—Theformswhoever,whichever,whatever,areintensive.


Use the correct form of the Interrogative Pronoun in thefollowing:

1. ____wishestoseeyou?2. ____doyouwishtosee?3. ____didshesaywasthewinner?

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4. ____didheinvite?5. ____shallIgivethisto?6. ____domensaythatIam?7. ____doyoubelievedidthis?8. About____areyouspeaking?9. ____didyousee?10. ____doyoumean?11. To____didyougivethekey?12. ____ofthegirlscansewthebest?13. By____wasthebookwritten?14. ____areyouseeking?15. ____ofyouhasdonethis?16. ____haveyouseen?17. ____ofourdogsisill?18. ____doyouthinktheyare?19. ____doyouthinkIam?20. ____didyoufindthere?21. ____wasthatspeakingtoyou?22. ____camehereyesterday?23. ____doyouconsiderintheright?24. ____,doyouconsider,isright?25. ____didyouspeakto?26. ____islifeworth?27. ____ofthesebatswillyoutake?28. ____didhesay?29. ____isthatfor?30. ____haveyoudecidedtodo?31. ____stolethebird’snest?32. ____doyouprefer?33. ____areyoudoing?34. ____hasmybook?35. ____isanIsland?36. ____isyourbook?37. ____doyouwant?38. With____wereyoutalking?39. ____didtheyfighteachotherfor?40. ____isbetter,honourorriches?

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Harilaughs. Theclockstrikes.

Hariisscolded. Thewindowisbroken.

Thecatisdead. Glassisbrittle.Ifeelsorry.

41. ____amIspeakingto,please?

178.APronounusedasanexclamationiscalledanExclamatoryPronoun;as,

What!Stillhere!Ithoughtyouhadgonehomelongago.What!Youdon’tknowRama?

*Today it ismoreusual tosay‘Whatdoyoudo?’, ‘Whatdoeshedo?,etc.

CHAPTER20

THEVERB

TRANSITIVEANDINTRANSITIVEVERBS179. AVerb is a word that tells or asserts something about a

personor thing.VerbcomesfromtheLatinverbum,aword. It issocalledbecauseitisthemostimportantwordinasentence.

AVerbmaytellus—(1)Whatapersonorthingdoes;as,

(2)Whatisdonetoapersonorthing;as,

(3)Whatapersonorthingis;as,

Def—AVerb is aword used to tell or assert something aboutsomepersonorthing.

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Heranalongdistance. (Action)Thebabysleeps. (State)Thereisaflawinthisdiamond. (Being)

180.AVerboftenconsistsofmorethanoneword;as,Thegirlsweresinging.Ihavelearntmylesson.Thewatchhasbeenfound.

181.Readthesesentences:1. Theboykicksthefootball.2. Theboylaughsloudly.

In sentence 1, the action denoted by the verb kicks passes overfromthedoerorsubjectboy tosomeObjectfootball.Theverbkicksis, therefore, called a Transitive Verb. (Transitive means passingover.)

Insentence2,theactiondenotedbytheverblaughsstopswiththedoer or Subjectboy anddoes not pass over to anObject. The verblaughs is, therefore,calledanIntransitiveVerb (Intransitivemeansnotpassingover.).

Def.—ATransitiveVerb is aVerb that denotes an actionwhichpassesoverfromthedoerorSubjecttoanobject.

Def.—AnIntransitiveVerbisaVerbthatdenotesanactionwhichdoesnotpassovertoanobject,orwhichexpressesastateorbeing;as,

Note—IntransitiveVerbsexpressingbeingtakethesamecasesafterthemasbeforethem.

182. Most Transitive Verbs take a single object. But suchTransitiveVerbsasgive,ask,offer,promise,tell,etc.,taketwoobjectsafter them—an Indirect Object which denotes the person to whomsomething is given or for whom something is done, and a Direct

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1.Theantsfoughtthewasps. 1.Someantsfightveryfiercely.2.Theshotsanktheship. 2.Theshipsankrapidly.3.Ringthebell,Rama. 3.Thebellrangloudly.4.Thedriverstoppedthetrain. 4.Thetrainstoppedsuddenly.5.Hespokethetruth. 5.Hespokehaughtily.6.Thehorsekickedtheman. 6.Thishorseneverkicks.7.Ifeelaseverepaininmyhead. 7.Howdoyoufeel?

UsedTransitively UsedIntransitively

Objectwhichisusuallythenameofsomething,as,

Hisfathergavehim(Indirect)awatch(Direct).Hetoldme(Indirect)asecret(Direct).

183.MostverbscanbeusedbothasTransitiveandasIntransitiveverbs.Itis,therefore,bettertosaythataverbisusedTransitivelyorIntransitivelyratherthanthatitisTransitiveorIntransitive.

Note—SomeVerbs,e.g., come, go, fall, die, sleep, lie, denoteactionswhichcannotbedonetoanything;theycan,therefore,neverbeusedTransitively.

184. In such a sentence as ‘Theman killed himself ’ where theSubjectandtheObjectbothrefertothesameperson,theverbissaidtobeusedreflexively.

Sometimes, though theverb isusedreflexively, theObject isnotexpressed. In the following examples the reflexive pronoununderstoodisputinbrackets:

Thebubbleburst[itself].Theguestsmade[themselves]merry.Pleasekeep[yourselves]quiet.Withthesewordsheturned[himself]tothedoor.TheJapanesefeed[themselves]chieflyonrice.

These verbs may, however, be regarded as pure Intransitiveswithoutanyreflexiveforcewhatever.

185. Certain verbs can be used reflexively and also as ordinary

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transitiveverbs;as,

Donotforgethisname.Iforgethisname.Acquityourselfasman.Themagistrateacquittedhimofthechargeagainsthim.Ienjoymyselfsittingalone.Heenjoysgoodhealth.Heinterestedhimselfinhisfriend’swelfare.Histalkdoesnotinterestme.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR36

Name theVerbs in the followingsentences,and tell ineachcasewhether the Verb is Transitive or Intransitive. Where the Verb isTransitivenametheObject:

1. Thesunshinesbrightly.2. Theboycuthishandwithaknife.3. Theclockstoppedthismorning.4. Thepolicemanblewhiswhistle.5. Thesunrisesintheeast.6. Anoldbeggarstoodbythegate.7. Theclockticksalldaylong.8. Ilookeddownfrommywindow.9. Putawayyourbooks.10. Themoonroseearly.11. Thecatsleepsontherug.12. Cockscrowinthemorning.13. Yourbookliesonthetable.14. Thefireburnsdimly.15. Timechangesallthings.16. Weeatthreetimesaday.17. Tellthetruth.18. Thebirdssinginthegreentrees.19. Thelittlebirdhoppedaboutandsang.20. Mynewwatchdoesnotkeepgoodtime.

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1.Thehorsewalks. 1.Hewalksthehorse.2.Thegirlrandownthestreet. 2. The girl ran a needle into her

finger (ran a needle = caused aneedletorun)

3.Birdsfly. 3. The boys fly their kites (i.e.,causetheirkitestofly)

1.Manytreesfallinthemonsoon. 1. Woodmen fell trees. (Fell =

Intransitive Transitive

Intransitive Transitive

21. Thebeggarsatdownbythesideoftheroad.22. Icouldnotsparethetime.23. Hetookshelterunderatree.24. Theboyeasilyliftedtheheavyweight.25. Baluwrotealettertohisuncle.26. Atinybirdlivedunderthecaves.27. Iknowafunnylittleman.28. Birdsflyintheair.29. Alightrainfelllastnight.30. Ishallbringmycamerawithme.31. Youspeaktooloudly.32. Thedogranafterme.


Write five sentences containing Transitive Verbs, and fivecontainingIntransitiveVerbs.

INTRANSITIVEVERBSUSEDASTRANSITIVES186. When an Intransitive Verb is used in a causative sense it

becomesTransitive.

187.AfewverbsincommonusearedistinguishedasTransitiveorIntransitiveby theirspelling, theTransitivebeingcausative formsofthecorrespondingIntransitiveverbs.

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causetofall)2.Liestill. 2. Lay the basket there. (Lay =

causetolie)3.Riseearlywiththelark. 3.Raiseyourhands.(Raise=cause

torise)4.Sitthere. 4.Setthelamponthetable.(Set=

causetosit)

188.SomeIntransitiveVerbsmaybecomeTransitivebyhavingaPrepositionaddedtothem;as,

Allhisfriendslaughedat(=derided)him.Hewillsoonrunthrough(=consume)hisforture.Pleaselookinto(=investigate)themattercarefully.Wetalkedabout(=discussed)theaffairseveraltimes.Iwishfor(=desire)nothingmore.ThePoliceInspectoraskedfor(=demanded)hisname.

SometimesthePrepositionisprefixedtotheVerb;as,

Shivajiovercametheenemy.Hebravelywithstoodtheattack.Theriveroverflowsitsbanks.

189. IntransitiveVerbssometimestakeafter themanObjectakinor similar in meaning to the Verb. Such an Object is called theCognateObjectorCognateAccusative.(LatinCognatus,akin.)

Ihavefoughtagoodfight.Helaughedaheartylaugh.Idreamtastrangedream.Hesleepsthesleepofthejust.Letmediethedeathoftherighteous.Shesighedadeepsigh.Shesangasweetsong.Heranarace.Aurangzeblivedthelifeofanascetic.

ThenounusedasaCognateObjectisintheAccusativeCase.ThefollowingareexamplesofpartiallyCognateObjects:

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1.Hebroketheglass. 1.Theglassbroke.2.Heburnthisfingers. 2.Heburntwithshame.3.Stophimfromgoing. 3.Weshallstophereafewdays.4.Openallthewindows. 4.Theshowopensatsixo’clock.

Transitive Intransitive

Heranagreatrisk(=heranacourseofgreatrisk).The children shouted applause (= the children shouted a shout ofapplause).

190.Anounusedadverbiallytomodifyaverb,anadjective,oranadverbdenotingtime,place,distance,weight,valueetc., iscalledanAdverbialObjectorAdverbialAccusative,andissaidtobeintheAccusativeCaseadverbially;as,

Heheldtheposttenyears.Ican’twaitamomentlonger.Hewenthome.Heswamamile.Heweighssevenstone.Thewatchcostninehundredrupees.

191.ThereareafewTransitiveVerbswhicharesometimesusedasIntransitiveVerbs.

CHAPTER21

VERBSOFINCOMPLETEPREDICATION192.Readthefollowingsentences:

1. Thebabysleeps.2. Thebabyseemshappy.

TheverbsinboththesesentencesareIntransitive.ButwhenIsay‘Thebabysleeps’Idomakecompletesense.On the other hand if I say ‘The baby seems’ I do not make

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completesense.TheIntransitiveVerbseemsrequiresaword(e.g.,happy)tomake

the sense complete. Such a verb is called a Verb of IncompletePredication.

Thewordhappy,whichisrequiredtomakethesensecomplete,iscalled the Complement of the Verb or the Completion of thePredicate.

193.Verbsof IncompletePredicationusuallyexpress the ideaofbeing, becoming, seeming, appearing. The Complement usuallyconsists of a Noun (called a Predicative Noun) or an Adjective(called a Predicative Adjective). When the Complement describesthe Subject, as in the following sentences, it is called aSubjectiveComplement.

1. Tabbyisacat.2. Theearthisround.3. Johnbecameasoldier.4. Mr.Mehtabecamemayor.5. Themanseemstired.6. Youlookhappy.7. Theskygrewdark.8. Rosessmellsweet.9. Sugartastessweet.10. Sheappearspleased.11. Thishouseistolet.

Note—WhentheSubjectiveComplementisaNoun(asin1,3,4)itisinthesamecaseastheSubject,i.e.,intheNominativeCase.

194. Certain Transitive Verbs require, besides an Object, aComplementtocompletetheirpredication;as,

1. TheboysmadeRamacaptain.2. HisparentsnamedhimHari.3. Thismadehimvain.

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4. Thejuryfoundhimguilty.5. Ramacalledhiscousinaliar.6. Exercisehasmadehismusclesstrong.7. Iconsiderthemantrustworthy.8. Godcalledthelightday.9. Wethoughthimarascal.10. Theychosehimtheirleader.

Here, ineachcase, theComplementdescribes theObject,and is,therefore,calledanObjectiveComplement.

Note—WhentheObjectiveComplementisanoun(asin1,2,5,8, 9, 10) it is in the Objective (or Accusative) Case in agreementwiththeobject.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR38

SaywhethertheVerbsinthefollowingsentencesareTransitiveorIntransitive, name the Object of each Transitive Verb, and theComplementofeachVerbofIncompletePredication:

1. Thehungrylionroars.2. Thereportprovedfalse.3. Theboystoodontheburningdeck.4. Thechildhadfallensick.5. Theasscontinuedbraying.6. Thewindiscold.7. Theresultsareout.8. Hetriedagainandagain.9. Weseewithoureyes.10. Thechildfellasleep.11. Theweatherishot.12. TheyareEuropeans.13. Therumourseemstrue.14. Owlshideinthedaytime.15. Badboyshidetheirfaults.

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16. Thepoorwomanwentmad.17. Wewaitedpatientlyatthestation.18. Hetoldalie.19. Theyelectedhimpresident.20. Ifoundherweeping.21. Hestruckthemandead.22. Thecrowflewdownandstolethecheese.23. Theskylooksthreatening.24. Theymadehimgeneral.25. Hewaitedanhour.26. Newbroomssweepclean.

CHAPTER22

ACTIVEANDPASSIVEVOICE195.Compare:

1.RamahelpsHari.2.HariishelpedbyRama.

Itwillbeseenthatthesetwosentencesexpressthesamemeaning.But in sentence 1, the form of the Verb shows that the person

denotedbythesubjectdoessomething.Rama(thepersondenotedbythesubject)doessomething.

TheVerbhelpsissaidtobeintheActiveVoice.Insentence2,theformoftheVerbshowsthatsomethingisdone

tothepersondenotedbytheSubject.SomethingisdonetoHari(thepersondenotedbytheSubject.)

TheVerbhelpedissaidtobeinthePassiveVoice.Def.—Averb is in theActiveVoicewhen its form shows (as in

sentence 1) that the person or thing denoted by the Subject doessomething;or,inotherwords,isthedoeroftheaction.

TheActiveVoice issocalledbecause thepersondenotedby the

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1.SitalovesSavitri. 1.SavitriislovedbySita.2.Themasonisbuildingthewall. 2.Thewallisbeingbuiltbythe

mason.3.Thepeonopenedthegate. 3.Thegatewasopenedbythe

peon.4.Someboyswerehelpingthe

woundedman.4.Thewoundedmanwasbeing

helpedbysomeboys.5.Hewillfinishtheworkina

fortnight.5.Theworkwillbefinishedbyhim

inafortnight.6.Whodidthis? 6.Bywhomwasthisdone?7.Whydidyourbrotherwritesuch

aletter?7.Whywassuchaletterwrittenby

yourbrother?

ActiveVoice PassiveVoice

Subjectacts.Def.—AVerbisinthePassiveVoicewhenitsformshows(asin

sentence2)thatsomethingisdoneto thepersonorthingdenotedbytheSubject.

ThePassiveVoiceissocalledbecausethepersonorthingdenotedby the Subject is not active but passive, that is, suffers or receivessomeaction.

Def.—Voiceis thatformofaVerbwhichshowswhetherwhat isdenotedbytheSubjectdoessomethingorhassomethingdonetoit.

NotethechangefromtheActiveVoicetothePassiveVoiceinthefollowingsentences:

ItwillbenoticedthatwhentheVerbischangedfromtheActiveVoice to thePassiveVoice, theObjectof theTransitiveVerb in theActiveVoicebecomestheSubjectoftheVerbinthePassiveVoice.

[Thus in sentence 1, Savitri, which is the object of loves in theActiveVoice,becomestheSubjectofislovedinthePassiveVoice.]

SincetheObjectofaverbintheactivevoicebecomestheSubjectofthepassiveform,itfollowsthatonlyTransitiveVerbscanbeusedinthePassiveVoice,becauseanIntransitiveVerbhasnoObject.

196. The passive voice is formed with the suitable tense of the

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verbbefollowedbythepastparticiple.Studythistable:

197.StudentsmustknowwhentousetheActiveVoiceandwhento use the Passive: the ability to change the Active Voice into thePassiveandviceversaisnotsufficient.

TheActiveVoiceisusedwhentheagent(i.e.,doeroftheaction)istobemadeprominent;thePassive,whenthepersonorthingactedupon is to be made prominent. The Passive is, therefore, generallypreferredwhentheactiveformwouldinvolvetheuseofanindefiniteor vague pronoun or noun (somebody, they, people, we, etc.) assubject ; that is,whenwedonotknow theagentorwhen it isclearenoughwhotheagentis.

Mypenhasbeenstolen.(Somebodyhasstolenmypen.)Iwasaskedmyname.(Theyaskedmemyname.)Englishisspokenallover theworld.(PeoplespeakEnglishallovertheworld.)I have been invited to the party. (Someone has invited me to theparty.)All orders will be executed promptly. (We will execute all orderspromptly.)

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Insuchcasestheagentwithbyisusuallyavoided.Note, however, that, as in the examples given earlier, the by-

phrasecannotbeavoidedwheretheagenthassomeimportanceandisnecessarytocompletethesense.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR39

NametheVerbs in the followingsentences,andtellwhether theyareintheActiveorinthePassiveVoice:1. Thecatkilledthemouse.2. Wecompelledtheenemytosurrender.3. Theboywasbittenbyadog.4. Thethiefwascaught.5. Theboymadeakite.6. Theshipwasburned.7. Theyoungmanmadeadisturbanceatthemeeting.8. Thecaptivewasboundtoatree.9. Thebirdwaskilledbyacruelboy.10. Thesuddennoisefrightenedthehorse.11. Heislovedbyall.12. TheexhibitionwasopenedbytheGovernor.13. Iseeadarkcloud.14. Hiscommandwaspromptlyobeyed.15. Someofthecargohadbeendamagedbytheseawater.16. Nothingwillbegainedbyhurry.17. Thedogchasedthesheep.18. Thisletterwaspostedlastnight.19. Thefieldisploughed.20. Thedogwasteasedbytheboy.21. Thecatdrankallthemilk.22. Astonestruckmeonthehead.23. Theoldgentlemantakessnuff.24. Themoneywaslost.25. Theletterhasjustbeenposted.

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TurnthefollowingsentencesfromtheActiveVoicetothePassiveVoice:—

(Note—TheagentwithbyshouldbeomittedinNos.7,12,25,29,30,31,32,33,34and35.)

1. Thecatkilledthemouse.2. Themancutdownthetree.3. ColumbusdiscoveredAmerica.4. Histeacherpraisedhim.5. Theboyteasedthedog.6. Thesycefeedsthehorseeveryday.7. Thepolicearrestedhim.8. Ramawasmakingakite.9. Theboycaughttheball.10. Myfatherwillwritealetter.11. Iwillconquerhim.12. Hekeptmewaiting.13. Thehuntershotthelion.14. Hariopenedthedoor.15. Apolicemancaughtthethief.16. Sohrabthrewtheball.17. Hescoredtwentyruns.18. Yourbehaviourvexesme.19. Mannersrevealcharacter.20. Hemadeaveryremarkablediscovery.21. Littlestrokesfellgreatoaks.22. Dhonduwillbringthepony.23. Everyoneloveshim.24. Mycousinhasdrawnthispicture.25. Weexpectgoodnews.26. Thefarmergatherstheharvest.27. Hisownbrotherswindledhim.28. Therecitationpleasedtheinspector.29. Somebodyhasputoutthelight.30. Theenemyhavedefeatedourarmy.

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Theguardrefusedhimadmittance.

Admittance was refused tohimbytheguard.Hewas refusedadmittancebytheguard.

Mr.Krishnajiteachesusgrammar.

Grammar is taught to us byMr.Krishnaji.WearetaughtgrammarbyMr.Krishnaji.

Themanagerwillgiveyouaticket.

A ticket will be given to youbythemanager.Youwill be given a ticket bythemanager.

WhotaughtyouFrench? By whom was French taughtto you ? / Who were youtaughtFrenchby?By whom were you taughtFrench?

Hehandedheracheque. Achequewashandedtoher.Shewashandedacheque.

Active Passive

31. TheysellTVshere.32. Ihavesoldmybicycle.33. Peoplewillsoonforgetit.34. Theyopenedthetheatreonlylastmonth.35. Weprohibitsmoking.

198.Whenverbs that takebothadirectandan indirectobject inthe Active Voice are changed to the Passive, either object maybecomethesubjectofthePassiveverb,whiletheotherisretained.

An indirect object denotes the person to whom or for whomsomething is given or done,while a direct object usually denotes athing. In cases like the above, it is probablymore usual for passiveconstructionstobeginwiththeperson.

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199. Note thatwe usewith (not by) to talk about an instrumentusedbytheagent.Compare:

Thedogwashitwithastick.(ActiveVoice:Somebodyhit thedogwithastick.)Thedogwashitbyaboy.(ActiveVoice:Aboyhitthedog.)

200. There are a few Transitive verbswhich, even in anActiveform,aresometimesusedinaPassivesense;as,

Thesemangoestastesour(i.e.,aresourwhentheyaretasted).Therosesmellssweet(i.e.,issweetwhenitissmelt).Thecakeseatshortandcrisp(i.e.,areshortandcrispwhentheyareeaten).At least the play readswell (i.e., affects the readerwellwhen it isread).


Change the following sentences so that the Verbs will be in thePassiveVoice:

1. Wesawyouandhim.2. Theyaskedmemyname.3. Werefusedthemadmission.4. Iboughtthebabyadoll.5. Theyfoundhimguiltyofmurder.6. Athunderstormoftenturnsmilksour.7. Youcannotpumptheoceandry.8. Theysawthestormapproaching.9. Hekeepsmewaiting.10. Theypaintedthehousered.11. Hetoldmetoleavetheroom.12. Hepromisedmeapresent.13. Ishallorderthecarriage.14. Theboyisclimbingthecliff.15. Onemayaccomplishmanythingsbyalittleeffort.16. Iamwatchingyouverycarefully.

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Active. —Allhisfriendslaughedathim.Passive. —Hewaslaughedatbyallhisfriends.Active. —Theymadehimking.Passive. —Hewasmadeking.Active. —Theyusevideoforteachingthestudents.


Rewrite the following sentences so that the Verbs will be in theActiveVoice:

1. Hewaspraisedbyhisfather.2. ThefirstrailwaywasbuiltbyGeorgeStephenson.3. Thehorsewasfrightenedbythenoise.4. NotawordwasspokenbyLatif.5. Theteacherwaspleasedwiththeboy’swork.6. Hewastakentothehospitalbyhisfriends.7. Thetownwasdestroyedbyanearthquake.8. Theroadwaslinedwithpeople.9. ThePresidentwaswelcomedbythepeople.10. ShakuntalamwaswrittenbyKalidas.11. Thebuildingwasdamagedbythefire.12. Iwasstruckbyhissingularappearance.13. Thosecarswerebuiltbyrobots.14. Thestreetswerethrongedwithspectators.15. Thetreeswereblowndownbythewind.16. Weshallbeblamedbyeveryone.17. Thechildwasknockeddownbyacar.18. Alicewasnotmuchsurprisedatthis.19. Hewillbegreatlysurprisedifheischosen.


Write three sentences with the Verbs in the Active Voice, andrewritethemwiththeVerbsinthePassiveVoice:

201.WegivebelowfurtherexamplesoftheinterchangeofActiveandPassiveVoice.

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Passive. —Videoisusedforteachingthestudents.Active. —Oneshouldkeepone’spromises.Passive. —Promisesshouldbekept.Active. —Whenwillyoureturnthebook?Passive. —Whenwillthebookbereturned?Active. —Someonehaspickedmypocket.Passive. —Mypockethasbeenpicked.Active. —Circumstanceswillobligemetogo.Passive. —Ishallbeobligedtogo.


InthefollowingsentenceschangetheVoice:1. WeelectedBalucaptain.2. Isawhimopeningthebox.3. Wemustlistentohiswords.4. ShallIeverforgetthosehappydays?5. Bywhomwasthisjugbroken?6. Hissubordinatesaccusedhimofvariousoffences.7. Onecannotgathergrapesfromthistles.8. Thetelegraphwireshavebeencut.9. Alas!Weshallhearhisvoicenomore.10. The1998AsianGameswereheldinBangkok,Thailand.11. Withouteffortnothingcanbegained.12. Donotinsulttheweak.13. Alldesirewealthandsomeacquireit.14. WhyshouldIbesuspectedbyyou?15. Theinformationiskeptonourcomputer.16. Thelegendtellsushowthecastlereceiveditsname.17. Mywatchwaslost.18. Whydidhedefraudyouofyourearnings?19. Thepublicwilllearnwithastonishmentthatwarisimminent.20. Hemadehiswifedothework.21. Theteacherappointedhimmonitor.22. Thedoctordespairedofhisrecovery.23. Hewasrefusedadmittance.

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24. Theylaughedathiswarningsandobjectedtoallhisproposals.25. Thepeopleregardedhimasanimpostorandcalledhimavillain.

CHAPTER23

MOOD202.ThesimplestuseofaVerbistomakeastatementoffactor

askaquestion;as,

Iwritetomybrothereveryweek.Whowrotethatletter?

ButaVerbmayalsobeusedtoexpressacommand;as,

Writeneatly.

OraVerbmaybeusedtoexpressameresupposition;as,

IfIwereyou,Iwouldnotdoit.

ThesedifferentmodesormannersinwhichaVerbmaybeusedtoexpressanactionarecalledMoods.(Lat.modus,manner.)

Def.—MoodisthemodeormannerinwhichtheactiondenotedbytheVerbisrepresented.

203.TherearethreeMoodsinEnglish:

Indicative,Imperative,Subjunctive.

INDICATIVEMOOD204.TheIndicativeMoodisused:(1)Tomakeastatementoffact;as,

Ramagoestoschooldaily.WearetaughtArithmetic.Hewriteslegibly.NapoleondiedatSt.Helena.Thechildisalive.

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(2)Toaskaquestion;as,

Haveyoufoundyourbook?Areyouwell?

Ineachof these sentences theVerb in italics is said tobe in theIndicativeMood.

205.TheIndicativeMoodisalsousedinexpressingasuppositionwhichisassumedasafact;as,If[=assumingasafactthat]Iamtobeabeggar,itshallnevermakemearascal.If itrains, Ishallstayathome.[Assumingasafact that itwill rain,etc.]Ifmyfriendwants it,Ishallgiveit tohim.[Assumingasafact thatmyfriendwantsit,etc.]If he is the ring-leader, he deserves to bepunished. [Assuming as afactthatheisthering-leader,etc.]

A Verb which makes a statement of fact or asks a question, orexpressesasuppositionwhichisassumedasafact,isintheIndicativeMood.

IMPERATIVEMOOD206.TheImperativeMoodisusedtoexpress:(1)ACommand;as,

Waitthere.Comehere.Openyourbookatpage7.

(2)Anexhortation;as,

Besteady.Takecareofyourhealth.Trytodobetter.

(3)Anentreatyorprayer;as,

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Havemercyuponus.Giveusthisdayourdailybread.

Ineachof these sentences theVerb in italics is said tobe in theImperativeMood.

AVerbwhichexpressesacommand, anexhortation, anentreatyorprayer,isintheImperativeMood.

Note1—The Imperativemoodcanstrictlybeusedonly in theSecond Person, since the person commanded must be the personspoken to. But in the First and Third Persons a like sense isexpressedbytheuseoftheAuxiliaryVerblet;as,

Note2—TheSubjectofaVerbintheImperativeMood(you)isusuallyomitted.

SUBJUNCTIVEMOOD207.ThefollowingaretheformsoftheSubjunctive:

TheSubjunctiveMoodscarcelyexistsinpresent-dayEnglish.208.ThePresentSubjunctiveoccurs(1)Incertaintraditionalphrases,whereitexpressesawishorhope

;as,

Godblessyou!GodsavetheKing!Heavenhelpus!

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(2) In formal English, in a noun clause dependent on a verbexpressingdesire,intention,resolution,etc.;as,

ImovethatMr.GuptabeappointedChairman.Itissuggestedthataringroadbebuilttorelievethecongestion.Werecommendedthatthesubscriptionbeincreasedtotenrupees.

209.ThePastSubjunctiveisused(1)After theverbwish, to indicateasituationwhich isunrealor

contrarytofact;as,

IwishIknewhisname.(=I’msorryIdon’tknowhisname.)IwishIwereamillionaire.Shewishesthecarbelongedtoyou.

(2)After if, to express improbabilityorunreality in thepresent ;as,

If IwereyouIshouldnotdo that (but Iamnotyou,andnevercanbe).Ifwestartednowwewouldbeintime(butwecannotstartnow).

(3)Afterasif/asthough,toindicateunrealityorimprobability;as,

HeordersmeaboutasifIwerehiswife(butIamnot).Hewalksasthoughheweredrunk(butheisnot).

(4)Afteritistime+subject,toimplythatitislate;as,

Itistimewestarted.

(5)Afterwouldrather+subject,toindicatepreference;as,

Iwouldratheryouwentbyair(=Ishouldpreferyoutogobyair)Theywouldratheryoupaidthembycheque.

CHAPTER24

TENSES:INTRODUCTION

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Iwrite. Ilove.

Iwrote. Iloved.

Ishallwrite. Ishalllove.

210.Readthefollowingsentences:

1. Iwritethislettertopleaseyou.2. Iwrotetheletterinhisverypresence.3. Ishallwriteanotherlettertomorrow.

Insentence1,theVerbwritereferstopresenttime.Insentence2,theVerbwrotereferstopasttime.Insentence3,theVerbshallwritereferstofuturetime.ThusaVerbmayrefer(1)topresenttime,(2)topasttime,or(3)tofuturetime.211.AVerbthatreferstopresenttimeissaidtobeinthePresent

Tense;as,

[ThewordtensecomesfromtheLatintempus,time.]AVerbthatreferstopasttimeissaidtobeinthePastTense;as,

AVerbthatreferstofuturetimeissaidtobeintheFutureTense;as,

212.ThustherearethreemainTenses—ThePresent,thePast,theFuture.TheTenseofaVerbshowsthetimeofanactionorevent.Note : Sometimes a past tensemay refer to present time, and a

presenttensemayexpressfuturetime,as:

IwishIknewtheanswer.(=I’msorryIdon’tknowtheanswer.Pasttense—Presenttime)

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1.Ilove. (SimplePresent)2.Iamloving. (PresentContinuous)3.Ihaveloved. (PresentPerfect)4.Ihavebeenloving. (PresentPerfectContinuous)

Let’swaittillhecomes.(Presenttense—futuretense)

213. Below we give the chief Tenses (Active Voice, IndicativeMood)oftheverbtolove.

214.Readthesesentences:

TheVerbs inallof thesesentencesrefer to thepresent time,andarethereforesaidtobeinthepresenttense.

In sentence 1, however, the Verb shows that the action ismentioned simply, without anything being said about thecompletenessorincompletenessoftheaction.

In sentence 2, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned asincompleteorcontinuous,thatis,asstillgoingon.

In sentence 3, the Verb shows that the action is mentioned asfinished,complete,orperfect,atthetimeofspeaking.

The tenseof theVerb insentence4 issaid tobePresentPerfect

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1.Iloved. (SimplePast)2.Iwasloving. (PastContinuous)3.Ihadloved. (PastPerfect)4.Ihadbeenloving. (PastPerfectContinuous)

1.Ishall/willlove. (SimpleFuture)2.Ishall/willbeloving (FutureContinuous)3.Ishall/willhaveloved. (FuturePerfect)4.Ishallhavebeenloving. (FuturePerfectContinuous)

Ispeak IamspeakingYouspeak YouarespeakingHespeaks HeisspeakingWespeak WearespeakingTheyspeak Theyarespeaking

Ihavespoken IhavebeenspeakingYouhavespoken YouhavebeenspeakingHehasspoken HehasbeenspeakingWehavespoken

SimplePresentTense PresentContinuousTense

PresentPerfectTense PresentPerfectContinuousTense

Continuous, because the verb shows that the action is going oncontinuously,andnotcompletedatthispresentmoment.

ThusweseethattheTenseofaverbshowsnotonlythetimeofanactionorevent,butalsothestateofanactionreferredto.

215.JustasthePresentTensehasfourforms,thePastTensealsohasthefollowingfourforms:

SimilarlytheFutureTensehasthefollowingfourforms:

WemaynowdefineTenseasthatformofaVerbwhichshowsthetimeandthestateofanactionorevent.

216.Averbagreeswith its subject innumberandperson.Studytheverbformsofvarioustenses:

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Wehavespoken WehavebeenspeakingTheyhavespoken Theyhavebeenspeaking

Ispoke IwasspeakingYouspoke YouwerespeakingHespoke HewasspeakingWespoke WewerespeakingTheyspoke Theywerespeaking

Ihadspoken IhadbeenspeakingYouhadspoken YouhadbeenspeakingHehadspoken HehadbeenspeakingWehadspoken WehadbeenspeakingTheyhadspoken Theyhadbeenspeaking

Ishall/willspeak Ishall/willbespeakingYouwillspeak YouwillbespeakingHewillspeak HewillbespeakingWeshall/willspeak Weshall/willbespeakingTheywillspeak Theywillbespeaking

Ishall/willhavespoken Ishall/willhavebeenspeakingYouwillhavespoken YouwillhavebeenspeakingHewillhavespoken HewillhavebeenspeakingWeshall/willhavespoken

Heshall/willhavebeenspeaking

Theywillhavespoken Theywillhavebeenspeaking

SimplePastTense PastContinuousTense

PastPerfectTense PastPerfectContinuousTense

SimpleFutureTense FutureContinuousTense

FuturePerfectTense FuturePerfectContinuousTense

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR45

Point out the Verbs in the following sentences and name their

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MoodsandTenses:—1. Theriverflowsunderthebridge.2. Ishallanswerthelettertonight.3. Iknewhewasthere,forIhadseenhimcome.4. Ithasbeenrainingallnight.5. Ihearhehaspassedallright.6. Ihadfinishedwhenhecame.7. Hetakesbutlittleprideinhiswork.8. Ihavebeenlivinghereformonths.9. Begood,sweetmaid.10. BythistimetomorrowIshallhavereachedmyhome.11. Itistimeweleft.12. Hetoldmethathehadfinishedthework.13. Godforgiveyou!14. Heiswaitingforyouinthecompound.15. Piper,pipethatsongagain.16. Iamhopingtogetaholidaysoon.17. Perhapsitwerebettertoobeyhim.18. Donobledeeds,notdreamthemalltheday.19. Ishallhaveplentyoftimetomorrow.20. Thoughthisbemadness,yetthereismethodinit.21. Thekinghadneverbeforeledhistroopsinbattle.22. Ifhewasguilty,hispunishmentwastoolight.23. Wehaveheardastrangestory.24. Thetravellers,allofwhomhadseenthechameleon,couldnotagreeabout

itscolour.25. Bewarelestsomethingworseshouldhappentoyou.26. Thefarmeriscuttingthecornwhichhasripened.27. Iwishmybrotherwerehere.28. Shewouldratherwestayedtilltomorrow.

CHAPTER25

THEUSESOFTHEPRESENTANDPASTTENSES

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PRESENTTENSES

SimplePresentTense217.TheSimplePresentisused:(1)Toexpressahabitualaction;as,

Hedrinksteaeverymorning.Igetupeverydayatfiveo’clock.Mywatchkeepsgoodtime.

(2)Toexpressgeneraltruths;as,

Thesunrisesintheeast.Honeyissweet.Fortunefavoursthebrave.

(3) In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there toexpresswhatisactuallytakingplaceinthepresent;as,

Herecomesthebus!Thereshegoes!

(4)Invividnarrative,assubstitutefortheSimplePast;as,

SohrabnowrushesforwardanddealsaheavyblowtoRustam.ImmediatelytheSultanhurriestohiscapital.

(5)To express a future event that is part of a fixed timetable orfixedprogramme

Thenextflightisat7.00tomorrowmorning.Thematchstartsat9o’clock.Thetrainleavesat5.20.Whendoesthecoffeehousereopen?

218.NotealsotheotherusesoftheSimplePresentTense.(1)Itisusedtointroducequotations;as,

Keatssays,‘Athingofbeautyisajoyforever’.

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(2) It is used, instead of the Simple Future Tense, in clauses oftimeandofcondition;as,

Ishallwaittillyoufinishyourlunch.Ifitrainsweshallgetwet.

(3)As inbroadcastcommentariesonsportingevents, theSimplePresent is used, instead of the Present Continuous, to describeactivities in progress where there is stress on the succession ofhappeningsratherthanontheduration.

(4)TheSimplePresentisused,insteadofthePresentContinuous,withthetypeofverbsreferredtoin(§221)below.

PresentContinuousTense219.ThePresentContinuousisused(1)Foranactiongoingonatthetimeofspeaking;as,

Sheissinging(now).Theboysareplayinghockey.

(2)Foratemporaryactionwhichmaynotbeactuallyhappeningatthetimeofspeaking;as,

I am reading ‘David Copperfield’ (but I am not reading at thismoment).

(3)For an action thathas alreadybeenarranged to takeplace inthenearfuture;as,

Iamgoingtothecinematonight.Myuncleisarrivingtomorrow.

220.IthasbeenpointedoutbeforethattheSimplePresentisusedforahabitualaction.However,whenthereferenceistoaparticularlyobstinate habit—something which persists, for example, in spite ofadvice or warning—we use the Present Continuous with an adverblikealways,continually,constantly.

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Thesegrapesaretastingsour. Thesegrapestastesour.Iamthinkingyouarewrong. Ithinkyouarewrong.Sheisseemingsad. Sheseemssad.Heishavingacellphone. Hehasacellphone.

Wrong Right

Mydogisverysilly;heisalwaysrunningoutintotheroad.

221. The following verbs, on account of their meaning, are notnormallyusedinthecontinuousform:–

(1)Verbsofperception,e.g.,see,hear,smell,notice,recognize.(2)Verbsofappearing,e.g.,appear,look,seem.(3)Verbsofemotion,e.g.,want,wish,desire,feel,like,love,hate,

hope,refuse,prefer.(4) Verbs of thinking, e.g., think, suppose, believe, agree,

consider, trust, remember, forget, know,understand, imagine,mean,mind.

(5)have(=possess),own,possess,belongto,contain,consistof,be(exceptwhenusedinthepassive).e.g.

However,theverbslistedabovecanbeusedinthecontinuoustenseswithachangeofmeaning:

Sheistastingthesouptoseeifitneedsmoresalt.(taste=testtheflavourof)

IamthinkingofgoingtoMalaysia.(thinkof=considertheideaof)

Theyarehavinglunch.(have=eat)

PresentPerfectTense222.ThePresentPerfectisused:–(1) To indicate completed activities in the immediate past (with

just);as,

Hehasjustgoneout.

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Ithasjuststruckten.

(2) To express past actions whose time is not given and notdefinite;as,

Haveyouread‘Gulliver’sTravels’?Ihaveneverknownhimtobeangry.Mr.HarihasbeentoJapan.

(3)Todescribepasteventswhenwethinkmoreoftheireffectinthepresentthanoftheactionitself;as,

Gopihaseatenallthebiscuits(i.e.,therearen’tanyleftforyou).Ihavecutmyfinger(anditisbleedingnow).Ihavefinishedmywork(=nowIamfree).

(4) To denote an action beginning at some time in the past andcontinuing up to the present moment (often with since- and for-phrases);as,

Ihaveknownhimforalongtime.Hehasbeenillsincelastweek.Wehavelivedherefortenyears.Wehaven’tseenPadmaforseveralmonths.

223. The following adverbs or adverb phrases can also be usedwith thePresent Perfect (apart from thosementioned above):never,ever (in questions only), so far, till now, yet (in negatives andquestions),already,today,thisweek,thismonth,etc.

Note— The Present Perfect is never usedwith adverbs of pasttime. We should not say, for example, ‘He has gone to Kolkatayesterday’.InsuchcasestheSimplePastshouldbeused(‘HewenttoKolkatayesterday’).

PresentPerfectContinuousTense224.ThePresentPerfectContinuous isused for anactionwhich

beganatsometimeinthepastandisstillcontinuing;as,

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Hehasbeensleepingforfivehours(andisstillsleeping).Theyhavebeenbuildingthebridgeforseveralmonths.Theyhavebeenplayingsincefouro’clock.

225. This tense is also sometimes used for an action alreadyfinished.Insuchcasesthecontinuityoftheactivityisemphasizedasanexplanationofsomething.

‘Whyareyourclothessowet?’—‘Ihavebeenwateringthegarden’.

PASTTENSES

SimplePastTense226.TheSimplePastisusedtoindicateanactioncompletedinthe

past.Itoftenoccurswithadverbsoradverbphrasesofpasttime.

Thesteamersailedyesterday.Ireceivedhisletteraweekago.Sheleftschoollastyear.

227. Sometimes this tense is usedwithout an adverb of time. Insuchcasesthetimemaybeeitherimpliedorindicatedbythecontext.

IlearntHindiinNagpur.Ididn’tsleepwell(i.e.,lastnight).BabardefeatedRanaSangaatKanwaha.

228.TheSimplePastisalsousedforpasthabits;as,Hestudiedmanyhourseveryday.Shealwayscarriedanumbrella.

PastContinuousTense229.ThePastContinuousisusedtodenoteanactiongoingonat

some time in the past. The time of the action may or may not beindicated.

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Wewerelisteningtotheradioallevening.Itwasgettingdarker.ThelightwentoutwhileIwasreading.WhenIsawhim,hewasplayingchess.

As in the last two examples above, the Past Continuous andSimple Past are used together when a new action happened in themiddleofalongeraction.TheSimplePastisusedforthenewaction.

230. This tense is also used with always, continually, etc. forpersistenthabitsinthepast.

Hewasalwaysgrumbling.

PastPerfectTense231. The Past Perfect describes an action completed before a

certainmomentinthepast;as,

I met him in New Delhi in 1996. I had seen him last five yearsbefore.

232. If two actions happened in the past, itmaybe necessary toshowwhichactionhappenedearlierthantheother.ThePastPerfectismainlyusedinsuchsituations.TheSimplePastisusedinoneclauseandthePastPerfectintheother;as,

WhenIreachedthestationthetrainhadstarted(soIcouldn’tgetintothetrain).IhaddonemyexercisewhenHaricametoseeme.Ihadwrittentheletterbeforehearrived.

PastPerfectContinuousTense233.ThePastPerfectContinuousisusedforanactionthatbegan

beforeacertainpointinthepastandcontinueduptothattime;as,

Atthattimehehadbeenwritinganovelfortwomonths.When Mr. Mukerji came to the school in 1995, Mr. Anand had

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alreadybeenteachingthereforfiveyears.


Choosethecorrectverbformfromthoseinbrackets:

1. Theearth____roundthesun.(move,moves,moved)2. Myfriends____thePrimeMinisteryesterday.(see,haveseen,saw)3. I____himonlyoneletteruptonow.(sent,havesent,send)4. She_____worriedaboutsomething.(looks,looking,islooking)5. It started to rain while we ____tennis. (are playing, were playing, had

played)6. He_____fastwhentheaccidenthappened.(isdriving,wasdriving,drove)7. He____asleepwhilehewasdriving.(falls,fell,hasfallen)8. I’msureI____himatthepartylastnight.(saw,haveseen,hadseen).9. He____amillinthistown.(have,has,ishaving)10. He ____here for the last five years. (worked, is working, has been

working).11. HethankedmeforwhatI____.(havedone,haddone,havebeendoing)12. I____astrangenoise.(hear,amhearing,havebeenhearing)13. I____himforalongtime.(know,haveknown,amknowing)14. I____Englishforfiveyears.(study,amstudying,havebeenstudying)15. Don’tdisturbme.I____myhomework.(do,did,amdoing)16. Abdul____tobeadoctor.(wants,wanting,iswanting)17. Thesoup______good.(taste,tastes,istasting)18. He_____TVmostevenings.(watches,iswatch,iswatching)19. He____outfiveminutesago.(hasgone,hadgone,went)20. When he lived inHyderabad, he ____to the cinema once aweek. (goes,

went,wasgoing)21. Thebaby____allmorning.(cries,hasbeencrying)22. I_____Rahimatthezoo.(saw,haveseen,hadseen)23. I____Kumarthisweek.(haven’tseen,did’tsee,amnotseeing)24. Thispaper____twiceweekly.(isappearing,appearing,appears)25. Ashok fell off the ladder when he ______ the roof. (is mending, was

mending,mended)

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Choosethecorrectalternativefromthosegiveninbrackets:

1. TheHeadmaster____tospeaktoyou.(wants,iswanting,waswanting)2. I____anewbicyclelastweek.(bought,havebought,hadbought)3. Here are your shoes ; I ____them. (just clean, just cleaned, have just

cleaned)4. It_______sinceearlymorning,(rained,israining,hasbeenraining)5. I____alotofworktoday.(did,havedone,haddone)6. I____somethingburning.(smell,amsmelling,havebeensmelling)7. Look!Thesun______overthehills.(rises,isrise,isrising)8. She____unconscioussincefouro’clock.(is,was,hasbeen)9. Heused to visit us everyweek, but he ____now. (rarely comes, is rarely

coming,hasrarelycome)10. We _____ for his call since 4.20. (are waiting, have been waiting, were

waiting)11. Everydaylastweekmyaunt____aplate.(breaks,broke,wasbreaking)12. I know all about that film because I ____it twice. (saw, have seen, had

seen)13. Our guests ______; they are sitting in the garden. (arrived, have arrived,

hadarrived)14. I____himsincewemetayearago.(didn’tsee,haven’tseen,hadn’tseen)15. We ____our breakfast half an hour ago. (finished, have finished, had

finished)16. Shejumpedoffthebuswhileit____.(moved,hadmoved,wasmoving)17. Whenwewent to the cinema, the film ____(already started, had already

started,wouldalreadystart)18. I______ forhalf anhourwhen it suddenly started to rain. (havewalked,

havebeenwalking,hadbeenwalking)19. Didyouthinkyou____mesomewherebefore?(haveseen,hadseen,were

seeing)20. Thetown____itsappearancecompletelysince1980.(ischanging,changed,

haschanged)21. Sheila______hercase,look.(packed,haspacked,hadpacked)22. When I was in Sri Lanka, I ______ Negombo, Beruwela and Nilaveli.

(visited,wasvisited,havevisited)

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23. Imeant to repair the radio, but ____time to do it today (am not having,haven’thad,hadn’t)

24. WhenI______mydinnerIwenttobed.(had,havehad,hadhad)25. Men____toabolishwarsuptonow,butmaybetheywillfindawayinthe

future.(nevermanaged,havenevermanaged,willhavenevermanaged)

CHAPTER26

THEFUTURE234.ThereareseveralwaysoftalkingaboutthefutureinEnglish:

theSimpleFutureTense,thegoingtoform,theSimplePresentTense,etc.

SimpleFutureTense235.TheSimpleFutureTense isused to talkabout thingswhich

wecannotcontrol.Itexpressesthefutureasfact.

IshallbetwentynextSaturday.ItwillbeDiwaliinaweek.WewillknowourexamresultsinMay.

236.Weusethistensetotalkaboutwhatwethinkorbelievewillhappeninthefuture.

IthinkPakistanwillwinthematch.I’msureHelenwillgetafirstclass.

As in the above sentences,weoftenuse this tensewith I think, andI’m sure. We also say I expect _____, I believe ______, Probably_____,etc.

237.Wecanusethistensewhenwedecidetodosomethingatthetimeofspeaking.

Itisraining.Iwilltakeanumbrella.“Mr.Sinhaisverybusyatthemoment.”–“Allright.I’llwait.”

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Goingto238.Weuse thegoing to form (be going to + base of the verb)

whenwehavedecidedtodosomethingbeforetalkingaboutit.

“Have you decidedwhat to do?” – “Yes. I am going to resign thejob.”“Whydoyouwant to sell yourmotorbike?” – “I’mgoing to buy acar.”

Rememberthatiftheactionisalreadydecideduponandpreparationshave been made, we should use the going to form, not the SimpleFutureTense.TheSimpleFutureTenseisusedforaninstantdecision.

239.Wealsousethegoingtoformtotalkaboutwhatseemslikelyorcertain,whenthereissomethinginthepresentwhichtellsusaboutthefuture.

Itisgoingtorain;lookatthoseclouds.Theboatisfullofwater.Itisgoingtosink.Sheisgoingtohaveababy.

240.Thegoingtoformmayalsoexpressanactionwhichisonthepointofhappening.

Let’sgetintothetrain.It’sgoingtoleave.Look!Thecrackerisgoingtoexplode.

Beaboutto241.Beaboutto+baseformcanalsobeusedfortheimmediate

future.

Let’sgetintothetrain.It’sabouttoleave.Don’tgooutnow.Weareabouttohavelunch.

SimplePresentTense242. The Simple Present Tense is used for official programmes

andtimetables.

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Thecollegeopenson23rdJune.Thefilmstartsat6.30andfinishesat9.00.WhendoesthenexttrainleaveforChennai?

243. TheSimple Present is often used for future time in clauseswith if, unless,when,while, as (=while),before, after, until, by thetime and as soon as. The Simple Future Tense is not used in suchcases.

Iwon’tgooutifitrains.(not:willrain)CanIhavesomemilkbeforeIgotobed?Let’swaittillhefinisheshiswork.Pleaseringmeupassoonashecomes.

PresentContinuousTense244.We use the Present Continuous Tense when we talk about

somethingthatwehaveplannedtodointhefuture.

IamgoingtoShimlatomorrow.Weareeatingouttonight.Mr.AbdulRehmanisarrivingthisevening.

You are advised to use the Present Continuous (not the SimplePresent)forpersonalarrangements.

FutureContinuousTense245.We use the Future Continuous Tense to talk about actions

whichwillbeinprogressatatimeinthefuture.

Isupposeitwillberainingwhenwestart.ThistimetomorrowIwillbesittingonthebeachinSingapore.“Can I seeyou at 5 o’clock?”– “Pleasedon’t come then. Iwill bewatchingthetennismatchonTV.”

246. We also use this tense to talk about actions in the futurewhich are already planned or which are expected to happen in the

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normalcourseofthings.

IwillbestayingheretillSunday.Hewillbemeetingusnextweek.Thepostmanwillbecomingsoon.

BeTo247.We use be to + base form to talk about official plans and

arrangements.

ThePrimeMinisteristovisitAmericanextmonth.Theconferenceistodiscuss“NuclearTests.”

Betoisusedinaformalstyle,ofteninnewsreports.Beisusuallyleftoutinheadlines,e.g.“PrimeMinistertovisitAmerica”.

FuturePerfectTense248. The Future Perfect Tense is used to talk about actions that

willbecompletedbyacertainfuturetime.

Ishallhavewrittenmyexercisebythen.Hewillhaveleftbeforeyougotoseehim.BytheendofthismonthIwillhaveworkedhereforfiveyears.

FuturePerfectContinuousTense249.TheFuturePerfectContinuoustenseisusedforactionswhich

willbeinprogressoveraperiodoftimethatwillendinthefuture.

BynextMarchweshallhavebeenlivinghereforfouryears.I’llhavebeenteachingfortwentyyearsnextJuly.

Thistenseisnotverycommon.


Choosethecorrectormoresuitableformsoftheverbstofillinthe

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blanks:

1. Theplane______at3.30.(arrives,willarrive)2. Iwillphoneyouwhenhe_____back.(comes,willcome)3. WhenIgethome,mydog_____at thegatewaitingforme.(sits,willbe

sitting)4. I_____theJoshisthisevening.(visit,amvisiting)5. Lookatthoseblackclouds.It_____(willrain,isgoingtorain)6. Thetrain______beforewereachthestation.(arrives,willhavearrived)7. Perhapswe______Mahabaleshwarnextmonth.(visit,willvisit)8. Unlesswe_____nowwecan’tbeontime.(start,willstart)9. I_____intotownlateron.Doyouwantalift?(drive,willbedriving)10. Thenextterm_____on16thNovember.(begins,isbeginning)11. Ohdear!I_____(willsneeze,amgoingtosneeze)12. By 2020, robots _____ many of the jobs that people do today. (will be

takingover,willhavetakenover)13. I’msureshe______theexam.(passes,willpass)14. I______homenextSunday.(go,amgoing)15. I______youoneofthesedays,Iexpect.(see,willbeseeing)16. Help!I_____fall.(willfall,amgoingtofall)17. She has bought some cloth; she ______ herself a blouse. (will make, is

goingtomake)18. I_____yourhousethisafternoon.Itisonmywayhomefromwork.(will

bepassing,ampassing)19. Hurryup!Theprogramme_____(willstart,isabouttostart)20. Thisbookisnotlong.I______itbylunchtime.(willbereading,willhave

read)

For information about verb forms in conditionals, see Book II,Chapter32.

CHAPTER27

THEVERB:PERSONANDNUMBER250.TheVerb, like thePersonalPronouns,has threePersons—

theFirst,theSecondandtheThird.Thuswesay

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1. Ispeak.2. Youspeak.(OldEnglish:Thouspeakest.)3. Hespeaks.

ThisisbecauseofthedifferenceinPersonoftheSubjects,asallthethreearesubjectsofthesingularnumber.

Insentence1,theSubjectisoftheFirstPerson,thereforetheVerbisalsooftheFirstPerson.

In sentence2, theSubject is of theSecondPerson, therefore theverbisalsooftheSecondPerson.

In sentence 3, the Subject is of the Third Person, therefore theVerbisalsooftheThirdPerson.

WethusseethattheVerbtakesthesamePersonasitsSubject;or,thattheVerbagreeswithitsSubjectinPerson.

251.TheVerb,liketheNounandthePronoun,hastwoNumbers:theSingularandthePlural.Thuswesay—

1. Hespeaks.2. Theyspeak.

This is because of the difference inNumber of the subjects (asboththeSubjectsareofthethirdperson).

In sentence 1, the Subject is Singular, therefore the Verb isSingular.

Insentence2,theSubjectisPlural,thereforetheVerbisPlural.WethusseethattheVerbtakesthesameNumberasitsSubject;

or,thattheVerbagreeswithitsSubjectinNumber.252.Butwehavealreadyseen that theVerbalsoagreeswith its

SubjectinPerson;hencewehavetheimportantrule—TheVerbmustagreewithitsSubjectinNumberandPerson;

that is, the Verb must be of the same Number and Person as itsSubject.Thus,iftheSubjectisoftheSingularNumber,FirstPerson,theVerbmustbeoftheSingularNumber,FirstPerson;as,

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Ispeak. Wespeak.Youspeak. You speak. (You is both singular and plural in

currentEnglish.)Hespeaks. Theyspeak.

Iam. Weare.Youare. Youare.Heis. Theyare.

Iamhere.Iwasthere.Ihaveabat.Iplaycricket.

If theSubject isof theSingularNumber,ThirdPerson, theVerbmustbeoftheSingularNumber,ThirdPerson;as,

Heishere.Hewasthere.Hehasabat.Heplayscricket.

If the Subject is of the Plural Number, Third Person, the VerbmustbeofthePluralNumber,ThirdPerson;as,

Theyarehere.Theywerethere.Theyhavebats.Theyplaycricket.

Note—InsomelanguagestheformoftheVerbchangeswiththeNumber and Person of the Subject. Inmodern English verbs havelost all their inflections for number andperson, except in the thirdpersonofthesingularnumber.Thuswehave—

Theonlyexceptionistheverbtobe.Wesay—

For further studyof the agreement of the verbwith the subject,seeBookII,Chapter17.

CHAPTER28

THEINFINITIVE253.Readthesesentences:

Iwanttogo.

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Theytriedtofindfaultwithus.

Theformstogoandtofindare“infinitives.”Theinfinitiveisthebaseofaverb,oftenprecededbyto.254.Readthefollowingsentences:

1. Toerrishuman.2. Birdslovetosing.3. Torespectourparentsisourduty.4. Herefusedtoobeytheorders.5. Manymendesiretomakemoneyquickly.

Insentence1,theInfinitive,likeanoun,istheSubjectoftheverbis.

Insentence2,theInfinitive,likeanoun,istheObjectoftheverblove.

Insentence3,theInfinitive,likeanoun,istheSubjectoftheverbis,but,likeaverb,italsotakesanobject.

Insentence4,theInfinitive,likeanoun,istheObjectoftheverbrefused,but,likeaverb,italsotakesanobject.

Insentence5,theInfinitive,likeanoun,istheObjectoftheverbdesire,but,likeaverb,italsotakesanObjectandismodifiedbyanAdverb.

It will be seen that the Infinitive is a kind of nounwith certainfeaturesoftheverb,especiallythatoftakinganobject(whentheverbis Transitive) and adverbial qualifiers. In short, the Infinitive is aVerb-Noun.

255.ThewordtoisfrequentlyusedwiththeInfinitive,butisnotanessentialpartorsignofit.

Thus,aftercertainverbs(bid, let,make,*need,*dare,see,hear),weusetheInfinitivewithoutto;as,

Bidhimgothere.Ibadehimgo.Lethimsithere.

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Iwillnotletyougo.Makehimstand.Imadehimrun.Weneednotgoto-day.Youneednotdoit.Youdarenotdoit.Isawhimdoit.Iheardhimcry.

256. The infinitive without to is also used after the verbswill,would,shall,should,may,might,can,couldandmust.

Iwillpaythebill.Youshouldworkharder.Hecanspeakfivelanguages.Youmustcometotheofficeatninetomorrow.

TheInfinitivewithouttoisalsousedafterhadbetter,hadrather,wouldrather,soonerthan,ratherthan;as,

Youhadbetteraskpermission.Ihadratherplaythanwork.Iwouldratherdiethansufferso.

USEOFTHEINFINITIVE257.TheInfinitive,withorwithoutadjuncts,maybeused,likea

Noun—(1)AstheSubjectofaVerb;as,

Tofindfaultiseasy.Toerrishuman.Toreignisworthambition.

(2)AstheObjectofatransitiveVerb;as

Idonotmeantoread.Helikestoplaycards.

(3)AstheComplementofaVerb;as,

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Hergreatestpleasureistosing.Hiscustomistoridedaily.

(4)AstheObjectofaPreposition;as,

Hehadnochoicebut(=except)toobey.Thespeakerisabouttobegin.

(5)AsanObjectiveComplement;as,

Isawhimgo.

When the infinitive is thus used, like a Noun, it is called theSimpleInfinitive.

258.TheInfinitiveisalsoused—(1)ToqualifyaVerb,usuallytoexpresspurpose;as,

Hecalledtoseemybrother(=forthepurposeofseeingmybrother).Weeattolive.(Purpose)IcometoburyCaesar.(Purpose)Hewepttoseethedesolationcausedbytheflood.(Cause)

(2)ToqualifyanAdjective;as,

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Present: tolove.Perfect: tohaveloved.PresentContinuous: tobeloving.PerfectContinuous: tohavebeenloving.

Figsaregoodtoeat.Thismedicineispleasanttotake.Theboysareanxioustolearn.Heistooilltodoanywork.

(3)ToqualifyaNoun;as,

Thisisnotthetimetoplay.Youwillhavecausetorepent.Heisamantobeadmired.Hereisahousetolet.Thishouseistolet.

(4)ToqualifyaSentence;as,

Totellthetruth,Iquiteforgotmypromise.Hewaspetrified,sotospeak.

When the Infinitive is thus used it is called theGerundial orQualifyingInfinitive.

It will be seen that in 1 and 2 theGerundial Infinitive does theworkofanAdverb;in3itdoestheworkofofanAdjective;in4itisusedabsolutely.

259.TheInfinitivemaybeactiveorpassive.Whenactiveitmayhaveapresentandaperfectform,andmaymerelynametheact,oritmayrepresentprogressiveorcontinuedaction.

ACTIVE

WhenpassivetheInfinitivehasapresentandaperfectform.

PASSIVE

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Present: tobeloved.Perfect: tohavebeenloved.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR49

StatehowtheInfinitiveisusedinthefollowingsentences:

1. Therewasnothingforittofight.2. Letuspray.3. Themangoisfittoeat.4. Iheardhersing.5. Ihavecometoseeyou.6. Theordertoadvancewasgiven.7. Menmustworkandwomenmustweep.8. Iamsorrytohearthis.9. Heisslowtoforgive.10. Amanseverehewasandsterntoview.11. Andfoolswhocametoscoffremainedtopray.12. Thustorelievethewretchedwashispride.13. Fullmanyaflowerisborntoblushunseen.14. Musichathcharmstosoothethesavagebeast.15. Neverseektotellthylove.16. Toretreatwasdifficult;toadvancewasimpossible.17. Everybodywishestoenjoylife.18. Mydesireistoseeyouagain.19. Therewasnotamomenttobelost.20. Thecounselrosetoaddressthecourt.21. Myrightthereisnonetodispute.22. Theabilitytolaughispeculiartomankind.23. Hehasthepowertoconcentratehisthoughts.24. Hewasquicktoseethepoint.25. Iamnotafraidtospeakthetruth.26. BetterdwellinthemidstofalarmsThanreigninthishorribleplace.27. Canyouhopetocountthestars?28. Totoilisthelotofmankind.29. Itisdelightfultohearthesoundofthesea.30. Itisapenaloffencetobribeapublicservant.

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Combine together the following pairs of sentences by usingInfinitives:[Example.—Napoleonwas one of the greatest of generals.He is universallyacknowledgedso.=Napoleonisuniversallyacknowledgedtohavebeenoneofthegreatestofgenerals.Note—Itwillbenoticedthatwehaveturnedoneofthesentencesintoaphrasecontaininganinfinitive.]1. Hedidnothaveevenarupeewithhim.Hecouldnotbuyaloafofbread.2. Everycricketteamhasacaptain.Hedirectstheotherplayers.3. Youmustpartwithyourpurse.On thisconditiononlyyoucansaveyour

life.4. HewenttoAmritsar.HewantedtovisittheGoldenTemple.5. Therobbertookoutaknife.Heintendedtofrightentheoldman.6. Ispeakthetruth.Iamnotafraidofit.7. Theinsolvent’spropertywassoldbytheofficialAssignee.Theinsolvent’s

creditorshadtobepaid.8. Hewantstoearnhislivelihood.Heworkshardforthatreason.9. The strikers held a meeting. They wished to discuss the terms of the

employers.10. Hehasfivechildren.Hemustprovideforthem.11. The old man has now little energy left. He cannot take his morning

constitutionalexercises.12. The Rajah allowed no cows to be slaughtered in his territory. It was his

custom.13. Heformedaresolution.Itwastotheeffectthathewouldnotspeculateany

more.14. Everyoneshoulddohisduty.Indiaexpectsthisofeveryman.15. Shevisitsthepoor.Sheisanxioustorelievethemoftheirsufferings.16. Hecollectsoldstampsevenatgreatexpense.Thisishishobby.17. He must apologise for his misconduct. It is the only way to escape

punishment.18. Ihavenoaptitudeforbusiness.Imustspeakitoutfrankly.19. Hewasdesirousofimpressinghishost.Sohewasonhisbestbehaviourin

hispresence.

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20. Thatyoungmanhassquanderedawayallhispatrimony.Hemusthavebeenveryfoolish.

21. Hehasrisentoeminencefrompovertyandobscurity.Itishighlycreditable.

*Exceptwhentheyareconjugatedwithdo.

CHAPTER29

THEPARTICIPLE260.Readthissentence:

Hearingthenoise,theboywokeup.

ThewordhearingqualifiesthenounboyasanAdjectivedoes.ItisformedfromtheVerbhear,andgovernsanobject.Thewordhearing,therefore,partakesofthenatureofbothaVerb

andanAdjective,andiscalledaParticiple.ItmaybecalledaVerbalAdjective.

Def.—AparticipleisthatformoftheVerbwhichpartakesofthenaturebothofaVerbandofanAdjective.

[Or]Aparticiple is awordwhich is partly aVerb andpartly anAdjective.

[Note—Thephrase‘Hearingthenoise’,whichisintroducedbyaParticiple,iscalledaParticiplePhrase.Accordingtoitsusehere,itisanAdjectivePhrase.]

261.StudythefollowingexamplesofParticiples:

1. Wemetagirlcarryingabasketofflowers.2. Loudlyknockingatthegate,hedemandedadmission.3. Thechild,thinkingallwassafe,attemptedtocrosstheroad.4. Herushedintothefield,andforemostfightingfell.

Theaboveareallexamplesofwhat isusuallycalledthePresentParticiple,whichendsin-ingandrepresentsanactionasgoingonor

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incompleteorimperfect.IftheverbfromwhichitcomesisTransitive,ittakesanobject,as

insentence1.Notice also that in sentence 2, the Participle is modified by an

adverb.262.Besides thePresentParticiple,wecan form fromeachverb

another Participle called its Past Participle, which represents acompletedactionorstateofthethingspokenof.

ThefollowingareexamplesofPastParticiples:

Blindedbyaduststorm,theyfellintodisorder.Deceivedbyhisfriends,helostallhope.Timemisspentistimelost.Drivenbyhunger,hestoleapieceofbread.Wesawafewtreesladenwithfruit.

ItwillbenoticedthatthePastParticipleusuallyendsin-ed,-d,-t,-en,or-n.

Besidesthesetwosimpleparticiples,thePresentandthePast,wehavewhat is called a Perfect Participle that represents an action ascompletedatsomepasttime;as,

Havingrested,wecontinuedourjourney.

263. InthefollowingexamplestheParticiplesareusedassimplequalifying adjectives in front of a noun; thus used they are calledParticipleAdjectives:

Arollingstonegathersnomoss.Wehadadrinkofthesparklingwater.Histatteredcoatneedsmending.Thecreakingdoorawakenedthedog.Alyingwitnessoughttobepunished.Heplayedalosinggame.Aburntchilddreadsthefire.Hisfinishedmannersproducedaveryfavourableimpression.Hewearsaworriedlook.

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Present:loving Present:beingloved.Perfect:havingloved Perfect:havingbeenloved.

Past:loved.

Active Passive

Educationisthemostpressingneedofourcountry.Hewasreputedtobethemostlearnedmanofhistime.

From the last two examples it will be noticed that a Participleadmitsofdegreesofcomparison.

264. Used adjectivally the past participle is Passive inmeaning,whilethePresentParticipleisActiveinmeaning;as,

aspentswimmer=aswimmerwhoistiredout;aburntchild=achildwhoisburnt;apainteddoll=adollwhichispainted;arollingstone=astonewhichrolls.

265.LetusnowrecapitulatewhatwehavealreadylearntabouttheParticiple.

(1)AparticipleisaVerbalAdjective.(2)LikeaVerbitmaygovernanounorpronoun;as,

Hearingthenoise,theboywokeup.[ThenounnoiseisgovernedbytheparticipleHearing].

(3)LikeaVerbitmaybemodifiedbyanadverb;as

Loudly knocking at the gate, he demanded admission. [Here theparticipleknockingismodifiedbytheadverbLoudly.]

(4)Likeanadjectiveitmayqualifyanounorpronoun;as,

Havingrested,themencontinuedtheirjourney.

(5)LikeanAdjectiveitmaybecompared;as,

Education is the most pressing need of our time. [Here theparticiplepressingiscomparedbyprefixingmost.]

266.BelowareshowntheformsofthedifferentParticiples:

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USEOFTHEPARTICIPLE267.ItwillbenoticedthattheContinuousTenses(ActiveVoice)

areformedfromthePresentParticiplewithtensesoftheverbbe;as,

The Perfect Tenses (Active Voice) are formed from the PastParticiplewithtensesoftheverbhave;as,

ThePassiveVoice is formedfromthePastParticiplewith tensesoftheverbbe;as,

268. We have seen that Participles qualify nouns or pronouns.Theymaybeused—

(1)Attributively;as,

Arollingstonegathersnomoss.Histatteredcoatneedsmending.Alostopportunityneverreturns.

(2)Predicatively;as,

Themanseemsworried.(ModifyingtheSubject)Hekeptmewaiting.(ModifyingtheObject.)

(3)Absolutelywithanounorpronoungoingbefore;as,

Theweatherbeingfine,Iwentout.Manyhavingarrived,wewerefreedfromanxiety.Weather permitting, there will be a garden party at GovernmentHousetomorrow.Godwilling,weshallhaveanothergoodmonsoon.Theseabeingsmooth,wewentforsail.Thewindhavingfailed,thecrewsettoworkwithawill.Hismasterbeingabsent,thebusinesswasneglected.

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Thewindbeingfavourable,theyembarked.

Itwill be seen that in eachof the above sentences theParticiplewiththenounorpronoungoingbeforeit,formsaphraseindependentof the rest of the sentence. Such a phrase is called an AbsolutePhrase; andanounorpronoun sousedwith aparticiple is calledaNominativeAbsolute.

269.AnAbsolutePhrasecanbeeasilychangedintoasubordinateclause;as,

Springadvancing, the swallowsappear. [When springadvances.—ClauseofTime.]The sea being smooth, we went for a sail. [Because the sea wassmooth.—ClauseofReason.]Godwilling, we shallmeet again. [If God is willing.—Clause ofCondition.]

ERRORSINTHEUSEOFPARTICIPLES270.Sincetheparticipleisaverb-adjectiveitmustbeattachedto

somenounorpronoun;inotherwords,itmustalwayshaveaproper‘subjectofreference’.

The following sentences are incorrect because in each case theParticipleisleftwithoutproperagreement:

1. Standingatthegate,ascorpionstunghim.(Asitis,thesentencereadsasifthescorpionwasstandingatthegate.)

2. Goingupthehill,anoldtemplewasseen.3. Enteringtheroom,thelightwasquitedazzling.

Weshould,therefore,recastthesesentencesasshownbelow:

1. Standingatthegate,hewasstungbyascorpion.Or:Whilehewasstandingatthegate,ascorpionstunghim.

2. Whenwewentupthehill,wesawanoldtemple.3. Enteringtheroom,Ifoundthelightquitedazzling.

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Or:WhenIenteredtheroom,thelightwasquitedazzling.

271.Usage,however,permits incertaincases suchconstructionsasthefollowingwheretheparticipleisleftwithoutaproper‘subjectof reference’. [TheParticiple in such cases is called an ImpersonalAbsolute.]

Taking everything into consideration, the Magistrate was perfectlyjustifiedinissuingthoseorders.Consideringhisabilities,heshouldhavedonebetter.Roughly speaking, the distance from here to the nearest railwaystationistwomiles.

It will be noticed that in the above instances the unexpressedsubjectisindefinite.

Thus,‘Roughlyspeaking’=Ifonespeaksroughly.272. Sometimes, as in the following examples, the Participle is

understood:

Sword(being)inhand,herushedonthejailor.Breakfast(havingbeen)over,wewentoutforawalk.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR51

Pick out the Participle in each of the following sentences. TellwhetheritisaPresentoraPastparticiple,andalsohowitisused:

1. Generallyspeaking,wereceivewhatwedeserve.2. Havinggainedtruth,keeptruth.3. Isawthestormapproaching.4. Hearinganoise,Iturnedround.5. Consideringthefacts,hereceivedscantjustice.6. Theenemy,beatenateverypoint,fledfromthefield.7. Beingdissatisfied,heresignedhisposition.8. Theraincamepouringdownintorrents.9. HavingelectedhimPresident,thepeoplegavehimtheirloyalsupport.10. Thetraveller,beingweary,satbythewoodsidetorest.

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EXERCISEINGRAMMAR52

Pick out the Participle in each of the following sentences. TellwhetheritisaPresentoraPastParticiple,andalsohowitisused:

1. Thefatofthebodyisfuellaidawayforuse.2. Beingoccupiedwithimportantmatters,hehadnoleisuretoseeus.3. Thechildrencominghomefromschoollookinattheopendoor.4. Michael,bereftofhissonLuke,diedofabrokenheart.5. Booksreadinchildhoodseemlikeoldfriends.6. Lessonslearnedeasilyaresoonforgotten.7. Awordfitlyspokenislikeapplesofgoldinpictures(baskets)ofsilver.8. Seeingthesunshine,Ithrewopenthewindow.9. Seizinghimbythearm,hisfriendledhimaway.10. Encouragedbyhiswife,hepersevered.11. Overcomebyremorse,hedeterminedtoatoneforhiscrimebyliberalityto

thechurch.


Combine the following pairs of sentences bymaking use of aParticiple:

[Examples.Themagician tookpityon themouse.He turned it intoacat.=Takingpityonthemouse,themagicianturneditintoacat.The trainwas ready to leave the station. The people had taken theirseats.=Thepeoplehavingtakentheirseats,thetrainwasreadytoleavethestation.]

1. Theporteropenedthegate.Weentered.2. Westartedearly.Wearrivedatnoon.3. Wemetaman.Hewascarryingalogofwood.4. Thestabledoorwasopen.Thehorsewasstolen.5. Heseizedhisstick.Herushedtothedoor.6. Thehuntertookuphisgun.Hewentouttoshootthelion.7. Acrowstoleapieceofcheese.Sheflewtohernesttoenjoythetastymeal.

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(a) Havingdonehislesson(=afterhehaddonehislesson),hewentouttoplaycricket.Walkingalongthestreetoneday(=whileIwaswalkingalongthestreetoneday)Isawadeadcobra.

(b) Beingoverpowered(=becausehewasoverpowered),hesurrendered.Runningattopspeed(=becauseheranattopspeed),hegotoutofbreath.

(c) Possessingalltheadvantagesofeducationandwealth(=althoughhepossessedalltheadvantagesofeducationandwealth),henevermadeaname.

(d) Followingmyadvice(=ifyoufollowmyadvice),youwillgainyourobject.Sevenwerekilled,includingtheguard(=iftheguardisincluded).

8. Thewolfwishedtopickaquarrelwiththelamb.Hesaid,“Howdareyoumakethewatermuddy?”

9. Apassengeralightedfromthetrain.Hefelloverabagontheplatform.10. Nanakmethisbrotherinthestreet.Heaskedhimwherehewasgoing.11. Mysisterwascharmedwiththesilk.Sheboughttenyards.12. Thesteamerwasdelayedbyastorm.Shecameintoportadaylate.13. Hehadresolvedonacertaincourse.Heactedwithvigour.14. Hestaggeredback.Hesanktotheground.15. The letter was badly written. I had great difficulty in making out its

contents.16. Theyhadnofodder.Theycouldgivethecownothingtoeat.17. Ahungryfoxsawsomebunchesofgrapes.Theywerehangingfromavine.18. Cinderella hurried away with much haste. She dropped one of her little

glassslippers.

273.Participlessometimescontainanimpliedmeaning,whichcanbe more fully expressed by changing the participal phrase into aclause of:(a) time, (b) cause, (c) concession, or (d) condition.[See §269.]


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Rewrite each of the following sentences, by changing theParticipleintoaFiniteVerb:

[Examples—Quitting the forest, we advanced into the open plain. = Wequitted the forest and advanced into the open plain. Driven out of hiscountry,hesoughtasyluminaforeignland.[=Ashewasdrivenoutofhiscountry,hesoughtasyluminaforeignland.]

1. Goingupthestairs,theboyfelldown.2. Havinglostmypassport,Iappliedforanewone.3. Ioncesawamanwalkingonarope.4. Walkingontheroof,heslippedandfell.5. Havingnoguidewithus,welostourway.6. Thestabledoorbeingopen,thehorsewasstolen.7. Beingparalytic,hecouldnotwalk.8. Hearingthenoise,Iwokeup.9. Caesarbeingmurdered,thedictatorshipcametoanend.10. Workingallday,Iwasfatigued.11. WemetanoldSadhuwalkingtoVaranasi.12. Havingcomeofage,hissonenteredintopartnershipwithhim.13. Havingfailedinthefirstattempt,hemadenofurtherattempts.14. Walkinguptothefrontdoor,Irangthebell.15. Wintercomingon,thegrasshopperhadnofood.16. Enchantedwiththewholescene,Ilingeredonmyvoyage.17. The enemy disputed their ground inch by inch, fightingwith the fury of

despair.18. Mountinghishorse,thebanditrodeoff.19. Thepoliceman,runningwithallhisspeed,wasscarcelyabletoovertakethe

thief.20. Notknowingmyway,Iaskedapoliceman.

CHAPTER30

THEGERUND274.Readthissentence:

Readingishisfavouritepastime.

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ThewordreadingisformedfromtheVerbread,byaddinging.WealsoseethatitishereusedastheSubjectofaverb,andhence

doestheworkofaNoun.Itis,therefore,aVerb-Noun,andiscalledaGerund.

FurtherexamplesofGerund:

1. Playingcardsisnotallowedhere.2. Ilikereadingpoetry.3. Heisfondofhoardingmoney.

Insentence1,theGerund,likeanoun,isthesubjectofaverb,but,likeaverb,italsotakesanobject,thusclearlyshowingthatithasalsotheforceofaverb.

Insentence2,theGerund,likeanoun,istheobjectofaverbbut,likeaverb,italsotakesanobject,thusclearlyshowingthatithasalsotheforceofaverb.

In sentence 3, the Gerund, like a noun, is governed by apreposition,but,likeaverb,italsotakesanobject.

Itwill be noticed that the Infinitive and theGerund are alike inbeingusedasNouns,whilestillretainingthepowerthataVerbhasofgoverninganothernounorpronounintheobjectivecase.

Def.—AGerundisthatformoftheverbwhichendsin-ing,andhastheforceofaNounandaVerb.

275. As both the Gerund and the Infinitive have the force of aNounandaVerb, theyhave thesameuses.Thus inmanysentenceseitherofthemmaybeusedwithoutanyspecialdifferenceinmeaning;as,

Teachmetoswim.Teachmeswimming.Togiveisbetterthantoreceive.Givingisbetterthanreceiving.Toseeistobelieve.Seeingisbelieving.

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Present:loving Present:beinglovedPerfect:havingloved Perfect:havingbeenloved

Active Passive

276. The following sentences contain examples of CompoundGerundforms:

Iheardofhishavinggainedaprize.Wewerefatiguedonaccountofhavingwalkedsofar.Theywerechargedwithhavingshelteredanarchists.Heisdesirousofbeingpraised.

It will be noticed that Compound Gerund forms are formed byplacingaPastParticipleaftertheGerundsofhaveandbe.

277.TheGerundofaTransitiveverbhasthefollowingforms:

278. As both theGerund and the Present Participle end in -ing,theymustbecarefullydistinguished.

The Gerund has the force of a Noun and a verb; it is a VerbalNoun.

ThePresentParticiplehastheforceofanAdjectiveandaVerb;itisaVerbalAdjective.

ExamplesofGerund—

Heisfondofplayingcricket.Theoldmanwastiredofwalking.Wewerepreventedfromseeingtheprisoner.Seeingisbelieving.

ExamplesofParticiple—

Playingcricket,hegainedhealth.Walkingalongtheroad,henoticedadeadcobra.Seeing,hebelieved.

279.Readthissentence:Theindiscriminatereadingofnovelsisinjurious.

HerereadingisusedlikeanordinaryNoun.

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Noticethattheisusedbeforeandofafterit.FurtherexamplesofGerundsusedlikeordinaryNouns.

Themakingoftheplanisinhand.Thetimeofthesingingofthebirdshascome.Adamconsentedtotheeatingofthefruit.The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageouslysituatedforthegainingofwisdom.

280.InsuchCompoundnounsaswalkingstickfencingstick,fryingpanwritingtable,huntingwhip,

walking,frying,hunting,fencing,writingareGerunds.Theymean ‘a stick forwalking,’ ‘a pan for frying,’ ‘awhip for

hunting,’‘astickforfencing,’and‘atableforwriting.’281.Comparethefollowingtwosentences:

1. Ihopeyouwillexcusemyleavingearly.2. Ihopeyouwillexcusemeleavingearly.

In the first sentence the word preceding the gerund is in thepossessive case, while in the second sentence it is in the objectivecase.Boththesentencesarecorrect.Wecanuseeitherthepossessivecase or objective case of nouns and pronouns before gerunds. Thepossessive is more formal, and it is less usual in everyday speech.Herearefurtherexamples:

Werejoicedathis/himbeingpromoted.Iinsistonyour/youbeingpresent.Doyoumindmy/mesittinghere?AlldependsonKarim’s/Karimpassingtheexam.Idislikedthemanager’s/manageraskingmepersonalquestions.The accident was due to the engine-driver’s/engine-driver

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disregardingthesignals.

USEOFTHEGERUND282.AGerundbeingaverb-nounmaybeusedas—(1)Subjectofaverb:as

Seeingisbelieving.Huntingdeerisnotallowedinthiscountry.

(2)Objectofatransitiveverb;as,

Stopplaying.Childrenlovemakingmudcastles.Ilikereadingpoetry.Hecontemplatedmarryinghiscousin.

(3)Objectofapreposition;as,

Iamtiredofwaiting.Heisfondofswimming.Hewaspunishedfortellingalie.Wewerepreventedfromseeingtheprisoner.Ihaveanaversiontofishing.

(4)Complementofaverb;as,

Seeingisbelieving.WhatImostdetestissmoking.

(5)Absolutely;as,

Playingcardsbeinghisaversion,wedidnotplaybridge.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR55

PointouttheParticiplesandGerundsinthefollowingsentences.In the case of the Participle, name the noun or pronoun which itqualifies.InthecaseoftheGerund,statewhetheritissubject,object,

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complement,orusedafterapreposition.

1. Hewasfoundfightingdesperatelyforhislife.2. Hehasruinedhissightbyreadingsmallprint.3. Hearingthenoise,herantothewindow.4. Wesawaclownstandingonhishead.5. Askingquestionsiseasierthanansweringthem.6. Wavingtheirhatsandhandkerchiefs,thepeoplecheeredtheking.7. Walkingonthegrassisforbidden.8. Jumpingoverthefence,thethiefescaped.9. Themiserspendshistimeinhoardingmoney.10. MuchdependsonRama’sreturningbeforenoon.11. Amassingwealthoftenruinshealth.12. IwassurprisedatHari’sbeingabsent.13. Wespenttheafternooninplayingcards.14. Themiserhatedspendingmoney.15. ShewasangryatSarojatryingtolietoher.16. Praisingallalikeispraisingnone.17. Areyouafraidofhishearingyou?18. Ideterminedtoincreasemysalarybymanagingalittlefarm.19. Successisnotmerelywinningapplause.20. Theyearwasspentinvisitingourrichneighbours.21. Singingtoherselfwasherchiefdelight.22. Hepreferredplayingfootballtostudyinghislessons.23. Ithankthee,Jew,forteachingmethatword.24. Icannotgoondoingnothing.

CHAPTER31

IRREGULARVERBS283.Verbscanberegularorirregular.284. Regular verbs form their past tense and past participle by

addinged.

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285. Irregularverbs form theirpast tenseandpastparticiple inadifferentwayfromadding“ed”.

Wedistinguishthreetypesofirregularverbs:(1)Verbsinwhichallthreeformsarethesame(e.g.cut-cut-cut)(2)Verbsinwhichtwoofthethreeformsarethesame(e.g.sit-

sat-sat)(3)Verbsinwhichallthreeformsaredifferent(e.g.ring-rang-

rung)286.Belowisalistofirregularverbsdividedintothethreetypes

mentionedabove.Someofthemcanalsoberegular.Insuchcasestheregularformsarealsogiven.

Type(1)–Allthreeformsarethesame;as,

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Type(2)–Twooftheformsarethesame;as,

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Type(3)–Allthreeformsaredifferent;as,

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Hehasdrunkliquor. adrunkensoldierTheironhasmelted. moltenironHehasprovedit. aprovenfactHehasshavedoffhisbeard. aclean-shavenfaceTheyhaveshearedthesheep. ashornsheepTheclothhasshrunk. ashrunkenheadTheshiphassunk. asunkenshipTheclockhasstruckfive. agrief-strickenwidow

(a) (b)

287.Thefollowingverbshaveanalternativepastparticipleform(endingin‘en’),whichcanonlybeusedadjectivally.

Comparethefollowing:


InthefollowingsentenceschangetheverbstothePastTense:1. Ramawritestohismothereveryweek.2. Thewindblowsfuriously.3. Theboystandsontheburningdeck.4. Thedoorfliesopen.5. Shesingssweetly.6. Theoldwomansitsinthesun.7. Abdulswimsverywellindeed.

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see. ItisyearssinceI____him.Hehas____hisbestdays.fall. Oflatethecustomhas____intodisuse.Thelot

____uponhim.

8. Hisvoiceshakeswithemotion.9. Hedrivesaroaringtrade.10. Hebearsagrudgeagainsthisolduncle.11. Hespendshistimeinidleness.12. Hefeelssorryforhisfaults.13. AportraitofMahatmaGandhihangsonthewall.14. Thekitefliesgailyintotheair.15. Hewearsawayhisyouthintrifles.16. Whatstrikesmeisthegenerosityoftheoffer.17. Hesowstheseedsofdissension.18. Theyalltellthesamestory.19. Heliesinordertoescapepunishment.20. Hecomesofagoodline.21. Theboyrunsdowntheroadattopspeed.22. Idoitofmyownfreewill.23. Hisparentswithholdtheirconsenttothemarriage.24. Iforgethisname.25. Hegetsalongfairlywell.26. TheychooseMr.Maliktobetheirchairman.27. Hethrowscoldwateronmyplan.28. Thechildclingstohermother.29. Judas,overwhelmedwithremorse,goesandhangshimself.30. IknowhimforanAmerican.31. Heswearsasolemnoaththatheisinnocent.32. Inafitofrageshetearsuptheletter.33. Herheadsinksonhershoulder.34. Shehidesherfaceforshame.35. Mymasterbidsmeworkhard.36. Thebookslieinaheaponthefloor.37. Shelaysherhandbagonthetable.


FillinthePastTenseorPastParticipleofverbgiven:

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drink. Thetoastwas____withgreatenthusiasm.speak. He____freelywhenhehaddrunkalcohol.Marathiis

____inMaharashtra.wear. Mypatience____outatlast.Theinscriptionhas

____awayinseveralplaces.tear. Inafitofrageshe____uptheletter.Thecountryis

____byfactions.sting. Hehasbeen____byascorpion.Theremark____him.run. Youlookasifyouhad____allthewayhome.He

____forhislife.forget. OnceSydneySmith,beingaskedhisnamebythe

servant,foundtohisdismaythathehad____hisownname.

choose. Abetterdayforadrivecouldnothavebeen____.come. Computertechnologyhas_______alongwaysincethe

1970s.bite. Theoldbeggarwas____byamaddog.Amaddog

____him.swim. Theboyhas______acrosstheIndus.write. Ithinkheshouldhave____andtoldus.Honestyis

____onhisface.lay. He____thebookonthetable.Hehadnot____afinger

onhim.They____theirheadstogether.lie. We____beneathaspreadingoak.Hehaslong

____undersuspicion.take. Abeautifulshotfromcover-point____offtheballs.

Hehas____afancytotheboy.go. Recentlythepriceofsugarhas____up.Theargument

____home.Theverdict____againsthim.begin. Hehad____hisspeechbeforewearrived.He____to

talknonsense.bid. Doasyouare____.He____usgood-bye.

He____twothousandrupeesforthepony.ring. Hasthewarning-bell____?I____himuplastnight.steal. Someonehas____mypurse.She____hisheart.sow. Youmustreapwhatyouhave____.drive. Poorfellow!hewas–veryhard.Theysayhe____a

hardbargain.

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hardbargain.sing. Itseemedtomethatshehadnever____sowell.Our

bugles____truce.shake. Hewasmuch____bythenews.Hisvoice____ashe

spoke.eat. Heis____upwithpride.Intheendhe____hiswords.do. Letushave____withit.I____myduty.spring. Homerdescribesaraceofmenwho____fromthegods.

Theship____aleak.show. HasRustum____youhiscamera?He____acleanpair

ofheels.freeze. Theexplorerswere____todeath.Theblood____in

theirveins.strike. Iwas____byastone.Itnever____mebeforethathe

wasold.mistake. IfounduponinquirythatIhad____thehouse.He

____meformybrother.shoe. Go,asktheferrierwhetherhehas____thehorsesyet.strew. Hispathwas____withflowers.sink. Hisvoicegradually____toawhisper.

Andthousandshad____tothegroundoverpower’d.tread. Walkingthroughthejungle,he____onasnake.rise. Hehas____fromtheranks.Ashisfriendsexpectedhe

____totheoccasion.beat. Onthearrivalofapoliceman,he____ahastyretreat.He

____theAfghansinabloodybattle.Itwasnottheonlybattleinwhichtheywere____.

blow. Thetempest____theshipashore.catch. Walkingonthebeach,we____sightofastrangebird.

Hehas____aTartar.have. Afterthestormwe____aspelloffineweather.meet. I____alittlecottagegirl.Thepoorfellowhas____with

manyreverses.sleep. Wethoughtherdyingwhenshe____.get. Hehas____holdofthewrongendofthestick.lead. Thefaithfuldog____hisblindmaster.awake. Andhisdisciplescametohim,and____him.Iwassoon

____fromthisdisagreeablereverie.

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bear. Iwas____awaybyanimpulse.stand. Ithas____thetestoftime.sit. Hehas____fortheexamination.know. Hesayshehasnever____sickness.I____his

antecedents.bind. Theprisonerwas____handandfoot.break. Hehas____hiscollar-bone.breed. Whatis____inthebonewillnotwearoutoftheflesh.strive. I____withnone,fornonewasworthmystrife.give. Henever____meachancetospeak.

Heis____toopium-smoking.dream. I____Iwasinloveagain.weep. Ihave____amilliontears.

spin. Thestoryistediously____out.mean. I____itforajoke.Hewas____foralawyer.arise. Suddenlythewind____.

Thereneverhas____agreatmanwhohasnotbeenmisunderstood.

draw. Who____thefirstprize?Hehas____awronginference.Thetrain____uptothestation.

understand. Icertainly_____youtomakethatpromise.IamafraidIdidnotmakemyself____.

shoot. Hewasaccidentally____inthearm.shrink. Heisnotknownevertohave____fromanencounter.

Therewasnocrueltyfromwhichtherobberchief____.smell. Inoticedthathe____ofbrandy.stick. Thecart____inthemud.swear. Thesoldiers_____allegiancetotheConstitutionof

India.Hewasyesterday____inasamemberoftheLegislativeAssembly.

sweep. Thewaves____thepier.Thepierwas____away.Plague____offmillions.


FillinthePastTenseorPastParticipleofverbgiven:

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cost. Oftenaliehas____alife.Hisfolly____himyearsofpoverty.

buy. Arupee____twiceasmuchfifteenyearsago.crow. Hisenemies____overhisfall.deal. He____unfairlywithhispartner.

Therobber______himablowonthehead.Lose. Hisrashness____himhislife.____timeisneverfound

again.Themanwhoyieldstothefascinationofthegaming-tableis____.

find. Sir,Ihave____youanargument;butIamnotobligedtofindyouanunderstanding.Thepicture____itswaytotheauction-room.

forgive. Christ____hiscrucifiers.sleep. ItissaidofAkbarthatherarely____morethanthree

hoursatatime.seek. Hiscompanyisgreatly____after.

Itmightbetrulysaidofhimthathenever____honour.hide. Adamandhiswife____themselvesfromthepresence

oftheLordGod.fall. He____nevertoriseagain.Acertainmanwentdown

fromJerusalemtoJericho,and____amongthieves.Hehas____asleep.

set. Hehas____hisheartonsuccess.Theteacher____themanexample.

die. He____ataripeoldage.see. I____hersingingatherwork.Hehas____theupsand

downsoflife.spoil. Thenews____mydinner.leave. Hehas____alargefamily.ThePolice____nostone

unturnedtotracetheculprits.grow. Threeyearsshe____insunandshower.Someofthese

warshave____outofcommercialconsiderations.think. Ihave____ofaplan.

I____ofChatterton,themarvellousboy.become. He____theslaveoflowdesires.hear. Notadrumwas____,notafuneralnote.Hehopeshis

prayerwillbe____.

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fight. He____forthecrown.Hehasagoodfight.forsake. Hiscourage____him.Hehas____hisoldfriends.teach. Thevillagemaster____hislittleschool.

Theyhave____theirtonguetospeaklies.wring. She____herhandsinagony.Anyappealforhelp

____herheart.wind. He____upbyappealingtotheaudiencetocontributeto

thefund.thrust. Hewas____throughwithajavelin.say. Hehas____thelastwordonthematter.fly. Thebirdhas____away.Thebird____overthetree.flee. Themurdererhas____toAustralia.

Theterrifiedpeople____tothemountains.overflow. Duringthenighttheriverhad____itsbanks.

CHAPTER32

AUXILIARIESANDMODALS288.Theverbsbe(am,is,was,etc),haveanddo,whenusedwith

ordinaryverbstomaketenses,passiveforms,questionsandnegatives,arecalledauxiliaryverbsorauxiliaries.(Auxiliary=helping)

289.Theverbscan,could,may,might,will,would,shall,should,must and ought are calledmodal verbs ormodals. They are usedbefore ordinary verbs and express meanings such as permission,possibility,certaintyandnecessity.Needanddarecansometimesbeusedlikemodalverbs.

Modals are often included in the group of auxiliaries. In somegrammarstheyarecalled“modalauxiliaries”.

290.Themodalscan,could,may,might,shall,should,will,would,must andought are termedDefectiveVerbs, because someparts arewanting in them.They have no -s in the third person singular; theyhaveno-ingandedforms.

BE

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291.Theauxiliarybeisused(1)Intheformationofthecontinuoustenses;as,

Heisworking.Iwaswriting.

(2)Intheformationofthepassive;as,

Thegatewasopened.

Befollowedbytheinfinitiveisused(1)Toindicateaplan,arrangement,oragreement;as,

Iamtoseehimtomorrow.Wearetobemarriednextmonth.

(2)Todenotecommand;as,

Youaretowriteyournameatthetopofeachsheetofpaper.Mothersaysyouaretogotomarketatonce.

292. Be is used in the past tense with the perfect infinitive toindicateanarrangementthatwasmadebutnotcarriedout;as,

Theywere to have beenmarried lastmonth but had to postpone themarriageuntilJune.

HAVE293. The auxiliary have is used in the formation of the perfect

tenses;as,

Hehasworked.Hehasbeenworking.

294.Havetoisusedwiththeinfinitivetoindicateobligation;as,Ihavetobetherebyfiveo’clock.Hehastomovethefurniturehimself.

295.Thepastformhadtoisusedtoexpressobligationinthepast.Ihadtobetherebyfiveo’clock.Hehadtomovethefurniturehimself.

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296.Innegativesandquestions,havetoandhadtoareusedwithdo,does,did;as,

Theyhavetogo.→Theydon’thavetogo.Dotheyhavetogo?Hehastogo.→Hedoesn’thavetogo.Doeshehavetogo?Hehadtogo.→Hedidn’thavetogo.Didhehavetogo?

DO297.Theauxiliarydoisused(1)To form the negative and interrogative of the simple present

andsimplepasttensesofordinaryverbs;as,

Hedoesn’twork.Hedidn’twork.Doeshework?Didhework?

(2)Toavoidrepetitionofapreviousordinaryverb;as,

Doyouknowhim?Yes,Ido.Shesingswell.Yes,shedoes.Youmethim,didn’tyou?Heeatsfishandsodoyou.

298. Do is also used to emphasize the affirmative nature of astatement;as,

Youdolookpale.Itoldhimnottogo,buthedidgo.

299. In the imperative, do makes a request or invitation morepersuasive;as,

Dobequiet,Oh,docome!It’sgoingtobesuchfun.

Insuchcasesdoisstronglystressed.

CAN,COULD,MAY,MIGHT300.Canusuallyexpressesabilityorcapacity;as,

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Icanswimacrosstheriver.Hecanworkthissum.Canyouliftthisbox?

301.Can andmay areused to expresspermission.May is ratherformal.

Youcan/maygonow.Can/MayIborrowyourumbrella?

302.May is used to express possibility in affirmative sentences.Canisusedinthecorrespondinginterrogativeandnegativesentences.

Itmayraintomorrow.Hemaybeathome.Canthisbetrue?Itcannotbetrue.

Compare ‘It cannot be true’ with ‘Itmay not be true’. Cannotdenotesimpossibility,whilemaynotdenotesimprobability.

303.InveryformalEnglish,mayisusedtoexpressawish;as,Mayyoulivehappilyandlong!Maysuccessattendyou!

304.Couldandmightareusedasthepastequivalentsofcanandmay;as,

IcouldswimacrosstheriverwhenIwasyoung.(Ability)HesaidImight/couldgo.(Permission)Ithoughthemightbeathome.(Possibility)Shewonderedwhetheritcouldbetrue.(Possibility)

305.Could,asinthefirstexampleabove,expressesonlyabilitytodoanact,butnottheperformanceofanact.Weshouldusewas/wereabletoforability+actioninthepast.

Whentheboatwasupset,wewereableto(ormanagedto)swimtothebank.(not:wecouldswimtothebank)

Innegativestatements,however,eithercouldorwas/wereableto

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maybeused.

Icouldn’t(or:wasn’tableto)solvethepuzzle.Itwastoodifficult.

306. In present-time contexts could andmight are used as lesspositiveversionsofcanandmay;as,

Icouldattendtheparty.(Lesspositiveandmorehesitantthan‘Icanattendtheparty’.)Might/Could I borrow your bicycle ? (A diffident way of saying‘May/CanI.......’)Itmightraintomorrow.(Lesspositivethan‘Itmayrain......’)Couldyoupassmethesalt?(Politerequest)

307.Might is also used to express a degree of dissatisfaction orreproach;as,

Youmightpayalittlemoreattentiontoyourappearance.308.Note theuseofcan, could,may andmightwith theperfect

infinitive:

Heisnotthere.Wherecanhehavegone?(=Whereisitpossiblethathehasgone?-Mayexpressesannoyance.)You could have accepted the offer. (=Why didn’t you accept theoffer?)Fatima may/might have gone with Saroja. (= Possibly Fatima hasgone/wentwithSaroja.)Whydidyoudrivesocarelessly?Youmighthaverunintothelamp-post.(=Itisfortunatethatyoudidn’trunintothelamp-post.)

SHALL,SHOULD,WILL,WOULD309. Shall is used in the first person andwill in all persons to

expresspurefuture.TodayI/weshall is lesscommonthanI/wewill;as,

Ishall/willbetwenty-fivenextbirthday.Wewillneedthemoneyon15th.Whenshallweseeyouagain?TomorrowwillbeSunday.

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YouwillseethatIamright.

In present-dayEnglish, however, there is a growing tendency tousewillinallpersons.

310.Shall is sometimes used in the second and third persons toexpressacommand,apromise,orthreat;as,

Heshallnotentermyhouseagain.(Command)Youshallhaveaholidaytomorrow.(Promise)Youshallbepunishedforthis.(Threat)

Notethat—Thattheseusesofshallareold-fashionedandformalandgenerallyavoidedinmodernEnglish.

311. Questions with shall I/we are used to ask the will of thepersonaddressed;as,

ShallIopenthedoor?(i.e.,Doyouwantmetoopenit?)WhichpenshallIbuy?(i.e.,Whatisyouradvice?)Whereshallwego?(Whatisyoursuggestion?)

312.Willisusedtoexpress(1)Volition;as,

Iwill(=amwillingto)carryyourbooks.Iwill(=promiseto)trytodobetternexttime.Iwill(=amdeterminedto)succeedordieintheattempt.

Inthelastexampleabove,willisstrong-stressed.(2)Characteristichabit;as,

Hewilltalkaboutnothingbutfilms.Shewillsitforhourslisteningtothewireless.

(3)Assumptionorprobability;as,

Thiswillbethebookyouwant,Isuppose.Thatwillbethepostman,Ithink.

313.Willyou?indicatesaninvitationorarequest;as,Willyouhavetea?

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(i) Ishould(or:would)likeyoutohelpher.(‘Should/wouldlike’isapoliteformof‘want’).

(ii) Wouldyoulendmeyourscooter,please?(‘Wouldyou?’ismorepolitethan‘Willyou?’)

(iii) Youshouldhavebeenmorecareful.(Should+perfectinfinitiveindicatesapastobligationthatwasnotfulfilled).

(iv) Heshouldbeinthelibrarynow.(Expressesprobability)(v) Iwishyouwouldnotchattersomuch.(Wouldafterwish

expressesastrongdesire).

Willyoulendmeyourscooter?

314.Should andwould are used as the past equivalents of shallandwill;as,

IexpectedthatIshould(moreoften:would)getafirstclass.Hesaidhewouldbetwenty-fivenextbirthday.Shesaidshewouldcarrymybooks.Shewouldsitforhourslisteningtothewireless.(Pasthabit)

315.Should isused inallpersons toexpressdutyorobligation ;as,

Weshouldobeythelaws.Youshouldkeepyourpromise.Childrenshouldobeytheirparents.

316. In clauses of condition, should is used to express asuppositionthatmaynotbetrue.

Ifitshouldrain,theywillnotcome.Ifheshouldseemehere,hewillbeannoyed.

317.Shouldandwouldarealsousedasintheexamplesbelow.

MUST,OUGHTTO318.Mustisusedtoexpressnecessityorobligation.

Youmustimproveyourspelling.

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Wemustgetupearly.

318A.Mustreferstothepresentorthenearfuture.Totalkaboutthepastweusehad to (thepast formofhave to);must has nopastform.

Yesterdaywehadtogetupearly.

319. Must is often used when the obligation comes from thespeaker.Whentheobligationcomesfromsomewhereelse,havetoisoftenused.Compare:

Imustbeonadiet.(Itismyownidea.)Ihavetobeonadiet.(Thedoctorhastoldmetobeonadiet.)

319A.Mustcanalsoexpresslogicalcertainty.Livinginsuchcrowdedconditionsmustbedifficult.(=Iamsureitisdifficult.)Shemusthaveleftalready.(Iamsureshehasleftalready).

320.Ought(to)expressesmoralobligationordesirability;as,Weoughttoloveourneighbours.Weoughttohelphim.Yououghttoknowbetter.

321.Ought(to)canalsobeusedtoexpressprobability;asPricesoughttocomedownsoon.Thisbookoughttobeveryuseful.

USED(TO),NEED,DARE322.Theauxiliaryused(to)expressesadiscontinuedhabit.

Thereusedtobeahousethere.IusedtolivetherewhenIwasaboy.

Used (to) as an auxiliary verb is old-fashioned and very formal.Todaywenormallyusedidinnegativesandquestions(e.g.)Didyou

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usedtoswin?)323.Theauxiliaryneed,denotingnecessityorobligation,canbe

conjugatedwithorwithoutdo.Whenconjugatedwithoutdo,ithasno-s and -ed forms and is used with an infinitive without to only innegative and interrogative sentences and in sentences that containsemi-negativewordslike‘scarcely’and‘hardly’.

Heneednotgo.(=Itisnotnecessaryforhimtogo.)NeedIwritetohim?Ineedhardlytakehishelp.

324.When conjugatedwithdo, need has the usual formsneeds,needed and is used with a to-infinitive. It is commonly used innegativesandquestions;itsometimesoccursintheaffirmativealso.

Doyouneedtogonow?Idon’tneedtomeethim.Oneneedstobecareful.

325.Compare:(i)Ididn’tneedtobuyit.(=Itwasnotnecessaryformetobuyit

andIdidn’tbuyit.)(ii)Ineedn’thaveboughtit.(=Itwasnotnecessaryformetobuy

it,butIboughtit.)326.Theauxiliarydare(=bebraveenoughto),asdistinctfromthe

ordinaryverbdare (=challenge),doesnot take -s in the thirdpersonsingular present tense. It is generally used in negative andinterrogative sentences.When conjugatedwithoutdo, it is followedby an infinitive without to ; when conjugated with do, it takes aninfinitivewithorwithouttoafterit.

Hedarenottakesuchastep.Howdareyoucontradictme?Hedarednotdoit.Hedoesn’tdarespeaktome.

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Choosethecorrectalternative:1. Idon’tthinkI(shall,should,can)beabletogo.2. He(shall,will,dare)notpayunlessheiscompelled.3. You(should,would,ought)bepunctual.4. Iwishyou(should,would,must)tellmeearlier.5. (Shall,Will,Would)Iassistyou?6. (Shall,should,would)youpleasehelpmewiththis?7. You(ought,should,must)topayyourdebts.8. HesaidI(can,might,should)usehistelephoneatanytime.9. Ifyou(shall,should,would)seehim,givehimmyregards.10. He(need,dare,would)notaskforarise,forfearoflosinghisjob.11. I (needn’t to see, needn’t have seen, didn’t need to see) him, so I sent a

letter.12. (Shall,Might,Could)youshowmethewaytothestation.13. Tosavemylife,Iranfast,and(would,could,wasableto)reachsafely.14. I(would,used,ought)tobeanatheistbutnowIbelieveinGod.15. You(needn’t,mustn’t,won’t)lightamatch;theroomisfullofgas.16. ThePrimeMinister(would,need,isto)makeastatementtomorrow.17. You(couldn’twait,didn’tneedtowait,need’thavewaited)forme;Icould

havefoundthewayallright.18. IwasafraidthatifIaskedhimagainhe(can,may,might)refuse.19. She(shall,will,dare)sitoutsidehergardengateforhoursatatime,looking

atthepassingtraffic.20. (Should,Would,Shall)youlikeanothercupofcoffee?21. Iwishhe(should,will,would)notplayhiswirelessoloudly.22. I (am to leave, would leave, was to have left) on Thursday. But on

ThursdayIhadaterriblecold,soIdecidedtowaittillSaturday.23. He(used,isused,wasused)toplaycricketbeforehismarriage.24. (Shall,Will,Would)Icarrytheboxintothehouseforyou?25. He(will,can,might)come,butIshouldbesurprised.

EXERCISEINCOMPOSITION59A

Rewriteeachofthesesentences,usingamodalverb:

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Ilove IamlovedYoulove Youareloved

Active Passive

(In2and9,useanothermodal.)1. Possiblysheisn’tAnil’ssister.2. PerhapswewillgotoShimlanextmonth.3. Mysisterwasabletoreadthealphabetwhenshewas18monthsold.4. Itisnecessarythatyoudonotwashthecar.(Thepaintisstillwet.)5. Itisnotnecessaryforyoutowashthecar.(Itisclean.)6. Iamcertainthattheyhaveleftalready.7. Doyouallowmetouseyourphone?8. IwasinthehabitofgoingtothebeacheverydaywhenIwasinChennai.9. Hewillprobablypasshisdrivingtesteasily.10. Perhapsheforgotaboutthemeeting.11. IsuggestvisitingQutabMinar.12. Nobodyhasansweredthephone;perhapstheyhavegoneout.13. Iamsureheisoverseventy.14. ItwasnotnecessaryformetomeethimbutImethim.15. Itwasnotnecessaryformetomeethim(andIdidn’tmeethim).

CHAPTER33

CONJUGATIONOFTHEVERBLOVE327. The conjugation of a verb shows the various forms it

assumes, either by inflection or by combination with parts of otherverbs, to mark Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and Person ; and tothosemustbeaddeditsInfinitivesandParticiples.

Belowisgiventhecompleteconjugationof theverb love,withaview to helping the student to systematize the knowledge alreadyacquiredbyhim.

(I)TENSES

SIMPLEPRESENT

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Youlove YouarelovedHeloves HeislovedTheylove Theyareloved

Iamloving IambeinglovedYouareloving YouarebeinglovedHeisloving HeisbeinglovedWeareloving WearebeinglovedTheyareloving Theyarebeingloved

Ihaveloved IhavebeenlovedYouhaveloved YouhavebeenlovedHehasloved HehasbeenlovedWehaveloved WehavebeenlovedTheyhaveloved Theyhavebeenloved

Ihavebeenloving ......Youhavebeenloving ......Wehavebeenloving ......Theyhavebeenloving ......

Iloved IwaslovedYouloved YouwerelovedHeloved Hewasloved

Active Passive

Active Passive

Active Passive

Active Passive

PRESENTCONTINUOUS

PRESENTPERFECT

PRESENTPERFECTCONTINUOUS

SIMPLEPAST

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Heloved HewaslovedWeloved WewerelovedTheyloved Theywereloved

Iwasloving IwasbeinglovedYouwereloving YouwerebeinglovedHewasloving HewasbeinglovedTheywereloving Theywerebeingloved

Ihadloved IhadbeenlovedYouhadloved YouhadbeenlovedHehadloved HehadbeenlovedWehadloved WehadbeenlovedTheyhadloved Theyhadbeenloved

Ihadbeenloving ......Youhadbeenloving ......Hehadbeenloving ......Wehadbeenloving ......Theyhadbeenloving ......

Ishall/willlove Ishall/willbelovedYouwilllove YouwillbelovedHewilllove HewillbelovedWeshalllove Weshallbeloved

Active Passive

Active Passive

Active Passive

Active Passive

PASTCONTINUOUS

PASTPERFECT

PASTPERFECTCONTINUOUS

SIMPLEFUTURE

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Weshalllove WeshallbelovedTheywilllove Theywillbeloved

Ishall/willbeloving ......Youwillbeloving ......Hewillbeloving ......Weshallbeloving ......Theywillbeloving ......

Ishall/willhaveloved Ishall/willhavebeenlovedYouwillhaveloved YouwillhavebeenlovedHewillhaveloved HewillhavebeenlovedWeshallhaveloved WeshallhavebeenlovedTheywillhaveloved Theywillhavebeenloved

Ishall/willhavebeenloving ......Youwillhavebeenloving ......Hewillhavebeenloving ......Weshallhavebeenloving ......Theywillhavebeenloving ......

Love Beloved

Active Passive

Active Passive

Active Passive

Active Passive

FUTURECONTINUOUS

FUTUREPERFECT

FUTUREPERFECTCONTINUOUS

(II)THEIMPERATIVE

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(III)NON-FINITES

CHAPTER34

THEADVERB328.Readthefollowingsentences:

1. Ramarunsquickly.2. Thisisaverysweetmango.3. Govindreadsquiteclearly.

Insentence1,quicklyshowshow(orinwhatmanner)Ramaruns;thatis,quicklymodifiestheVerbruns.

In sentence 2, very shows how much (or in what degree) themangoissweet;thatis,verymodifiestheAdjectivesweet.

In sentence 3,quite showshow far (or towhat extent)Govindreadsclearly;thatis,quitemodifiestheAdverbclearly.

A word that modifies the meaning of a verb, an adjective, oranother Adverb is called anAdverb. The words quickly, very, andquiteare,therefore,Adverbs.

Def.—AnAdverbisawordwhichmodifiesthemeaningofaVerb,anAdjectiveoranotherAdverb.

329.InthefollowingsentencesAdverbsmodifyphrases:Shewassittingclosebesidehim.Atwhathouristhesunrightaboveus?Haveyoureadallthroughthisbook?Shewasdressedallinpink.Hepaidhisdebtsdowntothelastpenny.

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Ihaveheardthisbefore. Thatdayhearrrivedlate.Weshallnowbegintowork. Hecalledhereafewminutesago.Ihadaletterfromhimlately. Theendsooncame.Hecomesheredaily. Ihurtmykneeyesterday.Ihavespokentohimalready. Wastedtimeneverreturns.

Ihavetoldyoutwice. Ihavenotseenhimonce.Heoftenmakesmistakes. Heseldomcomeshere.Thepostmancalledagain. Healwaystriestodohisbest.

Standhere. Gothere.ThelittlelambfollowedMaryeverywhere.Helookedup. Mybrotherisout.IsMr.Daswithin? Comein.Thehorsegallopedaway. Walkbackward.

330. Adverbs standing at the beginning of sentences sometimesmodifythewholesentence,ratherthananyparticularword;as,

Probablyheismistaken.[=Itisprobablethatheismistaken.]Possiblyitisasyousay.Certainlyyouarewrong.Evidentlythefiguresareincorrect.Unfortunatelynoonewaspresentthere.Luckilyheescapedunhurt.

KINDSOFADVERBS331.Adverbsmaybedividedintothefollowingclasses,according

totheirmeaning:(1)AdverbsofTime(whichshowwhen)

HeoncemetmeinCairo;Ihavenotseenhimsince.Mr.Guptaformerlylivedhere.

(2)AdverbsofFrequency(whichshowhowoften).

Hefrequentlycomesunprepared.

(3)AdverbsofPlace(whichshowwhere).

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Govindreadsclearly. TheSikhsfoughtbravely.Thisstoryiswellwritten. Theboyworkshard.Thechildsleptsoundly. Iwasagreeablydisappointed.Slowlyandsadlywelaidhimdown.

Isthatso?

Youshouldnotdoso. Thusonly,willyousucceed.

Hewastoocareless. Isthatanybetter?Thesemangoesarealmostripe.Iamfullyprepared. Youarequitewrong.Theseaisverystormy. Iamratherbusy.Heisgoodenoughformypupose.Iamsoglad. Youarepartlyright.Youarealtogethermistaken.Thingsarenobetteratpresent.Shesingsprettywell. HeisastallasRama.

Hecertainlywent. Idonotknowhim.

Shesingsdelightfully. (AdverbofManner)

(4)AdverbsofManner(whichshowhoworinwhatmanner).

Note—This class includes nearly all those Adverbs which arederivedfromadjectivesandendin-ly.

(5)AdverbsofDegreeorQuantity(whichshowhowmuch,orinwhatdegreeortowhatextent).

(6)AdverbsofAffirmationandNegationSurelyyouaremistaken.

(7)AdverbsofReasonHeishenceunabletorefutethecharge.Hethereforeleftschool.

332. Some of the above Adverbsmay belong tomore than oneclass.

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Theweatherisdelightfullycool. (AdverbofDegree)Don’tgofar. (AdverbofPlace)Heisfarbetternow. (AdverbofDegree)

Haveyoutypedtheletter? Yes.

AreyougoingtoJapan? No.

Note—TheaboveareallexamplesofSimpleAdverbs.(See§336)

333. Yes and no, when they are used by themselves, areequivalentsofsentences.

[Hereyesstandsforthesentence‘Ihavetypedtheletter’.]

[Herenomeans‘IamnotgoingtoJapan’.]

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR60

In the followingsentences (1)pickout theAdverbsand tellwhateach modifies ; (2) tell whether the modified word is a Verb, anAdjective, or anAdverb ; (3) classify eachAdverb as anAdverb oftime,place,manner,degree,etc.:1. Hewasillpleased.2. Tryagain.3. Heistooshy.4. Weroseveryearly.5. Iamsogladtohearit.6. Cutitlengthwise.7. Toomanycooksspoilthebroth.8. Areyouquitesure?9. Thatiswellsaid.10. Onceortwicewehavemetalone.11. TheRailwaystationisfaroff.12. Ihaveheardthisbefore.13. Fatherissomewhatbetter.14. Iammuchrelievedtohearit.15. Thewalkwasratherlong.16. Thepatientismuchworseto-day.

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WhereisAbdul? [Inter.AdverbofPlace]Whendidyoucome? [Inter.AdverbofTime]Whyareyoulate? [Inter.AdverbofReason]Howdidyoucontriveit? [Inter.AdverbofManner]Howmanyboysarethereinyour [Inter.AdverbofNumber]

17. Shearrivedafewminutesago.18. Ambitionurgesmeforward.19. Shewasdressedallinblack.20. Wewereverykindlyreceived.21. HersonisoutinIran.22. Isurelyexpecthimto-morrow.23. Hecouldnotspeak,hewassoangry.24. Youarefartoohasty.25. Thesecretisout.26. Heisoldenoughtoknowbetter.27. Iwouldmuchrathernotgo.28. Youneednotroar.29. Yourwatchisfiveminutestoofast.30. HewentoffonMonday.31. Hishealthisnoworsethanbefore.32. Wisdomistoohighforafool.33. Thereisascrewloosesomewhere.34. Iseethingsdifferentlynow.35. Romewasnotbuiltinaday.36. Thedoorburstopenandintheycame.37. Wehavescorchedthesnake,notkilledit.38. Donotcrowdyourworksocloselytogether.39. Thepatientisnobetterto-day.40. Heneedstodoit.41. Donotwalksofast.42. Putnotyourtrustinprinces.43. Orderthecarriageround.44. Hehasbeenshamefullytreated.45. Iwonderyounevertoldme.

334.WhenAdverbs are used in askingquestions they are calledInterrogativeAdverbs;as,

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class?HowhighisRajabaiTower? [Inter.AdverbofDegree]

Icanhardlybelieveit. Youarequitewrong.

335.Readthesentences:Showmethehousewhere(=inwhich)hewasassaulted.

HeretheAdverbwheremodifiestheverbwasassaulted.FurthertheAdverbwhere,likeaRelativePronoun,hererelatesor

refersback to itsantecedenthouse. It is, therefore,calledaRelativeAdverb.

FurtherexamplesofRelativeAdverbs:

ThisisthereasonwhyIleft.DoyouknowthetimewhenthePunjabMailarrives?

336. Itwillbenowseen thataccording to theiruse,Adverbsaredividedintothreeclasses—

(1) Simple Adverbs, used to modify the meaning of a verb, anadjective,oranadverb;as,

Howbrightlythemoonshines!

(2)InterrogativeAdverbs,usedtoaskquestionsas,

Whyareyoulate?

(3) Relative Adverbs, which refer back to a noun as theirantecedent;as,

IrememberthehousewhereIwasborn.

337.Itwillbenoticedthat—(1)ASimpleAdverbmerelymodifiessomeword.(2) An Interrogative Adverb not only modifies some word, but

alsointroducesaquestion.(3) A Relative Adverb not only modifies some word, but also

refersbacktosomeantecedent.

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Hespokeinaloudvoice. Don’ttalksoloud.Ramaisourfastbowler. Ramacanbowlfast.Helivesinthenexthouse. WhenInextseehim,Ishall

speaktohim.Hewenttothebackentrance. Goback.Everylittledifficultyruffleshistemper.

HeislittleknownoutsideIndia.

Thisisahardsum. Heworkshardallday.It’sanillwindthatblowsnobodygood.

Icanillaffordtolosehim.

Heisthebestboyinthisclass. Hebehavesbest.Heisquicktotakeoffence. Runquick.Areyouanearlyriser? Westartedearly.Theteacherhasahighopinionofthatboy.

Alwaysaimhigh.

Heistheonlychildofhisparents. Youcanonlyguess.Wehavefoodenoughtolastaweek.

Shesingswellenough.

Heisnobetterthanafool. Heknowsmebetterthanyou.Thereismuchtruthinwhathesays.

Thepatientismuchbetter.

Adjectives Adverbs

FORMSOFADVERBS338. Some Adverbs are the same in form as the corresponding

Adjectives ; that is, somewords are used sometimes as Adjectives,sometimesasAdverbs.

Rememberthatitisonlybynoticinghowawordisused thatwecantellwhatPartofSpeechitis.


Formsentencestoillustratetheuseofthefollowingwords(1)asAdjectives,(2)asAdverbs:

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Hesingsveryloud. Hesingsveryloudly.

Very,near,ill,only,clean,long,late,early,fast.

339.SomeAdverbshavetwoforms,theformendinginlyandtheformwhichisthesameastheAdjective;as,

Sometimes,however, the twoformsof theAdverbhavedifferentmeanings;as,

Ramaworkshard(=diligently).Icouldhardly(=scarcely)recognizehim.Standnear.(Opposedtodistant)RamaandHariarenearly(=closely)related.Hearrivedlate.(Opposedtoearly).Ihavenotseenhimlately(=recently).Iampretty(=tolerably,fairly)sureofthefact.Sheisprettily(=neatly,elegantly)dressed.

340.SomeAdverbsareusedasNounsafterprepositions;as,Helivesfarfromhere(=thisplace).Hecomesfromthere(=thatplace).Ihaveheardthatbeforenow(=thistime).Bythen(=thattime)thepolicearrivedonthescene.Sincewhen(=whattime)haveyoutakentosmoking?Theraincomesfromabove.

Note —The common use of from with thence and whence iswrong. Thence= from there; whence = from where. Thus theadditionoffromtoeitherofthesewordsisincorrect.

341. CertainAdverbs sometimes seem to be used asAdjectives,whensomeparticipleoradjectiveisunderstood.

Thethenking=thekingthenreigning.Adowntrain=adown-goingtrain.Anuptrain=anup-goingtrain.Theabovestatement=thestatementmadeabove.

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Thesiegelastedaweek. Thiswilllastmeamonth.Hewenthome. Wewalkedfivemiles.Theloadweighsthreetonnes. Itmeasuresfivefeet.Theclothmeasuresthreemetres. Thewatchisonlyfiftyrupees.

342. In the followingsentences the isnot thedefinitearticle,butanolddemonstrativepronounusedasanAdverb.

Themorethemerrier[=byhowmuchthemorebysomuchthemerrier;thatis,themorenumerousapartyis,themoreenjoyableitis].Thefewerthebetter[=byhowmuchthefewerbysomuchthebetter].The sooner the better [ = by how much the sooner by so much thebetter].Hehastrieditandis[somuch]thebetterforit.

It will be noticed that the is used as an Adverb only with anadjectiveoranotheradverbinthecomparativedegree.

343.Nounsexpressingadverbialrelationsoftime,place,distance,weight, measurement, value, degree, or the like, are often used asAdverbs.Thus—

Thewoundwasskindeep.

AnounsousediscalledanAdverbialAccusative.344.SometimesVerbsareusedasAdverbs;as,

Smackwentthewhip.

CHAPTER35

COMPARISONOFADVERBS345. Some Adverbs, like Adjectives, have three degrees of

comparison.SuchAdverbsaregenerallycomparedlikeAdjectives.346.IftheAdverbisofonesyllable,weformtheComparativeby

endinger,andtheSuperlativebyaddingest,tothePositive;as,

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Ramaranfast.(Positive)Arjunranfaster.(Comparative)Hariranfastestofall.(Superlative)

347.Adverbsendingin ly formtheComparativebyaddingmoreandtheSuperlativebyaddingmost;as,

Abdulplayedskilfully.(Positive)KarimplayedmoreskilfullythanAbdul.(Comparative)OfalltheelevenAhmedplayedmostskilfully.(Superlative)

Butnoteearly,earlier,earliest.

Icameearlythismorning.Ramcameearlier.Abdulcameearliestofall.

348.ItwillbenoticedthatonlyAdverbsofManner,Degree,andTimeadmitofcomparison.ManyAdverbs,fromtheirnature,cannotbecompared;as,

Now,then,where,there,once.

349.SomeofthecommonestAdverbsformtheirComparativeandSuperlativeDegreesirregularly.

Ramawriteswell.ArjunwritesbetterthanRama.Hariwritesbestofall.Doyouworkmuch?

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Iworkmorethanyoudo.Hariworksmostofthethreeofus

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR62

ComparethefollowingAdverbs:Suddenly,often,near,loud,hard,wisely,patiently.

CHAPTER36

FORMATIONOFADVERBS350. Adverbs ofManner aremostly formed fromAdjectives by

addingly(acorruptionoflike);as,

Clever, cleverly; wise, wisely ; kind, kindly ; foolish, foolishly ;quick,quickly;beautiful,beautifully.Akbarwasawiseking.Heruledwiselyformanyyears.

WhentheAdjectiveendsinyprecededbyaconsonant,changevintoiandaddly;as,

Happy,happily;ready,readily;heavy,heavily.

WhentheAdjectiveendsinle,simplychangeeintoy;as,

Single,singly;double,doubly.

351. Some Adverbs are made up of a Noun and a qualifyingAdjective;as,

Sometimes,meantime,meanwhile,yesterday,midway,otherwise.

352.SomeAdverbsarecompoundsofon (weakened toa)andaNoun;as,

Afoot(=onfoot),abed,asleep,ahead,aboard,away.

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Similarly there are other Adverbs which are also compounds ofsomePrepositionandaNoun;as,

Betimes,besides,to-day,to-morrow;overboard.

Note—ThewordbeisanoldformofthePrepositionby.

353. Some Adverbs are compounds of a Preposition and anAdjective;as,

Abroad,along,aloud,anew,behind,below,beyond.

354. Some Adverbs are compounds of a Preposition and anAdverb;as,

Within,without,before,beneath.

355. There is a class of Adverbs which are derived from thePronounsthe(=that),he,who.

356. Many of the above Adverbs are compounded withPrepositions.Thusweget—

Thereby, therefrom, therein, thereof, thereon, thereto, therewith ;hereafter,hereby,herein,hereupon,herewith;wherefore,wherein,whereon,whereof:hitherto;thenceforth,thenceforward;henceforth,henceforward.

357. Two Adverbs sometimes go together, joined by theConjunctionand;as,

againandagain(=morethanonce,repeatedly),

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byandby(=beforelong,presently,afteratime),farandnear(=inalldirections),farandwide(=comprehensively),farandaway(=byagreatdeal,decidedly,beyondallcomparison),firstandforemost(=firstofall),nowandthen(=fromtimetotime,occasionally),nowandagain(=atintervals,sometimes,occasionally),offandon(=notregularly,intermittently),onceandagain(=onmorethanoneoccasion,repeatedly),outandaway(=beyondcomparison,byfar),outandout(=decidedly,beyondallcomparison),overandabove(=inadditionto,besides,aswellas),overandover(=manytimes,frequently,repeatedly),throughandthrough(=thoroughly,completely),thusandthus(=insuchandsuchaway).toandfro(=backwardsandforwards,upanddown).Goodbooksshouldbereadagainandagain.Iwarnedhimagainandagain.Byandbythetumultwillsubside.Hisfamehasspreadfarandnear.Asastatesmanhesawfarandwide.Thisisfarandawaythebestcourse.Heisfarandawaythebestbowlerinoureleven.Henowandthenwritesonfiscalquestions.Iwritetohimnowandthen.Heworkedtenyears,offandon,onhisPaliDictionary.Ihavetoldyouonceandagainthatyoumustnotreadsuchtrash.ThisisoutandawaythebestworkonAstronomy.Hegainedoverandabovethis,thegoodwillofallpeople.Overandabovebeinghard-workingheisthoroughlyhonest.HereadsallthenovelsofScottoverandover.IbelieveheisoutandoutthebestIndianbatsman.HehasreadMiltonthroughandthrough.Thusandthusonlyweshallsucceed.Hewalkedtoandfro,meditating.

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CHAPTER37

POSITIONOFADVERBS358.Adverbsofmanner,whichanswerthequestion‘How?’(e.g.,

well, fast, quickly, carefully, calmly) are generally placed after theverboraftertheobjectifthereisone;as,

Itisrainingheavily.Theshipisgoingslowly.ShespeaksEnglishwell.Hedoeshisworkcarefully.

359. Adverbs or adverb phrases of place (e.g., here, there,everywhere,onthewall)andoftime(e.g.,now,then,yet,today,nextSunday) are also usually placed after the verb or after the object ifthereisone;as,

Hewillcomehere.Ilookedeverywhere.Hangthepicturethere.Imethimyesterday.Theyaretobemarriednextweek.

360. When there are two or more adverbs after a verb (and itsobject), the normal order is : adverb of manner, adverb of place,adverboftime;as,

Shesangwellintheconcert.Weshouldgotheretomorrowevening.Hespokeearnestlyatthemeetinglastnight.

361. Adverbs of frequency, which answer the question ‘Howoften?’ (e.g., always, never, often, rarely, usually, generally) andcertainother adverbs likealmost, already,hardly,nearly, just, quitearenormallyputbetweenthesubjectandtheverbiftheverbconsistsofonlyoneword;ifthereismorethanonewordintheverb,theyare

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putafterthefirstword;as,

Hiswifenevercooks.Hehasneverseenatiger.Ihaveoftentoldhimtowriteneatly.Weusuallyhavebreakfastateight.Myunclehasjustgoneout.Iquiteagreewithyou.

362.Iftheverbisam/are/is/was,theseadverbsareplacedaftertheverb;as,

Iamneverlateforschool.HeisalwaysathomeonSundays.Wearejustoff.

363. These adverbs are usually put before an auxiliary or thesingleverbbe,whenitisstressed;as,

“Abdulhascomelateagain.”“Yes,healwaysdoescomelate.”“Whenwillyouwritetheessay?”“ButIalreadyhavewrittenit.”“WillyoubefreeonSundays?”“IusuallyamfreeonSundays.”“Doyoueatmeat?”“Yes,Isometimesdo.”

Whenanauxiliary isusedalone inshort responses,as in the lastexampleabove,itisstressedandthereforetheadverbcomesbeforeit.

364.Theauxiliarieshavetoandusedtoprefertheadverbinfrontofthem.

Ioftenhavetogotocollegeonfoot.Healwaysusedtoagreewithme.

365.Whenanadverbmodifiesanadjectiveoranotheradverb,theadverbusuallycomesbeforeit;as,

Ramaisaratherlazyboy.Thedogwasquitedead.Thebookisveryinteresting.Donotspeaksofast.

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366.Buttheadverbenoughisalwaysplacedafterthewordwhichitmodifies;as,

Istheboxbigenough?Hewasrashenoughtointerrupt.Hespokeloudenoughtobeheard.

367. As a general rule, the word only should be placedimmediatelybeforetheworditmodifies;as,

Iworkedonlytwosums.Hehassleptonlythreehours.

InspokenEnglish,howeverit isusuallyputbeforetheverb.Therequired meaning is obtained by stressing the word which the onlymodifies;as,

Ionlyworked‘two’sums.Hehasonlyslept‘three’hours.


Insert the given adverbs (or adverb phrases) in their normalposition:

1. Heinvitedmetovisithim(often).2. Iamdeterminedtoyieldthispoint(never).3. Iknowtheanswer(already).4. Wehaveseenher(just,inthesquare).5. Ihavetoreachtheoffice(by9.30,usually).6. Willhebe(there,still)?7. Ishallmeetyou(thisevening,inthepark).8. Thetrainhasleft(just).9. “Canyouparkyourcarneartheshops?”

“Yes,Ican(usually).”10. Youhavetocheckyouroilbeforestarting(always).11. Heisintimeformeals(never).12. Weshouldcome(here,onemorning).

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13. Hehasrecoveredfromhisillness(quite).14. Shegoestothecinema(seldom).15. Thatisnotgood(enough).16. Youmustsaysuchathing(never,again).17. Suresharrives(always,at9o’clock,attheoffice).18. Heplayedtheviolin(lastnight,brilliantly,intheconcert)

CHAPTER38

THEPREPOSITION368.Read:

1. Thereisacowinthefield.2. Heisfondoftea.3. Thecatjumpedoffthechair.

Insentence1, theword inshowstherelationbetweentwothings—cowandfield.

Insentence2,thewordofshowstherelationbetweentheattributeexpressedbytheadjectivefondandtea.

Insentence3, thewordoffshowstherelationbetweentheactionexpressedbytheverbjumpedandthechair.

Thewordsin,of,offarehereusedasPrepositions.Def.—APrepositionisawordplacedbeforeanounorapronoun

to show inwhatrelation thepersonor thingdenotedby it stands inregardtosomethingelse.

[ThewordPrepositionmeans‘thatwhichisplacedbefore’.]Itwillbenoticedthat—insentence1,thePrepositionjoinsaNountoanotherNoun;insentence2,thePrepositionjoinsaNountoanAdjective;insentence3,thePrepositionjoinsaNountoaVerb.369. The Noun or Pronoun which is used with a Preposition is

called its Object. It is in the Accusative case and is said to begovernedbythePreposition.

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Thus, in sentence 1, the noun field is in the Accusative case,governedbythePrepositionin.

370.APrepositionmayhavetwoormoreobjects;as,Theroadrunsoverhillandplain.

371. A Preposition is usually placed before its object, butsometimesitfollowsit;as,

1. Hereisthewatchthatyouaskedfor.2. Thatistheboy(whom)Iwasspeakingof.3. Whatareyoulookingat?4. Whatareyouthinkingof?5. Whichofthesechairsdidyousiton?

Note 1—When the object is the Relative Pronoun that, as insentence1,thePrepositionisalwaysplacedattheend.

ThePreposition is often placed at the endwhen the object is aninterrogative pronoun (as in sentences 3, 4 and 5) or a Relativepronoununderstood(asinsentence2).

Note 2—Sometimes the object is placed first for the sake ofemphasis;as,

ThisIinsiston.Heisknownalltheworldover.372. The Prepositions for, from, in, on are often omitted before

nounsofplaceortime;as,

Wediditlastweek.Icannotwalkayard.Waitaminute.

KINDSOFPREPOSITIONS373.Prepositionsmaybearrangedinthefollowingclasses:(1)SimplePrepositions

At,by,for,from,in,of,off,on,out,through,till,to,up,with.(2) Compound Prepositions which are generally formed by

prefixing a Preposition (usually a = no or be = by) to a Noun, an

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AdjectiveoranAdverb.

About,above,across,along,amidst,among,amongst,around,before,behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside,underneath,within,without.

(3)PhrasePrepositions(Groupsofwordsusedwiththeforceofasinglepreposition.)

Readthefollowingsentences:

Hesucceededbydintofperseveranceandsheerhardwork.Incaseofneed,phone32567.Byvirtueofthepowervestedinme,Iherebyorder,etc.Inconsequenceofhisillnesshecouldnotfinishtheworkintime.Owingtohisillhealth,heretiredfrombusiness.Withreferencetoyourletterofdate,weregretwecannotallowanyfurtherrebate.Inordertoavoidlitigation,heacceptedRs.30,000infullsettlementofhisclaimforRs.42,000.Incourseoftimehesawhismistake.Hediedfightingonbehalfofhiscountry.Onbehalfofthestaffhereadtheaddress.Heperseveredinspiteofdifficulties.In the event of his dyingwithout an issue, his nephewwould inherit thewholeproperty.

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Insteadoftalking,proveyourworthbydoingsomething.Byreasonofhisperverseattitude,heestrangedhisbestfriends.Heactedaccordingtomyinstructions.Whydon’tyougoalongwithyourbrother?Inaccordancewithyourinstructions,wehaveremittedtheamounttoyourbankers.Thereisabigtreeinfrontofhishouse.Agreeably to the termsof the settlement,weherewithencloseour chequeforRs.1000.Bywayofintroduction,hemadesomepertinentremarks.Bymeansofropeladderstheyscaledthewall.Forthesakeoftheirbeliefs,thePuritansemigratedtoAmerica.Incourseofhisresearcheshemetwithmanydifficulties.Heabdicatedthethroneinfavourofhiseldestson.Hecouldnotattendschoolbecauseofhisfather’sseriousillness.HeacceptedthecarinlieuofhisclaimforRs.3,25,000.Withaviewtoanamicablesettlement,weofferyouwithoutprejudiceRs.7500infullsettlementofallyourclaimsup-to-date.Onaccountofhisnegligencethecompanysufferedaheavyloss.Whateverhedoes,hedoeswithaneyetothemainchance.

374. Barring, concerning, considering, during, notwithstanding,pending, regarding, respecting, touching, and a few similar wordswhicharepresentparticiplesofverbs,areusedabsolutelywithoutanynoun or pronoun being attached to them. For all practical purposes,they have become Prepositions, and are sometimes distinguished asParticipialPrepositions.

Barring(=excepting,apartfrom)accident,themailwillarrivetomorrow.Concerning(=about)yesterday’sfire,therearemanyrumoursinthebazar.Considering(=takingintoaccount)thequality,thepriceisnothigh.UlyssesissaidtohaveinventedthegameofchessduringthesiegeofTroy.Notwithstanding (= in spite of) the resistance offered by him, he wasarrestedbythepolice.Pendingfurtherorders,Mr.DesaiwillactasHeadmaster.Regarding your inquiries, we regret to say that at present we are notinterestedinimitationsilk.

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Go,andrunabout. Don’tloiteraboutthestreet.Icouldnotcomebefore. Icamethedaybefore

yesterday.Hashecomein? Isheinhisroom?Thewheelcameoff. Thedriverjumpedoffthecar.Letusmoveon. Thebookliesonthetable.Hisfatherarrivedsoonafter. Afteramonthhereturned.Takethisparcelovertothepost-office.

Herulesoveravastempire.

Ihavenotseenhimsince. Ihavenotsleptsinceyesterday.

Adverb Preposition

Respectingtheplanyoumention,Ishallwritetoyouhereafter.Touching(=withregardto)thismatter,Ihavenotasyetmadeupmymind.

375.SeveralwordsareusedsometimesasAdverbsandsometimesas Prepositions.Aword is a Prepositionwhen it governs a noun orpronoun;itisanAdverbwhenitdoesnot.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR64

Name the Prepositions in the following sentences, and tell thewordwhicheachgoverns:

1. LittleJackHornersatinacorner.2. OldMotherHubbard,shewenttothecupboard.3. Thelionandtheunicornfoughtforthecrown.4. HumptyDumptysatonawall.5. WeeWillieWinkierunsthroughthetown.6. Shesatbythefire,andtoldmeatale.7. Rain,rain,gotoSpain,andnevercomebackagain.8. Afairlittlegirlsatunderatree.9. Suchanumberofrockscameoverherhead.10. JohnGilpinwasacitizenofcreditandrenown.11. “Willyouwalkintomyparlour?”saidthespidertothefly.12. IntothestreetthePiperstepped.

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13. IcanneverreturnwithmypoordogTray.14. Heworkedandsangfrommorntillnight.15. Theyall ranafter thefarmer’swife,whocutoff their tailswithacarving

knife.16. One day the boy his breakfast took, and ate it by a purling brookwhich

throughhismother’sorchardran.17. Old John with white hair, does laugh away care, sitting under the oak,

amongtheoldfolk.18. Theyrisewiththemorninglark,andlabourtillalmostdark.19. BytheNineGodsheswore.20. Underaspreadingchestnut-treethevillagesmithystands.21. HegoesonSundaytochurch,andsitsamonghisboys.22. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers, from the seas and the

streams.23. Herarmsacrossherbreastshelaid.24. Minebeacotbesidethehill.25. Around my ivied porch shall spring each fragrant flower that drinks the

dew.26. Onecrowdedhourofgloriouslifeisworthanagewithoutaname.27. Itriedtoreasonhimoutofhisfears.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR65

Distinguish the Prepositions from Adverbs in the followingsentences:

1. Comedown.2. Wesaileddowntheriver.3. Themanwalkedroundthehouse.4. Hesatonastool.5. Thecarriagemovedon.6. Thesoldierspassedby.7. Themanturnedround.8. Weallwentin.9. Heisintheroom.10. Hehidbehindthedoor.11. Ilefthimbehind.

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12. Shesatbythecottagedoor.13. Thepathleadsthroughthewoods.14. Ihavereadthebookthrough.15. Thestormisragingwithout.16. Wecannotlivewithoutwater.


Formsentencestoillustratetheuseofthefollowingwords(1)asPrepositions,and(2)asAdverbs:

Behind,up,by,along,in,about,beyond,under,before,after.

376.Wehave seen that the object to a Preposition is aNounorPronoun. Sometimes, however, the object to a Preposition is anAdverbofTimeorPlace(See§340);as,

Iwillbedonebythen(=thattime).Sincethen(=thattime)hehasnotshownhisface.Comeawayfromthere(=thatplace).Hemusthavereachedtherebynow(=thistime).Howfarisitfromhere(=thisplace)?Itcannotlastforever.

377.SometimestheobjecttoaPrepositionisanAdverbialPhrase;as,

Eacharticlewassoldatoverapound.Thenoisecomesfromacrosstheriver.Hewasnotpromotedtotherankofacoloneltillwithinafewmonthsofhisresignation.Isoldmycarforunderitshalfcost.Hesworefromdawntillfarintothenight.Hedidnotseehertillafewdaysago.Iwasthinkingabouthowtocircumventhim.

378.AclausecanalsobetheobjecttoaPreposition;as,PaycarefulattentiontowhatIamgoingtosay.

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Thereisnomeaninginwhatyousay.

379.TheobjecttoaPreposition,whenit isarelativepronoun,issometimesomitted;as,

HeisthemanIwaslookingfor.[Herewhomisunderstood].Thesearethegoodrulestoliveby.[Herewhichisunderstood.]


FillinblankswithsuitablePrepositions:

1. Thedogran____theroad.2. Theriverflows____thebridge.3. Theworkwasdone____haste.4. Heisafraid____thedog.5. Iamfond____music.6. Hegoes____Sunday____church.7. Hedied____hiscountry.8. Thesteam-enginewasinvented____JamesWatt.9. Theburglarjumped____thecompoundwall.10. Thevillagewasdestroyed____fire.11. Whatisthat____me?12. Itcannotbedone____offence.13. Hespoke____me____Urdu.14. Theylive____thesameroof.15. Ihavenotseenhim____Wednesdaylast.16. Ihaveknownhim____alongtime.17. Themoondoesnotshine____itsownlight.18. Thisisamatter____littleimportance.19. Iamtired____walking.20. Hehasnotyetrecovered____hisillness.21. Ishalldoit____pleasure.22. Godisgood____me.23. Iwillsit____mydesktodomylesson.24. Iamsorry____whatIhavedone.25. OGod!Keepme____sin.

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26. Iboughtit____seventyrupees.27. Hebrokethejug____ahundredpieces.28. Ithasbeenraining____yesterday.29. Ihavebeenworkinghard____arithmetic.30. Wesuffered____yourneglect.31. Theexercisewaswritten____me____aCamlinpen.32. “Willyouwalk____myparlour?”saidthespider____thefly.33. Itisteno’clock____mywatch.34. Thereisnothingnew____thesun.35. Donotcry____spiltmilk.36. You,boys,mustsettleit____yourselves.37. Thepublicarecautioned____pickpockets.38. Theydrove____Mumbai____Pune.

380. Prepositions are very commonly used in composition withverbs,toformnewverbs.Sometimestheyareprefixed;as,

Outbid, overcome, overflow, overlook, undergo, undertake, uphold,withdraw,withhold,withstand.

More frequently Prepositions follow the verbs and remainseparate;as,

Boastof,laughat,lookfor,sendfor.Heboastedofhisaccomplishments.Helookedforhiswatcheverywhere.PleasesendforRama.Everyonelaughedathim.

RELATIONSEXPRESSEDBYPREPOSITIONS381. The following are some of the most common relations

indicatedbyPrepositions:(1)Place;as,

Wentabouttheworld;ranacrosstheroad;leanedagainstawall;fellamongthieves;quarrelledamongthemselves;atdeath’sdoor;sit on deck ; stood before the door ; stood behind the curtain; lies

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belowthesurface;satbesideme;pliesbetweenMumbaiandAlibag; standbyme; rain comes from the clouds ; in the sky ; fell into aditch;liesnearhisheart;KolkataisontheHooghly;thecliffhangsover the sea ; tour round the world ; marched through the town ;came to the end of the road; put pen to paper ; travelled towardsNasik ; layunder the table ; climbedup the ladder ; liesupon thetable;withinthehouse;

(2)Time;as,Afterhisdeath;atanearlydate;arrivedbeforeme;behindtime;bythreeo’clock;duringthewholeday;formanyyears;from1stApril;intheafternoon;satwatchingfaronintothenight;livedundertheMoghuls;onMonday ;pending his return ;since yesterday ; lastedthrough the night ; throughout the year ; wait till to-morrow ; tenminutes to twelve; towardsevening ;untilhisarrival ; risewith thesun;withinamonth.

(3)Agency,instrumentality;as,Sellgoodsatauction;senttheparcelbypost;wasstunnedbyablow;was destroyedby fire ; heard this through a friend ; cut itwith aknife.

(4)Manner;as,Dying by inches ; foughtwith courage ; workedwith earnestness,wonwithease.

(5)Cause,reason,purpose;as,Labouredforthegoodofhumanity;diedoffever;theveryplaceforapicnic;diditforourgood;suffersfromgout;diedfromfatigue;does it from perversity; retreated through fear of an ambush;concealed it through shame; lost his purse through negligence ;shiverswithfever;tookmedicineforcold.

(6)Possession;as,Therewasnomoneyonhim;themosqueofOmar;amanofmeans;theboywithredhair.

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(7)Measure,standard,rate,value;as,Hechargesinterestatninepercent.Storieslikethesemustbetakenatwhattheyareworth.Clothissoldbytheyard.Iamtallerthanyoubytwoinches.Itwasonebythetower-clock.

(8)Contrast,concession;as,After(inspiteof,notwithstanding)everyeffort,onemayfail.Foroneenemyhehasahundredfriends.For(inspiteof)allhiswealthheisnotcontent.With(inspiteof)allhisfaultsIadmirehim.

(9)Inference,motive,source,ororigin;as,FromwhatIknowofhim,Ihesitate to trusthim.Theknightswerebrave from gallantry of spirit. He did it from gratitude. Lightemanatesfromthesun.Fromlabourhealth,fromhealthcontentmentsprings. This is a quotation from Milton. His skill comes frompracitce.

Note—ItwillbeseenthatthesamePreposition,accordingtothewayinwhichitisused,wouldhaveitsplaceunderseveralheads.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR68

ExplaintheforceofthePrepositionin:

1. Iwilldoitforallyoumaysay.2. Thisworkisbeyondhiscapacity.3. Iwoulddoanythingbeforethat.4. AfterthisIwashmyhandsofyou.5. ItiscoolforMay.6. Shemadegrandpreparationsagainsthiscoming.7. Itwasallthroughyouthatwefailed.8. Hewasleftfordeadonthefield.9. Allthattheydidwaspietytothis.10. Thelifeboatmadestraightforthesinkingship.11. Ishalldomydutybyhim.12. Hemarriedformoney.

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13. Amanisamanforallthat.14. Nothingwillcomeofnothing.15. WithallhisfaultsIstilllikehim.

382.ThefollowingPrepositionsrequirespecialnotice:(1)Wecanuseinoratwiththenamesofcities,townsorvillages.

Inmostcasesinisused.Weuseinwhenwearetalkingaboutaplaceasanarea;weuseatwhenweseeitasapoint.

WestayedinMumbaiforfivedays.Our plane stopped at Mumbai on the way to Iran. (Mumbai =Mumbaiairport)Howlonghaveyoulivedinthisvillage?

(2)Weuseattotalkaboutgroupactivitiesandshops/workplaces.

DidyouseeShobhaattheparty?Thereweren’tmanypeopleatthemeeting.Isawhimatthebaker’s.

(3)Weuse inwiththenamesofstreetsandatwhenwegivethehouse-number.

HelivesinChurchStreet.Helivesat45ChurchStreet.

(4)Weuseonwhenwethinkofaplaceasasurface.

Thedogislyingonthefloor.Putthispictureonthewall.

(5)Tillisusedoftimeandtoisusedofplace;as

Heslepttilleighto’clock.Hewalkedtotheendofthestreet.

(6)Withoftendenotestheinstrumentandbytheagent;as,

Hekilledtwobirdswithoneshot.Hewasstabbedbyalunaticwithadagger.

(7)Since isusedbeforeanounorphrasedenotingsomepointof

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time,andisprecededbyaverbintheperfecttenses;as,

Ihaveeatennothingsinceyesterday.HehasbeenillsinceMondaylast.Ihavenotbeensmokingsincelastweek.

(8)Inbeforeanoundenotingaperiodoftime,meansattheendof;withinmeansbeforetheendof;as,

Ishallreturninanhour.Ishallreturnwithinanhour.

(9)Beside means at (or by) the side of, while besides means inadditionto;as,

Besidetheungatheredricehelay.Besideshischildren,therewerepresenthisnephewsandnieces.Besidesbeingfined,hewassentencedtoatermofimprisonment.

Note—Becarefulnottousebesideforbesides.


FillintheblankswithappropriatePrepositions:

1. Helives_____Hyderabad.Helives_____48TilakStreet.2. Hestarted____six____themorning.3. Hehangedhimself____apieceofcloth.4. The portrait was painted ____a famous artist who flourished ____the

sixteenthcentury.5. Imuststart____dawntoreachthestationintime.6. Ihopetoreachthestation____anhourattheoutside.7. Thechildhasbeenmissing____yesterday.8. Thecaravanmustreachitsdestination____sunset.9. Themailtrainisdue____3P.M.10. Hetravelledthirtykilometres____twohours.11. Herushed____myroom,pantingforbreath.12. Hedoesnotleavehishouse____9o’clock.13. TheExpressdeparts____3P.M.____Delhi.14. Humansacrificeswerepractised____theNagas.

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15. Ireceivedhismessage____eighto’clock____themorning.16. ____lastmonthIhaveseenhimbutonce.17. ____ricetheyhadcurry.18. Thefeverhastakenaturnforthebetter____yesterday.19. Hehasspenthislife____Kolkata.20. Isawhimfellingabigtree____ahatchet.21. Comeandsit____me.22. Nobody____youknowsthetruth.23. WhileIwas____Delhihewas____Mumbai.24. Hewaskilled____therobber____ahatchet.25. Weshallstaythreemonths____America.26. ____RustamandSohrab,therewerethreeotherboyspresent.27. ____aFordhehasaFiatcar.

PREPOSITIONSWITHFORMSOFTRANSPORT383.We useby + nounwhenwe talk aboutmeans of transport.

Wedonotusetheora/anbeforethenoun;as,

Wetravelledbytrain.(not:bythe/atrain)We say by bicycle, by car/ taxi/bus/train, by boat/ ship/ plane, byair/sea.

Wedonotusebywhenthereferenceistoaspecificbicycle,car,train,etc.

Sureshwentthereonmybike.(not:bymybike)WetravelledinMr.Joshi’scar.(not:byMr.Joshi’scar)Theycameinataxi.I’llgoonthe7.30bus.

Weuseontomeanaspecificbicycle,bus,train,shiporplane,andintomeanaspecificcar,taxi,van,lorryorambulance.

Wesayonfoot(notbyfoot).

Hegoestotheofficeonfoot.(=Hewalkstotheoffice.)

CHAPTER39

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WORDSFOLLOWEDBYPREPOSITIONS384.CertainVerbs,Nouns,Adjectives,andParticiplesarealways

followed by particular Prepositions. Read the following sentences,notingappropriatePrepositions:

Mumbaiisfamousforitstextiles.Thegoatsubsistsonthecoarsestoffood.JawaharlalNehruwasfondofchildren.Indiaisanoble,gorgeousland,teemingwithnaturalwealth.Beingapprisedofourapproach,thewholeneighbourhoodcameouttomeettheirminister.In the classical age the ideal life of the Brahman was divided into fourstagesorashrams.Itisnaturalineverymantowishfordistinction.Hewas endowedwith gifts fitted towin eminence in any field of humanactivity.Thewriterisevidentlyenamouredofthesubject.Thesecomputersarecheapenoughtobeaccessibletomostpeople.Ambitiondoesnotalwaysconducetoultimatehappiness.Thetruegentlemaniscourteousandaffabletohisneighbours..Newlyacquiredfreedomissometimesliabletoabuse.LittleJackprovedquiteamatchforthegiant.Camelsarepeculiarlyadaptedtolifeinthedesert.Heisamanofdeeplearning,buttotallyignorantoflifeandmanners.Theincomederivedfromtheownershipoflandiscommonlycalledrent.TheMoors were famous for their learning and their skill in all kinds ofindustries.AlexanderprofitedbythedissensionsofthePunjabRajas.Fewthingsareimpossibletodiligenceandskill.Iamindebtedtoyouforyourhelp.Ashoka, although tolerant of competing creeds, was personally an ardentBuddhist.The celebrated grammarian Patanjali was a contemporary of PushyamitraSunga.TheAfricanelephantisnowconfinedtoCentralAfrica.Ivoryreadilyadaptsitselftothecarver’sart.

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Coleridge’spoetryisremarkablefortheperfectionofitsexecution.Theholytreeisassociatedwithscenesofgoodwillandrejoicing.Thenoisefromdownstairspreventedmefromsleeping.Iamalreadyacquaintedwiththelatestdevelopmentsofthesituation.Hisdutieswereofakindill-suitedtohisardentanddaringcharacter.Manisentirelydifferentfromotheranimalsintheutterhelplessnessofhisbabyhood.AresidenceofeightyearsinSriLankahadinuredhissystemtothetropicalclimate.The ancient Greeks, though born in a warm climate, seem to have beenmuchaddictedtothebottle.He(Dr.Johnson)wassomewhatsusceptibletoflattery.A man who always connives at the faults of his children is their worstenemy.Napleswasthendestituteofwhatarenow,perhaps,itschiefattractions.ThecatappearstohaveoriginatedinEgyptorintheEast.JudgedbyitsresultsthepolicyofHastingswaseminentlysuccessful.Thereisstillnocureforthecommoncold.Itwasformerlysupposedthatmalariawasduetopoisonousexhalations.Peoplewhoareaversetohardwork,generallydonotsucceedinlife.Buddhism teaches that freedom from desires will lead to escape fromsuffering.


Constructsentencescontainingthefollowingexpressions:Afflicted with leprosy ; sanguine of success ; commit to memory ;specific formalaria ; allowance for shortweight ; appropriate to theoccasion ; abstain from animal food ; antipathy to dogs ; convulsedwithlaughter;contrarytoexpectation;infestedwithvermin;touchedwithpity;subversiveofdiscipline;beneficialtohealth;tantamounttoarefusal;worthyofpraise;besetwithdifficulties;accountabletoGod; atone formisdeeds ; addicted to opium ; entitled to consideration ;heedlessofconsequences ;deaf toentreaties ; aptitude forbusiness ;incentivetohardwork;sensitivetocriticism;indifferenttopraiseorblame.

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Thefollowingnounstaketheprepositionforafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Affection, ambition, anxiety, apology, appetite, aptitude, blame,candidate, capacity, compassion, compensation, contempt, craving,desire, esteem, fitness, fondness, guarantee, leisure, liking, match,motive, need, opportunity, partiality, passion, pity, predilection,pretext,relish,remorse,reputation,surety.


The following nouns take the prepositionwith after them. Usetheminsentences:

Acquaintance, alliance, bargain, comparison, conformity, enmity,intercourse,intimacy,relations.


Thefollowingnounstaketheprepositionofafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Abhorrence, assurance, charge, distrust, doubt, experience, failure,observance,proof,result,want.


Thefollowingnounstaketheprepositiontoafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Access, accession, allegiance, alternative, antidote, antipathy,approach, assent, attachment, attention, concession, disgrace, dislike,encouragement, enmity, exception, incentive, indifference, invitation,key, leniency, likeness, limit, menace, obedience, objection,obstruction, opposition, postscript, preface, reference, repugnance,resemblance, sequel, submission, succession, supplement, temptation,traitor.

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(a) Abhorrent,acceptable,accessible,accustomed,addicted,adequate,adjacent,affectionate,agreeable,akin,alien,alive,amenable,analogous,applicable,appropriate,beneficial,callous,common,comparable,condemned.

(b) Conducive,conformable,congenial,consecrated,contrary,creditable,deaf,derogatory,detrimental,devoted,disastrous,due,entitled,equal,essential,exposed,faithful,fatal,foreign,hostile,impertinent,incidental,inclined.

(c) Indebted,indifferent,indispensable,indulgent,inimical,insensible,injured,irrelevant,favourable,hurtful,immaterial,impervious,indigenous,liable,limited,lost,loyal,material,natural,necessary.

(d) Obedient,obliged,offensive,opposite,painful,partial,peculiar,pertinent,pledged,preferable,prejudicial,prior,profitable,prone,reduced,related,relevant,repugnant,responsible,restricted,sacred,sensitive,serviceable,subject,suitable,suited,supplementary,tantamount,true.


The following nouns take the preposition from after them. Usetheminsentences:

Abstinence, cessation, deliverance, descent, digression, escape,exemption,inference,respite.


The following adjectives and participles take the preposition toafterthem.Usetheminsentences:


The following adjectives and participles take the preposition inafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Absorbed, abstemious, accomplished, accurate, assiduous, backward,bigoted,correct,defective,deficient,experienced,diligent,enveloped,

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fertile, foiled,honest, implicated, interested, involved, lax,proficient,remiss,temperate,versed.


Thefollowingadjectivesandparticiplestaketheprepositionwithafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Acquainted, afflicted, beset, busy, compatible, complaint, compliant,contemporary,contented,contrasted,conversant,convulsed,delighted,deluged, disgusted, drenched, endowed, fatigued, fired, gifted,infatuated, infected, infested, inspired, intimate, invested, overcome,popular,replete,satiated,satisfied,touched.


The following adjectives and participles take the preposition ofafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Accused, acquitted, afraid, apprehensive, apprised, assured, aware,bereft, bought, cautious, certain, characteristic, composed, confident,conscious, convicted, convinced, covetous, defrauded, deprived,desirous, destitute, devoid, diffident, distrustful, dull, easy, envious,fearful, fond, greedy, guilty, heedless, ignorant, informed, innocent,irrespective, lame, lavish, negligent, productive, proud, regardless,sanguine, sensible, sick, slow, subversive, sure, suspicious, tolerant,vain,void,weary,worthy.


The following adjectives and participles take the preposition forafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Anxious, celebrated, conspicuous, customary, designed, destined,eager, eligible, eminent, fit, good, grateful, notorious, penitent,prepared,.proper,qualified,ready,sorry,sufficient,useful,zealous.


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Thefollowingverbstaketheprepositiontoafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Accede,adapt,adhere,allot,allude,apologize,appoint,ascribe,aspire,assent, attain, attend, attribute, belong, conduce, conform, consent,contribute, lead, listen, object, occur, prefer, pretend, refer, revert,stoop,succumb,surrender,testify,yield.


The following verbs take the preposition from after them. Usetheminsentences:

Abstain,alight,cease,debar,derive,derogate,desist,detract,deviate,differ, digress, dissent, elicit, emerge, escape, exclude, preserve,prevent,prohibit,protect,recoil,recover,refrain.


Thefollowingverbstaketheprepositionwithafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Associate, bear, clash, coincide, comply, condole, cope, correspond,credit, deluge, disagree, dispense, expostulate, fill, grapple, intrigue,meddle,part,quarrel,remonstrate,side,sympathize,trifle,vie.


Thefollowingverbstaketheprepositionofafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Acquit, beware, boast, complain, despair, die, disapprove, dispose,divest,dream,heal,judge,repent,taste.


Thefollowingverbstaketheprepositionsforafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Atone,canvass,care,clamour,feel,hope,mourn,pine,start,stipulate,

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sue,wish,yearn.


Thefollowingverbstaketheprepositioninafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Acquiesce,dabble,delight,employ,enlist,excel, fall,glory, increase,indulge,involve,persevere,persist.


Thefollowingverbstaketheprepositiononafterthem.Usetheminsentences:

Comment, decide, deliberate, depend, determine, dwell, embark,encroach,enlarge,impose,insist,intrude,resolve,subsist,trample.



1. MrRamLalsubscribedahandsomesum____theFloodReliefFund.2. Hisfriendscondoled____him____hisbereavement.3. Hequarrelled____me____atrifle.4. Hereadilycomplied____myrequest.5. Hedispensed____theservicesofhisdishonestclerk.6. Heyielded____superiorforce.7. Hedespaired____success.8. Hesuppliesthepoor____clothing.9. Hisfriendsdisagreed____himonthatpoint.10. Heacceded____myrequest.11. Heabstains____liquor.12. Hewasfoundguilty____manslaughter.13. Heisincapable____doinggoodwork.14. Heismarried____mycousin.15. Heissensible____yourkindness.16. Heistrue____hisking.

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17. Heisinvolved____difficulties.18. Theauditorisentitled____hisremuneration.19. Iprefertea____coffee.20. Idon’tconcur____you____thatopinion.21. Thereisnoexception____thisrule.22. Iamobliged____you____yourkindness.23. Iamnotenvious____hissuccess.24. Iamconvinced____thenecessityofprudence.25. Weshouldrely____ourownefforts.26. Iinquired____theservantifhismasterwasathome.27. Ipurposelyrefrained____sayingmore.28. Iinsisted____going.29. Iexchanged____himmycalculator____acamera.30. Iassented____hisproposal.31. Iamnotsatisfied____yourexplanation.32. Youmustconform____theregulations.33. Hedidnotprofit____experience.34. Weshouldallaim____excellence.35. Alcoholisinjurious____health.36. Heisinnocent____thecrime.37. Thestoriesinthatbookarefull____interest.38. Don’tassociate____disreputablepeople.39. Donotindulge____stronglanguage.40. Heisgrateful____hismaster____manyfavours.41. Heisdependent____hisparents.42. Heisabstemious____eatinganddrinking.43. Heisprompt____carryingoutorders.44. Heisvain____hisattainments.45. Heisdeficient____commonsense.46. Heisvexed____me.47. Heisindifferent____hisowninterest.48. Heisproficient____mathematics.49. Heisnotashamed____hisneighbours.50. Heisdevoid____sense.51. Heissuspicious____allhisneighbours.52. Hehasapassion____arguing.53. Recentlytherehasbeenareduction____thepriceofmilk.

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54. Heprovedfalse____hisfriend.55. Asquaremaybeequivalent____atriangle.56. Theavariciousmanisgreedy—gain.57. Heisverydifferent____hisbrother.58. Thehead-dressoftheCossacksissimilar____thatoftheancientPersians.59. Hewasborn____humbleparentsinNasik.60. Hisviewsdonotaccord____mine.



1. Temperanceandemploymentareconducive____health.2. Apolicemanrescuedthechild____danger.3. Dogshaveantipathy____cats.4. Hepromisednottodoanythingrepugnant____thewishesofhisparents.5. Heisnotthemantoallowanyonetoencroach____hisrights.6. SomeofthemembersoftheAssemblycomplained____increasedmilitary

expenditure.7. Eventheenemiesadmitthatheisendowed____raretalents.8. Heinspiresrespect____hisfriends.9. Ourpathisbeset____difficulties.10. Hewasnotabletogiveasatisfactoryexplanation____hisabsence.11. Hisillnessisamerepretext____hisabsence.12. Hehasbeenverymuchindulgent____hischildren.13. Thisdiscussionishardlyrelevant____thesubject14. Contentmentisessential____happiness.15. Earlyrisingisbeneficial____health.16. Heisnotlikelytodoanythingdetrimental____ourinterests.17. Hisbenefactionsmustredound____hiscredit.18. Onlygraduatesareeligible____thepost.19. Heiscapableasaleader,butintolerant____opposition.20. Boysoversixteenaredebarred____competing.21. FatherDamienconsecratedhislife____amelioratingthelotoflepers.22. Thatruleisnotapplicable____yourcase.23. Apublicmanshouldbetolerant____criticism.24. Heiswillingtomakeaconcession____thedemandsofhisemployees.

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25. Ioftenfindhimabsorbed____thought.26. Theaccommodationisadequate____ourneeds.27. Thehotelisadjacent____thestation.28. Theauthorshipofthebookiswronglyascribed____him.29. Neverdoanythingthatisnotcompatible______publicsafety.30. Hisfatheroftenconnives____hisfollies.31. Somepublicmenareverysensitive____criticism.32. Heisaddicted____gambling.33. Youneednotbeafraid____beinglate.34. Deathispreferable____disgrace.35. Catsaretenacious____life.36. Itisnottruethatthestudyofsciencetends____atheism.37. Somefilmsareanincitement____crime.38. Hewasangry____me,becausehethoughtmyremarkwasaimed____him.39. TheclimateofRangoondoesnotagree____him.40. Hisplansareadverse____myinterests.41. Thequestionofunemploymentbristles____difficulties.42. Althoughhewasbred____thelaw,hebecameasuccessfuljournalist.43. Generally,thericharemorecovetous____moneythanthepoor.44. Heisstillsmarting____rebuke.45. Hescoffed____theideaofrevolution.46. Hehasreverted____hisformerpost.47. Thebattleresulted____avictoryfortheAllies.48. Herestoredthearticle____itsrightfulowner.49. Thewholetheoryrests____nofirmerfoundationthanmereconjecture.50. Theultimatedecisionrests____theboardofdirectors.51. Onlywhenpersuasionsfailedthepoliceresorted____force.52. Superstitiousfearspreyed____hismindandmadehimmiserable.53. Hepiqueshimself____hisartistictaste.54. Theynowjeered____himwhomtheyhadonceacclaimedastheirhero.55. Hisfollowersnowbegantointrigue____hisadversary.56. Sheinterceded____herhusbandonbehalfofthepeople.57. Itisnoteasytoinfer____hisaccounttherealstateofaffairs.58. Hediedwithoutimparting____anyonethesecretofhisprocess.59. Hisstatementwastantamount____aconfession.60. Thefactspoint____adifferentexplanation.61. Hisfriendsprevailed____himtowithdrawhisresignation.

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62. Fewboysarenotamenable____discipline.



1. Silkwormsfeed____mulberrytrees.2. Pavlovaexcels____dancing.3. Thewildboarabounds____somepartsofEurope.4. Hehasnospecialliking____mathematics.5. Ashokaisworthy____remembrance.6. Thegodownisinfested____rats.7. Thereisnoexception____thisrule.8. Nothingconduces____happinesssomuchascontentment.9. Alcoholisinjurious____health.10. Oilisgood____burns.11. Invalidsarenotcapable____continuedexertion.12. TheBritishParliamentiscomposed____twoHouses.13. Donotconfideyoursecrets____everyone.14. Heisabstemious____hishabits.15. Heisignorant____whathepretendstoknow.16. Mybrotherisweak____mathematics.17. Hehasconceivedanaversion____allkindsofprofitablelabour.18. Birbaliscelebrated____hiswittysayings.19. Theavariciousmanisgreedy____gain.20. TheAtlanticseparatesEurope____America.21. Adamassigned____everycreatureanamepeculiar____itsnature.22. Temperanceandemploymentareconducive____health.23. Abraveboyrescuedthechild____danger.24. Industryisthekey_____success.25. Thecustomsweresearching______drugsattheairport.26. Elizabethknewhowtoinspirehersoldiers____hope.27. Longindulgence____viceimpairedhisoncerobustconstitution.28. Earlyrisingisbeneficial____health.29. Weshouldliveinastylesuited____ourcondition.30. Examinationsactasanincentive____diligence.31. Hardworkandperseveranceareindispensble____successinlife.

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32. Heistoomiserlytopart____hismoney.33. Heisacleverman,butunfortunatelydiffident____hispowers.34. Suddenlywewereenveloped____densefog.35. Manyaspire____greatness,butfewattained.36. Hisincomeisnotadequate____hiswants.37. ThesoilofPuneisfavourable____roses.38. Iamsick____thewholebusiness.39. Acarwillbeagreatconvenience____abusymanlikehim.40. Whoeveractscontrary____naturedoesnotgounpunished.41. Theaccidentresulted______thedeathoffivepeople.42. Thesederelicthousesarereproach_____thecity.43. The Germans were called baby-killers and their methods of warfare

stigmatizedasareproach____civilization.44. Themulewaspartiallyrelieved____theload.45. America has raised a tariff wall to protect home industries ____foreign

competition.46. Thefactspoint____adifferentconclusion.47. Yourwishistantamount____acommand.48. Thisstateiscommitted_______thepolicyoftotalprohibition.49. Oneissure____whatonesees.50. Heisindifferentalike____praiseandblame.



1. Nodoubthehasachievedmuch,butIcannotgivehimcredit_____allthatheboasts____

2. Thedespotismofcustomiseverywherethestandinghindrance____humanachievement.

3. Heisindebted____hisfriend____alargesum.4. WhatDr.Arnoldmainlyaimed____,wastopromotetheself-development

oftheyoungmindscommitted____hischarge.5. He was so much enamoured ____her that he forgot his duties ____his

children.6. It is difficult to agree ____those critics who ascribe the work of

Shakespeare____Bacon.

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7. Inhisautobiographyherefers____hisabhorrence____animaldiet.8. Heconversed____us____subjects____variedinterest.9. The accident happened ____him ____a late hour and ____an out-of-the-

wayplace.10. Acashierisliabletorenderaccount_____themoneyreceived_____him.11. Thesoldiers____thefortwereprovided____provisionstolastthemayear.12. Weareaccountable____God____ouractions.13. Letusvie____oneanother____doinggood.14. Histhirst____knowledgelefthimnoleisure_____anythingelse.15. The rich and the poor alike nobly responded ____the call ____further

funds.16. Forthosewhosuffer____nervestheremedylies____perfectrest.17. Aslavelies____thenecessity____obeyinghismaster’sorders.18. Theheir____thethronewasfree____physicalormoraltaint.19. Heimpressed____themthatsorcerywasvital____theirsuccess.20. Methylated spirit is spirit of wine made undrinkable by mixing it

____methyltoexemptit____duty.21. To love our country, to be interested ____its concerns, is natural ____all

men.22. He complained ____his weak eyes and lamented the necessity

____spectacles.23. Samudragupta was known ____his skill ____music and song ; he was

equallyproficient____thealliedartofpoetry.24. It is the grasping of power combined ____the thirst ____fame which

constitutesambition.25. Itwouldbewellforustoadmirewhatisworthy____admirationinsucha

people,ratherthantocarp____theirerrors.26. The common fallacy is that intimacy dispenses ____the necessity of

politeness.Thetruthisjusttheopposite____this.27. ThetitleMasterwasoriginallyprefixed____thenameofapersonofrank

orlearning;itisnowrestricted____boys.28. Thisticketwillentitleyou_____afreeseatattheconcert.29. History, aswell as daily experience, furnishes instances ofmen endowed

____the strongest capacity ____business and affairs, who have all theirlivescrouchedunderslaverytothegrossestsuperstition.

30. He has no liking ____cards, and lately he has taken a dislike—outdoorexercise.

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31. At first they refused to acquience ______ the terms, but finally yielded______thelogicoffacts.

32. Thehippopotamusfeedschiefly____aquaticplants,butalsoseeksitsfoodonlandandissometimesdestructive____cultivatedcrops.

33. Learning is knowledge especially as acquired ____study ; it is frequentlycontrasted____knowledgeorwisdomgained____experience.

34. At the eleventh hour he retired ____the contest, leaving the field open____hisopponent.

35. Coriolanus, with all his greatness, was entirely devoid ____all sympathy____thepeople.

36. From this time he became habitually depressed andmoody and addicted____thefrequentuse____alcohol.

37. The first acts of the new administration were characterized rather____vigourthan____judgement.

38. Theywerestatesmenaccustomed____themanagement____greataffairs.39. Measureyourself____yourequals;andlearn____frequentcompetitionthe

placewhichnaturehasallotted_____you.40. Contrary____myinstructions,hewent____hisdepthandwouldcertainly

havemet____afatalmishapbutforthetimelyhelprendered____him.

385.SometimesawordtakesacertainPrepositionafter it inonecontextandadifferentPrepositioninanothercontext.

We should accommodate ourselves to circumstances. My friendaccommodatedmewithaloan.I differ with you on this question. Your car differs from mine inseveralrespects.Iamanxiousabouttheresult.Herparentsareanxiousforhersafety.Hehasretiredfrombusiness.Hehasretiredintoprivatelife.Hehasgreatinfluenceoverhisdisciples.HehashardlyanyinfluencewiththeVizier.Theremarksofhiscriticshadconsiderableinfluenceonhiswritings.All his life he laboured for the good of humanity. He is labouringunder a misapprehension. He laboured at his dictionary for twelveyears.TrespassersareliabletoafineofRs.500.Heisliableforhiswife’sdebts.

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1. Achildisnotabletodistinguishgood____evil.Deathdoesnotdistinguish____the rich and the poor. Sir Ronald Ross is distinguished ____hismedical researches. Punch is distinguished ____his hunchback. (between,by,for,from)

2. On account of his age he is disqualified ____competing. Ill healthdisqualifiedthebody____labourandthemind____study.(for,from.)

3. Innocence is not proof ____scandal. He was discharged as there was noproof____hisguilt.(against,of.)

4. He has no good cause ____complaint. Darkness was the cause_____hislosinghisway.(for,of.)

5. Truecharitydoesnotconsist____indiscriminatealms-giving.Brassconsists____copperandzinc.(in,of.)

6. Iamnotconcerned____hisaffairs.Iamnotconcerned____him____thatbusiness.Hewasmuchconcerned____hearing the sadnews.Hisparentsarenaturallyconcerned____hissafety.(about,at,for,in,with.)

7. Heparted___hisfriendsinhighspirits.Heparted___hispropertyandwentonpilgrimagetoDwarka.(from,with.)

8. He acted___fear. He acted____my suggestion. He acted___compulsion.(from,under,upon.)

9. He succeeded___the throne of his uncle.He succeeded___his object. (in,to.)

10. Heagreed____myproposal.Heagreed___meonthatquestion.Theycouldnotagree___themselves.(among,to,with.)

11. Thepatientisnowfree___danger.Heisfree___hismoney.Thegoodswerepassedfree___duty(from,of,with)

12. I prevailed___him to join our Union. He prevailed___me in the dispute.Thepeculiarcustomprevails___theTodas.(among,over,upon.)

13. Iwasangry_____him______lyingtome.(for,with)14. The city is well provided___corn. We should provide___risk of fire by

insuringourgoods.Hehasprovided_____hischildren.(against,for,with).15. Thepolice isentrusted___theenforcementof lawandorder.Thechildren

wereentrusted___thecareoftheiruncle.(to,with.)16. TheeditionofIvanhoeisadapted___Indianboys.Theformandstructureof

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nestsareadapted___thewantsandhabitsofeachspecies.ManyUrduplaysareadapted___English.(for,from,to.)

17. Weareallslaves___convention.Nomanshouldbeaslave___hispassions.(of,to.)

18. Heisblind___oneeye.Areyoublind___yourowninterests?(of,to.)19. There is no exception___the rule. All the ministers were present at the

function with the exception___Mr. Smith. He took exception___thepresenceofanoutsider.(against,of,to.)

20. Hiscreditorsbecameimpatient___payment.Impatient___delay,heknockedat the door rather loudly. The people became impatient___the burden ofheavytaxation.(at,for,under).



1. He invested his patrimony____jute shares. The Police Commissioner isinvested____magisterialpowers.(in,with.)

2. Letus talk____somethingelse.Forawhile they talked____politics. Iwilltalk____mysonrespectinghisconduct.(about,of,to)

3. He takes no interest____politics.What you say has no interest____me. Ihavenointerest____theagentsofthefirm.(for,in,with.)

4. Hehas a reputation____honesty.Hehas the reputation____being agoodteacher.(for,of)

5. He exercises complete authority____his followers. There is noauthority____this use. I say this on the authority____the Oxford EnglishDictionary. Dr. Bridge is an authority____English prosody. (for, of, on,over.)

6. Hefellavictim____hisownavarice.Thevictims____choleraweremostlypoorpeople.(of,to.)

7. Ihavenouse____it.Hehaslosttheuse____hisrightarm.(for,of.)8. There are some diseases that proceed ____dirt. After visiting Agra we

proceed____Delhi.Letusproceed____theworkinhand.(from,to,with.)9. Hesuppliedthepoor____clothing.Hesuppliedclothing____thepoor.(to,

with)10. Shewas greatly afflicted ____the loss of her only child. The oldman is

afflicted____gout.(at,with)

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11. Theteacherimpressed____usthevalueofdiscipline.Wewereimpressed____whathesaid.(on,with.)

12. The operation was accompanied ____little or on pain. She wasaccompanied____herbrother.(by,with.)

13. TheEnglishalliedthemselves____theFrench.ElementaryAlgebraisallied____Arithmetic.(to,with.)

14. Napoleonhadagenius____military tactics.Withoutdoubthe isagenius____mathematics.(for,in.)

15. The idea originated ____him while he was travelling in Japan. The fireoriginated____ahaystack.(in,with.)

16. He jumped ____a conclusion not warranted by facts. The child jumped____joywhenIgavehimsweets.Hejumped____myoffer.(at,for,to.)

17. Heisnegligent____whateverhedoes.Heisnegligent____hisduties.(in,of.)

18. Contentmentisrequisite____happiness.Heistoldthatprolongedtreatmentisrequisite____effectingacure.(for,to.)

19. His shattered health is the result ____intemperance. Jealousy results____unhappiness.Nogoodislikelytoresult____thisunion.(from,in,of.)

20. Itdoesnotrest____theCollectortoorderhisrelease.Hiswholecaserests____alibi.(on,with.)

21. Mostoftheroadsinthatdistrictarenotsuitable____motor-cars.Helivesinastylesuitable____hisposition.(for,to.)

22. Heresponded____the ladies inahumorousspeech.Theboyimmediatelyresponded____ablow.Heresponded____histoastinaneatlittlespeech.(for,to,with.)

386.SomerelatedwordstakedifferentPrepositionsafterthem.Iactedaccordingtohisadvice.InaccordancewithhisadviceItookquinine.Shehasgreataffectionforhergrandchildren.Theoldladyisaffectionatetoall.Thefloodandebbtidesalternatewitheachother.Thealternativetosubmissionisdeath.Itisallduetohisambitionforfame.Heisambitiousoffame.Heiscapableofanything.Hehasnottherequisitecapacityforthiswork.

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Hehasgreatconfidenceinhisassistant.Heisquiteconfidentofsuccess.Whatacontrasttohisbrother!Whatacontrastbetweenthem!Thepresentspeechismildcontrastedwithhispastutteranceonthesamesubject.Itisnotlikelytoderogatefromhismerit.Heneversaidordidanythingderogatorytohishighposition.Heisdescendedfromanoblefamily.HeisadescendantofMahatmaGandhi.Hehasnodesireforfame.HeisdesirousofvisitingAgra.Hewasequaltotheoccasion.Heistobeblamedequallywithhisbrother.Thecoatfitsmewellexceptforthecollar.Itakeexceptiontoyourremark.Thechildisfondofsweets.Shehasgreatfondnessforchildren.ThedramaisfoundedonanepisodeintheRamayana.Ithas,however,nofoundationinfact.Hehinderedmefromgoing.Childmarriageisagreathindrancetoprogress.Heisquiteinfatuatedwithher.Hisinfatuationforthatgirlledhimastray.Hehasnolikingforcards.Hisdisliketohercontinuedtoincrease.Heisneglectfulofhisdress.Ihaveoftenfoundhimnegligentinhiswork.Theysayheispartialtohisfriends.Childrenshowapartialityforsweetmeats.Ihavenoprejudiceagainstforeigners.Suchastepwillbeprejudicialtoyourinterests.Heispreparedforanything.Preparatory to taking extreme measures, his father once againwarnedhim.Pursuanttoourconversation,InowsendyouachequeforRs.500asmycontributiontothefund.

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In pursuance of your instructions, we are writing to-day to theCollector.Iamofopinionthatheisqualifiedforthepost.Heisdisqualifiedfrompractisingasapleader.Asaresultoftheinjuryreceivedbyhim,hediedoftetanus.Itissaidthatnothingresultedfromtheconference.Ihavegreatrespectforhislearning.Heisrespectfultohissuperiors,withoutbeingservile.Heseizedupontheopportunityofferedtohim.TheseizureofhispropertywascarriedoutunderdirectordersfromtheRajah.IassureyouthatIamsensibleofyourkindness.Hisparalysedarmisinsensibletofeeling.SubsequenttothemeetinghewrotealettertoTheHindu.

Consequent upon this letter, the agents of the company filed a suitagainsthimfordefamation.TrustinGodanddowhatisright.Hisdistrustofhisassistantsisperhapsunfounded.Thecountrysuffersforwantofskilledlabour.Heiswantinginalittlecommonsense.

387. Sometimes averb is followedby apreposition ; sometimesno preposition follows it. Themeaning, however, is not always thesameinbothcases.

Icallthatmean.Icalledonhimathisoffice.Idon’tcatchyourmeaning.Adrowningmancatchesatastraw.Thisclosedtheproceedings.Afteralittlehigglingheclosedwithmyoffer.Hecommencedlifeasashopassistant.Theproceedingscommencedwithasong.Have you counted the cost ? I count upon your advice andcooperation.Hedealsfairlywithhiscustomers.Hedealsincottonandcloth.Thecompounderdispensesmedicines.Hismasterdispensedwithhisservices.Hegainedhisobjectbypersuasion.Hegaineduponhisrichunclebyhissuavemanners.

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He grasped themeaning of the passage in no time. Like a shrewdmanofbusinesshegraspedattheopportunity.Imethimonmywaytothestation.Hisappealsforfundsmetwithapoorresponse.Healwaysprepareshisspeech.Oursoldierspreparedthemselvesfortheoffensive.The police searched the house of the suspect.We searched for thelostarticle.

388.Donotusetheinfinitivewithcertainwordswhichrequireaprepositionfollowedbyagerundorbyaverbalnoun.

Heisaddictedtogambling.[Not:togamble.]Iassistedherinclimbingthehill.Heisaversetoplayingcards.Idonotbelieveinpamperingservants.Iambentonattendingthemeeting.Hehashardlyanychanceofsucceeding.Heisconfidentofsecuringthefirstprize.Thecustomoftippingisprevalenteverywhere.HeisdesirousofvisitingJapan.Hedespairedofachievinghisobject.Thereissomedifficultyinperceivinghismeaning.Hereafterheisdisqualifiedforholdinganygovernmentpost.Rememberthedutyofhelpingthepoor.Sudhaexcelsindancing.Youcanhavenoexcusefortalkingbluntly.Heisexpertininventingstories.Iamfondofreadingnovels.Thefirmwasfortunateinsecuringthegovernment’ssupport.WhathinderedyoufromvisitingtheMuseum?Hewasdisappointedinthehopeofbeingrewarded.Hefeltthehumiliationofwithdrawinghiswords.Weshouldbeindefatigableindoinggood.Iinsistedonhavingmysay.HeisintentonvisitingNorway.Youwerenotjustifiedinimputingmotivestohim.Hehasaknackofdoingit.

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Heappreciatedthenecessityofactingpromptly.Hepersistedindisobeyingtheorders.Helacksthepowerofimparting,althoughheisagoodmathematicalscholar.Thepracticeofcrammingisrightlyregardedasanevil.Itwasonlyapretextfordelayingthematter.WhatistheretopreventhimfromleavingChennai?Ihadtheprivilegeofknowinghimintimately.Theywereprohibitedfromenteringthevillage.Irefrainedfromhurtinghisfeelings.Youwererightinsuspectinghim.Thereislittlesatisfactioninsittingidle.Hehasnoscrupleinbegging.Hesucceededinconvincinghiscritics.Hethoughtofeludinghispursuers.Iamtiredofwritingletterstohim.

Note—Sometimesbothconstructionsareallowable;as

Hewasafraidoftellingthetruth.Hewasafraidtotellthetruth.Heatlastgottheopportunityofmeetinghim.Heatlastgottheopportunitytomeethim.

389.On the other hand, certainwords always take the infinitiveafterthem;as,

Headvisedustodesistfromthatattempt.Ideclinetosayanythingfurther.Iexpecttomeetopposition.Itishardtogetaccesstohim.Hehopestowinthefirstprize.Weareallinclinedtojudgeofothersaswefindthem.HeintendstocompileaMarathidictionary.

390. Prepositions are sometimes inserted where they are notrequired;as,

Wherehaveyoubeento?[Heretoisnotrequired.]

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Myeldest son is a boyof about eighteenyears old. [Hereof is notrequired.]After having finished my work I went home. [Here after is notrequired.]

391.Notethattheverbsdiscuss,orderandstressaretransitiveandtherefore they are not followed by prepositions.Wediscuss a topic(notdiscussaboutatopic),ordertea(notorderfortea),stressapoint(notstressonapoint).

CHAPTER40

THECONJUNCTION392.Readthefollowingsentences:

1. Godmadethecountryandmanmadethetown.2. Ourhoardislittle,butourheartsaregreat.3. Shemustweep,orshewilldie.4. Twoandtwomakefour.

In1,2and3,theConjunctionsjointogethertwosentences.In4,theConjunctionjoinstogethertwowordsonly.[See§393.]Def.—A Conjunction is a word which merely joins together

sentences,andsometimeswords.393. Conjunctions join together sentences and often make them

morecompact;thus,

‘BaluandVithalaregoodbowlers’.

isashortwayofsaying

‘BaluisagoodbowlerandVithalisagoodbowler’.

So,

‘Themanispoor,buthonest’.

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Either—or. Eithertakeitorleaveit.Neither—nor. Itisneitherusefulnorornamental.Both—and

isacontractedwayofsaying

‘Themanispoor,butheishonest.’

Sometimes,however,theConjunctionandjoinswordsonly;as,

Twoandtwomakefour.HariandRamaarebrothers.HariandRamacamehometogether.

Suchsentencescannotberesolvedintwosentences.394. Conjunctionsmust be carefully distinguished fromRelative

Pronouns, Relative Adverbs, and Prepositions, which are alsoconnectingwords.

1. ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.(RelativePronoun)2. Thisistheplacewherehewasmurdered.(RelativeAdverb)3. Takethisandgivethat.(Conjunction)

Insentence1,theRelativePronounthatreferstothenounhouse,andalsojoinsthetwopartsofthesentence.

In sentence 2, theRelativeAdverbwheremodifies the verbwasmurderedandalsojoinsthetwopartsofthesentence.

In sentence3, theConjunctionand simply joins the twopartsofthesentence;itdoesnootherwork.

Itwillthusbeseenthat—Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs also join ; but they do

more.Conjunctionsmerelyjoin:theydonootherwork.ObservethataPrepositionalsojoinstwowords,butitdoesmore;

itgovernsanounorpronoun;as,

HesatbesideRama.Hestoodbehindme.

395.SomeConjunctionsareusedinpairs;as,

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Both—and Webothloveandhonourhim.Though—yet.(rareincurrentEnglish)

Thoughheissufferingmuchpain,yethedoesnotcomplain.

Whether—or. Idonotcarewhetheryougoorstay.Notonly—butalso. Not only is he foolish, but also

obstinate.

HevisitednotonlyAgra,butalsoDelhi.(Not) HenotonlyvisitedAgra,butalsoDelhi.

Inorderthat. The notice was published in orderthatallmightknowthefacts.

Onconditionthat. I will forgive you on condition thatyoudonotrepeattheoffence.

Evenif. Suchanactwouldnotbekindevenifitwerejust.

Sothat. He saved some bread so that heshouldnotgohungryonthemorrow.

Providedthat. You can borrow the book providedthatyoureturnitsoon.

Asthough. He walks as though he is slightlylame.

Inasmuchas. Imust refuseyour request, inasmuchasIbelieveitunreasonable.

Aswellas. RamaaswellasGovindwaspresentthere.

Assoonas. He took off his coat as soon as heenteredthehouse.

Asif. Helooksasifhewereweary.

Conjunctionswhichare thusused inpairsarecalledCorrelativeConjunctionsormerelyCorrelatives.

396. When Conjunctions are used as Correlatives, each of thecorrelatedwordsshouldbeplacedimmediatelybeforethewordstobeconnected;as,

397.WeusemanycompoundexpressionsasConjunctions;thesearecalledCompoundConjunctions.

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CLASSESOFCONJUNCTIONS398.Aswe shall seeConjunctionsaredivided into twoclasses :

Co-ordinatingandSubordinating.Readthesentence:

Birdsflyandfishswim.

The sentence contains two independent statements or twostatements of equal rank or importance. Hence the Conjunctionjoining together these two statements or clauses of equal rank iscalledaCo-ordinatingConjunction[‘Co-ordinating’meansofequalrank.]

Def.— A Co-ordinating Conjunction joins together clauses ofequalrank.

399.ThechiefCo-ordinatingConjunctionsare:And,but,for,or,nor,also,either.....or,neither......nor.

400.Co-ordinatingConjunctionsareoffourkinds:(1)CumulativeorCopulativewhichmerelyaddonestatementto

another;as,

Wecarvednotaline,andweraisednotastone.

(2) Adversative which express opposition or contrast betweentwostatements;as,

Heisslow,butheissure.Iwasannoyed,stillIkeptquiet.Iwouldcome;onlythatIamengaged.Hewasallright;onlyhewasfatigued.

(3)Disjunctive orAlternative which express a choice betweentwoalternatives;as,

Shemustweep,orshewilldie.Eitherheismad,orhefeignsmadness.Neitheraborrower,noralenderbe.

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Theytoilnot,neitherdotheyspin.Walkquickly,elseyouwillnotovertakehim.

(4)Illativewhichexpressaninference;as,Somethingcertainlyfellin:forIheardasplash.All precautions must have been neglected, for the plague spreadrapidly.

401.AnyoftheCo-ordinatingConjunctions,withtheexceptionofor,nor,maybeomittedanditsplacetakenbyacomma,semi-colon,orcolon;as,

Ramawentouttoplay;Haristayedintowork.

402.Readthesentence:Ireadthepaperbecauseitinterestsme.

The sentence contains two statements or clauses one of which,‘because it interests me’, is dependent on the other. Hence theConjunctionintroducingthedependentorsubordinateclauseiscalledaSubordinatingConjunction.

Def.—A Subordinating Conjunction joins a clause to another onwhichitdependsforitsfullmeaning.

403.ThechiefSubordinatingConjunctionsare:After, because, if, that, though, although, till, before, unless, as,when,where,while.Aftertheshowerwasoverthesunshoneoutagain.Abook’sabook,although,thereisnothinginit.Ashewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.Heranawaybecausehewasafraid.Answerthefirstquestionbeforeyouproceedfurther.Takeheedereitbetoolate.Exceptyerepent,youshallalllikewiseperish.Youwillpassifyouworkhard.Sentinelswerepostedlestthecampshouldbetakenbysurprise.Sinceyousayso,Imustbelieveit.

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TellthemthatIwillcome.Hefinishedfirstthoughhebeganlate.WillyouwaittillIreturn?Hewillnotpayunlessheiscompelled.Iwaitedformyfrienduntilhecame.WhenIwasyounger,Ithoughtso.Idonotknowwhencehecomes.Hefoundhiswatchwherehehadleftit.Idonotunderstandhowitallhappened.Makehaywhilethesunshines.Ishallgowhitherfancyleadsme.Iknownotwhyheleftus.

404.ThewordthanisalsoaSubordinatingConjunction:HeistallerthanI(amtall).Ilikeyoubetterthanhe(likesyou).Ilikeyoubetterthan(Ilike)him.HariismorestupidthanDhondu(isstupid).Hisbarkisworsethanhisbite(isbad).

405. Subordinating Conjunctions may be classified according totheirmeaning,asfollows:

(1)Time.IwoulddiebeforeIlied.No nation can be perfectly well governed till it is competent togovernitself.ManythingshavehappenedsinceIsawyou.Ireturnedhomeafterhehadgone.Ereheblewthreenotes,therewasarustling.

(2)CauseorReason.Mystrengthisasthestrengthoften,becausemyheartispure.Sinceyouwishit,itshallbedone.Ashewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.Hemayenter,asheisafriend.

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StaytillMonday. Weshallstayheretillyoureturn.

IhavenotmethimsinceMonday.

Weshallgosinceyoudesireit.

Hediedforhiscountry. Imuststayhere,forsuchismyduty.

Thedogranafterthecat. Wecameaftertheyhadleft.EverybodybutGovindwaspresent.

Hetried,butdidnotsucceed.

Hestoodbeforethepainting. Lookbeforeyouleap.

Preposition Conjunction

(3)Purpose.Weeatsothatwemaylive.HeheldmyhandlestIshouldfall.

(4)ResultorConsequence.Hewassotiredthathecouldscarcelystand.

(5)Condition.RamawillgoifHarigoes.Grievancescannotberedressedunlesstheyareknown.

(6)Concession.Iwillnotseehim,thoughhecomes.ThoughHeslayme,yetwillItrustHim.Abook’sabook,althoughthere’snothinginit.

(7)Comparison.HeisstrongerthanRustum[is].

406. Certain words are used both as Prepositions andConjunctions.[See§375.]

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR94

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Point out the Conjunctions in the following sentences, and statewhethertheyareCoordinatingorSubordinating:

1. Youwillnotsucceedunlessyouworkharder.2. Wearrivedafteryouhadgone.3. Iwaitedtillthetrainarrived.4. Breadandmilkiswholesomefood.5. Youwillgettheprizeifyoudeserveit.6. Whenyouarecalled,youmustcomeinatonce.7. DonotgobeforeIcome.8. Icannotgiveyouanymoney,forIhavenone.9. Sinceyousayso,Imustbelieveit.10. Hefledlestheshouldbekilled.11. Ishallbevexedifyoudothat.12. Wegotintotheportbeforethestormcameon.13. Hewassorryafterhehaddoneit.14. Ididnotcomebecauseyoudidnotcallme.15. HeisricherthanIam.16. MygrandfatherdiedbeforeIwasborn.17. Iwillstayuntilyoureturn.18. Catchmeifyoucan.19. TomrunsfasterthanHarry.20. Isthatstorytrueorfalse?21. Youwillbelateunlessyouhurry.22. Heaskedwhetherhemighthaveaholiday.23. Givemetodrink,elseIshalldieofthirst.24. IfIfeelanydoubt,Iask.25. Hedeservedtosucceed,forheworkedhard.26. Hewillbesuretocomeifyouinvitehim.27. Wecantravelbylandorwater.28. Theearthislargerthanthemoon.29. Eitheryouaremistaken,orIam.30. Ishallgo,whetheryoucomeornot.31. Unlessyoutellmethetruth,Ishallpunishyou.32. IhearthatyourbrotherisinLondon.33. Blessedarethemerciful,fortheyshallobtainmercy.

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EXERCISEINGRAMMAR95

UsetheseConjunctionsincomplexsentences:(1)But,either...............or,neither............nor,whether............or(2) That, before, how, as, unless, until, though, when, while,

where,if,than

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR96

FilltheblankswithappropriateConjunctions:1. Bejust____fearnot.2. Iranfast,_____Imissedthetrain.3. Hefled,_____hewasafraid.4. Makehaste,_____youwillbelate.5. _____youtry,youwillnotsucceed.6. Iamsure____hesaidso.7. Wait____Ireturn.8. Donotgo____Icome.9. Hefinishedfirst____hebeganlate.10. Takecare____youfall.11. Takealamp,____thenightisdark.12. ____hewasambitiousIslewhim.13. Openrebukeisbetter____secretlove.14. ____youeattoomuchyouwillbeill.15. Ishallnotgo____Iaminvited.16. Hehassucceededbetter____hehoped.17. Idoit____Ichooseto.18. ____dutycallsuswemustobey.19. Livewell____youmaydiewell.20. Thinknoughtatrifle,____itsmallappear.21. Thepursehasbeenlost____stolen.22. Rustumisslow____sure.23. Heremainedathome____hewasill.24. ____hewasindustrious,Iencouragedhim.

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EXERCISEINGRAMMAR97

Fill each blank in the following sentences with an appropriateConjunction:1. Three____threemakesix.2. IshisnameSen____Gupta?3. Hewillnotcome____itrains.4. ____yourun,youwillnotovertakehim.5. Heisveryrich____heisnothappy.6. ____Ireturn,staywhereyouare.7. Hewaspunished,____hewasguilty.8. Hebehaved____abravemanshoulddo.9. Thereisnodoubt____theearthisround.10. Iwonder____hewillcome.11. Heiswitty____vulgar.12. Willyoukindlywait____Ireturn?13. Karimistall,____Abdulistaller.14. Helosthisbalance____felloffthebicycle.15. Hetriedhard____didnotsucceed.16. Isthismybook____yours?17. Water____oilwillnotmix.18. Theyleft____wereturned.19. Thevasewillbreak____youdropit.20. Ishallnotgooutnow____itisrainingveryheavily.21. Trains run from this station every fewminutes ____we shall not have to

wait.22. Manproposes____Goddisposes.23. Time____tidedonotwaitforanybody.24. Virtueennobles,____vicedegrades.25. This____thatmustsuffice.26. Thetrainwasderailed____noonewashurt.27. Shewritesslowly____neatly.28. Ibelievehim____heistruthful.29. Youwillnotgettheprize____youdeserveit.30. Sendforme____youwantme.31. Hariwilldoallright,____heperseveres.32. Catchme____youcan.

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33. Hetoldme____youhadarrivedanhourago.34. Youwillneversucceed____youtry.35. ____Iwereyou,I’dkeepquiet.36. Wait____Icome.37. Bejust____fearnot.38. Tellme____youunderstand.39. Wewillcome,_____itrains____not.40. Makehay____thesunshines.41. Itisalongtime____welastsawhim.42. Pleasewrite____Idictate.43. Itishoped____allwillgowell.44. Giveme____poverty____riches.45. Heistaller____I(am).46. ____Icannotgetaway,Iwillgonextweek.47. ____youwishit,itshallbedone.48. Whyisourfoodsosweet?____weearnbeforeweeat.49. Takeheed____youfall.50. Hegazedsolong____bothhiseyesweredazzled.51. ____thereislifethereishope.52. Walkon____youcometothegate.53. Theysay____heisbetter.54. Ihavebeeninsuchapickle____Isawyoulast.55. Hisplans,____vast,werenevervisionary.56. Somepeoplelive____theymayeat.57. Hewent____Icame.58. Hewillstarve______hewillsteal.59. Thereweremorepeople_____wehadexpected.60. ____thereissomethingtobedone,theworldknowshowtogetitdone.61. ____IgranthishonestyIsuspecthismemory.62. ____Iampoor,Iamnotdishonest.63. Nooneknows____hewent.64. Come____youplease.65. Do____youarebidden.66. Hemusthavepassedthisway,____thereisnootherroad.67. ____respected,heisnotliked.68. Weallknow____sinandsorrowgotogether.69. Idon’tknow____hewillbehere.

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1.Mybrotheriswell. Mysisterisill.2.Hesellsmangoes. Hesellsoranges.3.Hedidnotsucceed. Heworkedhard.4.Ramaplayedwell. Hariplayedwell.5.Ihonourhim. Heisabraveman.6.Youmaygo. Iwillstay.7.Ramareadsforpleasure. Harireadsforprofit.8.Wedecidedtosetout. Itwaslate.9.Hewaspoor. Hewashonest.10.Heisnotaknave. Heisnotafool.11.WeloveBahadur. Heisafaithfuldog.12.Rustummadetwelveruns. Hewascaughtatthewicket.13.Heisrich. Heisnothappy.14.Thesheeparegrazing. Theoxenaregrazing.15.Heispoor. Heiscontented.16.Thismangoislarge. Thismangoissweet.17.Mybrotherwasnotthere. Mysisterwasnotthere.18.Theboyishere. Thegirlishere.19.Thepiperplayed. Thechildrendanced.20.Youmustbequiet. Youmustleavetheroom.21.Hesatdown.

70. Grievancescannotberedressed____theyareknown.71. Weshallfail____weareindustrious.72. ____itwaslatewedecidedtosetout.73. Iamwell,____Idonotfeelverystrong.74. ____heisthere,Ishallseehim.75. Howcanhebuyit____hehasnomoney?76. ____youarenotready,wemustgoon.77. Thebuildinghasbeenrazed____Ivisitedthecity.78. Lovenotsleep,____thoucometopoverty.79. Hebledsoprofusely____hedied.80. Iknowyoubetter____he(does).

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR98

Joineachpairof the following sentencesbymeansofa suitableConjunction.Makesuchchangesasarenecessary:

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21.Hesatdown.Hewastired.

22.Ramaworkshard. Hariisidle.23.Ilosttheprize. Itriedmybest.24.Ilikehim. Heisdangerous.25.Iwenttotheshop. Iboughtaslate.26.Heisslow. Heissure.27.Iknow. Hedoesnotthinkso.28.Youaretall. Mybrotheristaller.29.Hariwenttoschool. Sitastayedathome.30.Hemuststartatonce. Hewillbelate.31.Ishallsitstill. Ishalllistentothemusic.32.Harididnotcome. Hedidnotsendaletter.33.Iranfast. Imissedthetrain.34.Karimworkshard. Abdulworksharder.35.Hemustbetired. Hehaswalkedtwelvemiles.36.Itisautumn. Theleavesarefalling.37.Iwillcome. Iamnotill.38.Iwillbringyourumbrella. Youwishit.39.Heremainedcheerful. Hehasbeenwounded.40.Hewentout. Thetrainstopped.41.Herantothestation. Hemissedthetrain.42.Icame. Iwasunwilling.43.Menhavefoughtfortheircountry. Menhavediedfortheircountry.44.Hewasafraidofbeinglate. Heran.45.Haridoesnotwritefast. Hewritesverywell.46.Theboyisdangerouslyill. Theboy’sheadwashurt.47.Theoldmanfelldownthesteps. Hebrokehisleg.48.Hetriedtogetup. Hecouldnot.49.Motherisathome. Fatherisathome.50.Ihaveacricketbat. Ihaveasetofstumps.51.Wewentearlytothecircus. Wecouldnotgetaseat.52.Hemustdoasheistold. Hewillbepunished.53.Theprisonerfelldownonhisknees. Theprisonerbeggedformercy.54.Sitagoestoschool. Gangagoestoschool.55.Ramamaybeinthehouse. Ramamaybeinthegarden.

EXERCISEINGRAMMAR99

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Distinguish as Adverb, Preposition, or Conjunction, each of theitalicizedwordsinthefollowingsentences:

1. Hecamebeforeme.2. Hecametwohoursbefore.3. HecamebeforeIleft.4. Haveyoueverseenhimsince?5. IhavenotseenhimsinceMonday.6. Ihavenotseenhimsincehewasachild.7. Manwantsbutlittleherebelow.8. Heyearnsfornothingbutmoney.9. Weshallgo,butyouwillremain.10. Hearrivedafterthemeetingwasadjourned.11. Hearrivedafterthemeeting.12. Hearrivedsoonafter.

CHAPTER41

SOMECONJUNCTIONSANDTHEIRUSES407.Since,asaConjunction,means—(1)Fromandafterthetimewhen;as,

IhavebeeninsuchapicklesinceIsawyoulast.ManythingshavehappenedsinceIleftschool.Ihaveneverseenhimsincethatunfortunateeventhappened.

Note—Since,whenusedasaConjunctioninthissense,shouldbeprecededbyaverbinthepresentperfecttense,andfollowedbyaverbinthesimplepasttense.

(2)Seeingthat,inasmuchas;as,

Sinceyouwishit,itshallbedone.Sinceyouwillnotwork,youshallnoteat.Sincethatisthecase,Ishallexcuseyou.

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408.Orisused—(1)Tointroduceanalternative,as,

Yourpurseoryourlife.Youmustworkorstarve.Youmaytakethisbookorthatone.

Note — There may be several alternatives each joined to thepreceding one by or, presenting a choice between any two in theseries;as

Hemaystudylawormedicineorengineering,orhemayenterintotrade.

(2)Tointroduceanalternativenameorsynonym;as,

Theviolinorfiddlehasbecometheleadinginstrumentofthemodernorchestra.

(3)Tomeanotherwise;as

Wemusthastenornightwillovertakeus.

(4)Asnearlyequivalenttoand;as,

The troopswere notwanting in strengthor courage, but theywerebadlyfed.

409.Ifisusedtomean—(1)Ontheconditionorsuppositionthat;as,

Ifheisthere,Ishallseehim.Ifthatisso,Iamcontent.

(2)Admittingthat,as,

IfIamblunt,Iamatleasthonest.IfIampoor,yetIamhonest.

(3)Whether;as,

Iaskedhimifhewouldhelpme.

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Iwonderifhewillcome.

(4)Whenever;as,

IfIfeelanydoubtIinquire.

Ifisalsousedtoexpresswishorsurprise:as,

IfIonlyknew!

410. That, as a Conjunction, retains much of its force as aDemonstrative Pronoun. Thus the sentence ‘I am told that you aremiserable’ may be transposed into ‘You are miserable : I am toldthat.’

Thatisused—(1)To express aReasonorCause, and is equivalent tobecause,

forthat,inthat;as,

NotthatIlovedCaesarless,butthatIlovedRomemore.Hewasannoyedthathewascontradicted.

(2)ToexpressaPurpose,andisequivalenttoinorderthat;as,Wesowthatwemayreap.Hekeptquietthatthedisputemightcease.

Note—Todaythatisrarelyusedforreasonorpurpose.

(3)ToexpressaConsequence,Result,orEffect;as,

IamsotiredthatIcannotgoon.Hebledsoprofuselythathedied.Hewassotiredthathecouldscarcelystand.

411.ThanasaConjunction,followsadjectivesandadverbsinthecomparativedegree;as,

Wisdomisbetterthanrubies(are).Iseeyouoftenerthan(Isee)him.Iambetteracquaintedwiththecountrythanyouare.Iwouldrathersufferthanthatyoushouldwant.

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412. Lest is used as a Subordinating Conjunction expressing anegativepurpose,andisequivalentto‘inorderthat......not’,‘forfearthat’;as,

Lovenotsleep,lestthoucometopoverty.Donotbeidle,lestyoucometowant.Hefledlestheshouldbekilled.Iwasalarmedlestweshouldbewrecked.

Note—LestisrareinmodernEnglish.Note—Themodernidiomaticconstructionafterlestisshould.

After certain expressionsdenoting fearor apprehension, lestwasusedasequivalenttothat;as,

IfearedlestImightangerthee.

413.Whileisusedtomean—(1)Duringthetimethat,aslongas;as,

Whilehewassleeping,anenemysowedtares.Whilethereislifethereishope.

(2)Atthesametimethat;as,

Thegirlssangwhiletheboysplayed.Whilehefoundfault,healsopraised.

(3)Whereas;as,

WhileIhavenomoneytospend,youhavenothingtospendon.Whilethisistrueofsome,itisnottrueofall.

414.Only, as aConjunction,meansexcept that, but,were it not(that);as,

Averyprettywoman,onlyshesquintsalittle.Thedayispleasant,onlyrathercold.Hedoeswell,onlythatheisnervousatthestart.Iwouldgowithyou,onlyIhavenomoney.

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415.ExceptwasonceingooduseasaConjunction;as,Except(=unless)yerepent,yeshallalllikewiseperish.Exceptamanbebornagain,hecannotseethekingdomofGod.

InmodernEnglishitsplacehasbeentakenbyunless.416. Without.—The use of without as a Conjunction meaning

unlessisnowbadEnglish;as,

Ishallnotgowithoutyoudo.

417.Because, for, since.—Of these threeconjunctions,becausedenotes the closest causal conjunction, for theweakest, since comesbetweenthetwo.


FilltheblankswithConjunctions:

1. Iamintheright,____youareinthewrong.2. The most exquisite work of literary art exhibits a certain crudeness and

coarseness,_____weturntoitfromnature.3. ______hehadnotpaidhisbill,hiselectricitywascutoff.4. There never can be prosperity in any country _____ all the numerous

cultivatorsofthesoilarepermanentlydepressedandinjured.5. Givingupwrongpleasureisnotself-sacrifice,____self-culture.6. Conformthyself thentothypresentfortune____cut thycoataccordingto

thycloth.7. Inconsistencyconsists inachangeofconduct_____there isnochangeof

circumstanceswhichjustifyit.8. Thedisgust felt towardsanykindofknowledge isa sign______that it is

prematurelypresented,____thatitispresentedinanindigestibleform.9. ____do the learned know what sort of mortals inhabit beyond those

mountains,____whethertheybeinhabitedatall.10. Hisambitionwasinordinate,____hewasjealousofeverymanofability.11. Justlawsarenorestraintuponthefreedomofthegood,____thegoodman

desiresnothingwhichajustlawwillinterferewith.12. Wejudgeourselvesbywhatwefeelcapableofdoing,____othersjudgeus

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bywhatwehavealreadydone.13. MyworthyfriendSirRogerisoneofthosewhoarenotonlyatpeacewith

themselves,____belovedandesteemedbyallaboutthem.14. Thefleetsoftheenemywerenotmerelydefeated,____destroyed.15. Aslongashe(WilliamofOrange)lived,hewastheguiding-starofabrave

nation;____hediedthelittlechildrencriedinthestreet.16. No one likes puns, alliterations, antithesis, argument and analysis better

thanIdo;Isometimeshadratherbewithoutthem.17. It (the game of fives) is “the finest exercise for the body ____best

relaxationforthemind.”18. He(OmarKhayyam)abhorredhypocrisy,____hewasnottoosternwiththe

hypocrite.19. OurproudesttitleisnotthatwearethecontemporariesofDarwin,____that

wearethedescendantsofShakespeare.20. He(HenryBradshaw)knewmoreaboutprintedbooks____anymanliving.21. Areyouimpatientwiththelark____hesingsratherthantalks?22. Trustthemanwhohesitatesinhisspeechandisquickandsteadyinaction,

____bewareoflongargumentsandlongbeards.23. Religiondoesnotbanishmirth____onlymoderatesandsetsrulestoit.24. A man’s real character will always be more visible in his household

____anywhereelse.25. ____grandfather was old and gray-haired, ____his heart leaped with joy

wheneverlittleAlicecamefluttering,likeabutterfly,intotheroom.26. Hethatisslowtoangerisbetter____themighty.27. ____weapproachedthehouse,weheardthesoundofmusic.28. Theravinewasfullofsandnow,____ithadoncebeenfullofwater.29. Theharvesttrulyisplenteous,____thelabourersarefew.30. A vessel that once gets a crack, ____it may be cunningly mended, will

neverstandsuchroughusageasawholeone.31. Giveeverymanthyear,____fewthyvoice.32. Virtue____wiseaction lies in themeanbetween the twoextremesof too

littleandtoomuch.33. AndGodcalledthelightDay,____thedarknessHecalledNight.34. That is a good book which is opened with expectation, ____closed with

profit.35. ______ I was in Sri Lanka, I was particularly fascinated by the Coral

GardensofHikkaduwa.

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36. The restoration crushed for a time thePuritanparty, ____placed supremepowerinthehandsofalibertine.

37. Ofhisvoyagelittleisknown,____thatheamusedhimselfwithbooksandwithhispen.

38. ____shehadgivenupnovelwriting,shewasstillfondofusingherpen.39. ____AddisonwasinIreland,aneventoccurredtowhichheoweshishigh

andpermanentrankamongBritishwriters.40. ____life____propertywassafe,andthepoorandtheweakwereoppressed

bythestrong.41. ____GreekandLatin,____allAryan languageshave theirpeacefulwords

incommon.42. He was an oppressor ; _____he had at least the merit of protecting his

peopleagainstalloppressionexcepthisown.43. Peopletravellinginaspacecraftappear tobeweighless______canmove

about______thereisnogravityinspace.44. The right of self-defence is founded in the lawof nature, ____is not and

cannotbesupersededbythelawofsociety.45. Let the superstructure of life be enjoyment, ____let its foundation be in

solidwork.46. ____I was not a stranger to books, I had no practical acquaintance with

them.47. Poetrytakesmeupsoentirely____Iscarceseewhatpassesundermynose.48. A gentlemanmade it a rule in reading to skip over all sentences ____he

spiedanoteofadmirationattheend.49. ____afogrolledoverthecityinthesmallhours,theearlypartofthenight

wascloudless.50. ____Iwerepersonallyyourenemy,Imightpityandforgiveyou.


FilltheblankswithConjunctions:

1. ____somewhatpompous,hewasanentertainingcompanion.2. “Mr.Johnson”,saidI,“IdoindeedcomefromScotland,____Icannothelp

it.”3. ThemanthatstandsbymeintroubleIwon’tbidhimgo____thesunshines

again.

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4. ____youareuponEarthenjoy thegood things thatarehere,_____benotmelancholy.

5. Theartofpleasingisaverynecessaryonetopossess;____averydifficultonetoacquire.

6. Nevermaintainanargumentwithheatandclamour,____youthinkorknowyourselftobeintheright.

7. Thecrowdcheeredloudly____thePrimeMinisterarrived.8. Iampersuaded____thetranslatorsoftheBibleweremastersofanEnglish

stylemuchfitterforthatwork____anyweseeinourpresentwritings.9. He [Chaucer] must have been a man of most wonderful comprehensive

nature, ____he has taken into the compass of his Canterbury Tales thevariousmannersandhumoursofthewholeEnglishnation,inhisage.

10. Itisthecommondoomofman____hemusteathisbreadbythesweatofhisbrow.

11. It is a sort of paradox, ____it is true : we are never more in danger____whenwethinkourselvesmostsecure.

12. Ihaveimposeduponmyself,____Ihavebeenguiltyofnootherimposition.13. Oneofthepleasantestthingsintheworldisgoingonajourney;____Ilike

togobymyself.Icanenjoysocietyinaroom;____,outofdoors,natureiscompanyenoughforme.

14. It [the game of fives] is the finest exercise for the body, ____the bestrelaxationforthemind.

15. Religiondoesnotbanishmirth____onlymoderatesandsetsrulestoit.16. Fitwordsarebetter____fineones.17. I like political changes ____such changes are made as the result, not of

passion,butofdeliberationandreason.18. Civilizedman, ____let loosewith the bonds ofmorality relaxed, is a far

greaterbeast____thesavage,morerefinedinhiscruelty,morefiend-likeineveryact.

19. Themanwhoeatsinahurrylosesboththepleasureofeating____theprofitofdigestion.

20. Let a man sleep ____he is sleepy, ____rise ____the crow of the cock,____theglareofthesunrouseshimfromhistorpor.

21. Itisagreatlosstoaman____hecannotlaugh.22. Impure air can never make pure blood ; ____impure blood corrupts the

wholesystem.23. Never refuse toentertainaman inyourheart____all theworld is talking

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againsthim.24. ____youwouldbehealthy,begood.25. ____youhaveasword____apeninyourhand,wield____theone____the

otherinaspiritofinsolentselfreliance.26. Aregularbathinthemorning,____withveryfeebleanddelicatesubjects,

hasalwaysaninvigoratingeffect.27. There is no more sure sign of a shallow mind ____the habit of seeing

alwaystheludicroussideofthings.28. Anhonesthaterisoftenabetterfellow____acoolfriend;____itisbetter

nottohateatall.29. There isnovirtue thatDr.Arnold labouredmore sedulously to instil into

youngmen____thevirtueoftruthfulness.30. Theteachersofmoralitydiscourselikeangels,____theylivelikemen.31. Massacres____disordersneverhavethewaytopeace.32. Naturalthirstismoredeliciouslygratifiedwithwater,____artificialthirstis

withwine.33. Womanwas notmeant to be ____an unthinking drudge, ____themerely

prettyornamentofman’sleisure.34. Therealdignityofamanliesinwhathehas,____inwhatheis.35. They say theLion and theLizardkeep theCourts _____Jamshydgloried

anddrankdeep.36. ____Iamdead,mydearest,singnosadsongsforme.37. ____he[LordBeaconsfield]wasambitious,hisambitionwasanobleone.38. Sufferthelittlechildrentocomeuntome,andforbidthemnot,____ofsuch

istheKingdomofGod.39. Heardmelodiesaresweet,____thoseunheardaresweeter.40. Iawokeonemorning____foundmyselffamous.41. ____theblindleadtheblind,bothshallfallintotheditch.42. One generation passeth away and other generation cometh, ____the earth

abidethforever.43. Amanhasnomorerighttosayanuncivilthing____toactone.44. Letusshunextremes,____eachextremenecessarilyengendersitsopposite.45. ____thisbemadness,____thereismethodinit.46. The heavens declare the glory of God, ____the firmanent showeth His

handi-work.47. Everygoodtreebringethforthgoodfruit,____acorrupttreebringethforth

evilfruit.

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48. Smallserviceistrueservice____itlasts.49. For my part, I was always bungler at all kinds of sport that required

____patience_____adroitness.50. There are many truths of which the full meaning cannot be realized

____personalexperiencehasbroughtithome.51. Hemayberight____wronginhisopinion,____heistooclearheadedtobe

unjust.

CHAPTER42

THEINTERJECTION418.Examinethefollowingsentences:

Hello!Whatareyoudoingthere?Alas!Heisdead.Hurrah!Wehavewonthegame.Ah!Havetheygone?Oh!Igotsuchafright.Hush!Don’tmakeanoise.

Such words as Hello ! Alas ! Hurrah ! Ah ! etc. are calledInterjections.

Theyareusedtoexpresssomesuddenfeelingoremotion.Itwillbenoticedthattheyarenotgrammaticallyrelatedtotheotherwordsinasentence.

Def.—An Interjection is a word which expresses some suddenfeelingoremotion.

Interjectionsmayexpress—

(1)Joy;as,Hurrah!huzza!(2)Grief;as,alas!(3)Surprise;as,ha!what!(4)Approval;as,bravo!

419.Certaingroupsofwordsarealsousedtoexpresssomesudden

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feelingoremotion;as,

Ahme!Forshame!Welldone!Goodgracious!

CHAPTER43

THESAMEWORDUSEDASDIFFERENTPARTSOFSPEECH

420.The followingaresomeof themost importantwordswhichmaybelongtodifferentpartsofspeechaccordingtothewayinwhichtheyareused.

Alwaysrememberthat it is the functionoruse thatdeterminestowhichpartofspeechawordbelongsinagivensentence.

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Whatpartofspeechiseachofthewordsinitalics?—

1. Hekeptthefastforaweek.2. MohammedansfastinthemonthofRamzan.3. Heistherightmanintherightplace.4. Goddefendtheright!5. Thereismuchtruthinwhathesays.6. Muchcryandlittlewool.7. Don’tboasttoomuch.8. Itishardtounderstand.9. Menwhoworkhardenjoylifefully.10. Littlelearningisadangerousthing.11. Heislittleknownhere.12. Itmatterslittlewhathesays.13. Ihavelongthoughtso.14. Itislongsincewemet.15. Stillwatersrundeep.16. Hestilllivesinthathouse.17. Thatboygivesanyamountoftrouble.18. Isthatanybetter?19. Abettermanthanheneverlived.20. Heknowsbetterthantoquarrel.21. Hespokeinaloudvoice.22. Donotspeaksoloud.23. Mostpeoplethinkso.24. Whatmostannoysmeishisobstinacy.25. Sometwentyboyswereabsent.26. Iwilltakesome,butnotall.27. Pleasecallmeearly.28. Theearlybirdcatchestheworm.29. Thatcanstandover.30. Takethisparcelovertothepostoffice.31. Hehasnocommandoverhimself.32. Hewasonlyayardoffme.

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33. Suddenlyoneofthewheelscameoff.34. Imustbeoff.35. Hetoldusallaboutthebattle.36. Helivesabouttwomilesfromhere.37. Severalmenwerestandingabout.38. Afterthestormcomesthecalm.39. Theaftereffectsofpotashbromidearebad.40. HewentafterIcame.41. Theminstrelsfollowafter.42. MaycomesafterApril.43. Allfisharenotcaughtwithflies.44. Allisfairinloveandwar.45. Weshalllieallalikeinourgraves.46. Hethatiswarmthinksallso.47. Whatisallthisnoise?48. Allisnotlost.49. Heisallforamusement.50. Allisgoodinafamine.


Whatpartofspeechiseachofthewordsinitalics?

1. Heisnotanytheworseforit.2. Athingyoudon’twantisdearatanyprice.3. Ithoughtasmuch.4. Heisasdeafasapost.5. Hegotthesameresultasbefore.6. Ashewasambitious,Islewhim.7. Menfeardeathaschildrentogointhedark.8. Thereisnosuchflattererasaman’sself.9. Hedidhisbest.10. Ilikethisbest.11. Heismybestfriend.12. Heisbutachild.13. Fearnoughtbutsin.14. Butforhishelp,Icouldnothavedoneit.

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15. Thepathsofgloryleadbuttothegrave.16. ButthatIsawitIcouldnothavebelievedit.17. Ichange,butIcannotdie.18. Thereisnolanebuthasaturning.19. Thefoolisbusyineveryone’sbusinessbuthisown.20. Enoughofthis!21. Shesingswellenough.22. Enoughisasgoodasafeast.23. Wehavenotmenenough.24. Heislikehisfather.25. Iliketheoffer.26. Didyoueverhearthelikeofit?27. Donottalklikethat.28. Ihaveheardmoresince.29. Thissumismoredifficult.30. Morewillbewanted.31. Hestoodnextmeinclass.32. Thenextmomenthewasdead.33. Whathappenednext?34. Wehavenomoney.35. Heisnobetter,noworse.36. Hisanswerwasadecidedno.37. Rightthewrong.38. Heisintheright.39. Heisalwaysright.40. Setitright.41. Userightwords.42. Sinceyousayso,Ibelieveit.43. Hehasbeenillsinceyesterday.44. Hehasreturnedhomelongsince.45. Whatwasthatnoise?46. Hediedsothathemightsavehiscountry.47. Whatisthemanthatdoesnotlovehiscountry?48. Givehimwhatyoucan.49. Whatnonsenseisthis!50. Whatdoesitprofit?

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HIGHSCHOOL

ENGLISHCOMPOSITION

PARTI

ANALYSIS,TRANSFORMATIONANDSYNTHESIS

CHAPTER1

ANALYSISOFSIMPLESENTENCES1.WehavelearntthataSentenceisasetorgroupofwordswhich

makescompletesense.Wehavealsolearntthatthefirststageintheanalysisofasentence

is todivide it into twomainparts—theSubject and thePredicate ;as,

Thesubjectdenotesthepersonorthingaboutwhichsomethingissaid.

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ThepredicateiswhatissaidaboutthepersonorthingdenotedbytheSubject.

WeseethattheSubjectmayconsistofonewordorseveralwords.Thus, in sentence1 the subject consistsofoneword,viz., theNoundogs ; insentence8 theSubjectconsistsof fivewordsofwhich themostimportantwordistheNounhour.

WealsoseethatthePredicatemayconsistofonewordorseveralwords.Thus,insentence1thePredicateconsistsofoneword,viz.,theVerb bark ; in sentence 5 the Predicate consists of four words ofwhichtheessentialwordistheVerbgave.

Exercise1.InthefollowingsentencesseparatetheSubjectandthePredicate:

1. ThecacklingofgeesesavedRome.2. Stonewallsdonotaprisonmake.3. Allmatterisindestructible.4. Nomancanservetwomasters.5. Asickroomshouldbewellaired.6. Ishotanarrowintheair.7. Abarkingsoundtheshepherdhears.8. Upwenttheballoon.9. Thenakedeverydayheclad.10. Intothestreetthepiperstepped.11. Sweetaretheusesofadversity.12. Dear,gentle,patient,nobleNellwasdead.

2.WhentheSubjectofasentenceconsistsofseveralwords,thereisalwaysonewordinitwhichismoreimportantthantheotherwords.ThischiefwordinthecompleteSubjectiscalledtheSubject-wordorSimpleSubject.Thus,inthesentence,

Thelittlechild,tiredofplay,/issleeping,theNounchildistheSubject-word.

TheSubject-wordisalwaysaNoun,orawordorgroupofwordsthatdoestheworkofaNoun;as,

He/triedhisbest.

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Therich/arenotalwayshappy.Talkingovermuch/isasignofvanity.Toerr/ishuman.Tofindfault/iseasy.

3. In the complete Subject, the Subject-word is qualified by anAdjective or Adjective-equivalent* called its Enlargement orAttribute;as,

1. Newbrooms/sweepclean.2. Barkingdogs/seldombite.3. Hari’sfather/isanengineer.4. Myviews/arequitedifferent.5. Firdousi,thepoet,/wrotetheShahNamah.6. Adesiretoexcel/iscommendable.7. Astitchintime/savesnine.

Itwillbenotedthat—in1,theAttributeisanAdjective;in2,theAttributeisaParticiple(orParticipialAdjective);in3,theAttributeisaNouninthePossessiveorGenitiveCase;in4,theAttributeisaPossessiveAdjective;in5,theAttributeisaNouninApposition;

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in6,theAttribute(toexcel)isaGerundialInfinitive;in7,theAttribute(intime)isagroupofwordsdoingtheworkof

anAdjective.

Note —A or an and the are really Attributes, but they aresometimestreatedaspartsoftheSubject-word.

Exercise 2. In the following sentences pick out the completeSubject;thenseparateSubject-wordfromitsAttributes:1. Theboy,anxioustolearn,workedhard.2. Aburntchilddreadsthefire.3. Birdsofafeatherflocktogether.4. Theattempttoscalethefortwasanutterfailure.5. Thedaysofouryoutharethedaysofourglory.6. Illhabitsgatherbyunseendegrees.7. Thedog,seizingthemanbythecollar,draggedhimout.8. Thestreetsofsomeofourcitiesarenotedfortheircrookedness.9. Ahousedividedagainstitselfcannotstand.10. Deceivedbyhisfriends,helostallhope.11. Themancarryingahoeisagardener.12. Oneman’smeatisanotherman’spoison.13. MydaysamongtheDeadarepast.14. Withhiswhitehairunbonneted,thestoutoldsheriffcomes.

4.We have seen that the Predicatemay consist of one word orseveralwords.

When the Predicate consists of one word that word is always aVerb,becausewecannotsay anythingwithoutusinga saying-word,i.e.,aVerb.(Seesentence1in§1).

WhenthePredicateconsistsofseveralwords,theessentialwordinthePredicateisalwaysaVerb.(AstheVerbistheessentialwordinthePredicateitissometimescalledthePredicate-word).

5. Just as the Subject-wordmay be qualified by anAdjective orAdjective-equivalent,theVerbinthePredicatemaybequalifiedbyanAdverb or Adverb-equivalent*, called, in analysis, itsExtension orAdverbialQualification;as,

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Theflamesspreadeverywhere.Hewenthome.Herosetogo.Theflamesspreadineverydirection.Springadvancing,theswallowsappear.

Itwillbenotedthat—in1,theAdverbialQualificationisanAdverb;in2,theAdverbialQualificationisanAdverbialAccusative;in3,theAdverbialQualificationisaGerundialInfinitive;in 4, the Adverbial Qualification is a group of words doing the

workofanAdverb;in5,theAdverbialQualificationisanAbsolutePhrase.Exercise 3.Point out theAdverbialQualification in each of the

following sentences and say whether it is an Adverb, an AdverbialAccusative,aGerundialInfinitive,agroupofwordsdoingtheworkofanAdverb,oranAbsolutePhrase:1. Shespokedistinctly.2. Hespokeinadistinctvoice.3. Theboyranamile.4. Thepostmancalledagain.5. Hehascometostay.6. Waitaminute.7. Thebookisprintedincleartype.8. Irecognizedyourvoiceatonce.9. Helpalamedogoverastile.10. Thetidehavingturned,theshipsetsail.

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11. Hesoldhishorsebelowitsvalue.12. Heleavestwochildrenbehindhim.13. Hegetshislivingbytrade.14. Hemadehismoneybytrade.15. Theenemydisputedthegroundinchbyinch.16. Hesawanewworldspreadabouthim.17. Thevillagelifesuitedhiminallrespects.18. HimwillIfollowtotheendsoftheearth.

6.WhentheVerbinthePredicateisanIntransitiveVerb,italonecanformthePredicate;as,

Note—Insentence1,theVerbconsistsofonlyoneword.OftentheVerbitselfconsistsofagroupoftwoormorewords,asin2and3.

7.SometimestheVerbinthePredicateisanIntransitiveVerbofIncompletePredication,thatis,anIntransitiveVerbwhichrequiresaNoun, or an Adjective, or a Pronoun, etc., added to it to make thePredicatecomplete;as,

Thebabyseems/happy.

If I simply say ‘Thebabyseems’ Idonotmakecomplete sense.TheIntransitiveVerbseemsrequiressomewordorwordstomakethePredicatecomplete.

What is thus required to complete the Predicate is called aComplement.

The Complement of an Intransitive Verb serves to describe theSubject,andisthereforecalledaSubjectiveComplement.

NowexaminethePredicatesinthefollowingsentences:

Theskygrewdark.Venusisaplanet.Itisme.Themanseemsworried.Yourbookisthere.

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Thehouseistolet.Thebuildingisinadilapidatedcondition.

Itwillbenoticedthat—in1,theComplementisanAdjective;in2,theComplementisaNoun;in3,theComplementisaPronoun;in4,theComplementisaParticiple;in5,theComplementisanAdverb;in6,theComplementisanInfinitive;in 7, theComplement is a groupofwords doing theworkof an

Adjective.

Note—WhenthePredicateiscompletedbyanAdjective,suchanAdjective is said to be usedPredicatively or to be aPredicativeAdjective.

WhenthePredicateiscompletedbyaNoun,theNounissaidtobeaPredicativeNoun.

Exercise 4. Pick out the Complement in each of the followingsentences,andsaywhetheritisaNoun,anAdjective,aPronoun,etc.:1. Johnbecameasoldier.2. Rosessmellsweet.3. Thechildappearspleased.4. Theworkmanseemstired.5. Theearthisround.6. Helookshappy.

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7. Sugartastessweet.8. Theoldwomanisdead.9. Theweatherwascold.10. Hebecameunconscious.11. Theoldgentlemanisofagentledisposition.12. Thechildisthere.13. Thechildrenlookhealthy.14. To-daysheseemssad.15. Thecupisfulltothebrim.16. Hisgrammarisshocking.17. Heisagoodtypeofthemodernathlete.18. Uglyrumoursareabout.19. GentleEvangelinewastheprideofthevillage.20. Thismorningheseemedingoodspirits.21. GivingtothepoorislendingtotheLord.22. Thematterappearsofconsiderableimportance.23. Everymanisthearchitectofhisownfortune.

8.Sometimes theVerb in thePredicate isaTransitiveVerb, thatis,aVerbwhichrequiresanObjecttocompleteitssense.

Forexample, if Isay‘Catscatch’Idonotmakecompletesense.Youwant to knowwhat the cats catch. The verb catch requires anObject,suchasmice,toformacompletePredicate.


Birdsbuildnests.Iknowhim.Allgoodchildrenpitythepoor.TheGurkhaslovefighting.Thefoolishcrowtriedtosing.Oursoldierstriedtoscalethecliff.

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Itwillbenoticedthat—in1,theObjectisaNoun;in2,theObjectisaPronoun;in3,theObjectisanAdjectiveusedasaNoun;in4,theObjectisaGerundorVerbalNoun;in5,theObjectisanInfinitive;in6,theObjectisagroupofwordsdoingtheworkofaNoun.9. The Object-word may have Attributes, just like the Subject-

word;as,

Heshotabigpanther.

Exercise 5. In the following sentences point out the completeObject;thenseparatetheObject-wordfromitsattributes(ifany):1. Theworldknowsnothingofitsgreatestmen.2. Weshouldlearntogovernourselves.3. Herarmsacrossherbreastshelaid.4. Thearchitectdrewaplanforthehouse.5. Serpentscasttheirskinonceayear.6. Godtempersthewindtotheshornlamb.

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7. Bytheirfruitsyeshallknowthem.8. Rockthebabytosleep.9. Heenjoyshismaster’sconfidence.10. Irecognizedyourvoiceatonce.11. Cutyourcoataccordingtoyourcloth.12. TheEskimosmakehousesofsnowandice.13. Ihadnoanswertomyletter.14. Thecurfewtollstheknellofpartingday.15. Fearnomoretheheatofthesun.16. Evilcommunicationscorruptgoodmanners.

10.SometimestheVerbinthePredicateisaTransitiveVerbthattakestwoObjects—aDirectObjectandanIndirectObject.

IfIsay‘Ramagaveapenknife’,thenounpenknifeistheObjectoftheverbgave.

Imay,however,bywayoffurtherinformation,saytowhomRamagaveapenknife.Ramagavemeapenknife.

Thewordme is called the IndirectObject of theVerbgave todistinguishitfromtheObjectpenknife,whichistheDirectObject.

NowexaminethePredicateinthefollowingsentences:

Ipromisedhimapresent.HeteachesusGeometry.FatherboughtMiniadoll.

11. Some TransitiveVerbs require a Complement in addition totheObject;as,

TheboysmadeRamacaptain.

Here the nounRama is the Object of the Transitive Verbmade

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whichhererequiresaword(e.g.,captain)tomakethesensecomplete.IfIsay‘Theboysmadeasnow-ball’thesenseiscomplete.Butit

wouldbenonsense tosay‘TheboysmadeRama.’Theboysdidnotmake Rama : they made Rama captain. The verb made is here aTransitive Verb of Incomplete Predication, because in the sense inwhichtheverbmadeishereused,itcannotformacompletepredicateunlessithasaComplementbesidesanObject.

TheComplement (captain) here refers to theObjectRama. It isthereforecalledanObjectiveComplement.


Thejuryfoundhimguilty.HisparentsnamedhimHari.Hekeptuswaiting.Nothingwillmakehimrepent.Hiswordsfilledthemwithterror.

Exercise6.InthefollowingsentencesseparatethePredicatefromtheSubjectandthenpointoutthedifferentpartsofthePredicate:1. Abdulcalledhiscousinafool.2. Exercisehasmadehismusclesstrong.3. Thiswillmakeyouhappy.4. TheNawabappointedhisownbrotherVizier.5. TheCourtappointedhimguardianoftheorphanchild.6. Timemakestheworstenemiesfriends.7. Sicknessmadethechildirritable.8. Theyelectedhimsecretaryoftheclub.9. Doyoutakemeforafool?

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10. Wesawthestormapproaching.11. Iconsiderthemantrustworthy.12. Theykeptusinsuspense.13. Thejuryfoundhimguiltyofmurder.14. Athunderstormoftenturnsmilksour.

12.LetusnowreviewthedifferentformsofthePredicate.(1)When the verb is Intransitive, the Predicate may consist of the verb

alone(§6).(2)When the verb is an IntransitiveVerb of Incomplete Predication, the

PredicatemayconsistoftheVerbanditsComplement(§7).(3)When the verb is aTransitiveVerb, the Predicatemay consist of the

VerbanditsObject.(§8).(4)When the verb is aTransitiveVerb having two objects, the predicate

mayconsistof theVerband its twoObjects—Indirect andDirect. (§10)

(5) When the verb is a Transitive Verb of Incomplete Predication, thePredicatemayconsistoftheVerb,itsObjectandaComplement.(§11).

13.Carefullystudytheanalysisofthefollowingsentences:Thetableisprinted.

Abdul,quitepalewithfright,rushedintotheroom.Determinationtodoone’sdutyislaudable.Aroundthefire,onewintrynight,Thefarmer’srosychildrensat.Hometheybroughtthewarriordead.Hisfriendselectedhimsecretaryoftheclub.Thiscircumstancecertainlymakesthematterveryserious.Myunclehasbeenteachingmemathematics.Jaffar,theBarmecide,thegoodVizier,Thepoorman’shope,thefriendwithoutapeer,Jaffarwasdead,slainbyadoomunjust.Whoareyou?

Exercise7.Analysethefollowingsentences:1. Anodfromalordisbreakfastforafool.2. Agoodpaymasterneverwantsworkmen.3. Hometheybroughtherwarriordead.

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4. Sicknessmadethechildirritable.5. GentleEvangelinewastheprideofthevillage.6. Itiseasytofindfault.7. Itisamiserablethingtoliveinsuspense.8. Woundsmadebywordsarehardtoheal.9. DownwenttheRoyalGeorge.10. Intothevalleyofdeathrodethesixhundred.11. Timemakestheworstenemiesfriends.12. GreatisyourrewardinHeaven.13. InhimIndialostatruepatriot.14. Theproofofthepuddingisintheeating.15. Itiseasytobewiseaftertheevent.16. Amanhewastoallthecountrydear.17. Experiencehastaughtusmanylessons.18. Aman’sfirstcareshouldbetoavoidthereproachesofhisownheart.19. AllworkandnoplaymakesJackadullboy.20. Heshowedaconstantsolicitudeforhisson’swelfare.21. Caesar,havingconqueredhisenemies,returnedtoRome.22. Todriveacarrequirescareandskill.23. Agreatfortuneinthehandsofafoolisagreatmisfortune.24. Thepostmanlookedverytiredattheendoftheday.

Note—In6,“It”isaprovisionalsubject;therealsubjectis“to

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1. (a)Thevizierwasawealthyman.(b)Thevizierwasamanofgreatwealth.

2. (a)Themagistratewasakindman.(b)Themagistratewasamanwithakindlynature.

3. (a)Thechieflivedinastonehouse.(b)Thechieflivedinahousebuiltofstone.

4. (a)Iliketoseeasmilingface.(b)Iliketoseeafacewithasmileonit.

5. (a)Thecooliesbelongedtoahilltribe.(b)Thecooliesbelongedtoatribedwellinginthehills.

findfault”.“It”shouldbeenteredinthesubject-columninbrackets.

“It”isaprovisionalsubjectin7and15also.

*AwordorgroupofwordswhichdoestheworkofanAdjectiveiscalledanAdjective-equivalent.

*Awordorgroupofwordswhichdoes theworkofanAdverb iscalledanAdverb-equivalent.

CHAPTER2

PHRASES

I.ADJECTIVEPHRASES14.Wehaveseenthatsometimesagroupofwordsdoesthework

ofanadjective(§3).Nowexaminethefollowingpairsofsentences:

Ineachoftheabovepairsofsentences,wehavefirstasingleworddescribingthepersonorthingdenotedbythenoun,andthenagroupofwordsdescribingthepersonorthingdenotedbythesamenoun.

Forinstance,thegroupofwordsofgreatwealthtellsuswhatsortofman thevizierwas.Itqualifiesthenounman justasanAdjectivedoes. It therefore does the work of an Adjective and is called an

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Adjectives AdjectivePhrases

Agoldencrown. Acrownmadeofgold.Apurplecloak. Acloakofpurplecolour.Awhiteelephant. Anelephantwithawhiteskin.Ajungletrack. Atrackthroughthejungle.Ablue-eyedboy. Aboywithblueeyes.Adesertedvillage. A village without any

inhabitants.Ablankpage. Apagewithnowritingonit.Thelongestday. Thedayofgreatestlength.TheSpanishflag. TheflagofSpain.Aheavyload. Aloadofgreatweight.

AdjectivePhrase.Def.—AnAdjectivePhraseisagroupofwordsthatdoesthework

ofanAdjective.15.StudythefollowingAdjectivesandtheAdjectivePhrasesthat

areequivalenttothem:

Exercise 8. Pick out the Adjective Phrases in the followingsentences:1. Amaningreatdifficultiescametomeforhelp.2. Heisapersonofveryconsiderablerenown.3. Wildbeastsinsmallcagesareasorrysight.4. Amanwithoutanenemyisamanwithfewfriends.5. Hetellsatalewiththeringoftruthinit.6. Afriendinneedisafriendindeed.7. Astitchintimesavesnine.8. Abirdinthehandisworthtwointhebush.9. Gardenswithcoolshadytreessurroundthevillage.10. Onlyamanwithplentyofmoneybuysacarofsuchbeautyandpower.11. Inalowvoicehetoldthetaleofhiscruelwrongs.12. DoyouknowthestoryofthenoblePadmini?13. Hewasaladofgreatpromise.14. Heboreabannerwithastrangedevice.

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15. Thepolicearrestedamanofoneofthecriminaltribes.Exercise 9. In each of the following sentences replace the

AdjectiveinitalicsbyanAdjectivePhraseofthesamemeaning:1. Agreycloudspreadoverthesky.2. Hedweltinawoodenhut.3. Hehadabaldhead.4. Sheworeadiamondnecklace.5. Itwasahorriblenight.6. TheywentbySiberianrailway.7. Agrassymeadowstretchedbeforeus.8. Anearthenpitcherstoodonathree-leggedtable.9. TheFrenchflagflewatthetopofthehighestmast.10. Thatwasacowardlyact.11. Heiswell.12. Avaluableringwasfoundyesterday.13. Heroicdeedsdeserveouradmiration.14. MuchhasbeensaidabouttheSwissscenery.15. Numericalsuperiorityisagreatadvantage.16. TheRajputswerepassionatelyfondofmartialglory.17. Ihavepassedtwosleeplessnights.18. Heisaprofessionalcricketer.19. Thisbookcontainsmanybiblicalquotations.20. Shewantsmedicaladvice.21. Atallsoldiersteppedforth.

Exercise 10.Replace eachof the followingAdjectivePhrases initalicsbyanAdjectiveofthesamemeaning:1. Heworeaturbanmadeofsilk.2. Hehasdoneadeedofshame.3. Heledalifedevoidofblame.4. Heisamanwithoutafriend.5. Theycametoapathcoveredwithmud.6. Hecarriedaswordstainedwithblood.7. Imetalittlegirlfromacottage.8. Baluwasamanwithplentyofimpudence.9. Fromthisvillageinthemountainscameachieftainofgreatfame.10. TheRajputleaderwasasoldierfullofhopeandfreefromfear.11. Nelsonwasaboywithoutfear.

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1.

12. Nobodylikesapersonwithabadtemper.13. Iadmitthatheisamanofsense.14. Thetopsofthemountainswerecoveredwithsnow.15. Heisanauthorofgreatversatility.16. Itisofnouse.

Note—NotallAdjectivePhrasescanbereplacedbyAdjectives.Forinstance:

Heneverfeltthewitcheryofthesoftbluesky.

Exercise11.FillintheblankswithsuitableAdjectivePhrases:1. Anelephant____isconsideredsacredbysomepeople.2. Birds____flocktogether.3. Heleadsalife____.4. Childrenlikebooks____.5. Helostadiamond____6. Theoldsagespokewords____.7. Sheisawoman____.8. JohnGilpinwasacitizen____.9. Drawapicture____.10. Theleaves____areglossy.11. Weheardthesound____.12. Listentothesound____.13. Theverdict____wasinhisfavour.14. Thedoors____closeduponhim.15. Thewater____isverydeep.16. Theroad____isverymuddy.17. Theproprietor____diedyesterday.18. Thepaths____leadbuttothegrave.

Exercise12.WritefivesentencescontainingAdjectivePhrases.

II.ADVERBPHRASES16. Justas theworkofanAdjective isoftendonebyagroupof

wordscalledanAdjectivePhrase,sotheworkofanAdverbisoftendonebyagroupofwords.

Studythefollowingpairsofsentencescarefully:

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1. (a)Ramaranquickly.(How?)(b)Ramaranwithgreatspeed.(How?)

2. (a)Heansweredrudely.(How?)(b)Heansweredinaveryrudemanner.(How?)

3. (a)Hedoeshisworkcarelessly.(How?)(b)Hedoeshisworkwithoutanycare.(How?)

4. (a)Heiscomingnow(When?)(b)Heiscomingatthisverymoment.(When?)

5. (a)Nosuchdiseaseswereknownthen.(When?)(b)Nosuchdiseaseswereknowninthosedays.(When?)

6. (a)Thearrowfellhere.(Where?)(b)Thearrowfellonthisspot.(Where?)

7. (a)Youcanbuyiteverywhere.(Where?)(b)Youcanbuyitinallplaces.(Where?)

8. (a)Hefelldown.(Where?)(b)Hefelltotheground.(Where?)

Adverbs AdverbPhrases

Bravely Inabravemanner,orwithbravery.Unwisely Inanunwisemanner,orwithoutwisdom.

Ineachoftheabovepairsofsentenceswehavefirstasingleword(anAdverb)modifyingaverb,andthenagroupofwordsmodifyingaverbinthesameway.

For instance, the group of wordswith great speed tells us howRamaran.ItmodifiestheverbranjustastheAdverbquicklydoes.ItthereforedoestheworkofanAdverbandiscalledanAdverbPhrase.

Def.—AnAdverbPhraseisagroupofwordsthatdoestheworkofanAdverb.

Note—AnAdverbPhrase, like anAdverb,maymodify also anAdjectiveorAdverb:as,

Quinineisgoodformalaria.Ihavedonewellonthewhole.

17.StudythefollowingAdverbsandtheAdverbPhrasesthatareequivalenttothem.

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Swiftly Inaswiftmanner,orwithswiftness.Beautifully Inabeautifulstyle.Formerly Informertimes,oronceuponatime.Recently Justnow,oratarecentdate.Soon Beforeverylong,oratanearlydate.

There Atthatplace.Away Toanotherplace.Abroad To(in)aforeigncountry.

Exercise 13. Pick out the Adverb Phrases in the followingsentences:1. Shelivedinthemiddleofagreatwood.2. Nothingcanliveonthemoon.3. Comeintothegarden,Maud.4. Threefisherswentsailingoverthesea.5. O’erherhangsthegreatdarkbell.6. Downinagreenandshadybed,amodestvioletgrew.7. Onyourconsciencethiswilllie.8. Theysatforawhileonthebank.9. Honestyiswrittenonhisface.10. Thegunwentoffwithaloudreport.11. Theredweltamillerhaleandbold,besidetheriverDee.12. Istoodonthebridgeatmidnight.13. Tothenorthwardstretchedthedesert.14. Besideagreenmeadowastreamusedtoflow.15. IhavereadBacontomygreatprofit.16. Inherearhewhispersgaily.17. Besidetheungatheredricehelay.18. Theyfoughttothelastman.19. Heperseveredinthefaceofallobstacles.20. Theshoeispressingonmytoe.21. Keephimatarm’slength.22. Makeyourselfathome.23. Itmustbedoneatanyprice.24. Pauperismincreasesatafearfulrate.25. Hehaspaintedhiminhispropercolours.26. Hehashisfingeronthepulseofthenation.

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27. Helivesbyhispen.28. Theshepherdshoutedtothematthetopofhisvoice.29. Hestrovewithallhismighttoescape.30. Withoutpausingtoconsider,hestrucktheblow.31. Muchwaterhasrununderthebridgesincethen.

Exercise14.IneachofthefollowingsentencesreplacetheAdverbinitalicsbyanAdverbPhraseofthesamemeaning:1. Thepigeonfliesswiftly.2. DidRamabehavewell?3. Goaway.4. Thedyingmanrepliedfeebly.5. Gentlyfelltherain.6. Wewillpitchthetentsjusthere.7. Heexpectstogetpromotionsoon.8. Hebuilthishousethere.9. Theyhaveonlyrecentlyarrived.10. Althoughhungry,thesoldiersworkedcheerfully.11. Hespokeeloquently.12. Soonthesunwillset.13. Doyourworkthoroughly.14. Theywerehurryinghomeward.15. Thedoorwassuspiciouslyopen.16. FormerlyheworkedattheSchoolofEconomics.17. Hetriedhard.

Exercise15.ReplaceeachofthefollowingAdverbPhrasesbyanAdverbofthesamemeaning:1. Thebodiesweremangledinaterriblemanner.2. Letusceaseworkfromthisverymoment.3. Itwasjustonthisspotthathedied.4. Thechildrepliedwithperfecttruthfulness.5. Hearrivedatthatmoment.6. Ihopethathewillcomeataveryearlydate.7. Heseemstohaveactedwithgreatpromptitude.8. Noonewoulddaretoanswerhiminanimpudentway.9. Iacceptyourstatementwithoutreserve.10. Ithankyouwithallmyheart.11. Hesucceededinthelongrun.

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12. Heisignoranttoaproverb.13. Thepost-boydrovewithfiercecareer.14. Hehasbeenpaintedinhispropercolours.15. Thewindblewwithgreatviolence.16. Hehasprovedhiscasetomysatisfaction.

Note.—NotallAdverbPhrasescanbereplacedbyAdverbs.Forinstance:

Itookhimonthestrengthofyourrecommendation.

Exercise16.FillintheblankswithsuitableAdverbPhrases:1. Theknightfought____.2. TheRajahtreatedhisvizier____.3. Thewoodmanstruckthewolf___.4. Donotanswer____.5. Iagree____.6. Hehasbehaved____.7. Hedoeshishomework____.8. Hetreatedhisrelatives____.9. Thepolicehandledthebombs____.10. Thesailorclimbed____.11. Thathappened____.12. Hereachedschool____.13. Hedoeshishomework____.14. Hefailed____.15. OldMotherHubbardwent____.

Exercise17.WritefivesentencescontainingAdverbPhrases.18.Compare:

1. Thecrowdinthebazaarwasverynoisy.2. Thecrowdhaltedinthebazaar.

Insentence1, thephrase in thebazaar tellsuswhichcrowdwasvery noisy ; that is, it qualifies the noun crowd. It is therefore anAdjectivePhrase.

In sentence2, the phrase in the bazaar tells uswhere the crowdhalted ; that is, itmodifies theverbhalted. It is thereforeanAdverb

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Phrase.HenceweseethatthesamephrasemaybeanAdjectivePhrasein

onesentenceandanAdverbPhraseinanothersentence.We cannot say what kind of Phrase a given Phrase is until we

examinetheworkwhichitdoesinasentence.Exercise18.Saywhichof the followingareAdverbPhrasesand

whichareAdjectivePhrases:1. Haveyouheardofthemaninthemoon?2. Howcouldamanbeinthemoon?3. Theyliveonanisland.4. Ahouseonanislandwaswashedaway.5. Awfulisthegloombeneathher.6. Thenwhydidshelookbeneathher?7. IsthisthetraintoPeshawar?8. ItusuallygoestoPeshawar,Sir.Exercise19.UsethefollowingPhrasesinsentences:Inaloudvoice;withoutfurtherdelay;withonevoice;forcertain;justin

timeupinarms;ofnoconsequence;outoffashion;withgreatsatisfaction;inthetwinklingofaneye;oneithersideofthestreet;inashadynook;tothelastman;withasmile;atsixesandsevens;attheeleventhhour;onthetopofthehill;infuture;atnineo’clock.

III.NOUNPHRASES19.Examinethefollowingsentences:

1. Theboywantssomething.2. Theboywantstogohome.

The word something is a Noun and it is the Object of the verbwants,insentence1.Similarlythegroupofwords,togohome,istheObject of the verbwants, in sentence 2.Hence this group ofwordsdoestheworkofaNoun.Thegroupofwords,togohome,isthereforeaNounPhrase.

Def.—ANounPhraseisagroupofwordsthatdoestheworkofaNoun.

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Earlytobedisagoodmaxim. Hehopestowinthefirstprize.Weenjoyplayingcricket. Helovestoissueharshorders.Didyouenjoyreadingthisbook?

Itriedtogetthesumright.

Towinaprizeismyambition. Standing about in a cold wetwinddidmenogood.

FurtherexamplesofNounPhrases:

Exercise20.PickouttheNounPhrasesinthefollowingsentences:1. HisfatherwishedtospeaktotheHeadmaster.2. Thewickedvizierlovesgettingpeopleintotrouble.3. Thepoordebtorintendedtopaybackeverypennyofthemoney.4. Hedislikeshavingtopunishhisservants.5. Horsespreferlivingindarkstables.6. Ishouldhatetodosuchathing.7. Haveyouevertriedclimbingacoconutpalm?8. Thinkinggoodthoughtsprecedesgoodactions.9. Herefusestoanswerthequestion.10. Towritesuchrubbishisdisgraceful.11. Promisetocomeagain.12. Whydoyoulikevisitingsuchaman?13. Travellinginahotdustytraingivesmenopleasure.14. Hedeniesstealingthemoney.15. Yourdoingsuchathingsurprisesme.

Exercise21.SupplyaNounPhrase:1. Iwant____.2. ____delightsme.3. Weallhope____.4. Pretend____.5. ____seemsdishonest.6. ____surprisedmymother.7. Doyouwish____?8. Myfatherhates____.9. ____givesmenopleasure.10. Idon’tintend____.

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11. ____isnoteasy.12. Idonotexpect____.13. Ienjoy____.14. Hewishes____.15. Catslike____.16. Hisfatherpromised___.

Exercise 22. Pick out the Phrases and say whether they areAdjectivePhrases,AdverbPhrases,orNounPhrases:1. Hespeakslikeabornorator.2. Itgrievedmetohearofyourillness.3. Beyondadoubtthismanishonest.4. Hefailedinspiteofhisbestefforts.5. Hewontheprizebymeansoftrickery.6. Donottalklikethat.7. Ihaveforgottenhowtoplaythisgame.8. Hegainedtheiraffectioninspiteofmanyfaults.9. Idonotexpectsuchtreatmentatyourhands.10. Hespeakstoofasttobeunderstood.11. Idonotknowwhattodo.12. Idonotunderstandhowtosolvethisproblem.13. Heperseveredamidstmanydifficulties.14. Hesucceededinthelongrun.15. Birdsofafeatherflocktogether.16. Thisisamatterofnoimportance.17. Thetrainisbehindtime.18. Heisamanofmeans.19. Itliesnearhisheart.20. Hekeepsthenecklaceunderlockandkey.21. Heisapersonofnoimportance.22. Iwanttogotothecinemato-day.23. Ilovetohearthewatch-dog’shonestbark.24. Ididitofmyownfreewill.25. Showmehowtodoit.26. Hiscarranoveradog.27. Thingsareinabadway.28. Sheisawomanofwonderfulpatience.29. Ihavefoundthekeytohissecret.

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30. Theplanhasthevirtueofcommittingustonothing.31. Idon’tseethepointofthestory.32. Howtofindthewaytotheruinsisthequestion.33. TubalCainwasamanofmight.34. Hediditagainsthiswill.35. Ihavenotimetowasteontrifles.36. Don’tdothingsbyhalves.37. Ienjoywalkinginthefields.

CHAPTER3

CLAUSESI.ADVERBCLAUSES

20. Look at the groups of words in italics in the followingsentences:

1. Theyrestedatsunset.[Restedwhen?]2. Theyrestedwheneveningcame.[Restedwhen?]

Itisevidentthatboththegroupsofwordsinitalics,in1and2,dotheworkofanAdverbastheymodifiytheverbrested,showingwhentheactionwasperformed.

We at once recognize the first group of words, at sunset, as anAdverb Phrase. Is the second group of words,when evening came,alsoanAdverbPhrase?

No : it is not a Phrase for, unlike a Phrase, it has a Subject(evening)andaPredicate(camewhen)of itsown,and is thus likeasentence.Butthoughlikeasentenceitispartofasentence.

Such a group ofwords that forms part of a sentence, and has aSubjectandaPredicateofitsown,iscalledaClause.

Since the Clause, when evening came, does the work of anAdverb,itiscalledanAdverbClause.

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Def.—AnAdverb Clause is a group of words which contains aSubjectandaPredicateofitsown,anddoestheworkofanAdverb.

Exercise 23. Pick out the Adverb Clauses in the followingsentences:1. Youmaysitwhereveryoulike.2. Hefledwherehispursuerscouldnotfollow.3. Hebehavesasonemightexpecthimtodo.4. BecauseyouhavedonethisIshallpunishyou.5. Ashewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.6. Ifyoueattoomuchyouwillbeill.7. Hefinishedfirstthoughhebeganlate.8. WillyouwaittillIreturn?9. Justasheenteredtheroomtheclockstruck.10. Theywentwherelivingwascheaper.11. Hedoesnotalwaysspeakashethinks.12. Takealampbecausethenightisdark.13. IdoitbecauseIchooseto.14. IfImakeapromiseIkeepit.15. Youwillpassifyouworkhard.16. Headvancedasfarashedared.17. Iforgiveyousinceyourepent.18. IshallremainwhereIam.19. Weshallwaithereuntilyoucome.20. WhenIwasyounger,Ithoughtso.21. Itwassodarkthatyoucouldnotseeyourhand.22. Whereveronegoes,onehearsthesamestory.23. Ifyoudonothurryyouwillmissthetrain.24. Sinceyouhavealreadydecided,whydoyoaskmyopinion?

Exercise24.SupplysuitableAdverbClauses:1. Donotgo____.2. Heisnotsoclever____.3. Iwassohurried____.4. Heransofast____.5. Healwaysdoes____.6. Hespokesolow____.7. Ishalldonothing____.

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8. Foolsrushin____.9. Nobodylikeshim____.10. Openrebukeisbetter____.11. Hewillsucceed____.12. Makehay____.13. Heissobusy____.14. Donotcome____.15. Theboywentouttoplay____.16. Hedoes____.17. Healwayscomes____.18. Hedid____.19. Shesingsexactly____.20. Theearthislarger____.21. Hisfatherdied____.22. Hecannotsee____.23. Doyouworkwell____.24. Ifoundmybooks____.25. Iwillnotgoout____.26. Youwillsucceedorfail____.27. Arithmeticislessdifficult____.28. Weshallmissthetrain____..29. Do_____.

21.Examinethefollowingsentences:

1. Thestolenpropertywasfoundinthedacoits’hidingplace.2. The stolen property was found where the dacoits were accustomed tohide.

Itwill be noticed that both the groups ofwords in italics do theworkofanAdverb.

Butthegroupofwordsinitalicsinsentence2isaClause,becauseithasasubject(thedacoits)andaPredicate(wereaccustomedtohidewhere)ofitsown;whilethegroupofwordsinitalicsinsentence1isaPhrase.

Wefurthernotice that theAdverbPhrase, in thedacoits’hiding-place, is equivalent to the Adverb Clause, where the dacoits were

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accustomedtohiding,andcanthereforebereplacedbyit.Exercise 25. In each of the following sentences replace each

AdverbPhrasebyanAdverbClause:1. Onhisreturnweaskedhimmanyquestions.2. Doittothebestofyourability.3. Theprincewasmetonhisarrivalbyhissecretary.4. Inspiteofpovertyhebecamedistinguished.5. Uponseeingthesignalthetroopssetout.6. Nobodymustexpecttobecomerichwithouthardwork.7. Theywereverygratefultohimforhiskindness.8. Incomparisonwithairwaterisheavy.9. Theweatheristoobrighttolast.10. Myheartistoofullforwords.11. Theworkistoomuchforanymantodosingle-handed.12. Withaviewtoearlyretirementhesavedhismoney.13. Intheeventofthepresident’sdeaththevice-presidentsucceedshim.14. Healwayscarriedouthisdutiesaccordingtoinstructions.15. Thepriceishighforanoldcar.16. Heranwithallhismight.17. Aftersuchhardwork,herequiresalongrest.18. Hewasbaseenoughtoacceptthedishonourableterms.19. Manyshipsweresoshatteredastobewhollyunmanageable.20. Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.

Exercise 26. In each of the following sentences replace eachAdverbClausebyanAdverborAdverbPhrase:1. IhavenotbeenwellsinceIreturnedfromChennai.2. Whenthesunsethereturnedhome.3. Theyfoughtasheroesdo.4. Whentherighteousrule,thepeoplerejoice.5. ThoughIampoor,yetamIcontented.6. Wehavecomesothatwemayhelpyou.7. Whenheenteredtheroomhesawthevasebroken.8. Thethiefcreptasajackaldoes.9. Iamgladthathehasrecoveredfromhisillness.10. Heworkshardsothathemaybecomerich.11. Heworkedsohardthathesucceeded.

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12. AssoonasIsawthecobraIranaway.13. Weransothatwemightarriveintime.14. Hejestedevenashelaydying.15. Nomancanbecomeagreatartistunlessheapplieshimselfcontinuallyto

hisart.16. Therewasnothinghewouldnotdoifonlyhemightmakeprofit.17. Hewasnotsorichthathecouldbuyacar.18. Whenhehadutteredthesewordshesatdown.19. ThisexerciseissodifficultthatIcannotdoit.20. Thenewsissogoodthatitcannotbetrue.21. Ididnotpayhim,asIhadnomoneywithme.22. Helivedcarefullysothathemightlivelong.23. Thesteamerwillleaveassoonasthemailsarrive.24. Hemaygohomeafterhisworkisfinished.25. Ashewassick,heremainedathome.26. Hewaspunishedashedeserved.27. Thissumisrightsofarastheworkingisconcerned.28. Itrainedsohardthatthestreetswereflooded.29. Itookhimbecauseyourecommendedhim.30. Myparentswerepoorthoughtheywereofnoblebirth.31. HerefusestoworkwhateverImaysay.32. Wewilldotheworkaswellaswecan.33. RobinsonCrusoewaspuzzledwhenhediscoveredtheprintofafootonthe

sand.34. ApollowasworshippedaslongastheRomanEmpirelasted.35. HethoughthimselfrichthoughhisincomewasonlyRs.30,000annually.36. Wearekindtoyoubecauseyouarekindtous.37. ThepassageissodifficultthatIcannotcomprehendit.

II.ADJECTIVECLAUSES22. Look at the groups of words in italics in the following

sentences:

1. Theumbrellawithabrokenhandleismine.[Whichumbrella?]2. Theumbrellawhichhasabrokenhandleismine.[Whichumbrella?]

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The first group of words, with a broken handle, describes theumbrella;thatis,itqualifiesthenounumbrella,anddoestheworkofanAdjective.ItiswhatwecallanAdjectivephrase.

The second group of words which has a broken handle, alsodescribes the umbrella and so does the work of an Adjective. ButbecauseitcontainsaSubjectandaPredicateofitsown,itiscalledanAdjectiveClause.

Def.—AnAdjectiveClauseisagroupofwordswhichcontainsaSubjectandaPredicateofitsown,anddoestheworkofanAdjective.

Exercise 27. Pick out the Adjective Clauses in the followingsentences,andtellwhatnounorpronouneachqualifies:1. Maryhadalittlelambwhosefleecewaswhiteassnow.2. Theletterbroughtmoneywhichwasbadlyneeded.3. ThehousethatIliveinbelongstomyfather.4. IammonarchofallIsurvey.5. Ihavealittleshadowwhichgoesinandoutwithme.6. Thedogthatbitesdoesnotbark.7. Hetellsatalethatsoundsuntrue.8. It’sanillwindthatblowsnobodyanygood.9. Theboystoodontheburningdeckwhenceallbuthehadfled.10. Theyneverfailwhodieinagreatcause.11. IrememberthehousewhereIwasborn.12. Hethatclimbstoohighissuretofall.13. Hereisthebookyouwant.14. Heavenhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves.15. Hediedinthevillagewherehewasborn.16. Heneverdoesanythingthatissilly.17. Peoplewholiveinglasshousesshouldnotthrowstones.18. Itisalonglanethathasnoturning.19. Helaughsbestwholaughslast.20. Thriceishearmedthathathhisquarreljust.

Exercise28.SupplysuitableAdjectiveClauses:1. Iknowtheplace____.2. Heistheman____.3. Thehouse____isahundredyearsold.4. Hisoffenceisone____.

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5. Whereisthebook____?6. Boys____willnotbepromoted.7. Hehaslostthebook____.8. Ifoundthebook____.9. Iknowtheman____.10. Noman____shallsufferinanyway.11. Theboy____gainedtheprize.12. Students______getgoodmarks.13. Water____shouldbekeptinacoveredjar.14. Anyboy____willbepunished.15. Hewentawaybythetrain____.

23.Examinethefollowingsentences:1. Hemetagirlwithblueeyes.2. Hemetagirlwhoseeyeswereblue.Thegroupofwords,withblueeyes,qualifiesthenoungirl.Thegroupofwords,whoseeyeswereblue,alsoqualifiesthenoun

girl.HenceboththesegroupsofwordsdotheworkofanAdjective.But the group of words, with blue eyes, is a Phrase, while the

groupofwords,whoseeyeswereblue,isaClause.We further notice that the Adjective Phrase, with blue eyes, is

equivalent to the Adjective Clause,whose eyes were blue, and canthereforebereplacedbyit.

Exercise 29. In each of the following sentences replace eachAdjectivePhrasebyanAdjectiveClause:1. Amanofindustrioushabitsissuretosucceed.2. Hetoldusthetimeofhisarrival.3. Thetimefordepartinghasnowarrived.4. Doyouknowtheroadleadingtothetemple?5. Ihaveabox,filledwithalmonds.6. Wealladmireamanofcourage.7. Acityonahillcannotbehid.8. Thepeopleinthegallerycouldnothear.9. Youcanhaveanythingofyourliking.10. ThehousesoftheBurmeseareoftenbuiltofbamboo.

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Exercise30.InthefollowingsentencesreplaceAdjectiveClausesbyAdjectivesorAdjectivePhrases:1. Doyouknowthewomanwhoiswearingabluesari?2. Theboywhositsnearmeismycousin.3. Thatwasthereasonwhyhecamelate.4. Thereasonwhyhefailedisobvious.5. Theworkers,whowerewearywiththeirexertions,laydowntorest.6. Thesun,whichatmid-daywashot,madethetravellerthirsty.7. Whichistheroadthatleadsmostquicklytothestation?8. Peoplewhoeattoomuchdieearly.9. Manymenwhohavenotbeentrainedtowritebecomejournalists.10. Thisistheplacewhereourforefatherslanded.11. Theexplanationhegavewasnotsatisfactory.12. Suchmenasyoucannotbeeasilydisheartened.13. Thisboy,whohasbeenindustrious,hasearnedaprizewhichhehaswell

deserved.14. Abeliefwhichisgenerallyheldisnotnecessarilyonewhichistrue.15. An author who was famous during the freedom struggle lived in that

cottagewhichoverlooksthelake.

III.NOUNCLAUSES24. Examine the groups of words in italics in the following

sentences:1. Iexpecttogetaprize.[Expectwhat?]2. IexpectthatIshallgetaprize.[Expectwhat?]Thefirstgroupofwords,togetaprize,doesnotcontainaSubject

and a Predicate of its own. It is therefore a phrase. This phrase isobject of the verb expect and hence does thework of aNoun. It isthereforeaNounPhrase.

The second group of words, that I shall get a prize, contains aSubjectandaPredicateofitsown.Itisthereforeaclause.ThisClauseistheobjectoftheverbexpectandsodoestheworkofaNoun.WethereforecallitaNounClause.

Nowexaminethesentence,Thatyouhavecomepleasesme.

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Here theClause,That youhave come, is theSubject of theverbpleases.

ItthereforedoestheworkofaNoun,andiswhatwecallaNounClause.

Def.—A Noun Clause is a group of words which contains aSubjectandaPredicateofitsown,anddoestheworkofaNoun.

Exercise 31. Point out the Noun Clauses in the followingsentences:1. Ioftenwonderhowyouaregettingon.2. IfearthatIshallfail.3. Herepliedthathewouldcome.4. Doyoudenythatyoustolethewatch?5. Ithoughtthatitwouldbeafineday.6. Thatyoushouldcheatmehurtsme.7. Nooneknowswhoheis.8. Hesawthattheclockhadstopped.9. Thatyoushouldsaythisisverystrange.10. Idon’tseehowyoucangetoutofthismess.11. IearnwhateverIcan.12. Idonotknowwhathewants.13. Therewerenocomplaintsexceptthatthedaywastoohot.14. Iwenttoseewhathadhappened.15. Idonotunderstandhowitallhappened.16. PaycarefulattentiontowhatIamgoingtosay.17. Itgrievedmetohearthatshewasill.18. Iwanttoknowhowfaritisfromhere.19. Whereweweretolodgethatnightwastheproblem.20. Hebeggedthathislifemightbespared.21. Ithinkyouhavemadeamistake.22. CanyouguesswhatIwant?23. Howtheburglargotinisamystery!24. Itisuncertainwhetherhewillcome.25. Idonotknowwhathewilldo.

Exercise 32. Complete the following by adding suitable NounClauses:1. Icannotunderstand____.

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2. Theyallsaid____.3. Ithink____.4. Thisisjust____.5. Hetoldme____.6. ____isawellknownfact.7. Doyouknow____?8. Iwonder____.9. Idonotknow____.10. Pleaseshowme_____11. ____isquitecertain.12. Ifeelcertain____.13. Tellhim____.14. Willyoutellme____?15. Hisfatherwasanxious____.16. Youforget____.17. Itiscertain____.18. Haveyouheard____?19. ____dowithyourmight.20. Hewaspleasedwith____.

Exercise33.IneachofthefollowingsentencesreplacethewordsinitalicsbysuitableNounClauses:1. Thetimeofhiscomingnoonecanguess.2. Iheardofhissuccess.3. Thereasonofhisfailurewillneverbeknown.4. Ipredictachangeintheweather.5. Thejurybelievedthemanguilty.6. Weexpectanimprovementinbusiness.7. Whocandoubtthetruthofhisstatement?8. Iknowhimtobetrustworthy.9. Idonotbelievetheaccountgivenbyhim.10. Heconfessedhisguilt.11. Hedescribedtheattackonthecamp.12. Theplaceoftheirmeetingwasknowntothepolice.13. Thesailortoldusthedirectionofthewind.14. Hisarrivalwasquiteunexpected.15. Hisfriendshopedforhissuccess.16. Iknowyourgreatregardforhim.

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Exercise34.IneachofthefollowingsentencesreplaceeachNounClausebyaNounorNounPhrase:1. IhopethatIshallbethereintime.2. Heissurethatwewillwinthematch.3. Iremarkedthatitwasafineday.4. Theydonotknowwhereheisconcealed.5. Thepolicemustknowwhereheisliving.6. Ibelievewhathesays.7. Tellmewhatyouthinkaboutthis.8. Thedoctorishopefulthatshewillsoonrecover.9. Itistoberegrettedthatheretiredfromtheworldsoearlyinlife.10. Idonotbelievewhathesays.11. Heshowedhowtheproblemwasdone.12. Itseemsthatheisaswindler.13. HedoesnotknowwhereIlive.14. Tellmewhyyoudidthis.15. Itisnotknownwhohaswrittenthisbook.16. Thelawwillpunishwhosoeverisguilty.

25.WehavenowseenthattherearethreekindsofClauses:(1)AdverbClauseswhichdotheworkofAdverbs.(2)AdjectiveClauseswhichdotheworkofAdjectives.(3)NounClauseswhichdotheworkofNouns.26.Examinethefollowingsentences,andnoticetheworkdoneby

theClauseineach:

1. IknewwhereIcouldfindhim.2. IwenttotheplacewhereIcouldfindhim.3. IwentwhereIcouldfindhim.

In sentence 1, the Clause does the work of a Noun, and is theObjectoftheverbknow.

In sentence 2, the Clause does the work of an Adjective, andqualifiesthenounplace.

In sentence 3, the Clause does the work of an Adverb, andmodifiestheverbwent.

We thus see that the sameClausemaybeaNounClause inone

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sentence,anAdjectiveClauseinanother,andanAdverbClauseinyetanother.

It is therefore clear that we cannot say what kind of Clause aClause is unless we carefully examine the work that it does in asentence.

Exercise 35. Pick out the clause in each of the followingsentences,andsaywhatkindofclauseitis,andwithwhatworditisconnected:1. Comewhenyoulike.2. Iknowthemanwhoishere.3. Hesaysthathemetyourbrother.4. Thehandthatrocksthecradlerulestheworld.5. BeforeIdieIintendtoseeVenice.6. Letusrejoiceaswegoforward.7. IwasreadingabookwhichIhadreadbefore.8. PerhapshethinksthatIamafool.9. AsIdrewnearIsawaverycurioussight.10. WherearethefriendswhomIknew?11. Canamanlivewhosesoulisdead?12. Ithinkthathewilldie.13. Iwanttofindthemanwhodidthis.14. Hemadeavowthathewouldfastforaweek.15. HaveyouheardthatRamahaswontheprize?16. Itwasnotthevizierwhomthekingsuspected.17. Headmittedthathewrotetheletter.18. Thathewilldoit,Ihavenodoubt.19. Iknowtheplacewhichyoumention.20. Thatsuchathingcouldhappen,Idonotbelieve.21. Whenheheardthisheturnedverypale.22. Haveyouseenthehorsethathehasbought?23. Myfatherhopesthatyouwillvisitus.24. Hebehavedasabravemanshoulddo.25. Iwillwaituntilthenexttraincomes.26. Thegeneralfearedthathewouldbesurrounded.27. Heatewhenhewashungry.28. Sincehehasbeeninhospitalhehasimprovedgreatly.

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29. AsIwasgoinginmyfathercameout.30. Therecameatimewhenhewastiredofwaiting.31. Hespokeofatimewhenwarsshouldcease.32. Theylivewheretheclimateisgood.33. Iknowaplacewhererosesgrow.34. Theyhavegonetoalandwhitherfewtravellersgo.35. Thewindblowethwhitheritlisteth.36. Theyreturnedwhencetheyhadcome.37. Theswallowswillreturntothecountrywhencesuchbirdsmigrate.38. LetnonefollowmetotheretreatwhitherInowdepart.39. Irefertotheyearwhenthemonsoonfailed.40. Thisisnotthesortofplacewhereyou’llgetrichinahurry.41. Sadly they returned to the prisonwhence they had so hopefully set forth

thatmorning.42. Youwillalwaysregretthedaywhenyoudidthis.43. AnotheroccupiestheseatwhereonceIsat.44. Hehasgonetothatbournewhencenotravellerreturns.

Exercise36.IneachofthefollowingsentenceswriteaClauseinplaceof thewords in italics, and saywhether theClause isaNounClause,anAdjectiveClause,oranAdverbClause:1. Hecannotfindaplacetosleepin.2. Thegirlwithlonghairismycousin.3. Haveyouheardthenews?4. Inspiteofhiseffortshefailed.5. Hewalkedslowlytoavoidslipping.6. Thisismyhome.7. Hecriedaloudforjoy.8. Iamsurprisedatyourquestion.9. Heworkshardforaliving.10. Beinglamehehastousecrutches.11. Thesunhavingset,thearmystoppedtorest.12. Iheardofhisarrival.13. Thedurationofthewarisuncertain.14. Hisremarkswerenotreceivedwithapproval.15. Hedeclaredhisinnocence.16. Iamhopefulofhisspeedyrecovery.17. Didheexplainthepurposeofhiscoming?

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18. Heorderedthetraitortobeexecuted.19. Heremarkedontheboy’simpudence.20. Hissilenceproveshisguilt.21. Icannottellyouthedateofmyreturn.22. Hisshareintheplotwassuspected.23. Hespeakslikeabornorator.24. Underexistingconditionsrailwaytravelisexpensive.25. Heisnotsofoolishastoacceptyouroffer.26. Inmyoldhomewehadmanyfruittrees.27. Ipromiseyouaholidayonconditionofyourgoodbehaviour.

CHAPTER4

SENTENCES:SIMPLE,COMPOUNDANDCOMPLEX

27.Examinethefollowingsentences:

1. Hiscouragewonhimhonour.2. Themoonwasbrightandwecouldseeourway.3. Nightcameonandrainfellheavilyandweallgotverywet.4. Theyrestedwheneveningcame.5. As the boxers advanced into the ring, the people said they would not

allowthemtofight.6. Anilcalledat5.30andItoldhimthatyouhadgoneout.

We see that sentence 1 has onlyone Subject andone Predicate.SuchasentenceiscalledaSimpleSentence.

Def.—ASimple sentence is onewhichhasonlyone Subject andonePredicate.

[Or]ASimplesentenceisonewhichhasonlyoneFiniteVerb.Sentence2consistsoftwoparts:

(i)Themoonwasbright.(ii)Wecouldseeourway.

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ThesetwopartsarejoinedbytheCo-ordinatingConjunctionand.EachpartcontainsaSubjectandaPredicateofitsown.Eachpart

iswhatwecallaClause.WefurthernoticethateachClausemakesgoodsensebyitself,and

hence could stand by itself as a separate sentence. Each Clause isthereforeindependentoftheotherorofthesameorderorrank,andiscalledaPrincipalorMainClause.

Asentence,suchasthesecond,whichismadeupofPrincipalorMainClauses,iscalledaCompoundSentence.

Sentence3consistsofthreeClausesofthesameorderorrank.Inotherwords, sentence3 consistsof threePrincipalorMainClauses,viz:

(i)Nightcameon.(ii)Rainfellheavily.(iii)Weallgotverywet.

SuchasentenceisalsocalledaCompoundsentence.Def.—A Compound sentence is one made up of two or more

PrincipalorMainClauses.

Note –The term Double is now used for a sentence whichconsistsoftwoprincipalormainclauses,andthetermMultipleforasentenceofmorethantwoprincipalormainclauses.

Sentence4consistsoftwoparts:(i)Theyrested.(ii)Wheneveningcame.

EachpartcontainsaSubjectandaPredicateofitsown,andformspartofalargesentence.EachpartisthereforeaClause.

WefurthernoticethattheClause,Theyrested,makesgoodsensebyitself,andhencecouldstandbyitselfasacompletesentence.ItisthereforecalledthePrincipalorMainClause.

TheClause,wheneveningcame,cannotstandbyitselfandmakegoodsense.It isdependentontheClause,theyrested.It is thereforecalledaDependentorSubordinateClause.

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Asentence,suchasthefourth,iscalledaComplexSentence.Sentence5consistsofthreeClauses:

(i)Thepeoplesaid.(MainClause).(ii)Astheboxersadvancedintothering.(SubordinateAdverbClause.)(iii)Theywouldnotallowthemtofight.(SubordinateNounClause.)

SuchasentenceisalsocalledaComplexsentence.Def.—AComplex sentenceconsistsofoneMainClauseandone

ormoreSubordinateClauses.Sentence6consistsofthreeclauses:-

(i)Anilcalledat5.30(MainClause)(ii)Itoldhim(MainClause)

(iii)Thatyouhadgoneout(SubordinateNounClause)

Suchasentenceiscalledacompoundsentence.Inaddition to twoor threeMainClauses, aCompoundSentence

sometimesincludesoneormoreSubordinateClauses.28.LookatthefollowingCompoundsentences,andnoticetheCo-

ordinatingConjunctionsjoiningclausesofequalrank:

IshalldoitnoworIshallnotdoitatall.Hegavethemnomoneynordidhehelptheminanyway.Hethrewthestonebutitmissedthedog.Heneitherobtainssuccessnordeservesit.Heiseithermadorhehasbecomeacriminal.Iboththankedhimandrewardedhim.

Exercise 37. State which of the following sentences areCompound, and which are Complex. In the case of a Compoundsentenceseparate theco-ordinatingclausesofwhichit iscomposed,andmentiontheconjunction,connectingtheseclauses.IfasentenceisComplexdivideitintoitsclauses,andstatethePrincipalClauseandtheSubordinateClauseorclauses:1. Thehorserearedandtheriderwasthrown.2. Walkquickly,elseyouwillnotovertakehim.3. ThetowninwhichIliveisverylarge.

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4. Icalledhim,buthegavemenoanswer.5. Iagreetoyourproposals,forIthinkthemreasonable.6. IwentbecauseIwasinvited.7. Eitherheisdrownedorsomepassingshiphassavedhim.8. IreturnedhomebecauseIwastired.9. Theyalwaystalkwhoneverthink.10. Hecameoftenerthanweexpected.11. Heblushes;thereforeheisguilty.12. Aguestisunwelcomewhenhestaystoolong.13. Whateveryoudo,dowell.14. Hemusthavedonehisduty,forheisaconscientiousman.15. Herushedintothefield,andforemostfightingfell.16. Manproposes,butGoddisposes.17. Whereignoranceisbliss,’tisfollytobewise.18. Listencarefullyandtakenotes.19. The heavens declare the glory of God; and the firmament showeth His

handiwork.20. Hetriedhard,buthedidnotsucceed.21. Shemustweeporshewilldie.22. TheyserveGodwellwhoserveHiscreatures.23. Manisguidedbyreason,andbeastbyinstinct.24. Quarrelswouldnotlastlongifthefaultwereonlyononeside.25. Godmadethecountryandmanmadethetown.26. Hetrudgedon,thoughhewasverytired.27. Therewasonephilosopherwhochosetoliveinatub.28. TheCommonspassedthebill,buttheLordsthrewitout.29. Tellmethenewsasyouhaveheard.30. Hethathasmosttimehasnonetolose.31. Yourargumentsareweighty;stilltheydonotconvinceme.32. Everythingcomes,ifamanwillonlyworkandwait.33. ThesamedaywentJesusoutofthehouse,andsatbythesea-side.34. Wemusteattolive,butweshouldnotlivetoeat.35. Governyourpassionsortheywillgovernyou.36. They[rats]foughtthedogs,andkilledthecats.

Andbitthebabiesinthecradles,Andatethecheeseoutofthevats.Andlickedthesoupfromthecook’sownladles.

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37. MyheartleapsupwhenIbeholdArainbowinthesky.

CHAPTER5

MOREABOUTNOUNCLAUSES29.WehaveseenthattherearethreekindsofSubordinateClauses

:TheNounClause,theAdjectiveClause,andtheAdverbClause.

We have also seen that a Noun Clause is a subordinate clausewhichdoestheworkofanouninaComplexsentence.

30.SinceaNounClausedoes theworkofaNouninaComplexsentence,itcanbe:

1. TheSubjectofaverb.2. TheObjectofatransitiveverb.3. TheObjectofapreposition.4. InAppositiontoaNounorPronoun.5. TheComplementofaverbofincompletepredication.

31.IneachofthefollowingComplexsentences,theNounClauseistheSubjectofaverb:

Thatyoushouldsaysosurprisesme.Thatitwouldrainseemedlikely.Whathesaidwastrue.WhenIshallreturnisuncertain.Howhecouldassisthisfriendwashischiefconcern.Whyheleftisamystery.Whetherwecanstartto-morrowseemsuncertain.

32.IneachofthefollowingComplexsentences,theNounClauseistheObjectofatransitiveverb:

Hesaysthathewon’tgo.Ihopedthatitwastrue.

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Shedeniedthatshehadwrittentheletter.Icannottellwhathasbecomeofhim.IdonotknowwhenIshallreturn.Iaskedtheboyhowoldhewas.Tellmewhyyoudidthis.Tellmewhereyoulive.Nooneknowswhoheis.IearnwhateverIcan.Askifheisathome.

33.IneachofthefollowingComplexsentences,theNounClauseistheObjectofapreposition:

PaycarefulattentiontowhatIamgoingtosay.Thereisnomeaninginwhatyousay.Therewerenocomplaintsexceptthatthedaywastoohot.

34.IneachofthefollowingComplexsentences,theNounClauseisinAppositiontoaNounorPronoun:

Your statement that you found the money in the street will not bebelieved.Hisbeliefthatsomedayhewouldsucceedcheeredhimthroughmanydisappointments.Youmustneverforgetthis,thathonestyisthebestpolicy.Itisfearedthathewillnotcome.Itwasunfortunatethatyouwereabsent.

35.IneachofthefollowingComplexsentences,theNounClauseisusedastheComplementofaverbofincompletepredication:

Mybeliefisthathewillnotcome.Herconstantprayerwasthatthechildmightlive.Hisgreatfearisthathemayfail.MywishisthatImaypleaseyou.Theirrequestwillbethattheymaybeallowedtoresign.Lifeiswhatwemakeit.ThisiswhereIlive.

36. A Clause coming after a construction consisting of an

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intransitiveverb(particularlytheverbtobe)andanadjectivedoestheworkofanounandis,therefore,treatedasaNounClause.

In each of the following Complex Sentences, the Noun Clausecomesafteranintransitiveverbconstruction:

Thechildwasafraidthathewouldfalldown.Allofusarekeenthatyoushouldsucceed.Theyfeltsorrythattheylostthematch.Thepatientwassurethathewouldrecover.Shedidnotseemhopefulthathewouldarrive.

Itwill be seen that the prepositionof, about or for necessary toconnect the intransitive verb construction to the succeeding NounClauseineachoftheabovesentencesisomitted.Ifweputanounoragerund instead of the Clause, we would say afraid of, keen about,sorry for, sure of, hopeful of, and the noun or gerundwould be theobjectoftheprepositionineachcase.TheNounClauseineachoftheComplexSentencesmayalsoberegardedastheobjectofthemissingpreposition after the intransitive verb construction. However, suchNounClausesareoftensaidtobeusedadverbially.

Note— From the above examples itwill be seen that aNounClause is generally introduced by the subordinating Conjunctionthat.Sometimes,however,theConjunctionthatisomitted;as,

Iknow(that)hedidit.

Exercise 38. Write down a dozen Complex sentences, eachcontainingaNounClause.MaketheNounClausetheSubject in thefirstthree,theObjectinthenextthree,andinAppositiontoaNounorPronoun in thenext three.Use theNounClausepredicatively in thelastthree.

Exercise39.PointouttheNounClauseandsaywhetheritistheSubjectofsomeverb,ortheObjectofsomeverb,ortheComplementofsomeverb,orinAppositiontosomenounorpronoun,ortheObjectofsomepreposition:—

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1. (a)Hethoughtthathewassafethere.(b)Hethoughthimselftobesafethere.

2.

1. Tellmehowyoufoundthatout.2. Thathewillsucceediscertain.3. Ithinkyouhavemadeamistake.4. Shesayshermotherisill.5. HowlongIshallstayhereisdoubtful.6. Ididnotknowthathehadcome.7. Itisclearthathewasguilty.8. Idonotunderstandhowitallhappened.9. CanyoutellwhowroteShakuntala?10. Alldependsonhowitisdone.11. Doyoudenythatyoustolethepurse?12. Thelawwillpunishwhosoeverisguilty.13. IthinkIknowyourface.14. Askifdinnerisready.15. Thereportthathewaskilledisuntrue.16. Hewasveryhopefulthathewouldsucceed17. Dowhateveryouthinkright.18. Idon’tseehowyoucangetoutofthismess.19. Doyouknowwhenthetrainwillarrive?20. Whoevercamewasmadewelcome.21. Iunderstandyouwantasituation.22. Myverdictisthattheprisonersshalldie.23. IcannotexpresshowsorryIam.24. Theyguessedwhathemeant.25. Iamafraidthatshewillbeangry.26. Willyouexplainwhyyoubehavedso?27. Noonecantellhowthiswillend.28. Thetruthisthatwehavebeendeceived.29. Itisnotclearwhohasdonethis.30. IdonotknowhowIcandealwiththisrascal.31. IdidnotknowwhetherIshouldlaughorcry.32. Wearedesirousthatyoushouldsucceed.

37.Sometimes, insteadofaNounClause introducedby that, theAccusativewiththeInfinitiveisused.

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2.(a)Ibelievedthathewasatruefriend.(b)Ibelievedhimtobeatruefriend.

3. (a)Thisprovedthatthemanhadstolenthehorse.(b)Thisprovedthemantohavestolenthehorse.

4. (a)WeknowthatRamaisalive.(b)WeknowRamatobealive.

CHAPTER6

MOREABOUTADJECTIVECLAUSES38.Aswehaveseen,anAdjectiveClauseinaComplexsentence

isasubordinateclausewhichdoes theworkofanAdjective,andsoqualifiessomenounorpronouninthemainclause.

AnAdjectiveClauseisintroducedbyaRelativePronounorbyaRelativeAdverb;as,

Uneasyliestheheadthatwearsacrown.Heisthemanwhomweallrespect.Thetimewhentheboatleavesisnotyetfixed.Thehousewheretheaccidentoccurredisnearby.ThereasonwhyIdiditisobvious.

39. Sometimes, however, a Relative Pronoun introduces a Co-ordinateclause;as,

ImetRama,who(=andhe)gavemeyourmessage.Herewe are using the Relative Pronounwho to introduce a co-

ordinateclause.[Itmightappear,at firstsight, that theclause,whogavemeyour

message, isanAdjectiveclauseandthereforeSubordinate.Itwillbeseen that this is not the case however, for it in noway identifies ordescribesRama.

Inthesentence,

Heistheboywhobrokethewindow.

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theclause,whobrokethewindow,clearlyidentifiesanddescribestheboy,andisthereforeanAdjectiveclause.]

40. Below are further examples of who (and which) used tointroduceaco-ordinateclause.

ImetMr.Joshi,who(=andhe)thereuponshookhandswithme.TheprisonerwastakenbeforetheCaptain,who(=andhe)condemnedhimtoinstantdeath.Hegavemeamessage,which(=andit)isthis.Hereleasedthebird,which(=andit)atonceflewaway.

41.TheRelativePronounor theRelativeAdverb, introducinganAdjectiveclause,issometimesunderstood,andnotexpressed;as,

Eatall^youcan.[HeretheRelativePronounthatisunderstood.]IsawamanÎknow.[HeretheRelativePronounwhomisunderstood.]Where’sthebook^heleftforme?[HeretheRelativePronounwhichisunderstood.]Ontheday^youpasstheexaminationIshallgiveyouareward.[HeretheRelativeAdverbwhenisunderstood].ThereasonÎhavecomeistoaskformymoney.[HeretherelativeAdverbwhyisunderstood.]

42. InolderEnglishbutwasusedasa relativepronounas in thesentencesbelow.Insuchcasesbutisequivalenttoarelativepronounfollowedbynot.

Therewasnotawomanpresentbutwepttohearsuchnews.[Thatis,whodidnotweeptohearsuchnews.]Andnotamanof the threehundredatThermopylaebutdiedathispost.[Thatis,whodidnotdieathispost.]NoristhereamanherebutlovedourCaesar.[Thatis,whodidnotloveourCaesar.]There was not a widow but longed to die upon the pyre of herhusband.

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1. (a)GivemesomefoodwhichImayeat.(b)Givemesomefoodtoeat.

2. (a)Hehasnobootswhichhecanwear.(b)Hehasnobootstowear.

3. (a)ThedoctorhasgivenmemedicinewhichImusttake.(b)Thedoctorhasgivenmemedicinetotake.

4. (a)IhaveworkwhichImustdo.(b)Ihaveworktodo.

5. (a)HismothergavehimRs.10whichhemightputinhismoney-box.(b)HismothergavehimRs.10toputinhismoney-box.

[Thatis,whodidnotlongtodie,etc.]Thereisnofiresidebuthasonevacantchair.[Thathasnotonevacantchair.]

43. Note that than is sometimes used as a Preposition before aRelativePronounintheAdjectiveClause;as,

TheyelectedRamathanwhomnobetterboyeverwenttoschool.WewillfollowBrutusthanwhomRomeknowsnonoblerson.Itwasablowthanwhichnocruellerwaseverstruck.Wecametoaspotthanwhichmineeyeshaveseldomseenaloveliersight.

44. The infinitive with to is often used as the equivalent of anAdjectiveClause.

Exercise 40. Pick out each Adjective Clause in the followingsentences and say which noun or pronoun in the main clause itqualifies:1. ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.2. Hethatclimbstoohighissuretofall.3. Shesleepsthesleepthatknowsnowaking.4. Weobeyedtheordertheteachergaveus.5. Servantsthatarehonestaretrusted.6. Theyneverfailwhodieinagreatcause.7. Welovethosewholoveus.

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8. Themomentwhichislostislostforever.9. Ihavealittleshadowwhichgoesinandoutwithme.10. Itisanillwindthatblowsnobodygood.11. Youthisthetimewhentheseedsofcharacteraresown.12. ItwastheschoonerHesperusthatsailedthewintrysea.13. Theyneverpardonwhohavedonethewrong.14. Hehasasonwhohasmadeanameforhimself.15. Afriendwhohelpsyouintimeofneedisarealfriend.16. Allthatglittersisnotgold.17. HecouldnotanswerthequestionIaskedhim.18. Helaughsbestwholaughslast.19. AlltheblessingsweenjoycomefromGod.20. Theythatarewholehavenoneedofthephysician.21. Littlegoodworkcanbeexpectedfrommenwhoaregreatboasters.22. Theplanyouproposeisaverygoodone.23. Thenightislongthatneverfindstheday.24. Itisalonglanethathasnoturning.25. HegavemeeverythingIaskedfor.26. Hefailedineverythingthathelaidhishandsupon.27. Hehastricksthatremindmeofhisfather.28. Idulyreceivedthemessageyousentme.29. Thefoxsawthegrapeswhichhungoverthegardenwall.30. Thebarkthatheldaprincewentdown.31. Hethatisdownneedfearnofall.32. Wearesuchstuffasdreamsaremadeon.33. Themanthathathnomusicinhissoulisfitfortreason.34. Truelove’sthegiftwhichGodhasgiventomanalonebeneaththeheaven.35. NotasoldierdischargedhisfarewellshotO’erthegravewhereourherowe

buried.36. Wholiveslongestseesthemost.37. OftenIthinkofthebeautifultownThatisseatedbythesea.

Exercise 41.Make ten sentences, each containing an AdjectiveClause,inwhichaRelativePronounisunderstood.

Exercise 42.Make ten sentences, each containing an AdjectiveClause,inwhichaRelativeAdverbisunderstood.

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CHAPTER7

MOREABOUTADVERBCLAUSES45.We have seen that anAdverb clause is a subordinate clause

which does thework of anAdverb. Itmay, therefore,modify someverb,adjective,orAdverbinthemainclause;as,

Striketheironwhileitishot.YouaretallerthanIthought.Heransoquicklythathesoonovertookme.

46. Adverb clauses are of many kinds andmay be classified asAdverbClausesof–

1. Time2. Place.3. Purpose.4. Cause.5. Condition.6. Result.7. Comparison.8. SuppositionorConcession.

1.ADVERBCLAUSESOFTIME47.AdverbClauses of time are introduced by the Subordinating

Conjunctionswhenever,while,after,before,since,as,etc.

Whenyouhavefinishedyourworkyoumaygohome.IwilldoitwhenIthinkfit.Don’ttalkwhilesheissinging.WhileIcommandthisshiptherewillbegooddiscipline.Hecameafternighthadfallen.Afterthelawhadbeenpassedthisformofcrimeceased.Doitbeforeyouforget.Beforeyougobringmesomewater.

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IhavenotbeenwellsinceIreturnedfromChennai.Therewassilenceastheleaderspoke.Ashecameintotheroomallrosetotheirfeet.Thedoctoralwayscomeswheneverheissentfor.Theywerecommandedtowaittillthesignalwasgiven.Theworldalwayswillbethesamesolongasmenaremen.Assoonasheheardthenewshewrotetome.Justasheenteredtheroomtheclockstruck.Nosoonerdidheseeusthanhedisappeared.

Exercise 43.Write five sentences containing Adverb clauses oftime.

2.ADVERBCLAUSESOFPLACE48.AdverbClausesofPlaceare introducedby theSubordinating

Conjunctionswhereandwhereas,

IhaveputitwhereIcanfinditagain.Theycanstaywheretheyare.WhereyouliveIwilllive.Heledthecaravanwhereverhewantedtogo.Youcanputitwhereveryoulike.Lethimbearrestedwhereverhemaybefound.

InolderEnglishwhenceandwhitherwerealsoused.

Goquicklywhenceyoucame.Thewindblowethwhitheritlisteth.

Exercise 44.Write three sentences containingAdverb clauses ofplace.

3.ADVERBCLAUSESOFPURPOSE49.Adverbclausesofpurposeareintroducedbythesubordinating

conjunctionssothat,inorderthatandlest.(Inorderthatandlestareusedinaformalstyle.)

Iwillgiveyouamapsothatyoucanfindtheway.

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Weeatsothatwemaylive.TheUNOwas formed in order that countries might discuss worldproblemsbetter.Hewasextrapolitetohissuperiorslestsomethingadverseshouldbewrittenintohisrecords.‘SleepnotlestyourLordcomeinthenight.’

TheconjunctionthatoccurredinolderEnglish:

Hedrewtheswordthathemightdefendhimself.‘ComehitherthatImayblessthee.’

Exercise 45.Write three sentences containingAdverb clauses ofpurpose.

4.ADVERBCLAUSESOFCAUSEORREASON50. Adverb Clauses of Cause or Reason are introduced by the

SubordinatingConjunctionsbecause,as,since,that;as,

BecauseIlikeyou,Ishallhelpyou.IdiditbecauseIwantedto.IdidnotbuyitbecauseIdidnotlikethelookofit.Hethinks,becauseheisrich,hecanbuyjustice.Sinceyouaresocleveryouwillbeabletoexplainthis.Sinceyourfatherisnotathome,Iwillaskyoutotakethemessage.Sinceyousweartoservemefaithfully,Iwillemployyou.Iamgladthatyoulikeit.Hewasverypleasedthatyouhavepassed.Ashewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.

Exercise 46.Write five sentences containing Adverb clauses ofcauseorreason.

5.ADVERBCLAUSESOFCONDITION51. Adverb Clauses of Condition are introduced by the

SubordinatingConjunctionsif,whether,unless;as,

IfIlikeit,Ishallbuyit.Comeifyouwishto.

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Ifitrainsweshallstayathome.Ifyouhavetears,preparetoshedthemnow.Youmustgowhetheryouhearfromhimornot.WhethertheRajahgiveshimblowsormoney,hewillspeakthetruth.Unlessyouworkharderyouwillfail.Iwon’tpayitunlesshesendsmethebillagain.Iwillforgiveyouonconditionthatyoudonotrepeattheoffence.

Note1—Sometimes theSubordinatingConjunction isomittedinAdverbClausesofCondition;as,

HadInotseenthiswithmyowneyesIwouldnothavebelievedit.HadIthewingsofabirdIwouldflyaway.Hewouldbehappierwerehemorehonest.Wereanangeltotellmesuchathingofyou,Iwouldnotbelieveit.WhatwouldyouanswerdidIaskyousuchaquestion?

Note 2 – Clauses of Condition are sometimes introduced by aRelativePronoun,orAdjective,orAdverb(withoutanyantecedent);as,

Whateverhappenskeepcalm.Don’tannoyhimwhateveryoudo.Whatevermaybetheresult,Ishallrefuse.Whicheverroadwetakeweshallbetoolate.Howevercleverlyyoumaycheat,youwillbefoundatlast.

Exercise 47.Write five sentences containing Adverb Clauses ofCondition.

6.ADVERBCLAUSESOFRESULTORCONSEQUENCE

52.AdverbClauses ofResult orConsequence are introduced bytheSubordinatingConjunctionthat.FrequentlysoorsuchprecedesitinthePrincipalClause;as,

They fought so bravely that the enemywere driven off./So bravelydidtheyfightthattheenemyweredrivenoff.(Literary)

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Heissuchagoodmanthatallrespecthim.SogreatafireragedthatLondonwasburntdown.TheRomansbuiltinsuchawaythattheirwallsarestillstanding.Hespokeinsuchalowvoicethatfewcouldhearhim.Soterribleadiseasebrokeoutthatveryfewofthepeoplesurvived.Veryheavyrainfellsothattheriversweresooninflood.Lawswerequicklypassedsothatthisabusewaschecked.Hebehavedinsuchamannerthathisreputationsuffered.Socoldwasitthatmanydied.

Note –The Subordinating Conjunction that is often dropped ininformalEnglish.

Hewassoweakhecouldnotspeak.IamsodeafIcannothearthunder.ItwassolateIwaitednolonger.Heissooldhecanhardlywalk.ItwassosmallIcouldnotseeit.

Exercise 48.Write five sentences containing Adverb Clauses ofResultorConsequence.

7.ADVERBCLAUSESOFCOMPARISON53.AdverbClausesofComparisonareoftwokinds:

(i)AdverbClausesofComparisonofDegree.(ii)AdverbClausesofComparisonofManner.

54.AdverbClauses ofComparison ofDegree are introduced bytheSubordinatingConjunctionthan,orbytheRelativeAdverbas;as,

Heisolderthanhelooks.NoonecanrunfasterthanRama.ItislaterthanIthought.YoumustworkharderthanIdo.Heisasstupidasheislazy.Heisnotsocleverasyouthink.

Note.–TheverboftheAdverbClauseofComparisonofDegreeisoftenunderstoodandnotexpressed;as,

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NobodyknowsitbetterthanI[do].Fewarebetterleadersthanhe[is].YoulikecurrybetterthanI[likeit].Itwillhappenassureasdeath[issure].Notmanyknowthetruthofthisbetterthanyou[knowit].

Exercise 49.Write five sentences containing Adverb Clauses ofComparisonofDegree.

55.AdverbClausesofComparisonofManner are introducedbytheRelativeAdverbas;as,

Youmaydoasyouplease.ItallendedasIexpected.Asyouhavemadeyourbedsoyoumustlieonit.Ashehaslivedsowillhedie.Asthetwigisbentthebranchwillgrow.

Exercise 50.Write five sentences containing Adverb Clauses ofComparisonofManner.

8.ADVERBCLAUSESOFSUPPOSITIONORCONCESSION

56.AdverbClausesofSuppositionorConcessionare introducedbytheSubordinatingConjunctionsthough,although,evenif;as,

ThoughIampoorIamhonest.Thoughtheheavensfall,justicemustbedone.ThoughHeslaymeyetwillIloveHim.Hesetsailthoughthestormthreatened.Although the troops had marched all day they fought bravely allnight.AlthoughIforbadethisyouhavedoneit.IshallbeabletogetinalthoughIhavenoticket.EvenifitrainsIshallcome.Evenifheisoldheisabletodoagreatdealofwork.Iwouldnotdoitevenifyoupaidme.

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Exercise 51.Write five sentences containing Adverb Clauses ofSuppositionorConcession.

Exercise 52. Pick out the Adverb clauses in the followingsentences, tell thekindofeachclauseandpointout theword in themainclausewhichitmodifies:1. Forgiveusasweforgiveourenemies.2. Wesowsothatwemayreap.3. HediditasItoldhim.4. Icouldn’tbeangrywithhim,ifItried.5. Hearrivedasweweresettingout.6. Ifthisstorywerefalse,whatshouldyoudo?7. ItistenhourssinceIhadnothingtoeat.8. ImakefriendswhereverIgo.9. AtRomewemustdoastheRomans.10. IfIwereyouIwoulddoitatonce.11. Thegeneralwasasgoodashisword.12. Mysightisaskeenasyours.13. Someseedsfellwheretherewasnoearth.14. Sinceyousayso,Imustbelieveit.15. Standstillifyouvalueyourlife.16. Helabourssothathemaybecomerich.17. Helostmorethanhecouldafford.18. Itissosimplethatachildcanunderstandit.19. Hekeptonwritingasthoughhedidnothear.20. Boyashewas,hewaschosenking.21. Heridesasacowboyrides.22. IwilldiebeforeIsubmit.23. Hewascaughtinashowerashewasreturningfromschool.24. Hespeaksbetterthanhewrites.25. HecameinwhileIwasout.26. Afterthevotewastakenthemeetingbrokeup.27. Heweptasifhehadbeenachild.28. ApollowasworshippedaslongastheRomanEmpirelasted.29. Heconsoledtheunfortunatemotherasbesthemight.30. HeransofastthatIcouldnotovertakehim.31. HeknowsthatinasmuchasIhavetoldhim.

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32. Theyoungermanhasmoremoneythanbrains.33. Sinceyoudesireit,Iwilllookintothematter.34. Theysetastrongguard,lestanyoneshouldescape.35. Hesucceededalthoughhissuccesswasnotexpected.36. Theearthislargerthanthemoon.37. Itwasdarkwhenthecannonadingstoppedallofasudden.38. Hispitygaveerecharitybegan.39. WhereverIwentwasmydeardogTray.40. Hefeltasifthegroundwereslippingbeneathhisfeet.41. Somepeopleactasthoughtheycoulddonowrong.42. Foolsrushinwhereangelsfeartotread.43. Hedarednotstir,lestheshouldbeseen.44. Themovementwascheckedbeforeitwasfairlystarted.45. Agluttonlivessothathemayeat.46. Everythinghappenedexactlyashadbeenexpected.47. RobinsonCrusoewaspuzzledwhenhediscoveredtheprintofafootonthe

sand.48. Enoughisasgoodasafeast.49. Hefinishedtheworkastheclockstruckfive.50. Assoonasyoustandthere,thisyoungladyisyourlawfulweddedwife.51. It’sdullinourtownsincemyplaymatesleft.52. WhilstIlive,thoushaltneverwantafriendtostandbythee.53. Nosoonerdidthisideaenterhishead,thanitcarriedconvictionwithit.54. Theyhavegone aheadwith theplan, although there iswidespreadpublic

opposition.55. Theywerecommandedtowaittillthesignalwasgiven.56. Richasheis,onewouldscarcelyenvyhim.57. Openrebukeisbetterthansecretlove.58. Haveyouturnedadetective,thatyoukeepyoureyeonmelikethis?59. Hehadnotreadhalfadozenpages,whentheexpressionofhisfacebegan

tochange.60. My eldest son was bred at Oxford, as I intended him for the learned

profession.61. Hisbehaviourwassuchthateverybodylikedhim.62. I had scarcely taken orders a year, before I began to think seriously of

matrimony.63. Ifyouhavetears,preparetoshedthemnow.

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64. Theworldalwayswillbethesame,aslongasmenaremen.Exercise53.Useeachofthefollowingclausesinasentence,and

saywhatworkitdoesinyoursentence:1. thathewastired2. wherehewasborn3. ashewastold4. whatyousay5. whosoeverisguilty6. wholaughslast7. becauseheisgenerous8. sinceyousayso9. ashedeserved10. beforeitwastoolate.11. assoonasheheardthenews.12. thathesoonovertookme13. wherehehadleftit14. howoldhewas.15. ifyouarediligent16. becauseIwastired17. whathasbecomeofhim18. whenthetrainwillarrive19. whodidit20. whateveryouthinkright21. sinceIreturnedfromLahore22. howthiswillend23. whathewants24. ashecould25. ashewasnotthere26. ifIwereyou27. thatthestreetswereflooded28. asItoldhim29. beforeIsubmitted30. thatheisamillionaire31. assheisbeautiful32. whatyouwant33. whenhisfatherdied34. asitwasraining

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35. asyouplease36. thanyouare[strong]37. althoughheisnotrich38. whoworkshard39. thatweshallwin40. whenIshallreturn41. ifIhadnothelpedyou42. althoughtheyfoughtmostvaliantly43. whenthecatisaway44. whileitishot45. whohelpthemselves46. whilethesunshines47. tillyouareoutofthewood48. thatwearsacrown49. wholiveinglasshouses50. whereignoranceisbliss51. thatblowsnobodygood52. nosoonerdidheseeme53. asdreamsaremadeon54. thathasnoturning55. whereangelsfeartotread56. sothatwemaylive

Exercise 54.Use the following subordinate clauses in as manydifferent ways as possible by attaching them to suitable principalclauses:1. wherehewasburied2. whenthetrainwillarrive3. wherehehadleftit4. whodidit5. whyhedidit6. thathemightsucceedinlife7. whomhehadmet8. whenthemonsoonfailedExercise 55. Complete the following sentences by supplying

appropriateconnectingwords:1. Smallserviceistrueservice_______itlasts.

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2. Itisagreatlosstoaman_______hecannotlaugh.3. Wetheremetaboy_______hadlosthisway.4. It is thecommondoomofman___hemusteathisbreadbythesweatof

hisbrow.5. Fitwordsarebetter_______fineones.6. Hemakesnofriend,_______nevermadeafoe.7. Themoment_______islostislostforever.8. Forgiveusourdebts_______weforgiveourdebtors.9. Theman_______standsbymeintroubleIwon’tbidhimgountilthesun

shinesagain.10. Money_______iseasilyearnedissoonspent.11. _______somewhatpompous,hewasanentertainingcompanion.12. Poetrytakesmeupsoentirely_______Iscarceseewhatpassesundermy

nose.13. He_______fightsandrunsaway,livestofightanotherday.14. Neverrefusetoentertainamaninyourheart______alltheworldistalking

againsthim.15. _______youwouldbehealthy,begood.16. _______Iamdead,mydearest,singnosadsongsforme.17. Amanhasnomorerighttosayanuncivilthing_______toactone.18. _______theblindleadtheblind,bothshallfallintotheditch.19. _______thisbemadness_______thereismethodinit.20. Considerthelilies_______theygrow.21. ______hehasacar,heoftengoestotheofficeonfoot.22. _______weapproachedthehouse,weheardthesoundofmusic.23. Ihavenotbeenwell_______IreturnedfromDelhi.24. Thesearethebooks_______Iorderedlastweek.25. Theylive_______theirfatherslivedbeforethem.26. Noonecantell_______thiswillend.27. _______hehadgoneIremembered_______hewas.28. Aman_______loseshistempercontinuallyisanuisance.29. Youthisthetime_______theseedsofcharacteraresown.30. Thehouse_______hewasbornliesinruins.31. _______mymotherdiedIwasveryyoung.32. Donothalloo_______youareoutofthewood.33. Ishallseeyoutomorrow,_______wewilltalkthematterover.34. Theyalwaystalk_______neverthink.

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35. Ididnotrecognizehim_______hetoldme_______hewas.36. TheyserveGodwell_______serveHiscreatures.37. Ihavealittleshadow_______goesinandoutwithme.38. Imetaboy_______toldme_______Icouldfindyou.39. Welearn,_______wemaybeabletomakeourwayintheworld.40. _______hewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.41. Avesselthatoncegetsacrack,_______itmaybecunninglymended,will

neverstandsuchroughusage_______awholeone.42. ______itjourneysthroughspace,theearthisnotalone;spinningroundwith

itisthemoon.43. Otherplanetshavemoons,______oursisverylargecomparedtotheearth.44. Iresolved_______Iwouldsaynothing_______Iknewtheworst.45. _______hewasborn,_______broughthimup,and_______helived,we

arenottold.46. Nothingcandescribe theconfusionof thought____I felt___Isank into

thewater.47. ______hewasastrictdisciplinarianhewaslovedbyall______Iserved

underhim.48. Onegreatreason_______weare insensible to thegoodnessofCreator is

thefact_______Hisbountyissoextensive.49. Passengers arewarned ______ it is dangerous to lean out of thewindow

______thetrainisinmotion.

CHAPTER8

ANALYSISOFCOMPLEXSENTENCES(CLAUSEANALYSIS)

57.Usuallywhen a complex or compound sentence is given foranalysing, detailed analysis is not required; the student is asked togiveclauseanalysis,thatis,heisaskedtobreakupagivensentenceintoitsseveralclausesandshowtheirrelationtooneanother.

58. InanalysingaComplex sentence, the first step is to findoutthePrincipalorMainClause.

The next step is to find out the Subordinate Clause or Clauses,

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showingtherelationwhicheachClausebearstothePrincipalClause.59.Nowstudycarefullythefollowingexampleoftheanalysisofa

Complexsentence:

Wheneverheheardthequestion,theoldmanwholivedinthathouse,answeredthattheearthisflat.

ComplexsentencecontainingthreeSubordinateclauses:

1. Theoldman....answered(Principalclause).2. Whenever he heard the question. (Adverb clause of time, modifyingansweredin1.)

3. Wholivedinthathouse.(Adjectiveclause,qualifyingmanin1.)4. Thattheearthisflat.(Nounclause,objectofansweredin1.)

60. Sometimes a Subordinate clause has another Subordinateclausewithinit;thatis,aSubordinateclausehasanotherSubordinateclausedependentonit,e.g.,

(A)Ithinkthathedestroyedtheletterwhichyousentthere.

1. Ithink....(Principalclause.)2. Thathedestroyedtheletter....(NounClause,objectofthinkin1.)3. Which you sent there.....(Adjective clause, subordinate to 2, qualifyingletter.)

(B)Herepliedthatheworkedwheneverheliked.

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1. Hereplied....(Principalclause.)2. Thatheworked...(Nounclause,objectofrepliedin1.)3. Whenever he liked... (Adverb clause, subordinate to 2, modifyingworked.)

(C)Iknowthemanwhosaidthatthiswouldhappen.

1. Iknowtheman....(Principalclause).2. Whosaid....(Adjectiveclause,qualifyingmanin1.)3. Thatthiswouldhappen.(Nounclause,subordinateto2,objectofsaid.)

61.Oneafternoon,asinthatsultryclimeItisthecustominthesummer-time.,Withbolteddoorsandwindow-shuttersclosed,TheinhabitantsofAtrisleptordozed.When,suddenlyupontheirsensesfellTheloudalarmoftheaccusingbell!Complexsentence,containingtwosubordinateclauses:

1. One afternoon, with bolted doors and window shutters closed, theinhabitantsofAtrisleptordozed.(Principalclause).

2. As in that sultry clime it is the custom in the summer-time. (Adverbclauseofmanner,modifyingsleptordozedin1.)

3. When,suddenly,upontheirsensesfelltheloudalarmoftheaccusingbell.(Adverbclauseoftime,modifyingsleptordozedin1)

62.Belowarefurtherexamples:(1)Breathestherethemanwithsoulsodead

Whonevertohimselfhathsaid,‘Thisismyown,mynativeland?’

Complexsentence,containingtwosubordinateclauses:

1. Breathestherethemanwithsoulsodead...(Principalclause).2. Whonever to himself hath said..... (Adjective clause, qualifyingman in

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1.)3. ‘Thisismyown,mynativeland?’(Nounclause,subordinateto2,object

ofhathsaid.)

(2)Everyonewhoknowsyou, acknowledges,whenhe considersthecasecalmly,thatyouhavebeenwronged.

Complexsentence,containingthreesubordinateclauses:

1. Everyoneacknowledges...(Principalclause)2. Whoknowsyou.(Adjectiveclause,qualifyingonein1.)3. When he considers the case calmly. (Adverb clause, modifyingacknowledgesin1.)

4. Thatyouhavebeenwronged.(Nounclause,objectofacknowledgesin1.)

(3)Dotheworkthat’snearest,Tho’it’sdullatwhilesHelpingwhenyoumeetthem.Lamedogsoverstiles.Complexsentence,containingthreesubordinateclauses:

1. [You]dothework,helpinglamedogsoverstiles.(Principalclause.)2. That’snearest.(Adjectiveclause,qualifyingworkin1.)3. Tho’it’sdullatwhiles.(Adverbclauseofconcession,modifyinghelping

in1.)4. Whenyoumeetthem.(Adverbclauseoftime,modifyinghelpingin1.)

(4) I knewamanwhobelieved that, if amanwerepermitted tomaketheballads,heneednotcarewhomadethelawsofanation.

Complexsentence,containingfoursubordinateclauses:

1. Iknewaman...(Principalclause)2. Whobelieved....(Adjectiveclause,qualifyingamanin1.)3. Thatheneednotcare.(Nounclause,subordinateto2,objectofbelieved)4. Whomadethelawsofanation.(Nounclause,subordinateto2,objectofcare.)

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5. Ifamanwerepermittedtomaketheballads,Adverbclauseofcondition,subordinateto3,modifyingneednotcare.

(5)Themanwhocanplaymostheartilywhenhehasthechanceofplaying, is generally themanwho canworkmost heartilywhen hemustwork.

Complexsentence,containingfoursubordinateclauses:

1. Themanisgenerallytheman...(Principalclause.)2. Whocanplaymostheartily. [Adjectiveclause,qualifyingman (subject)

in1.]3. When he has the chance of playing. [Adverb clause, subordinate to 2,

modifyingplay.)4. Who can work most heartily. (Adjective clause, qualifying man

(complement)in1.]5. Whenhemustwork.(Adverbclause,subordinateto4,modifyingwork).

(6) Should you be so unfortunate as to suppose that you are agenius, and that things will come to you, it would be well toundeceiveyourselfassoonasitispossible.

Complexsentence,containingfoursubordinateClauses:

1. Itwouldbewelltoundeceiveyourself.(Principalclause).2. Assoonasitispossible.(Adverbclauseoftime,subordinateto1.)3. Shouldyoubesounfortunateastosuppose...(Adverbclauseofcondition,

subordinateto1.)4. That you are a genius. (Noun clause. Subordinate to 3, object of tosuppose.)

5. Andthat thingswillcometoyou.(Nounclause,co-ordinatewith4,andsubordinateto3,objectoftosuppose.)

Exercise56.Analysethefollowingsentences:1. Asmy eldest sonwas bred a scholar, I determined to send him to town,

wherehisabilitiesmightcontributetooursupportandhisown.2. Clivehadbeenonlya fewmonths in thearmy,when intelligencearrived

thatpeacehadbeenconcludedbetweenGreatBritainandFrance.

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3. I had a partial father, who gave me a better education than his brokenfortunewouldhaveallowed.

4. He told us that he had readMilton, in a prose translation, when he wasfourteen.

5. Withwhateverluxuriesabachelormaybesurrounded,hewillalwaysfindhishappinessincomplete,unlesshehasawifeandchildren.

6. Among the many reasons which make me glad to have been born inEngland,oneofthefirstisthatIreadShakespeareinmymothertongue.

7. He [Pope] professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, whom,wheneveranopportunitywaspresented,hepraised throughhiswhole lifewithunvariedliberality.

8. We who are fortunate enough to live in this enlightened century hardlyrealize how our ancestors suffered from their belief in the existence ofmysteriousandmalevolentbeings.

9. We cannot justly interpret the religion of any people, unless we arepreparedtoadmitthatweourselvesareliabletoerrorinmattersoffaith.

10. Miltonsaidthathedidnoteducatehisdaughtersinthelanguages,becauseonetonguewasenoughforawoman.

11. The man who does not see that the good of every living creature is hisgood,isafool.

12. NothingcandescribetheconfusionofthoughtwhichIfeltwhenIsankintothewater.

13. We had in this village, some twenty years ago, a boy whom I wellremember,whofromhischildhoodshowedastronglikingforbees.

14. Considering that theworld is so intricate,we are not to be surprised thatsciencehasprogressedslowly.

15. YoutakemyhousewhenyoudotakethepropThatdothsustainmyhouse.

16. Iheardathousandblendednotes,WhileinagroveIsatreclinedInthatsweetmoodwhenpleasantthoughtsBringsadthoughtstothemind.

17. Much as we like Shakespeare’s comedies, we cannot agree with Dr.Johnsonthattheyarebetterthanhistragedies.

18. Thosewho look into practical lifewill find that fortune is usually on thesideoftheindustrious,asthewindsandwavesareonthesideofthebestnavigators.

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19. Hewhositsfromdaytoday,Wheretheprisonedlarkishung.Heedlessofitsloudestlay,Hardlyknowsthatithassung.

20. History says that Socrates, when he was given the cup of hemlock,continuedtotalktothefriendswhowerestandingaroundhimashedrankit.

21. I have no sympathy with the poor man I knew, who, when suicidesabounded,toldmehedarednotlookathisrazor.

CHAPTER9

ANALYSISOFCOMPOUNDSENTENCES(CLAUSEANALYSIS)

64.Acompoundsentenceismadeupoftwoormoreprincipalormain clauses joined together by a Co-ordinating conjunction and,sometimesincludesoneormoresubordinateclauses.

1. Thehorserearedandtheriderwasthrown.[2mainclauses]

2. They were fond of music, played on various kinds of instruments andindulgedinmuchsinging.[3mainclauses]

3. Theyaskedhimhowhereceivedthewound,butherefusedtoanswer.[2mainclauses+1subordinateclause]

4. Hesayswhathemeans,andhemeanswhathesays.[2mainclauses+2subordinateclauses]

Ithasbeenalreadypointedout(§27)thatthetermDoubleisnowused for a sentencewhich ismade up of twomain clauses. and thetermMultipleforasentenceofmorethantwomainclauses.

65. In accordance with this new terminology, 1, 3, and 4 areDoublesentences,and2isaMultiplesentence.

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66. The connection between two main clauses of a Compoundsentencemaybeoneofthefollowingfourkinds:-

(1)Copulative;as,

Godmadethecountryandmanmadethetown.Babar was not only a great soldier, he was also a wise ruler. Hecannotspeak,norcanhewrite.Heplaysthepiano,hesingsalso.Theinnocentswerepunishedaswellastheguilty.

Here in each sentence the main clauses are simply coupledtogether.

(2)Adversative;as,

Heisslow,butheissure.Ididmybest,neverthelessIfailed.Heisrich,yetheisnothappy.Heisvain,stillhisfriendsadorehim.

Here in each sentence the two main clauses are opposed inmeaningtoeachother.

(3)AlternativeorDisjunctive;as,

Shemustweep,orshewilldie.Eitherheismad,orhefeignsmadness.

Neitheraborrowernoralenderbe.Walkquickly,elseyouwillnotovertakehim.

Here in each sentence the two main clauses are disjoined inmeaning,andachoicebetweenthemisofferedforacceptance.

(4)Illative;as,

Heisdiligent,thereforehewillsucceed.Heisunwell,sohecannotattendoffice.Theanglesareequal,consequentlythesidesareequal.

Hereineachsentencethesecondclausedrawsaninferencefromthefirst.

67. Sometimes no connecting word is used to join two main

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clauses;as,

Temperancepromoteshealth,intemperancedestroysit.Hercourtwaspure;herlifeserene.

68. Sometimes a Subordinate Conjunction is used to join theclausesofaCompoundsentence;as,

I shall see you tomorrow, when (= and then) we can finish thebusiness.Iwalkedwithhimtothestation,where(=andthere)weparted.

69.Comparedsentencesareoftencontracted.Forexample,whenthemainclauseshave:

(1)AcommonSubject;as,

Hechidtheirwanderings,butrelievedtheirpain.=Hechidtheirwanderings,butherelievedtheirpain.

(2)AcommonVerb;as,

Somepraisethework,andsomethearchitect.=Somepraisethework,andsomepraisethearchitect.

70.Studycarefullytheclauseanalysisofthefollowing:(1)One dayBassanio came toAntonio, and told him that hewished to

repairhisfortunebyawealthymarriagewithaladywhomhedearlyloved,whosefatherhadlefthersoleheiresstoalargeestate.

Analysis.ThisisaCompoundorDoublesentence,consistingof–

A.OnedayBassaniocametoAntonio.(Principalclause).B.Bassaniotoldhim...(Principalclause,co-ordinatewithA.)b1.Thathewishedtorepairhisfortunebyawealthymarriagewitha

lady.(Nounclause,objectoftoldinB.)b2. Whom he dearly loved. (Adjective clause, subordinate to b1,

qualifyinglady.)b3.Whosefatherhadlefthersoleheiresstoalargeestate.(Adjective

clause, subordinate to b1, qualifying lady, and co-ordinate withb2.)

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(2)Beforehedied,thegoodEarlofKent,whohadstillattendedhisoldmaster’s steps from the first of his daughters’ ill-usage to this sadperiodofhisdecay,triedtomakehimunderstandthatitwashewhohad followed him under the name of Caius; but Lear’s care-crazedbrain at that timecouldnot comprehendhow that couldbe,orhowKentandCaiuscouldbethesameperson.

Analysis.–ThisisaCompoundorDoublesentence,consistingof–

A. The good Earl of Kent tried to make him understand...(Principalclause).

a1.Beforehedied.(Adverbclause,modifyingtriedinA).a2.Whohadstillattendedhisoldmaster’sstepsfromthefirstofhis

daughters’ ill-usage to this sad period of his decay. (Adjectiveclause,qualifyingEarlofKentinA.)

a3.Thatitwashe.(Nounclause,objectofunderstandinA.)a4. Who had followed him under the name of Caius. (Adjective

clause,subordinatetoa3,qualifyinghe.)B. But Lears’s care-crazed brain at that time could not comprehend

(Principalclause,coordinatewithA.)b1.Howthatcouldbe.(Nounclause,objectofcomprehendinB.)b2.OrhowKentandCaiuscouldbethesameperson.(Nounclause,

objectofcomprehendinB;co-ordinatewithb1.)

Exercise57.Analysethefollowing:1. Iamsatisfiedwiththingsastheyare;anditwillbemyprideandpleasure

tohanddownthiscountry tomychildrenasI received it fromthosewhoprecededme.

2. Somepoliticiansofourtimelayitdownasaself-evidentpropositionthatnopeopleoughttobefreetilltheyarefittousetheirfreedom.

3. He [a gentleman] never speaks of himself exceptwhen compelled, neverdefendshimself by amere retort; he has no ears for slander or gossip, isscrupulous in imputing motives to those who interfere with him, andinterpretseverythingforthebest.

4. SubhashChandraBosediedbeforehisaimwasachieved,andyethewillalwaysbe rememberedasagreathero,who foughtandsacrificedhis lifeforthefreedomofthecountry.

5. Thenoticewhichyouhavebeenpleasedtotakeofmylabours,haditbeen

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early, had been kind; but it has been delayed till I am indifferent, andcannotenjoyit.

6. I hope it is no very cynical asperity not to confess obligationswhere nobenefithasbeenreceived,ortobeunwillingthatthepublicshouldconsidermeasowing that toapatron,whichProvidencehasenabledme todoformyself.

7. WhileIwasdoingthis, I foundthe tidebegantoflow, thoughverycalm,andIhadthemortificationtoseemycoat,shirt,andwaistcoat,whichIhadleftonshoreuponthesand,swimaway.

8. With reluctance he accepted the invitations of his kindly and faithfulPersianfriend,whoscoldedhimforrefusingmeat;buthereplied that toomucheatingledmantocommitmanysins.

9. Macaulayhadwealthandfame,rankandpower,andyethetellsusinhisbiographythatheowedthehappiesthoursofhislifetobooks.

10. Aliteraryeducationissimplyoneofmanydifferentkindsofeducationanditisnotwisethatmorethanasmallpercentageofthepeopleofanycountryshouldhaveanexclusivelyliteraryeducation.

11. The way into my parlour is up a winding stair, And I’ve many curiousthingstoshowwhenyouarethere.

12. Theylovetoseetheflamingforge,Andhearthebellowssoar,Andcatchtheburningsparksthatfly,Likechafffromathreshingfloor.

13. Thefriendswhohadleftcamebackeveryone,Anddarkestadviserslookedbrightasthesun.

14. Shelivedunknownandfewcouldknow,WhenLucyceasedtobe.

15. Threewivessatupinthelighthousetower,Andtheytrimmedthelampsasthesunwentdown.

16. Hishairwasyellowashay,ButthreadsofasilverygreyGleamedinhistawnybeard.

Exercise58.(Miscellaneous)Analysethefollowing:1. When Abraham sat at his tent door, according to his custom, waiting to

entertainstrangers,heespiedanoldman,stoopingandleaningonhisstaff,wearywithageandtravel,comingtowardshim,whowasahundredyears

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ofage.2. Whentheoldmanwasgone,GodcalledtoAbrahamandaskedhimwhere

thestrangerwas.3. Hereplied,IthrusthimawaybecausehedidnotworshipThee.4. WhileyouareuponEarthenjoythegoodthingsthatarehere(to thatend

weretheygiven)andbenotmelancholy,andwishyourselfinheaven.5. ThereisnosayingshocksmesomuchasthatwhichIhearveryoftenthata

mandoesnotknowhowtopasshistime.6. Youmustobserve,myfriend,thatitisthecustomofthiscountry,whena

ladyorgentlemanhappens tosing, for thecompany tositasmuteandasmotionlessasstatues.

7. Mr.Burchellhad scarce taken leave, andSophiaconsented todancewiththechaplain,whenmylittleonescamerunningouttotellusthattheSquirewascomewithacrowdofcompany.

8. Ihope itwillgivecomfort togreatnumberswhoarepassing through theworld in obscurity, when I inform them how easily distinction may beobtained.

9. Allwho havemeant goodworkwith theirwhole hearts, have done goodwork,althoughtheymaydiebeforetheyhavethetimetosignit.

10. We are told that, while still a mere child, he stole away from hisplayfellowstoavaultinSt.James’s

11. Fields,forthepurposeofinvestigatingthecauseofasingularechowhichhehadobservedthere.11.Theslavewhowasathisworknotfarfromtheplace where this astonishing piece of cruelty was commited, hearing theshrieksofthedyingpersonrantoseewhatwastheoccasionofthem.

12. Everyinsignificantauthorfanciesitofimportancetotheworldtoknowthathewrotehisbookin thecountry, thathedidit topassawaysomeofhisidle hours, that itwas published at the importunity of friends, or that hisnatural temper, studies, or conversation directed him to the choice of hissubject.

13. Iconsiderahumansoulwithouteducationlikemarbleinthequarry,whichshowsnoneofitsinherentbeauties,untiltheskillofthepolisherfetchesoutthe colours, makes the surface shine, discovers every ornamental cloud,spot,andviewthatrunthroughthebodyofit.

14. When theAthenians in thewarwith the Lacedaemonians receivedmanydefeatsbothbyseaand land, theysentamessage to theoracleof JupiterAmmon, to ask the reasonwhy theywhoerected somany temples to the

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gods, and adorned them with such costly offerings, should be lesssuccessfulthantheLacedaemonians,whofellsoshortoftheminalltheseparticulars.

15. Hethatholdsfastthegoldenmean,AndlivescontentedlybetweenThelittleandthegreat,Feelsnotthewantsthatpinchthepoor,Norplaguesthathaunttherichman’sdoor,Embitteringallhisstate.

CHAPTER10

TRANSFORMATIONOFSENTENCES71.Thestudenthasalready learnt thataphrasecanbeexpanded

intoaclauseandaclausecontractedintoaphrase;thatis,theformofa sentence can be changed without changing the meaning. In thischapter we shall show some other ways of changing the form of asentence.

The conversion or transformation of sentences is an excellentexerciseasitteachesvarietyofexpressioninwritingEnglish.

1.SENTENCESCONTAININGTHEADVERB‘TOO’

72.Wecanchange the formofa sentencecontaining theadverb‘too’,asshownbelow:

1. Thenewsistoogoodtobetrue.Thenewsissogoodthatitcannotbetrue.

2. Thesemangoesaretoocheaptobegood.Thesemangoesaresocheapthattheycannotbegood.

3. Hedrovetoofastforthepolicetocatch.Hedrovesofastthatthepolicecouldnotcatchhim.

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Positive. Iamasstrongashim.Comparative. Heisnotstrongerthanme.Positive. Thisrazorisnotassharpasthatone.Comparative. Thatrazorissharperthanthisone.Positive. FewhistorianswriteasinterestinglyasJoshi.Comparative. Joshiwritesmoreinterestinglythanmost

historians.Positive. Noothermetalisasusefulasiron.Comparative Ironismoreusefulthananyothermetal.Superlative. Ironisthemostusefulofallmetals.Superlative. Indiaisthelargestdemocracyintheworld.Comparative. Indiaislargerthananyotherdemocracyin

Exercise59.RewritethefollowingsentencessoastogetridoftheAdverb‘too’:

1. Itisnevertoolatetomend.2. Heistooproudtobeg.3. Myheartistoofullforwords.4. Hewastoolatetohearthefirstspeech.5. Heistooignorantforapostman.6. Theboywastoooldforawhipping.7. Thistreeistoohighformetoclimb.8. Hespeakstoofasttobeunderstood.9. Heisfartoostupidforsuchadifficultpost.10. Shewassobbingtoodeeplytomakeanyanswer.11. Thisfactistooevidenttorequireproof.12. Theworkistoomuchforanymantodosingle-handed.13. Thisshirtistoosmallforme.14. Thebagwastooheavyformetoocarry.

2.INTERCHANGEOFTHEDEGREESOFCOMPARISON

73.As the followingexamplesshow, it ispossible tochange theDegree of Comparison of an Adjective or Adverb in a sentence,withoutchangingthemeaningofthesentence.

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theworld.Positive. Nootherdemocracyintheworldisaslarge

asIndia.Superlative. MumbaiisoneoftherichestcitiesinIndia.Comparative Mumbaiisricherthanmostothercitiesin

India.Positive. VeryfewcitiesinIndiaareasrichas

Mumbai.Superlative. UshaKiranisnotthetallestofallthe

buildingsinthecity.Comparative. UshaKiranisnottallerthansomeother

buildingsinthecity.

SomeotherbuildingsinthecityareperhapstallerthanUshaKiran.

positive. SomeotherbuildingsinthecityareatleastastallasUshaKiran.

UshaKiranisperhapsnotastallassomeotherbuildingsinthecity.

Superlative. Naomiisnotoneofthecleverestgirlsintheclass.

Comparative. SomegirlsoftheclassareclevererthanNaomi,.

Naomiislesscleverthansomeothergirlsoftheclass.

Positive. Naomiisnotsocleverassomeothergirlsoftheclass.

OR

OR

OR

Exercise60.ChangetheDegreeofComparisonwithoutchangingthemeaning:1. Abdulisasstrongashisbrother.2. Akbarwasoneofthegreatestkings.3. SomeboysareatleastasindustriousasKarim.4. MahabaleshwariscoolerthanMysore.5. NootherbowlerintheelevenissogoodasRama.

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Active. BrutusstabbedCaesar.Passive. CaesarwasstabbedbyBrutus.Active. ThepeoplewillmakehimPresident.Passive. HewillbemadePresidentbythepeople.Active. Whotaughtyougrammar?Passive. Bywhomwereyoutaughtgrammar?/Who

wereyoutaughtgrammarby?Bywhomwasgrammartaughttoyou?

Active. TheGovernorgavehimareward.Passive. HewasgivenarewardbytheGovernor.

ArewardwasgiventohimbytheGovernor.Active. TheRomansexpectedtoconquerCarthage.Passive. ItwasexpectedbytheRomansthatthey

wouldconquerCarthage.Active. Oneshouldkeepone’spromises.

6. VeryfewcitiesinIndiaareasbigasChennai.7. Nootherstory-bookissopopularasTheArabianNights.8. Thisponyisbettertrainedthanyours.9. ThischurchisthebiggestinMumbai.10. Thisnewspaperhasabiggercirculationthananyothermorningpaper.11. HelenofTroywasmorebeautifulthananyotherwoman.12. Theairplanefliesfasterthanbirds.13. HyderabadisoneofthebiggestofIndiancities.14. Somebeansareatleastasnutritiousasmeat.15. SamudraGuptawasoneofthegreatestofIndiankings.16. Australiaisthelargestislandintheworld.17. VeryfewIndo-AngliannovelistsareasgreatasR.K.Narayan.18. ThisisoneofthehottestdistrictsinIndia.19. Itisbettertostarvethanbeg.20. Helovesallhissonsequallywell.

3.INTERCHANGEOFACTIVEANDPASSIVEVOICE

74.AsentenceintheActiveformcanbechangedintothePassiveform,andviceversa:

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Passive. Promisesshouldbekept.Active. Iknowher.Passive. Sheisknowntome.Active. Mycaptorsweretakingmetoprison.Passive. Iwasbeingtakentoprisonbymycaptors.Active. Hisbehaviourvexesmesometimes.Passive. Iamsometimesvexedathisbehaviour.Active. Itistimetoshutuptheshop.Passive. Itistimefortheshoptobeshutup.Active. TheaudienceloudlycheeredtheMayor’s

speech.Passive. TheMayor’sspeechwasloudlycheered.

Passive. Mypockethasbeenpicked.Active. Someonehaspickedmypocket.Passive. Ourarmyhasbeendefeated.Active. Theenemyhasdefeatedourarmy.Passive. Ishallbeobligedtogo.Active. Circumstanceswillobligemetogo.

Note –Whenever it is evidentwho the agent (i.e., doer of theaction)is,itisunnecessarytomentionhiminthepassiveform,andthis omission gives a neater turn to the sentence. Thus in the lastexampletheagentisnotmentionedinthepassiveformbecauseonlythosewhoheardthespeechcouldhavecheeredit.

Note–TheActiveVoiceisusedwhentheagent,oractor, is tobemadeprominent;thePassive,whenthethingacteduponistobemade prominent. Hence the Passive Voicemay be used when theagent isunknown,orwhenwedonot care toname theagent ; as,‘Theshipwaswrecked.’

Exercise 61. Change the following sentences into the Passiveform.(Omittheagentwherepossible.)1. Premchandwrotethisnovel.2. Weadmirethebrave.3. Iboughtthebabyadoll.4. Theyknowme.

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5. Heinvitedmetohishouseyesterday.6. Theyenjoybathing.7. Iopenedthedoor.8. Ireadthebooklongago.9. Pakistanexpectedtowinthematch.10. Themasterappointedhimmonitor.11. Whotaughtyousuchtricksasthese?12. BrutusaccusedCaesarofambition.13. Theboyisclimbingthecliff.14. HetaughtmetoreadPersian.15. Oneexpectsbetterbehaviourfromacollegestudent.16. Theyshowedavideoof‘TheTitanic’.17. Youmustendurewhatyoucannotcure.18. Thecuratorofthemuseumshowedussomeancientcoins.19. TheKingreviewedthetroopsinthemaidan.20. Theyhavepulleddowntheoldhouse.21. Therulesforbidpassengerstocrosstherailwayline.22. Hemadehiswifedothework.23. Natureteachesbeaststoknowtheirfriends.24. Alldesirewealthandsomeacquireit.25. LincolnemancipatedfourmillionAfricanslaves.26. Weexpectgoodnews.27. Theyproposetobuildadamforirrigationpurposes.28. Iofferedhimachair.29. TheFrenchsurrenderedQuebectotheEnglishin1759.30. Heshowedmethegreatestrespect.31. Alas!weshallhearhisvoicenomore.32. ShallIeverforgetthosehappydays?33. Doyounotunderstandmymeaning?34. Wemustlistentohiswords.

Exercise62.RewritethefollowingsentencesinthePassiveform.(Omittheagentwherepossible.)1. MacbethhopedtosucceedDuncan.2. WhotaughtyouUrdu?3. Theyfoundhimguiltyofmurder.4. TheKingimmediatelygaveordersthatheshouldbeimprisoned.5. Somebodyhasputoutthelight.

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6. Theylaughedathiswarningsandobjectedtoallhisproposals.7. TheSwissregardedhimasanimpostorandcalledhimavillain.8. Ihavekeptthemoneyinthesafe.9. Hepretendedtobeabaron.10. Hissubordinatesaccusedhimofvariousoffences.11. Isawhimopeningthebox.12. Heorderedthepolicetopursuethethief.13. Onecannotgathergrapesfromthistles.14. Youneverhearofahappymillionaire.15. Thepublicwilllearnwithastonishmentthatwarisimminent.16. Didyouneverhearthatname?17. Thelegendtellsushowthecastlereceiveditsname.18. Donotinsulttheweak.19. Whydidhedefraudyouofyourearnings?

Exercise63.ChangethefollowingsentencesintotheActiveform:1. Theletterwaswrittenbytheclerk.2. Withouteffortnothingcanbegained.3. ‘Shakuntala’waswrittenbyKalidas.4. Iwasstruckbyhissingularappearance.5. Hewasseenbymybrother.6. Hewaschosenleader.7. Honeyismadebybees.8. Thebirdwaskilledbyacruelboy.9. Thesteam-enginewasinventedbyWatt.10. Themousewaskilledbythecat.11. Theboywaspraisedbytheteacher.12. TheExhibitionwasopenedbythePrimeMinister.13. Bywhomwasthisjugbroken?14. Iwasofferedachair.15. Weshallbeblamedbyeveryone.16. Hewillbegladdenedbythesight.17. ThetelephonewasinventedbyAlexanderGrahamBell.18. Mywatchhasbeenstolen.19. Akingmaybelookedatbyacat.20. Thetelegraphwireshavebeencut.21. Harshsentenceswerepronouncedontheoffenders.

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22. Thisquestionwillbediscussedatthemeetingtomorrow.23. WhyshouldIbesuspectedbyyou?24. Stonesshouldnotbethrownbythosewholiveinglasshouses.25. Hewillbegreatlysurprisedifheischosen.26. Theshipwassetonfireandabandonedbythecrew.27. He was arrested on a charge of theft, but for lack of evidence he was

released.

4.INTERCHANGEOFAFFIRMATIVEANDNEGATIVESENTENCES

75.Studythefollowingexamples.

1. BrutuslovedCaesar.BrutuswasnotwithoutloveforCaesar.

2. Iwasdoubtfulwhetheritwasyou.Iwasnotsurethatitwasyou.

3. Oldfoolssurpassallotherfoolsinfolly.There’snofoollikeanoldfool.

4. Heisgreaterthanme.Iamnotsogreatashim.

5. AlfredwasthebestkingthateverreignedinEngland.NootherkingasgoodasAlfredeverreignedinEngland.

Exercise64.Expressthemeaningofthefollowingsentencesinanegativeform:1. Hewasmorerapaciousthanagriffin.2. Hewasasrapaciousasagriffin.3. AkbarwasthegreatestoftheGreatMoghuls.4. HewasgreaterthanAurangzeb.5. Therosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet.6. Assoonashecame,hemadeobjections.7. ThesefishingnetsareallthewealthIown.8. Ialwayslovemycountry.9. Everestisthehighestmountainintheworld.10. Heissometimesfoolish.11. Hefailedtonoticemewhenhecamein.

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12. Everybodywilladmitthathedidhisbest.13. Onlyamillionairecanaffordsuchextravagance.14. Everymanmakesmistakessometimes.15. Icareverylittlewhathesaysaboutme.16. Assoonashesawmehecameupandspoketome.17. HemusthaveseentheTajMahalwhenhewenttoAgra.

Exercise65.ConvertthefollowingNegativesintoAffirmatives:1. Nobodywasabsent.2. HedidnotlivemanyyearsinIndia.3. Noonecoulddenythatshewaspretty.4. Godwillnotforgetthecryofthehumble.5. Iamnotalittletired.6. Therewasnoonepresentwhodidnotcheer.7. Ineverinmylifelaidaplanandfailedtocarryitout.8. Notmanymenwouldbecruelandunjusttoacripple.9. Nomancouldhavedonebetter.10. Thetwobrothersarenotunlikeeachother.11. Hehaspromisednevertotouchwineagain.12. Wedidnotfindtheroadverybad.13. Thereisnosmokewithoutfire.14. Itisnotlikelythathewilleverseehishomeagain.

5.INTERCHANGEOFINTERROGATIVEANDASSERTIVESENTENCES

76.Studythefollowingexamples:1. Whatthoughwehappentobelate?

Itdoesnotmattermuchthoughwehappentobelate.2. Whywastetimeinreadingtrash?

Itisextremelyfoolishtowastetimeinreadingtrash.3. Werewesentintotheworldsimplytomakemoney?

Wewerenotsentintotheworldsimplytomakemoney.4. Howcanmandiebetterthanfacingfearfulodds?

Mancannotdiebetterthanfacingfearfulodds.5. Whencantheirgloryfade?

Theirglorycanneverfade.

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6. Washenotavillaintodosuchadeed?Hewasavillaintodosuchadeed.

Exercise 66. Transform the following sentences into Assertivesentences:1. Whocantouchpitchwithoutbeingdefiled?2. Cananymanbytakingthoughtaddacubittohisstature?3. Whatthoughthefieldbelost?4. Isthatthewayagentlemanshouldbehave?5. Whodoesnotknowtheowl?6. ShallIeverforgetthosehappydays?7. Whoissowickedas toamusehimselfwith the infirmitiesofextremeold

age?8. Whywastetimeinthisfruitlessoccupation?.9. Isthisthekindofdresstowearinschool?10. Canyougathergrapesfromthornsorfigsfromthistles?

Exercise67.Express themeaningof the followingAssertionsasQuestions:

1. Noonecanbeexpectedtosubmitforevertoinjustice.2. Thereisnothingbetterthanabusylife.3. NowhereintheworldwillyoufindafairerbuildingthantheTajMahal.4. Itisuselesstoofferbreadtoamanwhoisdyingofthirst.5. Wecouldhavedonenothingwithoutyourhelp.6. Thatwasnotanexampletobefollowed.

6.INTERCHANGEOFEXCLAMATORYANDASSERTIVESENTENCES

77.Studythefollowingexamples:

1. Howsweetthemoonlightsleepsuponthisbank!Themoonlightverysweetlysleepsuponthisbank.

2. IfonlyIwereyoungagain!IwishIwereyoungagain.

3. Alasthatyouthshouldpassaway!Itissadtothinkthatyouthshouldpassaway.

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4. Howbeautifulisnight!Nightisverybeautiful.

5. Tothinkofourmeetinghere![Or]Thatweshouldmeethere!Itisstrangethatweshouldmeethere.

Exercise68.TransformthefollowingExclamatorysentencesintoAssertions:1. WhatwouldInotgivetoseeyouhappy!2. Ah,whatasightwasthere!3. Whatapieceofworkisman!4. Whatmightbedone,ifmenwerewise!5. Whatawonderfulcreatureanelephantis!6. Howawkwardlyhemanageshissword!7. Othatwetwowereinfantsplaying!8. IfonlyIhadthewingsofadove!9. Whatalargenose!10. IfonlyIhadagoodhorse!11. IfonlyIweresafeathome!12. Owhatafallwasthere,mycountrymen!13. Whatadeliciousmeal!14. Whatsweetdelightaquietlifeaffords!15. Howwellfittedthecamelisfortheworkhehastodo!16. Howcoldyouare!17. Whatabeautifulscenethisis!18. Whatadeliciousflavourthesemangoeshave!19. Shameonyoutouseapoorcrippleso!20. IfonlyIknewmorepeople!21. Howyouhavegrown!22. IfonlyIhadcomeonehourearlier!

Exercise69.TransformthefollowingintoExclamatorysentences:1. Itisahorriblenight.2. Itwasextremelybaseofhimtodesertyouinyourtimeofneed.3. Itishardtobelievethathedidsuchadeed.4. IwishIhadmetyoutenyearsago.5. Itisverystupidofmetoforgetyourname.

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6. Heleadsamostunhappylife.

7.INTERCHANGEOFONEPARTOFSPEECHFORANOTHER


1. Thatkindofjokedoesnotamuseme.Thatkindofjokedoesnotgivemeanyamusement.

2. Itcoststwelverupees.Thecostistwelverupees.

3. Hehasdisgracedhisfamily.Heisadisgracetohisfamily.

4. Hefoughtbravely.Heputupabravefight.

5. ThetreatyofSalbaishouldberememberedasoneofthelandmarksinthehistoryofIndia.ThetreatyofSalbaiisworthyofremembranceasoneofthelandmarksinthehistoryofIndia.

6. Icannotconsenttoyourgoing.Icannotgivemyconsenttoyourgoing.

7. Hegaveacurtreply.Herepliedcurtly.

8. Heshowedgenerosityeventohisenemies.Hewasgenerouseventohisenemies.

9. Thereisaslightdifferencebetweenthetwoshades.Thetwoshadesareslightlydifferent.

10. TheActmadethenegroslavesfree.TheActgavefreedomtothenegroslaves.

11. Iseehimeveryday.Iseehimdaily.

12. Heexaminedthedocumentcarefully.Heexaminedthedocumentwithcare.

13. Wepassedananxioushour.Wepassedanhouranxiously.

14. FewhistorianshavewritteninamoreinterestingmannerthanGibbon.FewhistorianshavewrittenmoreinterestinglythanGibbon.

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15. Hepresumptuouslyignoredmyadvice.Hepresumedtoignoremyadvice.

Exercise70. (a) In the followingsentences replace theNouns initalicsbyVerbs:

1. Herejectedallourproposals.2. Steelgainsstrengthfromtheadditionofnickel.3. Hemadeanagreementtosupplymewithfirewood.4. Hispurposeisnotclearfromhisletter.5. Youcannotgainadmissionwithoutaticket.6. Hehasnointentionofleavingthecity.7. Ihaveadisinclinationforworktoday.8. Hemadeasuccessofallhisundertakings.9. Thesemangoeshaveasweetsmellbutasourtaste.

(b)RewritethefollowingsentencessoastoreplacetheAdverbsinitalicsbyVerbs:

1. Thedefenderssuccessfullyrepelledeveryattackonthecity.2. Thissceneissurpassinglybeautiful.3. Heisadmittedlythegreatestgeneralofthecountry.4. Theywelcomedthegoodnewsmostjoyfully.

(c)RewritethefollowingsentencessoastoreplacetheVerbsandAdjectivesinitalicsbycorrespondingNouns:

1. Thoughtheantissmallitisasintelligentastheelephant.2. Hesaidheregrettedthathehadactedsohastily.3. Hewassoactiveinhisoldagethateverybodyadmiredhim.4. BeforeIpayyouwhatisdueyoumustsignthisreceipt.5. Thebestwaytobehealthyistobetemperateinallthings.

(d)Rewritethefollowingsentences,replacingNounsandAdverbsinitalicsbyAdjectivesofsimilarmeaning:

1. Inallprobabilitythedaywillbefine.2. Theratsgaveusagreatdealoftrouble.3. Hewasdismissedfornegligenceratherthanincompetence.

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Simple. Hemustworkveryhardtomakeupforthelosttime.Compound. Hemustworkveryhardandmakeupforthelosttime.Simple. Tohiseternaldisgrace,hebetrayedhiscountry.Compound. He betrayed his country, and this was to his eternal

disgrace.Simple. Besidesrobbingthepoorchild,healsomurderedher.Compound. Henotonly robbed thepoor childbut alsomurdered

her.Simple. Hemustworkveryhardtowinthefirstprize.Compound. Hemustwork very hard, or hewill notwin the first

prize.Simple. Hemustnotattempttoescape,onpainofdeath.Compound. Hemust not attempt to escape, or he will be put to

4. Hewasadmittedlyclever,butheevidentlylackedindustry.5. The merchant had great success in all his dealings, and was naturally

esteemedbyhisfellowcitizens.

(e) Rewrite the following sentences replacing Nouns andAdjectivesinitalicsbyAdverbsofsimilarmeaning:

1. Herdresswaspoorandmean.2. Hebroketheruleswithoutanyintentionofdoingso,butitdoesnotfollow

thathispunishmentwaswrong.3. Hismistakewasevident,buthissinceritywasalsoobvious.4. By a careful analysis of these substances youwill see that they differ inessence.

CHAPTER11

TRANSFORMATIONOFSENTENCES(CONTD.)1.CONVERSIONOFSIMPLESENTENCESTO

COMPOUND(DOUBLE)SENTENCES79.ASimplesentencecanbeconvertedintoaCompoundoneby

enlargingawordoraphraseintoaCo-ordinateclause;as,

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death.Simple. Notwithstandinghishardwork,hedidnotsucceed.Compound. Heworkedhard,yetdidnotsucceed.Simple. Owing to ill-luck, hemetwith a bad accident on the

eveofhisexamination.Compound. Hewasunluckyandthereforemetwithabadaccident

ontheeveofhisexamination.Simple. Theteacherpunishedtheboyfordisobedience.Compound. Theboywasdisobedient,andsotheteacherpunished

him.

Exercise71.RewritethefollowingSimplesentencesasCompound(Double)ones:1. Inthistowersatthepoetgazingonthesea.2. Toeveryone’ssurprise,theprojectcompletelyfailed.3. Seeingtheraincomingon,wetookshelterunderatree.4. Besideseducatinghisnephew,healsosethimupinbusiness.5. Thefogbeingverydense,thesteamersailedatlessthanhalfspeed.6. Raleigh,takingoffhiscloakpolitely,placeditinthemuddystreet.7. Beingoccupiedwithimportantmatters,hehadnoleisuretoseeus.8. Inspiteofhispopularityhecannotbecalledagreatwriter.9. RushingagainstHoratius,hesmotewithallhismight.10. Withallhislearning,hewasfarfrombeingapedant.11. LittleJackHornersatinacorner,eatinghisChristmaspie.12. Hemustresignonpainofpublicdismissal.13. Owingtodroughtthecropisshort.14. Themenhadnotcompletedtheirworkbysunset.15. Notwithstandingseveralefforts,hefailed.16. Byhispleasantmannershegainedmanyfriends.17. Inadditiontopecuniaryassistancehegavethemmuchvaluableadvice.18. Therefereehavingwhistled,thegamewasstopped.19. Onaccountofhisnegligencethecompanysufferedheavylosses.20. Runningattopspeed,hegotoutofbreath.21. Possessing all the advantages of education and wealth, he never made

name.22. Takingpityonthemouse,themagicianturneditintoacat.23. Beingdissastisfied,heresignedhisposition.

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24. Throwingoffhiscoat,heplungedintosea.Exercise72.ConvertthefollowingSimplesentencestoCompound

sentences:1. Hearingtheirfather’sfootsteps,theboysranaway.2. Withagreateffortheliftedthebox.3. Theman,beingveryhungry,atetoomuch.4. Inspiteofhisgreatstrengthhewasovercome.5. Againstthewishesofhisfamilyheleftschool.6. Hewasuniversallyrespectedonaccountofhisvirtue.7. Hisfriendhavinghelpedhim,heisprospering.8. Beingacripple,hecannotrideahorse.9. Therainhavingwashedawaytheembankment,thetrainwaswrecked.10. Findinghimselfindifficulty,hewenttohisteacherforhelp.11. MyfriendbeingnowinMumbai,Ishallgotheretomeethim.12. Intheeventofsuchathinghappening,Ishouldtakelongleave.13. Theyareforbiddentoenterthesacredplaceonpainofdeath.14. Tomakecertainofgettingaplaceyoumustapplyearly.15. Heintendstotryagainnotwithstandinghisrepeatedfailures.16. Inspiteofallmyadvicehehasdonethisfoolishthing.17. Byreasonofhisgreatabilityhehasbeenabletowinahighposition.18. Throughnofaultofhisownhehasbecomeverypoor.19. Knowingnobetter,heusedveryinaccuratelanguage.20. Hisswordshavingbroken,hewasleftdefenceless.21. Hewasrejectedowingtoill-health.22. Idonotlikehimonaccountofhisprideandboastfulness.23. Toavoidpunishmentheranaway.24. Inhisignorancehefollowedthewrongcourse.25. Havingmadenoprovisionforoldage,heisverypoor.26. Outofadesireforrevengeheagreedtothis.27. Toaddtotheirtroubles,atyreburstontheway.

2.CONVERSIONOFCOMPOUND(DOUBLE)SENTENCESTOSIMPLESENTENCES

80.ThefollowingexamplesillustratethechiefwaysofconvertingCompoundsentencestoSimplesentences;as,

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Compound. Hefinishedhisexerciseandputawayhisbooks.Simple. Havingfinishedhisexercise,heputawayhisbooks.Compound. Not only did his father give him money, but his

motherdidtoo.Simple. Besideshis fathergivinghimmoney,hismotheralso

didthesame.Compound. Hewasamereboybutheofferedtofightthegiant.Simple. Inspiteofhisbeingamereboy,heofferedtofightthe

giant.Compound. Hemustnotbelate,orhewillbepunished.Simple. Intheeventofhisbeinglate,hewillbepunished.Compound. You must either pay the bill at once or return the

goods.Simple. Failing prompt payment, the goodsmust be returned

byyou.Compound. Themenenduredall thehorrorsof thecampaignand

notoneofthemcomplainedatall.Simple. The men endured all the horrors of the campaign

withoutoneofthemmakinganycomplaint.Compound. Wemusteat,orwecannotlive.Simple. Wemusteattolive.

Exercise73.RewritethefollowingCompound(Double)sentencesasSimpleones:1. Theywerepoor,andoftensufferedgreathardship.2. Heoverslepthimself,andsohemissedthetrain.3. Theprinceslewhisbrotherandbecamekinginhisplace.4. Thiscoatcannotbemine,foritistoobig.5. This general fought bravely, the king thereforemade him commander-in-

chief.6. Thecamelpushedhisheadintothetentandaskedtobeallowedtowarm

hisnose.7. Asaboyhehadneverbeenatschool,andthereforehehadnoopportunity

oflearningtoreadorwrite.8. Thismustnotoccuragain,oryouwillbedismissed.9. Hegrantedtherequest,forhewasunwillingtodisappointhisfriend.10. Theytookeveryprecaution;stilltheyranaground.

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11. Heisrich,yetheisnotcontented.12. Makehaste,orelseyouwillbelate.13. Thesteamerwentdown,yetthecrewweresaved.14. Thepiperadvanced,andthechildrenfollowed.15. Thehorserearedandtheriderwasthrown.16. Walkquickly,elseyouwillnotovertakehim.17. Icalledhim,buthegavemenoanswer.18. Eitherheisdrownedorsomepassingshiphassavedhim.19. Hemusthavedonehisduty,forheisaconscientiousman.20. Hetriedhard,buthedidnotsucceed.21. Hetriedagainandagain,buthedidnotsucceed.22. Wedecidednottogoanyfurtherthatdayandputupatthenearesthotel.23. EitheryoumusthelpmeorImusttrytocarryoutmytaskalone.24. Hispartnerdied,andthisaddedtohisdifficulties.25. Hewas horrified for he sawblood stains on the floor and no sign of his

child.26. Notonlymen,butwomenandchildrenwereputtodeath.27. Everybodyelsewentdowntomeethiminthetrain,butIdidnot.28. Heisawell-readman,butinmattersofbusinessheisafool.29. Workatleastsixhoursaday,oryoucannotmakesureofsuccess.30. Heisverypoor,buthedoesnotcomplain.31. Heneitherreturnedthegoodsnorpaidthebill.

Exercise74.ConvertthefollowingCompound(Double)sentencestoSimplesentences:1. Myfriendarrivedandwewentforawalk.2. TheservantbroughtthelampandIbeganmyhomework.3. TheinkhaddriedupandIcouldnotwrite.4. Ihavealotofworkandmustdoitnow.5. Wemusthurryandweshallescapetherain.6. Hehasanunpleasantdutyandmustperformit.7. Henotonlypitiedhimbutrelievedhim.8. Hedidthisandsooffendedhismaster.9. Hehadreadthebookcarefullyandcouldtellthestoryinhisownwords.10. Hisobjectbecameknownandeverybodytriedtohelphim.11. Hefoundahundred-rupeenoteandwasdelightedathisgoodluck.12. Ramahashurthisankleandwillnotbeabletoplaytoday.13. Begoodandyouwillbehappy.

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Simple. Heconfessedhiscrime.Complex. Heconfessedthathewasguilty.Simple. Hissilenceproveshisguilt.Complex. Thefactthatheissilentproveshisguilt.Simple. Heboughthisuncle’slibrary.Complex. Heboughtthelibrarywhichbelongedtohisuncle.Simple. Onthearrivalofthemailstheshipwillleave.Complex. Theshipwillleaveassoonasthemailsarrive.Simple. Heowedhissuccesstohisfather.Complex. Itwasowingtohisfatherthathesucceeded.Simple. Heworkedhardtopasstheexamination.Complex. Heworkedhardsothathemightpasstheexamination.Simple. Cain,beingjealousofAbel,struckhim.Complex. CainstruckAblebecausehewasjealousofhim.

14. Hedidnotliketheworkandhebeganitunwillingly.15. Iorderedhimtohalt,buthetooknonotice.16. Heisagoodsteadyworker,onlyheisratherslow.17. Icontinuallyinvitedhimtovisitme,buthenevercame.18. Heservedouthissentenceingaolandwasreleased.19. Heworkedexceedinglyhardatschool,forhewasagoodobedientboy.20. Thedacoitsstoppedtodividethebootyandthepoliceovertookthem.21. Hepractiseddailyandsobecameanexpertplayer.22. Yourattemptcanhardlybecalledsuccessful,forithashadnogoodresults.23. ThePresidentcameintothehallandeveryonerosefromhisseat.24. Heescapedseveraltimesbutwasfinallycaught.25. Thehorsefellheavilyandhisridercamedownwithhim.26. Hefoundhimselfgettingweakerandweaker;soheconsultedadoctor.27. Theplaguebrokeoutinthecityandthepeoplemovedoutintothejungle.28. Ihadnomoneywithme,andIcouldnotgivethebeggaranything.

3.CONVERSIONOFSIMPLESENTENCESTOCOMPLEX

81.ASimplesentencecanbeconvertedtoaComplexsentencebyexpandingawordorphraseintoaSubordinateclause.

ThisclausemaybeaNoun,AdjectiveorAdverbclause.

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Simple. OnlyIndiansareadmitted.Complex. IfyouarenotanIndianyoucannotbeadmitted.Simple. Hesucceededunexpectedly.Complex. Hesucceededalthoughhissuccesswasnotexpected.Simple. Themanagementisthoroughlybad.Complex. Themanagementisasbadasitcouldbe.Simple. A man’s modesty is in inverse proportion to his

ignorance.Complex. Themoreignorantamanis,thelessmodestheis.

Exercise75.Convert the followingSimple sentences toComplexsentences,eachcontainingaNounclause:-–1. IexpecttomeetRamato-night.2. Hehopedtowintheprize.3. Hisfatherisnotlikelytopunishhim.4. Headmittedstealingthewatch.5. Krishnawishesmetoplayforhisteam.6. Hebelievestheirsuccesstobecertaininthatcase.7. Ioverheardallhisremarks.8. Ididnotthinkfittoreplytohiswritings.9. Heconfessedhisfault.10. Hishiding-placeisstillunknown.11. Ishallbegladofyouradviceinthismatter.12. Hepleadedignoranceofthelaw.13. Ourfriendswillhearofoursuccess.14. Youimplymyguiltbyyourwordsandmanner.15. Irequestyourhelp.16. Icannotforetellthetimeofmydeparture.17. Iwishyoutobequiet.18. Heissaidtobeamillionaire.19. Tellthetruth.20. Ihavelongsuspectedhispoverty.

Exercise76.Convert the followingSimple sentences toComplexsentences,eachcontaininganAdjectiveclause:1. Isawawoundedbird.2. Ramaishappyinhispresentclass.3. Themannearmeismybrother.

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4. Ourguruisamanofblamelesslife.5. Yourfatheristhemantohelpyouinthismatter.6. Thevalueofexerciseisgreat.7. Wasthisthedeedofagoodman?8. Iwasthefirsttohearthenews.9. Thesearenotthemethodsofbusiness.10. Theclass-roomisnottheplaceforboystoplayin.11. Heishardlytheboytodocredittotheschool.12. Helikedhisformerplace.13. Smoke,thecertainindicatoroffire,appearedinthemine.14. Iwasthefirsttoarrive.15. Thatisnotthewaytoanswer.16. Itwastheworkofawildanimal.17. Heisthewater-carrier.18. Ihavenowheretosit.19. Myfriend,themagistrateofthisplace,isonleave.20. Hesatoutsideonastoneinthecompound.

Exercise77.Convert the followingSimple sentences toComplexsentences,eachcontaininganAdverbclause:1. Onbeingpunished,hewept.2. DuringQueenVictoria’sreignthereweremanywars.3. Beingquitecontented,henevergrumbled.4. Beingill-treatedbyhismaster,heranaway.5. Hewastoodulltounderstand.6. Thetigerisfearedforitsfierceness.7. WithyourpermissionIwillgoaway.8. ThepeonwouldbequitehappywithariseofRs.10amonth.9. Herepliedtothebestofhisability.10. Icanonlytellyouaccordingtomymemory.11. OfKrishnaandRamathelatterworkstheharder.12. Owingtoill-healthhehasresigned.13. Hewasannoyedatbeingrebuked.14. Hecannotbecaughtonaccountofhisquickness.15. Heistoolazytosucceed.16. Hecameinveryquietlytoavoidwakinghisfather.17. Hewaitedtherewithaviewtomeetingme.18. Thereisnoadmissionwithoutpermission.

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19. Iwillhelpyouinanypossibleway.20. Donotgooutwithoutleave.21. Inspiteoftheheattheymarchedquickly.22. Forallhisyouthheisverycapable.23. Tillmyarrival,waithere.24. AfterthedeathofhisfatherheleftMumbai.25. Uptohisthirtiethyearheremainedunmarried.26. Fromthetimeofthatillnesshehasbeenpartlyblind.27. Previoustohisdeathhemadehiswill.28. InanticipationofsanctionIhaveissuedtheorder.29. Hehinderedthepoliceintheexecutionoftheirduty.30. Thiswasdoneinmyabsence.31. Forfearofimprisonmenttheykeptsilence.32. Notwithstandingmyentreatiesheshotthedog.33. Hewroteaccordingtoinstructions.34. Heworkedtothebestofhisability.35. Comebackatsixo’clock.36. Witheveryblowthebodyquivered.37. Speakinghonestly,Idonotknow.38. Icametodaytotakeadvantageofthespecialtrain.39. Hefailedtomygreatsurprise.40. Tillthedayoftheexaminationhedidnomorework.41. Thetigerhavingfallen,heclimbeddownfromthetree.42. InthetimeofAurangzebtaxeswereveryheavy.43. Weeattolive.44. Somepeoplelivetoeat.45. Hehasgonedowntotherivertobathe.46. Haveyoucometoseeme?47. Doeshewishmetogo?

Exercise78.Rewrite the followingSimple sentencesasComplexsentences:1. Canyoutellmethetimeofhisarrival?2. AfterseeingtheKinghedeparted.3. Manyshipsweresoshatteredastobewhollyunmanageable.4. Englandexpectseverymantodohisduty.5. Theguestshavingdeparted,hewenttobed.6. FewknowthedateofLucy’sdeath.

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7. ThesourceoftheNilewasdifficulttodiscover.8. Iwillmeetyouatanyplaceconvenientforyou.9. Inspiteofhisearnestprotestations,hewascondemned.10. Heisproudofhishighbirth.11. Theprincewastobefoundinthehottestofthebattle.12. Irejoiceathisgoodfortune.13. But for his own confession, the crime could scarcely have been brought

hometohim.14. Healoneentered,therestofuswaitingoutside.15. Notfeelingwell,hedecidedtoliedown.16. The lastof thesevoyagesnotprovingveryfortunate, Igrewwearyof the

sea.17. Consideringthedifficultiesofhisposition,hehasactedadmirably.18. Speaklow,topreventourbeingoverheard.19. Hewastoomuchexcitedtohearreason.20. AletterfromthebutlerbringstotheclubthenewsofSirRoger’sdeath.21. Myrightthereisnonetodispute.22. Accustomedtorule,heschooledhimselftoobey.23. Hesavedthechildattheriskofhislife.24. Agoodtreecannotbringforthevilfruit.25. Iconvincedhimofhismistake.26. Italldependsuponthemannerofyourdoingit.27. Hecanprovehisinnocence.28. EverybodyknowstheauthorofGulliver’sTravels.29. Thedateofhisarrivalisuncertain.30. Thedurationofthewarisuncertain.31. Thereisnohopeofhisrecovery.32. TheexactdateofthebirthofBuddhaisunknown.33. Adailybathisnecessarytoperfecthealth.34. Successorfailuredependslargelyonyourownefforts.35. InmyhurryIforgotthemostimportantletters.36. Listenersneverhearanygoodofthemselves.37. Findingthedoorunlocked,thethiefenteredthehouse.38. Itisimpossibletotrustthewordofahabitualliar.39. Gray,theauthoroftheElegy,livedintheeighteenthcentury.40. Theshepherdfoundthelostsheep.41. Theboyreadilyadmittedhismistake.

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42. Tellmeyourplans.43. Hecouldclearlyremembertheincidentsofhisyouth.44. Onarrivingatthefootofthehill,heblewhistrumpet.45. AspidersavedRobertBruce.46. Theprudentmanlookstothefuture.47. Forwantofmoney,hewasunabletoprosecutehisstudies.48. Allthemoneyhavingbeenspent,westartedlookingforwork.49. Theidlecannothopetosucceed.50. Ourordersweretoshownomercy.51. Itwastoolateforretreat.52. Imustbecruel,onlytobekind.53. Themenfoughtwithdesperation.54. Heistootruthfultobeasuccessfulcourtier.55. Yourremunerationdependsonthequalityofyourwork.56. Heconductedhimselfmadlytoescapesuspicion.57. Goodboysneednotfearpunishment.58. Theaccusedconfessedhisguilt.59. Iaskedhimthereasonofhiscoming.60. Butforyourfollyyoucouldhavebeenapartnerinthefirmtoday.61. Tellmeyourage.62. Iwasgladtohearofyourarrival.63. Beingaverydiligentandcleverlad,hesoondistinguishedhimself.64. Heistooshortforasoldier.65. ThisissaidtobethebirthplaceofBuddha.66. Hissuccesswentbeyondhisexpectations.67. Inspiteofhispoorhealth,heworkedhard.68. Feelingoutofsorts,hewenttobed.69. Hecomplainedofbeingunjustlytreated.70. Hekilledthehentogetthetreasure.71. Anarmyofantswillattacklargeandferociousanimals.72. AverymiserlyplanterformerlylivedintheislandofJamaica.73. Heoftengavehispoorslavestoolittlefood.74. Industrywillkeepyoufromwant.75. Adrowningmanwillcatchatastraw.76. Itisexcellenttohaveagiant’sstrength.77. Havingfinishedourwork,wewentoutforawalk.78. WithallthyfaultsIlovetheestill.

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Complex. Hesaidthathewasinnocent.Simple. Hedeclaredhisinnocence.Complex. Thatyouaredrunkaggravatesyouroffence.Simple. Yourdrunkennessaggravatesyouroffence.Complex. Tellmewhereyoulive.Simple. Tellmeyouraddress.Complex. It is a pity that we should have to undergo this

disgrace.Simple. Ourhavingtoundergothisdisgraceisapity.Complex. It isproclaimed thatallmenfoundwitharmswillbe

shot.Simple. According to the proclamation all men found with

armswillbeshot.Complex. Heremarkedhowimpudenttheboywas.Simple. Heremarkedontheboy’simpudence.Complex. HowlongIshallstayisdoubtful.Simple. Thedurationofmystayisdoubtful.Complex. Exceptthathehurthishand,hewaslucky.Simple. Exceptforthehurttohishand,hewaslucky.

79. Thenewsistoogoodtobetrue.80. Thistreeistoohighformetoclimb.81. Heistoooldtolearnanythingnew.82. Theworld’sgreatestmenhavenotlabouredwithaviewtobecomingrich.83. Withachangeofwindweshallhaverain.84. Withallhiswealthheisnothappy.

4.CONVERSIONOFCOMPLEXSENTENCESTOSIMPLESENTENCES


NOUNCLAUSE

Exercise79.ConverteachofthefollowingComplexsentencestoaSimplesentence:

1. Webelievethatheisinnocent.

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Complex. Hediedinthevillagewherehewasborn.Simple. Hediedinhisnativevillage.Complex. Themomentwhichislostislostforever.Simple. Alostmomentislostforever.Complex. Menwhohaverisenbytheirownexertionsarealways

respected.Simple. Self-mademenarealwaysrespected.Complex. Theythatarewholehavenoneedofthephysician.Simple. Healthypersonshavenoneedofthephysician.Complex. Wecameuponahutwhereapeasantlived.Simple. Wecameuponapeasant’shut.Complex. Youth is the time when the seeds of character are

sown.Simple. Youthisthetimefortheformationofcharacter.Complex. The exact time when this occurred has not been

ascertained.Simple. The exact time of the occurrence has not been

ascertained.

2. Itwasmuchregrettedthathewasabsent.3. Theconsequenceofhiscarelessnesswasthatthegamewaslost.4. HeaskedwhyIcame.5. Heorderedthatthetraitorshouldbeexecuted.6. Itistobehopedthatheescapedunhurt.7. IdonotknowwhenIshallreturn.8. Wehopethatbettertimeswillcome.9. Thenewsthattheenemylandedspreadlikewildfire.10. ThatIwassuccessfuldoesnotmakemehappy.11. Heorderedthepolicethattheyshouldimprisontherioters.12. Thatyoushouldbewillingtobelievethisisincredible.13. Whoeverisprudentisrespected.14. Itisreportedthatourtroopshavewonavictory.15. Allbelievedthathewasguiltyofmurder.16. Tellmewhatyoumeanbythis.

ADJECTIVECLAUSE83.Studythefollowingexamples:

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Complex. Thesonwhowashischiefprideinhisoldageisdead.Simple. Hisson,theprideofhisoldage,isdead.Complex. The place where Buddha was cremated has recently

beendiscovered.Simple. The place of Buddha’s cremation has recently been

discovered.Complex. IhavenoadvicethatIcanofferyou.Simple. Ihavenoadvicetoofferyou.

Exercise80.ConverteachofthefollowingComplexsentencestoaSimplesentence:1. Hesoldthehorsewhichbelongedtohisbrother.2. AsIwasunabletohelpinanyotherway,Igavehersomemoney.3. IhavenohorsethatIcanlendyou.4. Themarksthatwereleftbythewhipwerestillvisible.5. Thisistheplacewherewecamp.6. Theheartthatisfullofgriefisheavy.7. Thereplywhichyouhavemadeisfoolish.8. Theevilthatmendolivesafterthem.9. Doyounotrememberhimwhowasformerlyyourfriend?10. Thisistheneedlewithwhichsheknits.11. Haveyounothingthatyouwishtosay?12. Heprosperedbythehelphegotfromhisfriends.13. TheywereadvisedbyacleverlawyerwhowasaHighCourtpleader.14. Heisweakfromtheillnesswhichhehadrecently.15. Amanwhoisdeadneedsnoriches.16. IhaveseenthehousewhichbelongstoRama.17. Hewasthemostlearnedofthejudgeswholivedatthattime.18. Hediedinthevillagewherehewasborn.19. ThehorsewhichisanArabofpureblood,isveryswift.20. Thesmellwhichcomesfromthisdrain,isverybad.21. Canhegetnoworkthathecando?22. Istherenoplacewhichiskeptforbathinghere?23. Thebirdshavenowaterthattheycandrink.24. Heshotatigerwhichwasthescourgeofthedistrict.25. Thatisthebookthatbelongstome.26. Isawamanwhowasblind.

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27. Thisisthebottlewhichisusedforwater.28. ThechiefthingthatWycliffeandhisfriendsachievedwasthetranslationof

theBibleintoEnglish.29. IfoundthebookwhichIhadlost.30. Theboywhostoodfirstgottheprize31. Acitythatissetonahillcannotbehid.32. Peoplewholiveinglasshousesmustnotthrowstones.33. Theserviceshehasrenderedtothestatecannotbeover-estimated.34. Theplacewheretheyliveisveryunhealthy.35. This idea on which he based his philosophy, is very difficult to

comprehend.36. IhavenotimethatIcanwasteonidletalk.37. Apersonwhoreliesonhisowneffortshasthebestchancetowinsuccess.38. Hereisabarrierthatcannotbepassed.39. Apersonwhohasrisenbyhisownexertionsisalwaysrespected.40. Aboywhohadbeennotoriouslyidlewasawardedaprize.41. Suchmenasyoucannotbeeasilydisheartened.42. Amanwhoisindustriousissuretosucceed.43. Hetoldusthetimewhenheexpectedtoarrive.

ADVERBCLAUSE84.Studythefollowingexamples:

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Complex. TheCaptainwasannoyedthathehadnotcarriedouthisorders.

Simple. TheCaptainwasannoyedathisnothavingcarriedouthisorders.

Complex. Youcantalkasmuchasyoulike.Simple. Youcantalktoyourheart’scontent.Complex. Everythingcomesifamanwillonlyworkandwait.Simple. Everythingcomestoadiligentandpatientman.Complex. I am pushing my business wherever I can find an

opening.Simple. Iampushingmybusinessineverypossibledirection.Complex. Hewillnotpayunlessheiscompelled.Simple. Hewillpayonlyundercompulsion.Complex. Youhavesucceededbetterthanyouhoped.Simple. Youhavesucceededbeyondyourhopes.Complex. Whenthecatisawaythemicewillplay.Simple. Intheabsenceofthecatthemicewillplay.Complex. Hedoesnotalwaysspeakashethinks.Simple. Hedoesnotalwaysspeakhisthoughts.Complex. Agoodboywillalwaysdoasheiscommandedbyhis

superiors.Simple. A good boy will always carry out (or execute) the

commandsofhissuperiors.Complex. IwassurprisedwhenIheardhimtalkso.Simple. Iwassurprisedtohearhimtalkso.Complex. Hewassotiredthathecouldnotstand.Simple. Hewastootiredtostand.Complex. IfImakeapromiseIkeepit.Simple. Imakeapromiseonlytokeepit.Complex. Asthewarwasended,thesoldiersreturned.Simple. Thewarbeingended,thesoldiersreturned.Complex. WhilethereislifethereishopeSimple. Lifeandhopeareinseparable.Complex. Asyousow,soyouwillreap.Simple. Youwillbutreapthefruitsofyoursowing.

Exercise81.ConvertthefollowingComplexsentencesintoSimple

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sentences:1. Asyouarehereyoumayaswellseeit.2. Hewasangrywhenheheardtheresult.3. Doesheknowtheconsequencesifherefuses?4. HecannotgounlessIconsent.5. Youcannotalwaystalksenseifyouarealwaystalking.6. Younevercomeherebutyoustealsomething.7. Theboyranasfastashecould.8. Asitwasbeginningtorainwewaitedawhile.9. Althoughhehasfailedtwicehewilltryagain.10. Hemadesuchgoodspeedthathewasintime.11. Becausehewasillhestayedathome.12. Ashefeltcoldhelitafire.13. SinceIamunabletogetmuch,Iacceptlittle.14. Hewillpayyouwhenhehearsfromme.15. Hewassotiredthathecouldnotsleep.16. Theyrejoicethattheyaregoing.17. Icongratulatedhimbecausehehadpassed.18. Hecanaffordtobegenerousbecauseheisrich.19. Asthehourhadarrivedtheystarted.20. SinceIbelievedhiswordIdidnotaskforproof.21. Thedogjumpedupwhenhesawthecat.22. Thehorseissooldthatitcannotwork.23. Thetigerisrenownedthroughallthecountrysidebecauseheissocunning

andferocious.24. Hewasveryangrywhenhehadtopayagain.25. Thelongerwewaithere,thedarkeritwillbecome.26. Heisnotsotallthathecannotenterthedoorway.27. Whentheyheardthesignaltheysprangup.28. Asthetruthisknown,furtherlyingisuseless.29. WhereveryougoIshallfollowyou.30. Nosoonerdidheseeusthanhedisappeared.31. Assoonasheheardthenewshewrotetome.32. BecauseyouhavedonethisIshallpunishyou.33. Ashewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.34. Theywentwherelivingwascheaper.35. Whereverhepreachedthepeoplegatheredtolisten.

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36. Shestoodasthoughturnedtostone.37. Wehavecomesothatwemayhelpyou.38. Youwillpassifyouworkhard.39. Hecannotseeunlesshewearsglasses.40. Hisfatherstilltrustedhimthoughhehaddeceivedhim.41. Heisnotsoprudentasheoughttobe.42. Itwassodarkthatyoucouldnotseeyourhand.43. Whenthefraudwasdiscovered,hewasimprisonedafterbeingtried.44. Hewassoindolentthathecouldnotbesuccessful.45. Anhonestboyspeaksashethinks.46. Sitdownwhereyouplease.47. Thelargerthebrain,themorevigorousthemind.48. Ishallgiveyoumyhorseifyougivemeyoursilver.49. Wewilldotheworkaswellaswecan.50. RobinsonCrusoewaspuzzledwhenhediscoveredtheprintofafootonthe

sand.51. Thoughtheskyfalls,hewillnotbefrightened.52. ApollowasworshippedaslongastheRomanEmpirelasted.53. Iwillbuyit,costwhatitmay.54. Iamsurprisedthatyoushouldbelievesuchnonsense.55. Whateveryoudo,Iwillsupport.

Exercise82.TurneachofthefollowingComplexsentencesintoaSimplesentence:1. Itisterriblethatpeopleshoulddieofstarvation.2. Iwasunabletohearwhatyouweresaying.3. Wedidnotgo,astheweatherwastoostormy.4. Itisdoubtfulwhetherhewillsucceed.5. Hebecamesoillthathewasunabletowalk.6. Nooneispromotedtoahigherclassunlessheisexamined.7. Heranasfastashecould.8. Hesaidthathewouldcometomorrow.9. Tellmewhereyoulive.10. Heconfessedthathewasguilty.11. Itwassodarkthatwelostourway.12. Tellmehowoldyouare.13. Whenhewillarriveisnotyetknown.14. GrantmewhatIask.

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15. Wehopethatbettertimeswillcome.16. Iinsistthatyoushouldnotgo.17. IshallremainwhereIam.18. Ifyouturntotherightyouwillsoonreachthetemple.19. Hegaveagraphicaccountofhowheescaped.20. Wewenthalf-an-hourearlier,sothatwemightgetagoodseat.21. Hecomplainedthathehadbeenunjustlytreated.22. Itiscertainthathewillcome.23. TheCommissionergaverewardstosuchmenasdeservethem.24. Iaskedhimwhyhecame.25. Achildwhohaslosthisparentsistobepitied.26. Theyleftatsixo’clocksothathemightcatchtheearlytrain.27. Suspicionalwayshauntsthemindofapersonwhoisguilty.28. HewenttoOotysothathemightimprovehishealth.29. A book in which were pictures of animals, was presented to him by his

uncle.30. WhenCaesarsawBrutusamongtheassassins,hecoveredhisfacewithhis

gown.31. John Bright once said that the safest place in England was a first-class

carriageinanexpresstrain.32. Thequestionissocomplicatedthatitcannotbesettledimmediately.33. Hadhebeenabsent,themotionwouldhavebeencarried.34. ThepassageissodifficultthatIcannotcomprehendit.35. Wemustdotheworkaswellaswecan.36. Althoughtheyfoughtmostvaliantly,theyweredefeated.37. Ifhewinsthebattlehewillbecrowned.38. Iwishtoknowthetimewhenhedied.39. Thosesoldierswhosurvivedhavereceivedmedals.40. Thisisamachinewhichisusedforsewing.41. Heseemedveryanxiousthatweshouldcome.42. Thepriestsweresatisfiedwhenheofferedthemoney.43. Youmustbehungryifyouhavenotdined.44. Itistimeyouwent.45. Itisluckythathecamejustthen.46. Itiscertainthathewillhelpyou.47. YoumustwritetomeassoonasyoureachMumbai.48. Hegaveawaysomebookswhichbelongedtohisbrother.

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Compound. Searchhispocketsandyouwillfindthewatch.Complex. Ifyousearchhispockets,youwillfindthewatch.Compound. DoasItellyou,oryouwillregretit.Complex. UnlessyoudoasItellyou,youwillregretit.Compound. Thelionwaswoundedbutnotkilled.Complex. Thelionwasnotkilledalthoughhewaswounded.

(=Althoughthelionwaswounded,hewasnotkilled.)Compound. Wastenot,wantnot.Complex. Ifyoudonotwaste,youwillnotwant.Compound. Hesawthedanger,butpressedon.Complex. Althoughhesawthedanger,hepausedon.Compound. Hesawthedangerandpaused.Complex Whenhesawthedangerhepaused.Compound Heaimedatwinningtheprizeandworkedhard.Complex. Heworkedhardsothathemightwintheprize.Compound. Hehadtosign,orbeexecuted.Complex. Ifhehadnotsigned,hewouldhavebeenexecuted.Compound. He is buried nearRome andmyrtles grow round his

grave.Complex. HeisburiednearRomeinaplacewheremyrtlesgrow.Compound. Hewishestobecomelearned;thereforeheisstudying

hard.Complex. Heisstudyinghardsothathemaybecomelearned.

49. Canyoutellmethenameofthepersonwhowrotethebook?50. Itissaidthathediedbyhisownhand.51. WhilemyparentsareabsentIcannotcome.52. ThissumissohardthatIcannotdoit.53. Asonemanfellanothertookhisplace.54. Workashardasyoucan.55. Drinkwhileyoumay.56. Suchamanasheisshouldsucceed.57. Thepoliceknowthisfrominformationwhichhasbeenreceivedbythem.

5.CONVERSIONOFCOMPOUNDSENTENCESTOCOMPLEXSENTENCES


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Exercise83.TransformfromCompoundintoComplexsentences:1. Sparetherodandspoilthechild.2. Heputonhishatandwentoutside.3. Atlengthshewokeandlookedround.4. Keepquiet,oryouwillbepunished.5. Theshipwaswrecked,butthecrewweresaved.6. EitherShirinwillcomeorshewillsendaletter.7. Doyourbest,andyouwillneverregretit.8. Hereceivedyourtelegramandsetoffatonce.9. Imusthurrybackatonce,ormybusinesswillgreatlysuffer.10. Dothis,oryouwillbepunished.11. Ramamaynotbecleverbutheiscertainlyindustrious.12. Iputmyhandintomypocketandgavehimarupee.13. Onlydotheright,andyouwillhavenoreasontobeashamed.14. Thecrowstoleapieceofcheeseandflewwithittoatree.15. Icalledatyourhouseyesterdaybutyouwereout.16. Wemustdoourworkwell,orourmasterwillbeangrywithus.17. Youhaveearnedhisgratitude,soyoushallnotgounrewarded.18. Hefailedinhisfirstattemptandnevertriedagain.19. Timefliesfast,yetitsometimesappearstomoveslowly.20. Mosquitoescausemalaria,andthisiswellknown.21. Shemustweep,orshewilldie.22. Herantothestation,buthemissedthetrain.23. Theboywastired,thereforehewenttobed.24. Heispoor,butcontented.25. Lifehasfewenjoyments;stillweclingtoit.26. Eatfewsuppersandyou’llneedfewmedicines.27. Heisworkinghard;thereforehewillsucceed.28. Hewishestosucceed;thereforeheworkshard.29. Hewasgoingalongthisroad,andmetadragon.30. Theywererefusedpay,butwentonworking.31. Ifrowneduponhim,yethelovesmestill.32. Doyoufindvictoriesandwewillfindrewards?33. Thearcherswerepoorlyarmed,buttheyofferedastubbornresistance.34. Crossthislineandyouwillbecaptured.35. Youmustbewarmlyclad,oryouwillcatchcold.

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36. Takecareofthepenceandthepoundswilltakecareofthemselves.37. Headoredhisproudwife,buthewasinmortalfearofherfiercetemper.38. Wearefew,butweareoftherightsort.39. Bediligentandyouwillsucceed.40. Itseemstoogoodtobetrue,neverthelessitisafact.41. Resistthedevil,andhewillfleefromyou.42. Iwillrecoverit,ordieintheattempt.43. Takeafarthingfromahundredpounds,anditwillbeahundredpoundsno

longer.44. Hehaslostallhisteeth,consequentlyhecannoteathardfood.45. Givehimaninchandhe’lltakeanell.46. Hearhimout,andyouwillunderstandhimthebetter.47. Advanceanotherstep,andyouareadeadman.48. SendthedeedaftermeandIwillsignit.49. Hewasverylearnedandseemedtoknoweverything.50. HewasambitiousandthereforeIkilledhim.51. WelandedatKarachi,andtherewespentaveryenjoyableweek.52. WecalleduponMr.Punditandheintroducedustohispartner.53. Hewasmyfriend,thereforeIlovedhim.

Exercise 84. Convert the following Compound sentences toComplexsentences:1. GivemethebookandIwillreadit.2. Takequinineandyourfeverwillbecured.3. Itellhimtobequietandhetakesnonotice.4. Heisdeafbuthewillalwayspretendtohear.5. Youhavepaidthebillbutyouwillgetnomorecredit.6. IranallthewaytothestationbutImissedthetrain.7. RamaisabetterplayerthanKrishnaandthereforehemusttakehisplacein

theteam.8. YoucalledmeandhereIam.9. Themasterisnearlyblindandtheboysareverysorryforhim.10. Wewillwinordie.11. Letmecomein,orIwillbreakdownthedoor.12. Becarefulinyourdietandyouwillkeephealth.13. ListenandIwilltellyouall.14. HeisveryagreeablebutIdon’tlikehim.15. Itiscold,soIshallwearacoat.

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Complex. Iamcertainyouhavemadeamistake.Compound. Youhavemadeamistake,andofthisIamcertain.Complex. Iamgladthathehasrecoveredfromillness.Compound. Hehasrecoveredfromillness,andIamgladofit.Complex. Wecanprovethattheearthisround.Compound. Theearthisround,andwecanproveit.Complex. IhavefoundthebookthatIhadlost.Compound. Ihadlostabook,butIhavefoundit.Complex. Assoonashegotthetelegram,heleftinataxi.Compound. Hegotthetelegram,andimmediatelyheleftinataxi.Complex. Heworkedhardsothathemightwintheprize.Compound. Heaimedatwinningtheprizeandworkedhard.Complex. Ifheisathome,Ishallseehim.Compound. Hemaybeathome,andinthatcaseIshallseehim.Complex. Helostmorethanhecouldafford.

16. SendmethegunandIwillmendit.17. Begoodandyouneednotbeclever.18. Followme,oryouwillloseyourway.19. Youorderedthegoodsandsotheyhavebeensent.20. Youmustpay,orelsesignachit.21. IdonotlikehislecturesandsoIdon’tattendthem.22. Heranaway,ortheywouldhavekilledhim.23. HehasinjuredmebutIwillforgivehim.24. Bequiet,orIshallpunishyou.25. Bejustandfearnot.26. Hewasneverpresent,buthealwayssentadeputy.27. Bekindandhelpme.28. Payheedtothesmalldetailsandthegeneralplanwillsurelysucceed.29. Heiscertaintobelate,sowhywaitforhim?30. YouorImustgoaway.31. SriLankawentinfirstonaverywetwicket,andsotheylostthematch.32. Theytriedtobribethepeonbuthewastoocleverforthem.

6.CONVERSIONOFCOMPLEXSENTENCESTOCOMPOUNDSENTENCES


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Compound. He could afford to lose something, but he lostsomewhatmore.

Complex. Heismoreaphilosopherthanapoet.Compound. He is something of a poet, but rather more of a

philosopher.Complex. Ifyoudonothurryyouwillmissthetrain.Compound. Youmusthurry,oryouwillmissthetrain.Complex. Unlesswedoourworkwellourmasterwillbeangry

withus.Compound. Wemustdoourworkwell,orourmasterwillbeangry

withus.Complex. Wesowsothatwemayreap.Compound. Wedesiretoreap,thereforewesow.

Exercise85.ConvertfromComplextoCompoundsentences:1. Onceuponatimeamanownedahenwhichlaideverydayagoldenegg.2. Weselectedthisbicycleafterwehadtriedseveraltimes.3. Itissurprisingthathedidnotsucceed.4. Ifyoudonottakeexercise,youwillbeill.5. Ifyourun,youwillbeintime.6. Heranawaybecausehewasafraid.7. Ashewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.8. Althoughhesawthedanger,hepressedon.9. Thoughyoutrywithallyourmight,youwillnotsucceed.10. IshallnotgounlessIaminvited.11. Ifyoueattoomuchyouwillbeill.12. Abook’sabook,althoughthere’snothinginit.13. Unlessyoukeepquiet,youwillbepunished.14. AsCaesarlovedme,Iweepforhim.15. BecauseyouhavedonethisIshallpunishyou.16. Assoonasheheardthenewshewrotetome.17. Whenyouhaverested,goonwiththework.18. Iforgavehimbecausehewasdying.19. Hestayedathomebecausehewasill.20. Hisfatherstilltrustedhimthoughhehaddeceivedhim.21. Thoughtheskyfalls,hewillnotbefrightened.22. HewaseducatedatapublicschoolwherehelearntLatin.

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23. Istruckhimbecauseheventuredtoobstructmypath.24. Theywenttowarthattheymightextendtheirempire.25. Althoughtheyfoughtmostvaliantly,theyweredefeated.26. HewritessoillegiblythatIcannotreadhisletter.27. Iknowwhatyoutoldhim.28. Theshipwassteeredsoskillfullythatitreachedtheharboursafely.29. Youmustberespectableifyouwouldberespected.30. Ashewasambitious,Ikilledhim.31. Thoughoftencapriciousandimpertinent,shewasneveroutoftemper.32. Thoughthewavesareraginghigh,I’llrowyouo’ertheferry.33. Hefinishedfirstthoughhebeganlate.34. Thoughhetrieshard,heisseldomsuccessful.35. Whenthesunsethereturnedhome.36. Sincedutycallsus,wemustobey.37. Hehadacowthatgaveenormousquantitiesofmilk.38. Hefailedbecausehewastoorash.39. Weeatsothatwemaylive.40. Hewassolearnedthatheseemedtoknoweverything.

Exercise 86. Convert the following Complex sentences toCompoundsentences:1. Ramawenttoschoolassoonashehadfinishedhismeal.2. IfIaskacivilquestionIexpectacivilreply.3. Theyhaveneverbeenpoorsincetheyopenedthatshop.4. IcouldanswerifIchose.5. Wemightadmireabadmanthoughwecannotadmireaweakone.6. Iadviseyoutotryalthoughyoumaynotsucceed.7. Ispokeplainlysothatyoumightunderstand.8. Hefeignedsleepashehadanobjectindoingso.9. Hegavehimselfupbecausetheflightwasuseless.10. Asweareherewewillstayhere.11. Idonotthinkhewillcome.12. Iknowthereisarupeeinyourhand.13. Comewhenyoulike.14. IshallcomewhenIaminbetterhealth.15. IwouldhaveshotthesnakeifIhadseenit.16. Hispreceptisasbeautifulashispracticeisdisgraceful.17. AtRomewemustbehaveastheRomansdo.

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18. HefellasIfired.19. Ifyoucomehereyouwillrepentit.20. IhaveneverheardfromhimsinceheleftMumbai.21. Hewenttothehousesothathemightleaveamessage.22. Unlesswerunweshallmissthetrain.23. Assoonas thesun touches thehorizondarknessbegins tosettleupon the

scene.24. Howevercleveryoumaybe,youcannotsucceedwithoutindustry.25. Dothis,lestaworsethingbefall.26. Ifyoutrusttothebookyouwillfindyourselfindifficulties.27. Wemayloseallwithoutregret,ifwemaykeepourhonoursustained.28. Badasthingsaretheymightbeworse.29. Youmaygowhenyouhavefinishedyourwork.30. Hisbarkisworsethanhisbite.31. IfIamrightyoumustbewrong.

Exercise 87. (Miscellaneous) Recast the following sentences asdirected:1. A soldier of the tenth legion leaped into the water as soon as the ship

touchedtheshore.(BeginwithNosooner.)2. Wehavehelped themwithmoneyaswellasabodyofworkers,allwell-

trainedandexperienced.(Usetheexpression‘notonly’and‘everyone’.)3. Mrs.Smith is thewisestmemberof the family andofher fourdaughters

Janeistheprettiest.(Usethecomparativesof‘wise’and‘pretty’.)4. The difficulty was solved by means of a special service devised for the

occasion.(Maketheword‘service’thesubject.)5. Theladywascompelledbythedoctortodrinksuchvilemedicinethatshe

wasallbutkilledbyhim.(Usetheactivevoicethroughout.)6. YouarealreadyaswellacquaintedwiththeseaffairsasIam.(Use‘known’

for‘acquainted’.)7. AssoonasSirRogerhadseatedhimself,hecalled forwaxcandles. (Use

‘nosooner’for‘assoonas’.)8. When supperhadbeenprepared,RobinsonCrusoe sat downexpecting to

enjoy himself greatly. (Use noun forms instead of ‘prepared’ and‘expecting’.)

9. Nelson knew the value of obedience so well that he anticipated somecensureforhisact.(Rewritethissentence,using‘too’for‘so’.)

10. Thesecretarysentmenoreplyfortendays.(Rewrite,usingtheverb‘reply’

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insteadofthenoun.)11. Havea lookat thenewspaperandyouwill finda lotof spacedevoted to

advertisements.(Beginwithif.)12. Her reason for not going with us was that she had no money. (Use

therefore.)13. Besideshavingasalary,healsohasaprivateincome.(Usenotonly.....but)14. Hisparentswerecompelledbypovertytosendhimabroadsothathemight

earnhisownliving.(Simplesentence,activevoice.)15. Hisfondnessforgamesincreaseswithhisproficiency.(Complexsentence,

using‘the.......the’andadjectivestoreplacetheabstractnouns.)16. OfallthemenIknownoneislessinclinedthanheistobelieveillofothers.

(Reducetotwoclauses.)17. When themonsoon broke, the temperature fell rapidly. (Simple sentence,

‘break’assubject;replace‘fell’bynoun).18. Hehassquanderedhisfortune,estrangedhisfriendsandruinedhishealth

byhisrecklessnessandextravagance(Use‘notonly.....but’.)19. Hehasdiscoverednewfactsandadvancednewarguments,butmyopinion

is unchanged. (Complex sentence ; negative principal clausewith verb inactivevoice;twoadjectivalclauses.)

20. He is notoriouslymean in his treatment of his servants. (Rewrite in fourways–(1)Simplesentencewith‘treatment’assubject;(2)Simplesentencewith ‘treat’ as the verb ; (3) Complex sentencewith a noun clause ; (4)Complexsentencewithanadjectiveclauseand‘meanness’assubjectoftheprincipalclause].

21. You can imagine my annoyance on learning of the postponement of thefootballmatch.(Complexsentence;threesubordinateclauses.)

22. His sole income iswhat he earns by his pen. (Make the principal clausenegative.)

23. AsailingshipwaswreckedherelastDecember.[Rewriteinthreewayssoastoemphasize(1)‘sailing’,(2)‘here’,(3)‘December’.]

24. Itisprobablethathewillcomeback.(Simplesentence;replace‘probable’and‘comeback’bynouns.)

CHAPTER12

SYNTHESISOFSENTENCES

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COMBINATIONOFTWOORMORESIMPLESENTENCESINTOASINGLESIMPLE

SENTENCE87. Synthesis is the opposite of Analysis and means the

combinationofanumberofsimplesentencesintoonenewsentence–Simple,CompoundorComplex.

88.The following are the chiefways of combining twoormoreSimplesentencesintooneSimplesentence:

(i)ByusingaParticiple.

1. Hejumpedup.Heranaway.Jumpingup,heranaway.

2. Hewastiredofplay.Hesatdowntorest.Tired(or,beingtired)ofplay,hesatdowntorest.

(ii)ByusingaNounoraPhraseinApposition.

1. Thisismyfriend.HisnameisRama.ThisismyfriendRama.

2. IspenttwodaysinCox’sBazar.It isoneofthemostattractivespotsinBangladesh.I spent two days in Cox’s Bazar, one of the most attractive spots inBangladesh.

3. Buddhism, one great of the world’s religions, was founded about 2500yearsago.

(iii)ByusingaPrepositionwithaNounorGerund.

1. Themoonrose.Theirjourneywasnotended.Themoonrosebeforetheendoftheirjourney.

2. Hehasfailedmanytimes.Hestillhopestosucceed.Inspiteofmanyfailureshehopestosucceed.

3. Herhusbanddied.Sheheardthenews.Shefainted.Onhearingthenewsofherhusband’sdeath,shefainted.

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(iv)ByusingtheNominativeAbsoluteConstruction.

1. Thesoldiersarrived.Themobdispersed.Thesoldiershavingarrived,themobdispersed.

2. The town was enclosed by a strong wall. The enemy was unable tocaptureit.Thetownhavingbeenenclosedbyastrongwall,theenemywasunabletocaptureit.

(v)ByusinganInfinitive.

1. Ihavesomeduties.Imustperformthem.Ihavesomedutiestoperform.

2. Wemustfinishthisexercise.Therearestillthreesentences.Wehavestillthreesentencesofthisexercisetofinish.

3. Hewantedtoeducatehisson.HesenthimtoEurope.HesenthissontoEuropetobeeducated.

4. Heisveryfat.Hecannotrun.Heistoofattorun.

(vi)ByusinganAdverboranAdverbialPhrase.

1. Hedeservedtosucceed.Hefailed.Hefailedundeservedly.

2. Thesunset.Theboyshadnotfinishedthegame.Theboyshadnotfinishedthegamebysunset.

89. Several of these methods may be combined in the samesentence.

The sun rose. The fog dispersed. The general determined to delay nolonger.Hegavetheordertoadvance.Atsunrise,thefoghavingdispersed,thegeneral,determinedtodelaynolonger,gavetheordertoadvance.

Exercise 88. Combine each set of sentences into one Simple

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sentence by using Participles : (You have to use the NominativeAbsoluteConstructioninsomeofyoursentences.)1. Hehurthisfoot.Hestopped.2. Thethiefhadbeeninprisonbefore.Hereceivedseveresentences.3. Hewasunwillingtogoanyfurther.Hereturnedhome.4. Theysawtheuselessnessofviolence.Theychangedtheirpolicy.5. Hewaswearyoffailure.HeemigratedtoAfrica.6. TheKingwaswarnedofhisdanger.Hemadegoodhisescape.7. Helostalargesumofmoney.Hegaveupspeculation.8. Ireceivednoanswer.Iknockedasecondtime.9. Hiswifeencouragedhim.Hepersevered.10. Hegaveuphissituation.Hewasnotsatisfiedwithhissalary.11. Hefelttired.Helaidhisworkaside.12. Hewentstraighton.HesawHarionthepath.13. Thestabledoorwasopen.Thehorsewasstolen.14. Thehuntertookuphisgun.Hewentouttoshootthelion.15. IwenttoMumbailastyear.Iwishedtoseeadentist.16. Acrowstoleapieceofcheese.Sheflewtohernesttoenjoythetastymeal.17. Themagiciantookpityonthemouse.Heturneditintoacat.18. Apassengeralightedfromthetrain.Hefelloverabagontheplatform.19. Mysisterwascharmedwiththesilk.Sheboughttenyards.20. Ididnothearhisanswer.Itwasspokenquietly.21. Theshipwasdelayedbyastorm.Shecameintoportadaylate.22. Hehadresolvedonacertaincourse.Heactedwithvigour.23. The letter was badly written. I had great difficulty in making out its

contents.24. Ahungryfoxsawsomebunchesofgrapes.Theywerehangingfromavine.25. Cinderella hurried away with much haste. She dropped one of her little

glass-slippers.26. Iwaswalkingalongthestreetoneday.Isawadeadsnake.27. Hewasoverpowered.Hesurrendered.28. Heranattopspeed.Hegotoutofbreath.29. Hepossessedalltheadvantagesofeducationandwealth.Henevermadea

name.30. Hewasoccupiedwithimportantmatters.Hehadnoleisuretoseevisitors.31. TheRussiansburntMoscow.TheFrenchwereforcedtoquitit.32. The votes on each side were equal. The chairman gave his casting vote

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againsttheresolution.33. Wolsey lost the favour of his master. He was dismissed from his high

offices.34. Heisabigboy.Heisverystrong.Heisinthefoot-ballteam.35. Hecametome.Hewantedleave.Hewasill.36. IheardAbdul.Hewasshoutingveryloudly.Hewascallingme.37. Heraisedhisgun.Hetookaim.Heshotthetiger.38. Hecouldnoteathardfood.Hewasveryold.Hehadlosthisteeth.39. Ihavetoldyouthefacts.Ihavenothingmoretosay.Iwillsitdown.40. Iwasreturninghome.Isawaman.Helookedveryill.Hewaslyingbythe

roadside.Exercise 89. Combine each set of sentences into one Simple

sentencebyusingNounsorPhrasesinApposition:1. Theregoesmybrother.HeiscalledSohrab.2. Thecowprovidesmilk.Milkisavaluablefood.3. Mr.PunditwaselectedPresident.Heisawell-knownSanskritscholar.4. Coalisaveryimportantmineral.Itishard,bright,blackandbrittle.5. Wesawthepicture.Itisaveryfinepieceofwork.6. GeoffreyChaucerwasbornin1340.HeisthefirstgreatEnglishpoet.7. Tagore’s most famous work is the Gitanjali. It is a collection of short

poems.8. Hisonlysondiedbeforehim.Hewasaladofgreatpromise.9. Hisunclewasamillionaire.HesenthimtoEnglandforhiseducation.10. Thedogbittheman.Hewasanotoriousburglar.11. Brunoismyfaithfuldog.Ilovehim.12. JawaharlalNehrudiedin1964.HewasthefirstPrimeMinisterofIndia.13. DeLessepsmadetheSuezCanal.Thiswasagreatwork.HewasaFrench

engineer.14. Mr.PunditlivesinDustipore.HeistheCollector.Itisalargetown.

Exercise 90. Combine each set of sentences into one SimplesentencebyusingPrepositionswithNounsorGerunds:1. Heattendedtohisduties.Heearnedpromotion.2. Hemustconfesshisfault.Hemaythusescapepunishment.3. Hewasilllastterm.Hewasunabletoattendschool.4. Iforgavehimhisfault.Thathasnotpreventedhimfromrepeatingit.5. Thebuglesounded.Thewearysoldiersleapttotheirfeet.6. Thewordofcommandwillbegiven.Youwillthenfire.

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7. Hesettrapseverynight.Heclearedhishouseofrats.8. Thejudgegavehisdecision.Thecourtlistenedsilently.9. Heexpectstoobtainleave.Hehasalreadyboughthissteamerticket.10. Hehasagoodrecord.Itisimpossibletosuspectsuchaman.11. Evenabirdwilldefenditsyoungones.Itthenshowsgreatcourage.12. Therewasawantofprovisions.Thegarrisoncouldholdoutnolonger.13. Youhelpedme.OtherwiseIshouldhavebeendrowned.14. Ihaveexaminedthestatement.Ifindmanyerrorsinit.15. Heisfreefromdisease.Atleastheappearstobeso.16. Hissondied.Thisgavehimashock.Heneverfullyrecoveredfromit.17. Hetookthelawinhisownhands.Hewasnotjustifiedindoingso.18. Itrainedhard.Thestreetswereflooded.19. Hemadeheroiceffortstosucceed.Hefailed.20. Theweatherispleasant.Itisalittlecoldhowever.21. Hewasrude.Itooknonoticeofit.22. Hehasstolenthepurse.Thereisnodoubtaboutthis.23. Shewantstomarryaforeigner.Herfatherisopposedtothis.24. Heenteredtheroomwithhishaton.Hisbehavioursurprisedme.25. Hegotgreathonour.HesavedthelifeoftheRajah.26. Therewasanadvertisementinthenewspaper.Hisinterestwasaroused.27. Heamusedusverymuch.Hesangafunnysong.28. Theprincewasill.Thepeopleheardofit.Theycrowdedtothepalace.29. The prince recovered. The people received the news. They were very

enthusiastic.30. Hemakesalotofmoney.Hebuyshorses.Hesellshorses.31. Isawasoldier.Hehadalanceinhishand.Hehadaswordbyhisside.32. Shestoodthereforhours.Shedidnotmove.Shedidnotspeak.33. Thediscoveryofhiscrimewasaheavyblow.Hisreputationsuffered.His

businessdecreased.Exercise 91. Combine each set of sentences into one simple

sentencebyusingtheNominativeAbsoluteconstruction:1. Hisfriendarrived.Hewasverypleased.2. Therainfell.Thecropsrevived.3. Thestormceased.Thesuncameout.4. The troopswere ordered out.The policewere unable to hold themob in

check.5. Theholidaysareatanend.Boysarereturningtoschool.

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6. Thewindfailed.Thecrewsettoworkwithawill.7. Itwasaveryhotday.Icouldnotdomyworksatisfactorily.8. Hishousehasbeenburneddown.Helivesinanhotel.9. Thekingdied.Hiseldestsoncametothethrone.10. Hisfatherwasdead.Hehadtosupporthiswidowedmother.11. Rainwasplentifulthisyear.Riceischeap.12. The secretaryshipwasvacant.Nobodywaswilling toundertakedutiesof

thepost.Iofferedmyservices.13. The prisoner was questioned. No witness came forward. The Judge

dismissedthecase.14. The sun rose.The fogclearedaway.The lighthousewas seen less thana

mileaway.15. Hefiredhisgun.Theballwenthigh.Thetigersprangonhim.16. Themasterwasoutoftheroom.Thedoorwasshut.Theboysmadealotof

noise.Exercise 92. Combine each set of sentences into one Simple

sentencebyusingInfinitives:1. Hehadnomoney.Hecouldnotgiveanyaway.2. Ihavetoldyouall.Thereisnothingmoretobesaid.3. Hecannotaffordamotor-car.Heistoopoor.4. Iheardofhisgoodfortune.Iwasgladofthat.5. Theinformationisofnousetous.Ithascometoolate.6. Yourfatherwillhearofyoursuccess.Hewillbedelighted.7. Youdidnotinvestallyoursavingsinoneconcern.Youwereprudent.8. Hedidnothaveevenarupeewithhim.Hecouldnotbuyaloafofbread.9. ThePathantookoutaknife.Hisintentionwastofrightentheoldman.10. Ispeakthetruth.Iamnotafraidofit.11. Hewantstoearnhislivelihood.Heworkshardforthatreason.12. The strikers held a meeting. They wished to discuss the terms of the

employers.13. Hehasfivechildren.Hemustprovideforthem.14. Napoleon was one of the greatest of generals. This is universally

acknowledged.15. HisMajestydesiredtokillGulliversecretly.Variousmeanswereemployed

forthispurpose.16. Iwillspeakthetruth.Iamnotafraidoftheconsequences.17. Heisveryhonourable.Hewillnotbreakhisword.

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18. Hehassomebills.Hemustpaythem.19. Hemustapologise.Hewillnotescapepunishmentotherwise.20. Hekeepssomefiercedogs.Theywillguardhishouse.Theywillkeepaway

robbers.Exercise 93. Combine each set of sentences into one Simple

sentencebyusingAdverbsorAdverbialPhrases:1. Iacceptyourstatement.Idoitwithoutreserve.2. Heansweredme.Hisanswerwascorrect.3. Heforgothisumbrella.Thatwascareless.4. Heisabadboy.Thisiscertain.5. Thetrainisverylate.Thatisusual.6. Ishallcomeback.Ishallnotbelong.7. Hekickedthegoal-keeper.Itwashisintentiontodoso.8. Hewasobstinate.Herefusedtolistentoadvice.9. Hespentallhismoney.Thiswasfoolish.10. Hewasnotatthemeeting.Hisabsencewasunavoidable.11. Heappliedforleave.Itwasnotgranted.12. Headmittedhiserror.Heexpressedhisregret.13. Imethimonlyonce.Itwasinarailwaycarriage.14. Hehassucceeded.Hissuccesshasbeenbeyondmyexpectation.15. Itmustbedone.Thecostdoesnotcount.16. IhavereadBacon.Ithasprofitedmegreatly.17. Hepersevered.Hewasnotdeterredbyobstacles.18. Thedoorwasopen.Itlookedrathersuspicious.19. Heisnotqualifiedforthepost.Heisnotqualifiedinanydegree.20. Theblowdazedhim.Thatconditionlastedonlyforatime.21. Ididnoteatanyofthepoisonedfood.Thiswaslucky.22. Hesolvedtheproblem.Itssolutiontookhimnotime.23. HevisitedOoty.Hedidsoforreasonsofhealth.24. He accomplished the task. He brought unflagging industry to his

accomplishment.25. Boysgrowuptobemen.Thegrowthisveryslow.Itcannotbeseen.26. RamastruckKrishna.Hisblowswerecruel.Theywerefrequent.Therewas

noreasonforthis.Exercise94. (Miscellaneous)Combineeachsetofsentences into

oneSimplesentence:1. Homerwasagreatpoet.Hewasbornsomewhere.Nobodyknowswhere.

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2. Hewasaleader.Hedidnotfollowothermen.Suchwashisnature.3. Iboughtthishattwoyearsago.Itisstillgood.Itisfittowear.4. He devoted himself to public affairs. He never took a holiday. This

continuedforthirtyyears.5. Clivemadeproposals.Someopposedtheproposals.Themajoritysupported

them.Theywerecarried.6. Clivewasdeterminedtoreformtheadministration.Reformswereneeded.

Heinformedthecouncilaccordingly.7. The man was innocent. He could have defended himself. He refused to

speak.Hewasafraidofconvictinghisfriend.8. Hewas inprison.His friendwas in thenextcell.Therewasabrickwall

between thecells.Hemadeahole in thewall.Hewasable to talk tohisfriend.

9. Theboywasdrowning.Heshouted forhelp.Aworkmanheard theboy’sshouts.Heplungedintotheriver.Heriskedhisownlife.

10. Thetravellerwastoilingslowlyoverthedesert.Hesuddenlyturnedround.Heheardhiscompanion’svoice.Hiscompanionwascryingforhelp.

11. WereturneddownthevalleyoftheJumna.WecamefirsttoDelhi.DelhiisthecapitalofIndia.

12. TheartofprintingwasintroducedintoEnglandduringthereignofEdwardIV.TheartofprintingwasintroducedbyWilliamCaxton.WilliamCaxtonwasanativeofKent.

13. He struck his foot against a stone. He fell to the ground. He made hisclothesverydirty.

14. Thesunshoneonthecorn.Thecornripened.Itdidthisinashorttime.Thefarmerwasfilledwithjoy.

15. He opened his letters. He read them carefully. He sent for his clerk. Hedictatedanswerstothem.

16. Hepaidallhislatefather’sdebts.Thiswasaveryhonestproceeding.Itwasverycreditabletohim.

17. He has two horses. He must feed them. He must water them. He mustgroomthem.Hemustbringthemtohismasterat12o’clock.

18. Hegoestoschool.Hewishestolearn.Hewantstogrowuphonest,healthyandclever.

19. Therewasamanhidinginmygarden.Hewasarmedwithagun.HewasaPathan.Mynoticewasdrawntoit.

20. Thesoldierswerestarving.Theirammunitionwasexpended.Theirclothes

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wereinrags.Theirleadersweredead.Theenemyeasilydefeatedthem.21. NapoleonwasthefirstEmperoroftheFrench.Hewasagreatsoldier.He

inspiredhisarmieswiththemostwar-likespirit.Thiswasthecauseoftheirmanyvictories.

22. WellingtonwasthegreatestofEnglishadmirals.Napoleonwasthegreatestof French soldiers. They were contemporaries. They were the heroes oftheirrespectivecountries.

23. Themiser laughed.Hefoundhimself tobe richerbya rupee.Hesawhisadversaryoutwitted.

24. He hardened his heart. He wished to punish the people mercilessly. Hewantedtomakeanexampleofthemonceandforall.

25. Hereceivesmuchgratitude.Heperformskindlyactions.Heisnotharshintheexecutionofhisduty.Hedoesnotoppressthepoor.

26. Hisfriendsassembled.Theyofferedhimtheircongratulationsuponhissafereturn.Everybodywascomfortablyseated.Hedescribedallhisadventures.

27. The thieves poisoned the dog. He had brought it from England. He hadtraineditcarefullytoprotecthisproperty.

28. Vulturesappearedoneafteranother.Theywerewheelingroundandround.Theyweredescendingtowardsthespot.Theyhadcruelbeaksandtalons.

29. The room was covered with blood. It stained the walls and ceiling. Itdarkenedthefloor.Itflowedinastreamunderthedoor.Itstoodinpuddleseverywhere.

30. Thehousehadbeenpulleddown.Anotherhadbeenbuiltinitsplace.Itwasdifficulttoidentifytheexactspot.

31. He earned the hatred of all good men. He incited youths to crime. Hefurnishedthemwithmeans.Hehimselfkeptsafelyoutofthewayintimeofdanger.

32. He copied from the next boy. This was a mean and dishonest action. Itbroughtdisgraceuponhim.Hewaspunishedforit.

33. Hehadnotsufficientcourage.Hecouldnotfacetheoppositionofhiscastefellows.Hecouldnotgoawayfromhisnativeplacetobeginlifeafresh.

34. RabindranathTagorefoundedShantiniketan.HewasaNobel laureate.Hewastheauthorofthenationalanthem.

35. Hecouldnotfinishhiswork.Hehadnoopportunity.Hecouldnotdomuchofitinfact.Hewasveryoftenill.Hewasfrequentlyabsent.

36. The criminal was a man of his own caste. He was an ungrateful andincorrigiblewretch.Hehadoftenhelpedhim.

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37. Hewentforawalkoneday.Hesawawoundedbird.Hepickeditup.Hebrought it home. He carefully tended it for some time. It completelyrecovered.Thisgavehimgreatjoy.

38. Iknewaboyatschool.Heisnowfamousasasoldier.Heisknowntothetribesmenasthe‘SleeplessOne’.Heisgreatlyfearedbythem.

39. Thewater had boiled.The teawasmade.The foodwas ready.The tablewasspread.Theysatdowntoeatanddrink.

40. Hedeservesmythanks.Hefoundmypurse.Hereturnedittome.Hetooknothingoutofit.

41. Isawadog.Ithadthreelegs.Ithadonlyoneear.Itwasaterrier.Itwasawell-bredlittleanimal.

42. Hemustcleanall thesilver.Hemustput itaway.Hemust lockitup.Hemustbringmethekeyofthebox.Theseweremyorderstohim.

43. Thehorsehadmanyof thepointsofa racer. Ithadslim legs. Ithadhighwithers.Ithadpowerfulquarters.Ithadatremendousstride.

44. Hewasagreatstatesman.Hehadworkedwellforhiscountry.Hewasverypopular.Hewasawardedthetitleof‘BharatRatna’.

45. Woodwascollected.Campfireswerelighted.Foodwascooked.Foodwaseaten.Thearmylaydowntosleep.

46. Healienatedhisfriends.Hisconductwasdisgraceful.Hewasputingaol.47. Rama had a wide knowledge of the business. Krishna had the necessary

capital.Theycombinedresources.Theyenteredintopartnership.48. Theirfatherhadalargesumofmoney.Hedivideditequallybetweenthem

byhiswill.Thedaughterswereeagerlysoughtinmarriage.49. Thegroundissoftandmarshy.Therearemanyfrogs.Snakesaboundthere.

Theyaretheenemiesofmankind.50. Hishopes arehigh.His superiors arepleasedwithhim.He is justified in

hoping.51. Herodealongforhours.Hedidnotstrikehishorse.Hedidnotspurit.52. Ihavesomeadvice.Imustgiveit toyou.Imustimpressitstronglyupon

you.53. I hear rumours about Laxman.He is an old pupil ofmine.He is a good

cricketer.Heisagoodfootballplayer.Heisnotasteadyworker.54. Hewasdelightedwith the intelligence andbrightnessof the scholars.He

overlookedthefactoftheirknowingfewthingsbyheart.55. Hebuiltahouse. Ithadmany largedoors. Ithadmany largewindows. It

hadwideverandahs.Ithadageneralairofcoolnessandcomfort.

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A. 1. Nightcameon.Theroomgrewdark.Nightcameonandtheroomgrewdark.

2. Heisafool.Heisaknave.Heisafoolandaknave.[Or]Heisbothafoolandaknave.[Or]Heisnotonlyafoolbutalsoaknave.[Or]Heisafoolaswellasaknave.

3. Thewindblew.Therainfell.Thelightningflashed.Thewindblew,therainfell,andthelightningflashed.

56. Hetoldastory.Itwasaboutaman.Themanhadgreatstrength.Hewasafamouswarrior.

57. HecametoMumbai.Hewishedtoseehisfather.Hehadsomebusinesstosettle.

58. Afterthestormtheboathadnomast.Itcouldnotkeepbeforethewind.Itcouldnotreturntoport.

59. Thecagecontainsa tiger.Thecagewasstronglybuilt. Itwassobuilt forthispurpose.

60. TheancientmythsofIndiahavebeenpreservedinthemindsofthepeople.Theyhavebeenpreservedwithgreatcare.Thishasbeendonebypriests.Ithasalsobeendonebythelearnedmen.Thesearetheguardiansofthelampoflearning.

CHAPTER13

SYNTHESISOFSENTENCES(Contd.)

COMBINATIONOFTWOORMORESIMPLESENTENCESINTOASINGLECOMPOUND

SENTENCE

90.SimplesentencesmaybecombinedtoformCompoundsentencesbytheuseofCo-ordinativeConjunctions.Theseareoffourkinds–Cumulative,Adversative,Alternative,andIllative.

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B. 1. Heisslow.Heissure.Heisslowbutheissure.

2. Iwasannoyed.Ikeptquiet.Iwasannoyed,still(oryet)Ikeptquiet.

3. Hefailed.Hepersevered.Hefailed,neverthelesshepersevered.

4. Ishallnotopposeyourdesign.Icannotapproveofit.Ishallnotopposeyourdesign;Icannot,however,approveofit.

5. Hewasallright.Hewasfatigued.Hewasallright;onlyhewasfatigued.

C. 1. Makehaste.Youwillbelate.Makehasteoryouwillbelate.

2. Comein.Goout.Comeinorgoout.[Ormoreemphatically].Eithercomeinorgoout.

3. Donotbeaborrower.Donotbealender.Donotbeaborroweroralender.Or:Beneitheraborrowernoralender.

It will be noticed that the conjunction and simply adds onestatementtoanother.

The conjunctions both....and, not only...but also, as well as areemphaticformsofandanddothesamework.

Conjunctions which merely add one statement to another arecalledCumulative.

Itwillbenoticedthattheconjunctionsbut,still,yet,nevertheless,however, express a contrast between one sentence and the other.Someoftheseconjunctions(still,yet,however,nevertheless)aremoreemphaticthanbut.

Conjunctions which express opposition or contrast between twostatementsarecalledAdversative.

It will be noticed that the conjunctions or, either ....or,neither.....nor,expressachoicebetweentwoalternatives.

Conjunctionswhichexpressachoicebetweentwoalternativesare

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D. 1. Hewasobstinate.Hewaspunished.Hewasobstinate;thereforehewaspunished.

2. Icannotsee.Itisverydark.Icannotsee,foritisverydark.

3. Itisrainingheavily.Iwilltakeanumbrellawithme.Itisrainingheavily,soIwilltakeanumbrellawithme.

calledAlternative.

Itwillbenoticedthattheconjunctionstherefore,for,so,etc.,joinsentencesinwhichonestatementisinferredfromtheother.

ConjunctionswhichexpressaninferencearecalledIllative.

1. Abdulisill.Hecannotstudy.Hestillattendsschool.Abdulisillandcannotstudy,yethestillattendsschool.

2. Hesawtheboyinthestreet.Hestoppedtospeaktohim.Hegavehimarupee.Seeing theboy in thestreet,hestopped tospeak tohimandgavehimarupee.

Exercise 95. Combine each set of Simple sentences into oneCompoundsentence:1. Hedoeswell.Heisnervousatthestart.2. Thewaywaslong.Thewindwascold.3. Itisrainingheavily.Iwilltakeanumbrellawithme.4. Theharvesttrulyisplenteous.Thelabourersarefew.5. Itwasastormynight.Weventuredout.6. Footballisavigorousandhealthygame.Everyboyshouldplayit.7. Heisfoolish.Heisalsoobstinate.8. Iamintheright.Youareinthewrong.9. Wecantravelbyland.Wecantravelbywater.10. Thetrainwaswrecked.Noonewashurt.11. Thepaperisgood.Thebindingisverybad.12. Wemusthasten.Therobberswillovertakeus.13. Theprincemarriedthebeautifulprincess.Theylivedhappilyeverafter.14. Theriverisdeepandswift.Iamafraidtodiveintoit.15. Hewasfined.Hewassenttoprison.

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16. Youmaygotothetheatre.Ramamaygotothetheatre.17. Brucewaslyingonhisbed.Helookeduptotheroof.Hesawaspider.18. I criedout sadly. I beatmyheadandbreast. I threwmyselfdownon the

ground.19. Youmayplayhockey.Youmayplay football.Youmustdoeitherof the

two.20. Youmaybewrong.Rashidmaybewrong.Youcannotbothberight.21. Igotup.Ilookedabouteverywhere.Icouldnotperceivemycompanions.22. InHyderabadIvisitedCharminar,GolkondaFortandBirlaMandir.Icould

notvisitSalarJungMuseum.23. AisequaltoB.BisequaltoC.AisequaltoC.24. Mostof therebelswereslain.Afewescaped.Theyhid in thewoodsand

marshes.Therebellionwasquicklysuppressed.25. He was my school-fellow. He has become a great man. He has grown

proud.Heforgetshisoldfriends.26. Ididnotseeyou.Ishouldhavespokentoyou.Ihadimportantnews.Delay

wasdangerous.27. Make haste. Youwill be late. There is no other train till midnight. That

trainisaslowone.28. Theirboatsaremadeofakindofbark.Theyareverylight.Theycaneasily

becarriedontheshoulders.29. Theemu,orAustralianostrich,doesnotsitonitseggs.Itcoversthemup

withleavesandgrass.Itleavesthemtobehatchedbytheheatofthesun.30. Wemustcatchthe5o’clocktrain.Thereisonlyhalfanhourleft.Wemust

startwithoutfurtherdelay.31. A timid dog is dangerous. He always suspects ill-treatment. He tries to

protecthimselfbysnapping.32. Ahusbandmanhadsownsomecorninhisfields.Hehadonlyrecentlydone

so.Cranescametoeatthecorn.Thehusbandmanfixedanetinhisfieldstocatchthecranes.

33. Themonsoon failed.The tanks became almost empty.Nograin could besown. A famine was feared. The ryots looked anxiously for the nextmonsoon.Itprovedunusuallyabundant.Thedangerwasaverted.

34. Thesecondclasscarriageisfull.Wemaypayfirstclassfare.Wemaynottravelfirstclasswithsecondclasstickets.Thatisforbidden.

35. He is a richman.Hedidnot earnhiswealth.Hedoesnot appreciate thevalueofmoney.Hesquandersit.

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36. Hebeatme in the race.He isayearolder.Henaturally runs faster.NextyearImaydobetter.

37. Thestormabated.Thesunshone.Theship-wreckedmarinerscouldseenosignofland.Theywereadriftinmidocean.

38. Generally your conduct is good.Youhavebeenguilty of an act of folly.Youwillnotbepunished.Iadviseyoutobemoreprudentinfuture.

39. Ilostmyway.Iaskedapolicemantodirectme.Hewasnewtohiswork.Hecouldnothelpme.Hecalledagentlemanpassingbytomyassistance.

40. The engine-driver saw the danger. He applied the brakes. The line wasgreasy.Thebrakesfailedtoactquickly.Thetraincrashedintothegatesatthecrossing.Theenginelefttherails.

41. Therainfellsteadilyforseveraldays.Theriveroverfloweditsbanks.Theterrifiedvillagersabandoned theirhomes.They fled to thehigherground.Soonthefloodsretired.Thevillagerswereabletoreturn.

CHAPTER14

SYNTHESISOFSENTENCES(Contd.)COMBINATIONOFTWOORMORESIMPLESENTENCESINTOASINGLECOMPLEX

SENTENCEI.SUBORDINATECLAUSEANOUNCLAUSE91. In the following examples the Subordinate clause is aNoun

clause:

1. Youaredrunk.Thataggravatesyouroffence.Thatyouaredrunkaggravatesyouroffence.

2. Hewillbelate.Thatiscertain.Itiscertainthathewillbelate.

3. Youarerepentant.Iwillnotforgetit.Iwillnotforgetthatyouarerepentant.

4. Hemaybeinnocent.Idonotknow.Idonotknowwhetherheisinnocent.

5. Heisshort-sighted.Otherwiseheisfitforthepost.

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Exceptthatheisshort-sightedheisfitforthepost.6. Thecloudswoulddisperse.Thatwasourhope.Ourhopewascheering.

Ourhopethatthecloudswoulddisperse,wascheering.7. Thegamewaslost.Itwastheconsequenceofhiscarelessness.

Theconsequenceofhiscarelessnesswasthatthegamewaslost.

II.SUBORDINATECLAUSEANADJECTIVECLAUSE

92. In the following examples the Subordinate clause is anAdjectiveclause:

1. Afoxoncemetalion.Thefoxhadneverseenalionbefore.Afoxwhohadneverseenalionbeforemethim.

2. Shekeepsherornamentsinasafe.Thisisthesafe.Thisisthesafewhereshekeepsherornaments.

3. Acottagerandhiswifehadahen.Thehenlaidaneggeveryday.Theeggwasgolden.Acottaggerandhiswifehadahenwhichlaidaneggeveryday.

III.SUBORDINATECLAUSEANADVERBCLAUSE

93.InthefollowingexamplestheSubordinateclauseisanAdverbclause:

1. Indira Gandhi died in 1984. Rajiv Gandhi thereafter became PrimeMinister.WhenIndiraGandhidiedin1984,RajivGandhibecamePrimeMinister.

2. Iwaitedformyfriend.Iwaitedtillhisarrival.Iwaitedformyfrienduntilhecame.

3. Hefledsomewhere.Hispursuerscouldnotfollowhim.Hefledwherehispursuerscouldnotfollowhim.

4. Letmensowanything.Theywillreapitsfruit.Asmensow,soshalltheyreap.

5. Youarestrong.Iamequallystrong.Iamasstrongasyouare.

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6. Hewasnotthere.Ispoketohisbrotherforthatreason.Ashewasnotthere,Ispoketohisbrother.

7. Wewishtolive.Weeatforthatpurpose.Weeatsothatwemaylive.

8. Hewasquitetired.Hecouldscarcelystand.Hewassotiredthathecouldscarcelystand.

9. Don’teattoomuch.Youwillbeill.Ifyoueattoomuchyouwillbeill.

10. Hebeganlate.Hefinishedfirst.Hefinishedfirstthoughbebeganlate.

11. Ishallcome.Mybeingaloneisacondition.IshallcomeifIamalone.

12. Imustknowallthefacts.Icannothelpyouotherwise.BeforeIcanhelpyou,Imustknowallthefacts.

13. Heissuperstitious.Heisequallywicked.Heisassuperstitiousasheiswicked.

Exercise 96. Combine each set of Simple sentences into oneComplexsentencecontainingaNounclause:1. Heiswrong.Iamsureofit.2. Youdeceivedhim.Thatwashiscomplaint.3. Thetrainwillarriveatacertaintime.Doyouknowthetime.?4. All theplanetsexcept forPluto travel round thesun thesamewayand in

thesameplane.Ihaveoftentoldyouthistruth.5. Hewillwastehistime.Thatiscertain.6. Wherehaveyouputmyhat?Tellme.7. Heisshort-tempered.Ilikehimallthesame.8. Isittimeforthetraintostart?Asktheguard.9. Itisgoingtorain.Iamsureofit.10. Somethingmaybeworthdoing.Itisonlyworthdoingwell.11. Heisasincereworker.Noonecandoubtthisfact.12. Hesaidsomething.Ididnothearit.13. Howdidyoufindthatout?Tellme.14. Youhavemadeamistake.Ithinkso.15. WhowroteShakuntala?Canyoutellmethat?16. Youstolethepurse.Doyoudenyit?17. Iamverysorry.Icannotadequatelyexpressmysorrow.

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18. Wehavebeendeceived.Thatisthetruth.19. HowdidNetajiSubhashChandraBosedie?Itisamystery.20. Hewillsucceed.Weexpectit.21. Whathaveyoudone?Tellme.22. Wewishedtoknow.Weweregoingsomewhere.23. Wewere nearing somewaterfall. It was evident from the distant roar of

water.24. Acertainnumberoftheenemyescaped.Wedonotknowthisnumber.25. Thetwofriendsquarrelled.Iwanttoknowthereason.26. Heisagreatorator.Thisfactcannotbedenied.27. Columbusmadeaneggstandonitsend.Iwillshowyouhismethod.28. Ihaveseenthismansomewherebefore.Icannotremembertheplace.29. Hewillarrivesometime.Idonotknowthetimeofhisarrival.30. Hedistrustshisownsons.Itisdifficulttounderstandthereason.

Exercise 97. Combine each set of Simple sentences into oneComplexsentencecontaininganAdjectiveclause:1. Thetheftwascommittedlastnight.Themanhasbeencaught.2. The French and Italian languages are different from the Latin language.

LatinwasoncespokeninalmosteverypartofEurope.3. Thetimewassixo’clock.Theaccidenthappenedthen.4. Youarenotkeepinggoodhealthlately.Canyoutellmethereason?5. Hehasmanyplansforearningmoneyquickly.Allofthemhavefailed.6. Alionwasproudofhisstrength.Hedespisedtheweaknessofthemouse.7. Thegrapeshungoverthegardenwall.Thefoxsawthegrapes.8. Thatistheschool.Iwastaughtthere.9. Youputitsomewhere.Showmetheplace.10. My travelling companionwas an old gentleman.His name isMr.Haq. I

methiminBasra.Exercise 98. Combine each set of Simple sentences into one

ComplexsentencecontaininganAdverbclause:1. Thenursemustbeverytired.Shehadnosleeplastnight.2. Agentlemanmaycall.Pleaseaskhimtowait.3. Heransoquickly.Hesoonovertookme.4. Iwillgetready.Donotgotillthen.5. Hespokeinaverylowvoice.Nobodycouldhearhim.6. Imendedmywatchthismorning.Ithasstopped.7. Itwasverystuffylastnight.Icouldnotsleep.

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8. Themonsoonmaybreakthismonth.Otherwisethewellswillrundry.9. Imayhelpyou.Imaynothelpyou.Youaresuretolosethegame.10. Thefiremancameoutofthehouse.Theroofcollapsedthatverymoment.11. Successattendshardwork.Failureattendsbadwork.12. Youmusthurry.Youwillmissthetrainotherwise.13. Thedelegatesarrived.Thediscussionwasresumed.14. Heisveryold.Heenjoysgoodhealth.15. Nomorefundsareavailable.Theworkhasbeenstopped.16. Hesawmecoming.Heimmediatelytooktohisheels.17. Imaybeblunt.Iamatleasthonest.18. Hewascontradicted.Hewasannoyed.19. Hebledprofusely.Hedied.20. Thismaybetrueofsome.Itisnottrueofall.21. Heranquickly.Hesoonovertookme.22. Ihadlefthome.Yourletterarrivedafterwards.23. Hesawus.Hedisappearedimmediately.24. Hewillnotgooutintherain.Heisafraidofgettingwet.25. Thebanditsfoughtdesperately.Theycouldnotbeartheideaofbeingtaken

alive.26. Thesailorscastanchor.Theydidsotopreventtheshipfromdriftingonthe

rocks.27. Youmakeagooddealofnoise.Icannotwork.28. Wemaysailtomorrow.Itdependsontheweather.29. Itisverysimple.Evenachildcanunderstandit.30. Hewasreturningfromschool.Hewascaughtinashower.31. Robinson Crusoe discovered the print of a foot on the sand. He was

puzzled.32. Hefinishedthework.Justthentheclockstruckfive.33. Heisbeinglionized.Hestillkeepsalevelhead.34. Whydoyoukeepyoureyeonmelikethis?

Haveyouturneddetective?35. WetravelledtogetherasfarasKolkata.Wepartedcompanythere.36. Heisarichman.Noothermaninourcommunityisequallyrich.37. Youmaywishtodothework.Youmaynotwishtodothework.Youmust

stilldoit.38. Hewassick.Heremainedathome.39. Youhavetears.Preparetoshedthemnow.

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40. Hemayslayme.Iwilltrusthim.41. Hesawme.Heranawaythen.42. Hecametomyhouse.Iwasout.43. Hisfatherdied.Hehasbeenverypoorfromthattime.44. Hegrewweakerandweaker.Hedied.45. Wetakeoffourclothes.Wegotobed.46. Hewashanged.Hehadcommittedmurder.47. Allwillrespectyou.Yourbeinghonestisacondition.48. Heisold.Hecannotwalk.49. Hewontherace.Hewastheswiftest.50. Lifelastsacertaintime.Letusbehonestduringthattime.51. Thewolfislarger.Thejackalissmaller.52. Arjunisclever.HisclevernessequalsRama’s.

94.Carefullystudythefollowingsentences:1. Hehad readMilton.Hehad read it in aprose translation.Hehad read it

whenhewasfourteen.Hetoldusthis.He told us that he had readMilton, in a prose translation, when he wasfourteen.

2. Abachelormaybesurroundedwithallsortsofluxuries.Inspiteofthathewill always find his happiness incomplete. He must have a wife andchildren.Withwhateverluxuriesabachelormaybesurrounded,hewillalwaysfindhishappinessincomplete,unlesshehasawifeandchildren.

3. PopeprofessedtohavelearnedhispoetryfromDryden.Throughhiswholelife he praised him with unvaried liberality. He did so whenever anopportunitywaspresented.Popeprofessed tohave learnedhispoetry fromDryden,whom,wheneveran opportunity was presented, he praised through his whole life withunvariedliberalilty.

4. Milton did not educate his daughters in the languages. He said that onetonguewasenoughforawoman.Miltonsaidthathedidnoteducatehisdaughtersinthelanguages,beecauseonetonguewasenoughforawoman.

5. Isankintothewater.Ifeltconfused.Nothingcandescribethatconfusion.NothingcandescribetheconfusionofthoughtwhichIfeltwhenIsankintothewater.

6. Wehadinthisvillageanidiotboy.Iwellrememberthatboy.Fromachild

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heshowedastrongpropensityforbees.Thiswassometwentyyearsago.Wehadinthisvillage,sometwentyyearsago,anidiotboy,whomIwellremember,whofromachildshowedastrongpropensityforbees.Exercise 99. Combine each of the following sets of Simple

sentencesintooneComplexsentence:1. Thatistheman.Hegavemeadog.Itwentmad.2. Ramawillnotplayinthematch.Thenotionisfoolish.Heisthebestplayer

intheschool.3. Iwrotetheletter.Itcontainedthetruth.Hepraisedmeforit.4. Honestyisthebestpolicy.Haveyouneverheardit?5. Hecametoseeme.Hewantedtotellmesomething.Hisfatherwasdead.

Hehadbeenillforalongtime.6. Thehorsehaskilledaman.Iwishedtosellittoyou.Themanwastryingto

stealit.7. Hetookthemedicine.Hethenfeltbetter.Itcuredhisheadache.8. Hegaveanorder.Heisobeyed.Theyfeartooffendhim.9. Theabsenceof thegirlfromherhomewasunusual.Inquiriesweremade.

Theyledtonoresult.10. Your conduct is very peculiar. I am unable to understand it. It has been

describedtome.11. He played exceedinglywell in thematch.His teamwon in consequence.

Thematchwasplayedyesterday.12. He wrote a letter. He wrote it for a certain reason. He wrote it to his

superior.Hetoldmeaboutthis.13. I visited his garden. In it therewere some beautiful rose-trees. The trees

werefullofbloom.Thesewereredandwhiteincolour.14. Heforsookhisdishonestways.Noonewouldgivehimwork.Hisdishonest

wayshadbroughthimtothedepthsofpoverty.15. Heissuretoreceivehispay.Itisduetohim.Whythendoesheworry?16. He has very bad health. He lives very carefully. It is inexplicable to the

doctor.Thedoctorhasattendedhimforyears.Hetoldmethis.17. Hisservantsdislikedhim.Theyflatteredhim.Hewasveryharshtothem.18. Icarefullysightedtherifle.Ididnotwishtomiss.Amissmighthavecost

memylife.19. Thespeedoftheboatwasremarkable.Itwasgoingagainst thecurrent.It

wasgoingagainstthewind.Thesefactsshouldbekeptinmind.

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20. Hestoleabook.Ithadtheowner’snamewritteninit.Iwastoldthis.Thenamewaswellknowntohim.

21. Theyhadmarchedthewholejourneyattopspeed.Theywishedtosurprisetheenemy.Thejourneywasverylong.

22. MyfriendisgoingtoEurope.Hehasgotlongleave.Hisbrotherisalreadythere.Hewishestobecomeadoctor.

23. RamawillnotplayagainsttheHinduschool.Ithasaverystrongteam.Hehasdeclaredthistobehisintention.Hedoesnotwishtotirehimselfbeforethecup-match.Ittakesplacethenextday.

24. Themantalksmost.Thatmandoesleast.Thisveryoftenhappens.25. Amandidthis.Hemusthavebeenverystrong.Thereisnodoubtofit.Our

fathersaysso.26. Hepaidasumofmoneyfortheinformation.Hepaidittoacertainperson.

Hepaiditforsomereason.Ishouldliketoknowthesum,thepersonandthereason.Icouldthenprosecutehim.

27. Theyhadthe treasure insomeplace.Thetreasurewasveryvaluable.Theplacewasneverdiscovered.Theyfearedpursuitandcapture.Theyhiditinajungle.

28. Heendeavouredtohidethetracesofthecrime.Hehadcommittedit.Thereasonisnotdifficulttosee.

29. Hehadnotlearnedtoreadandwrite.Hewasveryignorant.Hecouldnoteventalkfluently.Suchamanshouldnotpretendtobeadoctor.

30. The boy had many accomplishments. The father fully described a largenumberofthesetotheteacher.Hewishedtogethimadmittedtotheschool.

31. The jackalwaspursuedby thedogs. Itwasveryhungry.Theywerewellfed.Itwascaught.

32. Hewaitedlonger.Hegotmoreangry.Hehadorderedthemtobepunctual.33. Youmaylikeit.Youmaynotlikeit.IneithercaseIshallsendyouthere.It

ismydutytodoso.34. Yourfathersucceededwell.Wouldyoulike tosucceedequallywell?He

workedhard.Youmustworkequallyhard.35. Youhavefailed.Iamsorrytohearit.Youdeservedtopass.Ithinkit.36. Youwillbeallowedtoenterfor theexamination.Yourworkinghard isa

condition.Theordersaretothateffect.TheywereissuedbythePrincipal.37. Ramaismoreclever.Krishnaislessclever.Ithinkit.Ijudgebytheresults

oftheexamination.38. Thereisawill.Thereisawaytoo.Thisisgenerallytrue.

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39. Iheardthenews.Iwenttothehospital.Iwishedtodiscovertheextentofhisinjuries.Thehospitalisnotfarfrommyhouse.

40. Youmaypleasehim.Youmaydispleasehim.Hewillpromoteyousoonerorlateraccordingly.Thisisonlyright.

41. Yousowinacertainway.Youwillreapinthesameway.Theproverbsaysthis.

42. You may look everywhere. There you will see signs of industry. Thesesignsspeakwellfortheprosperityofthepeople.

43. Ihavedonemuchsword-play.Thesightofaswordgivespleasuretoamanlikeme.Thisisundeniable.

44. They played the game very skilfully. No one could have played it moreskilfully.Theyhadbeenthoroughlywelltrained.

45. He is an idle and careless boy. The report was to this effect. His fatherreceivedthereport.Hewasverygrievedtoreceiveit.Exercise100.Combineeachofthefollowinggroupsofsentences

intooneCompoundoroneComplexsentenceinanywayyoulike:1. Iofferedhimhelp.Heneededhelp.Hepersistedinrefusinghelp.Ilefthim

tohisfate.2. Afamished travellerwas toilingover thedesert.He foundabag.Hewas

highlydelighted.Heopenedthebag.Hefoundnothingbutpearls.3. Hundredsofmenandwomenhavetravelledinspace.Somehavetravelled

inspaceforafewdays.Othershavedoneitforseveralmonths.4. Iwas in Sri Lanka inMay last. I visitedMihintale. It is regarded as the

cradleofBuddhism.5. Onceanoarsmanwasrowingbyhimself.Hedidnotlookbehindhim.He

metanotherboat.Hecrashedintoit.Hewasupset.6. Adogwasrunningawaywithapieceofmeat.Hepassedsomedeepstill

water.Hesawtherethereflectedimageofthemeat.Hedroppedthemeatintothedeepwater.Hesnatchedinvainattheshadow.

7. Afoxsawacrowsittingonatreewithapieceofcheeseinhismouth.Thefoxpraisedthecrow’ssinging.The crowwaspleasedby the flattery.The crowbegan to sing.The crowdroppedthecheese.

8. Alionwasproudofhisstrength.Hedespisedtheweaknessofthemouse.Hewascaughtinanet.Hecouldnotescapefromthenet.Hewassetfreebytheexertionsofthemouse.

9. Johnsigned.JohnwasKingofEngland.Hesignedadocumentcalled the

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MagnaCarta.Hewasafraidofhisbarons.Hedidnotcareaboutliberty.HesignedthedocumentatRunnymede.RunnymedeisontheThames.ItisnotfarfromWindsor.

10. The train ran down the incline. The train attained great speed. The trainturnedasharpcurveatthebottom.Thetrainoscillatedundertheinfluenceofthebrakes.Thetrainthrewallthepassengersintoapanic.

11. Ahalf-starvedmousemanaged tocreep intoabasketofcorn.Themouserejoiced in his good fortune. The mouse fed greedily on the corn. Themouse tried to get out of the basket. His bodywas now too big to passthroughthehole.

12. It would not be possible for any life to survive on Venus andMercury.Theyarenearertothesunthantheearth.Theyareveryhotplanets.

13. Abandof ruffians enteredavillage.The ruffianswerewell armed.Theyentered the village at night. Some of the ruffianswere escaped convicts.Theruffiansstolethecattleofthevillagers.Thevillagerswereasleep.

14. Myfellow-travellerhadagun.Hewasboastingofhisbravery.Suddenlyabear camebehind a rock close in front of us. It stood in ourway. Itwasgrowlingangrily.

15. MungoParkexplored the interior regionsofAfrica.HewasemployedbytheAfricanAssociation.Theundertakingwashazardous.Hesufferedmanydistresses.Thosedistresseswereoftenalleviatedbythecompassionofthenegroes.

16. Alionwasdrinkinginaclearpool.Hisstatelymanewasreflectedbythepool.Thelionsawthereflection.Hegreatlyadmiredhismane.Hewasafterwardspursuedbyhunterswiththeirguns.Hewaspursuedthroughathickwood.Hethenfoundhismaneuselessandofnoavail.

17. The King ordered me to go to a distant village. It was not possible todisobey. I set off for the village. There I was mortified to find no onewilling toadmitme intohishouse. Iwasregardedwithastonishmentandfear. Iwasobliged tosit thewholedaywithoutvictuals.A treeprotectedmeagainsttheheatandthesun.

18. The night was very threatening. The wind rose. There were heavy rainclouds. The wild beasts were numerous thereabout. To escape them itwouldhavebeennecessarytoclimbatreeandsitamongthebranches.

19. The sun set. Iwas preparing to pass the night in a tree.A negrowomanstoppedtoobserveme.Shewasreturningfromthelabourofthefield.She

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perceived my weariness and dejection. She inquired into my situation. Ibrieflyexplainedittoher.Withalookofcompassionshetoldmetofollowher.

20. She conductedme to her hut. She toldme to remain there for the night.Then she found me hungry. She procured from outside a fine fish. Shecaused it tobehalfboileduponsomeembers.She thengave it tome forsupper.

21. HehadmadewaronSaxony.Hehadset theRomancrownuponhisownhead.Hehadbecomefamousthroughoutthewholeworld.Buthisfamehadnotpreventedhishairfrombecominggrey.

22. Augustusprobablydiedanaturaldeath.Hewasinhisseventy-eighthyear.Hehadbeenreducedtodespondencybythedisaster inGermany.Hewastravelling at an unhealthy time of the year. He had exposed himselfimprudentlytothenightair.Andalltheotherparticularsarequiteopposedtothepoisontheory.

23. Thisisnottheleastpartofourhappiness.Weenjoytheremotestproductsofthenorthandsouth.Atthesametimewearefreefromextremitiesoftheweather. Our eyes are refreshed with the green fields of Britain. At thesametimeourpalatesarerefreshedwithtropicalfruit.

24. He was a man of haughty and vehement temper. He was treated veryungraciously by the court.Hewas supported very enthusiastically by thepeople.Hewouldeagerly take the firstopportunityof showinghispowerandgratifyinghisresentment.Thismightbeexpected.

25. Bonaparte was born a Corsican. He distinguished himself at school. Hejoined the republican army. He started as corporal. His bravery wasremarkable.Hismentalpowersweregreat.HebecametheheadofthearmyofItaly.HeconqueredEgypt.Hesetasidetherepublic.HewasproclaimedEmperor.

26. Heisnowgonetohisfinalreward.Hewasfullofyearsandhonours.Thesehonourswere especiallydear tohis heart for the following reasons.Theyweregratefullybestowedbyhispupils.Theyboundhimtotheinterestsofthatschool.Hehadbeeneducatedin thatschool.Hiswhole lifehadbeendedicatedtoitsservice.

CHAPTER15

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THESEQUENCEOFTENSES95. TheSequence ofTenses is the principle in accordancewith

whichtheTenseoftheverbinasubordinateclausefollowstheTenseof the verb in the principal clause. (Sequence is connectedwith theLatinverbsequor,follow.)

The Sequence of Tenses applies chiefly to Adverb Clauses ofPurposeandNounClauses.

96. A Past Tense in the principal clause is followed by a PastTenseinthesubordinateclause;as,

Hehintedthathewantedmoney.Sherepliedthatshefeltbetter.Ifoundoutthathewasguilty.Hesawthattheclockhadstopped.Herepliedthathewouldcome.IneverthoughtthatIshouldseehimagain.Itookcarethatheshouldnothearme.Theyclimbedhighersothattheymightgetabetterview.IworkedhardsothatImightsucceed.

Thereare,however,twoexceptionstothisrule:(i) A Past Tense in the principal clausemay be followed by a

PresentTense in thesubordinateclausewhen thesubordinateclauseexpressesauniversaltruth;as,

Newtondiscoveredthattheforceofgravitationmakesapplesfall.Galileomaintainedthattheearthmovesroundthesun.Euclidprovedthatthethreeanglesofatriangleareequaltotworightangles.Hesaidthathonestyisalwaysthebestpolicy.

(ii) When the subordinate clause is introduced by than, even ifthereisaPastTenseintheprincipalclause,itmaybefollowedbyanyTenserequiredbythesenseinthesubordinateclause;as,

Helikedyoubetterthanhelikesme.Hehelpedhimmorethanhehelpshisownchildren.

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IthensawhimoftenerthanIseehimnow.Hevaluedhisfriendshipmorethanhevaluesmine.

97. A Present or Future Tense in the principal clause may befollowedbyanyTenserequiredbythesense;as,

Hethinksthatsheisthere.Hethinksthatshewasthere.Hethinksthatshewillbethere.Hewillthinkthatsheisthere.Hewillthinkthatshewasthere.Hewillthinkthatshewillbethere.

Butinsentenceswherethesubordinateclausedenotespurpose,ifthe verb in the principal clause is Present or Future the verb in thesubordinateclausemustbePresent;as,

IeatsothatImaylive.Ishallnursehimsothathemaylive.

Exercise101.Insertthecorrecttenseofverbinthefollowing:1. Iwaitedformyfrienduntilhe______.(Tocome.)2. Solongastherain______,Istayedathome.(Tocontinue)3. Ididnotknowituntilyou______.(Tospeak.)4. Hespeaksasonewho______.(Toknow.)5. Heranasquicklyashe______.(Canorcould?)6. Hewentwherehe______findwork.(Canorcould?)7. Whereverthereiscoalyou______findiron.(Willorwould?)8. Hebehavesasone______expecthimtodo.(Mayormight?)9. Heranawaybecausehe______afraid.(Tobe)10. Hefledwherehispursuers______notfollow.(Canorcould?)11. Ashe______notthere,Ispoketohisbrother.(Tobe.)12. The notice was published in order that all______know the facts.(May or

might?)13. Hewassotiredthathe______scarcelystand.(Canorcould?)14. YoumakesuchanoisethatI______notwork.(Canorcould?)15. Hefinishedfirstthoughhe______late.(Tobegin.)16. Hishealthhasimprovedsincehe______India.(Toleave.)17. Assoonashe______thenewshewrotetome.(Tohear.)

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18. Aftertheshower______over,thesunshoneoutagain.(Tobe.)19. Wheneverwe______wetalkofoldtimes.(Tomeet.)20. Answerthefirstquestionbeforeyou______further.(Toproceed.)21. Justashe______theroomtheclockstruck.(Toenter.)22. Nowthatwe______safewestoppedtotakebreath.(Tofeel.)23. Whereverhe______thepeoplegatheredtolisten.(Topreach.)24. Hespeaksasthoughhe______veryangry.(Tobe.)25. Heranbecausehe______inahurry.(Tobe.)26. IdoitbecauseI______to.(Tochoose.)27. Headvancedasfarashe______.(Todare.)28. Helostmorethanhe______afford.(Canorcould?)29. Heeatsasmuchashe______.(Canorcould?)30. Herodeasswiftlyashe______.(Canorcould?)31. Helockedthepapersupsothatthey______besafe.(Mayormight?)32. Hewalkedasthoughhe______slightlylame.(Tobe.)33. Hestayedathomebecausehe______feelingill.(Tobe.)34. Iforgiveyousinceyou______.(Torepent.)35. Helabourshardsothathe______becomerich.(Mayormight?)36. Weshallwaithereuntilyou______.(Tocome.)37. Herestedhishorse,forit______.(Tolimp.)38. Youmaysitwhereveryou______.(Tolike.)39. HewenttoKolkatasothathe______findwork.(Mayormight?)40. IwoulddiebeforeI______.(Tolie).41. Theycometoseeusasoftenasthey______.(Canorcould?)42. IstudiedhardinorderthatI______succeed.(Mayormight?)43. He______sohardthatheiscertaintosucceed.(Towork.)44. Shetoldmethatshe______come.(Willorwould?)45. Hewouldsucceedifhe______.(Totry.)46. IaskedhimwhatI______do.(Canorcould?)47. Hecameoftenerthanwe______.(Toexpect.)48. Iwouldnotattemptitifyou______me.(Toask.)49. HewalkedsofastthanI______notovertakehim.(Canorcould?)

Exercise 102. Fill in the blanks with an appropriate auxiliary(Remembertoobservethesequenceoftenses.)1. Hediedsothathe______savetheflag.2. Theyerectedsignpostsinorderthattheroad______beknown.3. Weeatsothatwe______live.

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4. Evenifhepaidmetodoso,I______notliveinhishouse.5. You______goonlyifyouhavepermission.6. Ontheunderstandingthatyoureturnsoon,you______goout.7. Abridgewasbuiltinorderthatthedangerousferry_____beavoided.8. Hebegsfromdoortodoorsothathe______keepbodyandsoultogether.9. Hewassotiredthathe_____scarcelystand.10. HewenttoEnglandinorderthathe______becomeabarrister.11. YoumakesuchanoisethatI_____notwork.12. Heaskedagainwhethersupper_____bereadysoon.13. Inorderthathe______learnthelanguagequickly,heengagedateacher.14. Hesaidthathe_____doit.15. Thethievesstolewhateverthey_____findinthehouse.16. Hebeggedthatwe______pardonhim.17. IwishedthatI______comeearlier.18. Hesaidthathe_____tryagain.19. Heworkedhardsothathe______wintheprize.20. Weransothatwe______arriveintime.21. Hesaidthathe_____giveanearlyreply.

Exercise 103. Supply Verbs in correct concord in the followingcomplexsentences:1. Theysoldthehousebecauseit_____old.2. Hesolemnlyassuredthemthatthey_____quitemistaken.3. Icamehomebeforeit_____torain.4. Thesoldiersadvancedwhenthebugle______.5. Iaskedhimwhathisname_____.6. Hehadacowthat_____enormousquantitiesofmilk.7. Whenthesunsethe____home.8. Hetoldthemthatthey______wrong.9. Iheardthatthere______adisturbanceinthecity.10. Couldyoudoubtthatthere________aGod?

CHAPTER16

DIRECTANDINDIRECTSPEECH98.Wemayreportthewordsofaspeakerintwoways:

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(i)Wemayquotehisactualwords.ThisiscalledDirectSpeech.(ii)Wemayreportwhathesaidwithoutquotinghisexactwords.

ThisiscalledIndirect(orReported)Speech.Direct.Ramasaid,‘Iamverybusynow.’Indirect.Ramasaidthathewasverybusythen.

ItwillbenoticedthatinDirectSpeech,weuseinvertedcommastomarkofftheexactwordsofthespeaker.InIndirectSpeechwedonot.

ItwillbefurthernoticedthatinchangingtheaboveDirectSpeechintoIndirectcertainchangeshavebeenmade.Thus:

(i) We have used the conjunction that before the Indirectstatement.*

(ii)Thepronoun I is changed tohe. (ThePronoun is changed inPerson.)

(iii)Theverbamischangedtowas.(PresentTenseischangedtoPast.)

(iv)Theadverbnowischangedtothen.

RULESFORCHANGINGDIRECTSPEECHINTOINDIRECT

99.When thereportingorprincipalverb is in thePastTense,allPresent tensesof theDirectarechanged into thecorrespondingPastTenses.Thus:

(a)Asimplepresentbecomesasimplepast.

Direct.Hesaid,‘Iamunwell.’Indirect.Hesaid(that)hewasunwell.

(b)Apresentcontinuousbecomesapastcontinuous.

Direct.Hesaid,‘Mymasteriswritingletters.’Indirect.Hesaid(that)hismasterwaswritingletters.

(c)Apresentperfectbecomesapastperfect.

Direct.Hesaid,‘Ihavepassedtheexamination.’

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Direct. Hesaidtome,‘Idon’tbelieveyou.’Indirect. Hesaidhedidn’tbelieveme.

Indirect.Hesaid(that)hehadpassedtheexamination.

Note–TheshalloftheFutureTenseischangedintoshould.ThewilloftheFutureTenseischangedintowouldorshould.Asarule,thesimplepastintheDirectbecomesthepastperfectin

theIndirect.Direct.Hesaid,‘Thehorsediedinthenight.’Indirect.Hesaidthatthehorsehaddiedinthenight.

99A.Thetensesmaynotchangeifthestatementisstillrelevantorif it is a universal truth.We can often choose whether to keep theoriginaltensesorchangethem.

Direct.‘Iknowheraddress,’saidGopi.Indirect.Gopisaidheknows/knewheraddress.Direct.Theteachersaid,‘Theearthgoesroundthesun.’Indirect.Theteachersaidtheearthgoes/wentroundthesun.Direct.‘Germaniseasytolearn’,shesaid.Indirect.ShesaidGermanis/waseasytolearn.

Thepasttenseisoftenusedwhenitisuncertainifthestatementistrueorwhenwearereportingobjectively.

100.IfthereportingverbisinthePresentTense,thetensesoftheDirectSpeechdonotchange.Forexample,wemayrewritetheaboveexamples,puttingthereportingverbinthePresentTense,thus:

Hesaysheisunwell.Hehasjustsaidhismasteriswritingletters.Hesayshehaspassedtheexamination.Hesaysthehorsediedinthenight.

101. The pronouns of the Direct Speech are changed, wherenecessary, so that their relations with the reporter and his hearer,rather than with the original speaker, are indicated. Observe thefollowingexamples:

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Direct. Shesaidtohim,‘Idon’tbelieveyou.’Indirect. Shesaidshedidn’tbelievehim.Direct. Isaidtohim,‘Idon’tbelieveyou.’Indirect. IsaidIdidn’tbelievehim.Direct. Isaidtoyou,‘Idon’tbelieveyou.’Indirect. IsaidIdidn’tbelieveyou.

Direct. Hesaid,‘Iamgladtobeherethisevening.’Indirect. Hesaidthathewasgladtobetherethatevening.

Direct. Hesays,‘Iamgladtobeherethisevening.’Indirect. Hesaysheisgladtobeherethisevening.

Direct. Hesaidtome,‘Whatareyoudoing?’Indirect. HeaskedmewhatIwasdoing.Direct. ‘Wheredoyoulive?’askedthestranger.

102. Words expressing nearness in time or place are generallychangedintowordsexpressingdistance.Thus:

Thechangesdonotoccurifthespeechisreportedduringthesameperiodoratthesameplace;e.g.,

103.Similarly,thisandthesearechangedtothatandthoseunlessthe thing pointed out is near at hand at the time of reporting thespeech.

QUESTIONS104. In reporting questions the Indirect Speech is introduced by

somesuchverbsasasked,inquired,etc.Whenthequestionisnotintroducedbyaninterrogativeword,the

reportingverbisfollowedbywhetherorif.

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Indirect. ThestrangerenquiredwhereIlived.Direct. Thepoliceman said tous, ‘Where areyougoing

?’Indirect. Thepolicemanenquiredwhereweweregoing.Direct. Hesaid,‘Willyoulistentosuchaman?’Indirect. Heaskedthemwhethertheywouldlistentosuch

aman.[Or]Wouldthey,heasked,listentosuchaman?

Direct. ‘Doyousupposeyouknowbetterthanyourownfather?’jeeredhisangrymother.

Indirect. His angry mother jeered and asked whether hesupposedthatheknewbetterthanhisownfather.

Direct. RamasaidtoArjun,‘Goaway.’Indirect. RamaorderedArjuntogoaway.Direct. Hesaidtohim,‘PleasewaitheretillIreturn.’Indirect. Herequestedhimtowaittheretillhereturned.Direct. ‘Callthefirstwitness,’saidthejudge.Indirect. The judge commanded them to call the first

witness.Direct. Heshouted,‘Letmego.’Indirect. Heshoutedtothemtolethimgo.Direct. Hesaid,‘Bequietandlistentomywords.’Indirect. Heurgedthemtobequietandlistentohiswords.

Direct. Hesaid,‘Alas!Iamundone.’

COMMANDSANDREQUESTS105. In reporting commands and requests, the Indirect Speech is

introduced by some verb expressing command or request, and theimperativemoodischangedintotheInfinitive.

EXCLAMATIONSANDWISHES106. In reportingexclamationsandwishes the IndirectSpeech is

introducedbysomeverbexpressingexclamationorwish.

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Indirect Heexclaimedsadlythathewasundone.Direct Alicesaid,‘HowcleverIam!’Indirect Aliceexclaimedthatshewasveryclever.Direct Hesaid,‘Bravo!Youhavedonewell.’Indirect. Heapplaudedhim,sayingthathehaddonewell.Direct. ‘Sohelpme,Heaven!’hecried,‘Iwillneversteal

again.’Indirect. He called upon Heaven to witness his resolve

nevertostealagain.

Exercise104.TurnthefollowingintoIndirectSpeech:1. Hesaidtome,‘Ihaveoftentoldyounottoplaywithfire.’2. ‘Youhavealldoneverybadly!’remarkedtheteacher.3. Theywrote,‘Itistimewethoughtaboutsettlingthismatter.’4. The teacher promised, ‘If you will come before school tomorrow, I will

explainit.’5. Shewrote,‘Iamwaitingandwatchingandlongingformyson’sreturn.’6. Theexaminer’sorderswere, ‘Noone is tobringbooks into the roomnor

askmequestionsaboutwhatIhavetoldyoutodo.’7. Thedwarfsaidtoher,‘PromisemethatwhenyouareQueenyouwillgive

meyourfirst-bornchild.’8. ‘Thatismyhorse,’saidhe,‘andifIdonotproveitinafewminutesIwill

giveupmyclaim.’9. ‘Iwillavengeyourwrongs,’hecried,‘IwillnotenterAthensuntilIhave

punishedthekingwhohadsocruellytreatedyou.’10. Hewroteandsaid, ‘Iamunable tocome justnowbecause Iam ill,but I

willcertainlystartassoonasIamwellenoughtodoso.’11. OnedayhesentforCassimandsaidtohim,‘Youarenowoldenoughto

earnyourliving,soyoumustsetoff,andmakeyourownwayintheworld.’Exercise105.TurnthefollowingintoIndirectSpeech:

1. ‘Whatdoyouwant?’hesaidtoher.2. Hesaid,‘How’syourfather?’3. ‘Areyoucominghomewithme?’heasked.4. Heenquired,‘Whendoyouintendtopayme?’5. Hesaidtous,‘Whyareyouallsittingabouttheredoingnothing?’6. ‘DoyoureallycomefromChina?’saidtheprince.7. Thepoormanexclaimed,‘Willnoneofyouhelpme?’

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8. ‘Whichwaydidshego?’askedtheyoungRakshas.9. Aladdin said to themagician, ‘What have I done to deserve so severe a

blow?’10. ‘Don’tyouknowthewayhome?’askedI.11. ‘Doyouwriteinagoodhand?’hesaid.12. ‘Have you anything to say on behalf of the prisoner ?’ said the judge

finally.13. ‘Which is the proper way to answer this question, father ?’ the boy

enquired.14. ‘Haveyouanythingtotellme,littlebird?’askedUlysses.15. Theyoungsparrowsaid,‘Mother,whatisthatqueerobject?’16. Thenaloudhesaid,‘Tellme,boy,isthemillerwithin?’17. ‘Whoareyou,sir,andwhatdoyouwant?’theycried.18. ‘Dearbird,’shesaid,strokingitsfeathers,‘haveyoucometocomfortmein

mysorrow?’19. The Rajahwas deeply grieved, and said to his wife, ‘What can I do for

you?’20. Whenthesungotlow,theking’ssonsaid,‘Jack,sincewehavenomoney,

wherecanwelodgethisnight?’21. She said tohim, ‘What is it thatmakesyou somuch stronger andbraver

thananyotherman?’22. When theBrahmin approached, the first thief said, ‘Why do you carry a

dogonyourback?Areyounotashamed?’Exercise106.PutthefollowinginIndirectSpeech:

1. ‘Bringmeadrinkofmilk,’saidtheswamitothevillagers.2. ‘Sitdown,boys,’saidtheteacher.3. ‘Halt!’shoutedtheofficertohismen.4. ‘Takeoffyourhat,’thekingsaidtotheHatter.5. Theteachersaidtohim,‘Donotreadsofast.’6. Hesaidtome,‘WaituntilIcome.’7. ‘Hurryup,’hesaidtohisservant,‘donotwastetime.’8. ‘Runaway,children,’saidtheirmother.9. Hesaid,‘Daughter,takemygoldenjug,andfetchmesomewaterfromthe

well.’10. ‘Godowntothebazaar.Bringmesomeoilandalumpofice.’orderedhis

master.Exercise107.PutthefollowinginIndirectSpeech:

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Indirect. HeinquiredwhetherhisnamewasnotAhmed.Direct. Hesaidtohim,‘IsnotyournameAhmed?’Indirect. Asthestrangerenteredthetown,hewasmetbya

policeman,who asked him if hewas a traveller.Herepliedcarelesslythatitwouldappearso.

Direct Asthestrangerenteredthetown,hewasmetbyapoliceman,whoasked,‘Areyouatraveller?’‘Soitwouldappear,’heansweredcarelessly.

Indirect. Sheaskedhowshe,agirl,whocouldnotrideoruseswordor lance,couldbeofanyhelp.Ratherwouldshestayathomeandspinbesideherdearmother.

Direct. She said, ‘Howcan I, a girl,whocannot rideoruseswordorlance,beofanyhelp?RatherwouldIstayathomeandspinbesidemydearmother?’

1. ‘Whatararearticlemilkis,tobesure,inLondon!’saidMr.Squeerswithasigh.

2. ‘Whatastupidfellowyouare!’heangrilyremarked.3. Hesaid,‘MyGod!Iamruined.’4. Hesaid,‘Alas!ourfoesaretoostrong.’5. Hesaid,‘Whatalazyboyyouare!Howbadlyyouhavedoneyourwork!’6. ‘Howsmartyouare!’shesaid.7. Hesaid,‘Oh!that’sanuisance.’8. Hesaid,‘Howcruelofhim!’9. Hesaid,‘Whatapityyoudidnotcome!’10. ‘Ahme !’ exclaimed theQueen, ‘What a rashandbloodydeedyouhave

done!’

CONVERSIONOFINDIRECTINTODIRECT107.Theconversionof Indirect intoDirectgenerallypresentsno

specialdifficulties,asthefollowingexampleswillshow:

Exercise108.PutthefollowinginDirectSpeech:1. HeaskedRamatogowithhim.2. Ramarepliedthathecouldnotdoso.

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3. Heaskedhisfatherwhenthenextletterwouldcome.4. Hisfatherrepliedthattheremightnotbeanotherthatyear.5. RamaaskedmewhathadbecomeofHari.6. ItoldhimthatIhadnotseenhimformonths.7. The master requested that they would attend carefully to what he was

saying.8. IwrotethatIwouldvisithimnextday.9. Heobservedthathehadneverlikeddoingthat.10. Itoldthemtobequiet.11. HeaskedmeifIhadanythingtosay.12. RamaaskedHariifhewouldchangeplaceswithhim.13. Hesaidthathewastired,andthathewishedtogotobed.14. Anoldmouseaskedwhowouldbellthecat.15. Johnsaidthathewantedtobeasoldier.16. HeaskedmewhereIwasgoing.17. HeaskedmewhatIwanted.18. Abdulsaidthathehadseenthatpicture.19. Theboysaidthathewouldgowithus.20. Hesaidthattheearthmovesroundthesun.21. ThestrangeraskedAlicewhereshelived.22. IaskedMaryifshewouldlendmeapencil.23. Hetoldusthathehadwaitedanhour.24. Theladyinquiredifhewasnowquitewellagain.25. Hesaidthathehadcometoseethem.26. Hesaidthatthoughhehadcome,itwasagainsthiswill.27. Thespeakersaidthatitgavehimgreatpleasuretobetherethatevening.28. Heaskedthemwhethertheywouldlistentosuchaman.29. HeaskedmeifIwouldaccompanyhim.30. Heorderedhimtoleavetheroomandforbadehimtoreturn.31. Themotheraskedherboywherehehadbeenalltheafternoon.32. HariaskedRamaifhehadreadtheletter.33. The King asked the philosopher whom he considered the happiest man

living.34. Themagistrateaskedtheprisonerwhathewasdoingwithhishandinthe

gentleman’spocket.35. Thefoxcriedouttothegoatthatathoughthadjustcomeintohishead.36. Headvisedhissonsnottoquarrelamongstthemselves,whenhewasdead

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Direct. ThePrincesaid,‘Itgivesmegreatpleasuretobeherethisevening.’

Indirect. ThePrincesaidthatitgavehimgreatpleasuretobetherethatevening.

Direct. Hesaid,‘Ishallgoassoonasitispossible.’Indirect. He said that he would go as soon as it was

possible.Direct. He said, ‘I do not wish to see any of you; go

away.’Indirect. He said that he did notwish to see any of them

andorderedthemtogoaway.Direct. Myteacheroftensays tome, ‘Ifyoudon’twork

hard,youwillfail.’Indirect. Myteacheroftensays tome that if Idon’twork

hardIshallfail.Direct. Hesaid,‘Weareallsinners.’Indirect. Hesaidthatweareallsinners.Direct. The lecturer said, ‘Akbar won the respect of all

racesandclassesbyhisjustice.’Indirect. ThelecturersaidthatAkbarwontherespectofall

racesandclassesbyhisjustice.Direct. Hesaid,‘Letuswaitfortheaward.’Indirect. Heproposedthattheyshouldwaitfortheaward.Direct. ‘Saint George strike for us !’ exclaimed the

Knight,‘dothefalseyeomengiveway?’Indirect. TheKnightprayedthatSaintGeorgemightstrike

for them and asked whether the false yeomengaveway.

Direct. ‘Curse it !’ exclaimed the driver. ‘Who could

buttoremainunited.37. The lion told the fox thathewasveryweak, thathis teethhadfallenout,

andthathehadnoappetite.38. Herepliedthathehadpromisedtorewardhissoldiersandthathehadkept

hisword.108.Studythefollowingexamples,andineachcasecarefullynote

thechangesmadewhileturningfromDirectintoIndirectSpeech:

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haveforeseensuchill-luck?Butforaccidentweshouldhavecaughtthetraineasily.’

Indirect. The driver exclaimed with an oath that nobodycould have foreseen such ill-luck. But for theaccidenttheywouldhavecaughtthetraineasily.

Direct. Thegeneral,addressinghismutinoustroops,said,‘You have brought disgrace upon a famousregiment.Ifyouhadgrievances,whydidyounotlay them before your own officers ? Now youmust first suffer punishment for your offence,beforeyourcomplaintscanbeheard.’

Indirect. Thegeneraltoldhismutinoustroopsthattheyhadbroughtdisgraceuponafamousregiment.Iftheyhad grievances, why had they not laid thembefore their ownofficers?Now theymust sufferpunishment for their offence before theircomplaintscouldbeheard.

Direct. Thetravellersaid,‘Canyoutellmethewaytothenearest inn ?’ ‘Yes,’ said the peasant, ‘do youwant one in which you can spend the night?’‘No,’repliedthetraveller,‘Ionlywantameal.’

Indirect. The traveller asked the peasant if he could tellhim the way to the nearest inn. The peasantreplied that he could, and asked whether thetravellerwantedoneinwhichhecouldspendthenight.Thetravelleransweredthathedidnotwishtostaythere,butonlywantedameal.

Remark.–Itwillbenoticedthatwehaveavoidedtheuglyphrases‘repliedintheaffirmative’and‘repliedinthenegative.’Exercise109.TurnthefollowingintoIndirectSpeech:

1. ‘Cheerup,mother,I’llgoandgetworksomewhere,’saidJack.2. Butthesea-godcried,‘Donotbeafraid,nobleprince.Ihavetakenpityon

youandwillhelpyou.’3. ‘No,’ said the child; ‘I won’t kneel, for if I do, I shall spoil my new

breeches.’4. ‘Whatahorsetheyarelosingforwantofskillandspirittomanagehim!’

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exclaimedAlexander.5. Telemachusreplied,‘HowcanIdriveawaythemother,whoboremeand

nourishedme?’6. ‘Callnomanhappy,’wasthereplyofthephilosopher,‘untilhehasended

hislifeinafittingmanner.’7. Thensaid thewolf to thefox,‘Noweitheryield thyselfasvanquished,or

elsecertainlyIwillkillthee.’8. ‘Ibelieve,’saidhe,‘thatweareinthiscountryamongapeoplewhomwe

likeandwholikeus.’9. He said, ‘Take that bird away. Its gilded cage reminds me of my father

whomIimprisoned.’10. ‘I have just oneword to say to you,’ said the dealer. ‘Eithermake your

purchase,orwalkoutofmyshop.’11. ‘Myhouriscome,’thoughthe.‘Letmemeetdeathlikeaman.’12. ‘Be not cast down,’ saidMentor, ‘rememberwhose son thou art, and all

shallbewellwiththee.’13. Bhishmasaid:‘Boys!boys!rememberyouplayagame.IfitbeArjuna’s

turnlethimhaveit.’14. ‘Friends,’ said the old man, ‘sit down and rest yourselves here on this

bench.MygoodwifeBaucishasgonetoseewhatyoucanhaveforsupper.’15. ‘Ah!youdon’tknowwhatthesebeansare,’saidtheman;ifyouplantthem

over-night,bymorningtheygrowrightuptothesky.’16. ‘HowcleverIam!’hesaid.‘AllmylifeIhavebeentalkingprosewithout

knowingit.’17. ‘Iamoldandlonely,’saidshe.‘Hastthounopityonmylonelines?Stay

withme,mybestson,forthouartyetmoreboythanman.’18. ‘Idonotpractise’,Goldsmithoncesaid;‘Imakeitaruletoprescribleonly

formy friends.’ ‘Pray, dear doctor,’ saidBeauclerk, ‘alter your rule, andprescribeonlyforyourenemies.’

19. He said : ‘Who are you to speak tome like this ? I am themaster.WhyshouldIhelpyou?Itisyourwork,notmine,todrawthecart.’

20. ‘IcannothopetoseethesetreeswhichIamplantingcomeinperfection,’said the duke, ‘but it is right for me to plant for the benefit of mysuccessors.’

21. ‘Are you angry, my friends,’ said the king, ‘because you have lost yourleader?Iamyourking;Iwillbeyourleader.’

22. SaidanoldCrabtoyoungone,‘Whydoyouwalksocrooked,child?Walk

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straight!’‘Mother,’saidtheyoungCrab,‘showmetheway,willyou?’23. ‘Whoareyou?’said theDeer.TheJackal replied : ‘IamKshudrabuddhi

the Jackal. I live in this forest all by myself; I have neither friend norrelation.’

24. One summer some elephantswere verymuch distressed by the heat, andsaid to their leader : ‘Weareabsolutelyperishing, forwantofwater.Thesmalleranimalshavebathing-placesbutwehavenone.Whatarewetodo?Wherearewetogo?’

25. Whenthekingsawhimcominghesaid,‘Pray’whoareyou,andwhatdoyou want ?’ The Rabbit said, ‘I am an ambassador from His MajestyChandra–theMoon.’TheElephantKingreplied,‘Declareyourerrand.’

26. AyoungRajahoncesaidtohisVizier,‘HowisitthatIamsooftenill?Itakegreatcareofmyself;Inevergooutintherain;Iwearwarmclothes;Ieatgoodfood.YetIamalwayscatchingcoldorgettingfever.’

27. ‘Mysons,’saidhe,‘agreattreasurelieshiddenintheestateIamabouttoleaveyou.’‘Whereisithid?’saidthesons.‘Iamabouttoleaveyou.’saidtheoldman,‘butyoumustdigforit.’

28. ‘HowverywellyouspeakFrench!’LadyGrizzelsaid.‘Ioughttoknowit,’Becky modestly said. ‘I taught it in a school, and my mother was aFrenchwoman.’

29. ‘Whatareyougoingtodowiththetinder-box?’askedthesoldier.‘That’snobusinessofyours,’ said thewitch; ‘You’vegotyourmoney ;givememytinder-box.’

30. ‘My name isNoman,’ saidUlysses, ‘my kindred and friends inmy owncountry callmeNoman.’ ‘Then,’ said theCyclops, ‘this is thekindness Iwillshowthee,Noman;Iwilleattheelastofallthyfriends.’

31. ‘Iamadeadman,Hardy,’saidNelson;‘Iamgoingfast;itwillbealloverwithme soon.Comenearer tome.LetmydearLadyHamiltonhavemyhair,andallotherthingsbelongingtome.’

32. He said to the shoemaker : ‘Youare abigblockhead;youhavedone thereverseofwhat Idesiredyou. I toldyou tomakeoneof the shoes largerthantheother,and,insteadofthat,youhavemadeoneofthemsmallerthantheother.’

33. ‘Icanextendnoothermercytoyou,’saidtheRaja,‘exceptpermittingyoutochoosewhatkindofdeathyouwishtodie.Decideimmediately,forthesentencemustbecarriedout.’‘Iadmireyourkindness,noblePrince,’saidthejester,‘Ichoosetodieofoldage.’

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34. Hermothersaid,‘Youmustgostraighttoyourgrandmother’scottageandnot loiteron theway.There isawolf in thewoodthroughwhichyouaregoing ;but ifyoukeep to the roadhewon’tdoyouanyharm.Now,willyoubeagoodgirlanddoasItellyou?’

35. Nextmorningatbreakfasthiswifesaidtohim,‘George,I thinkIcantellwhatisamisswithourclock.’‘Well,whatisit?’hesharplyasked.‘Itwantswindingup,’saidhispartner.

36. Afawnonedaysaidtohermother,‘Mother,youarebiggerthanadog,andswifterandbetterwinded,andyouhavehornstodefendyourself;howisitthatyouaresoafraidof thehounds?’Shesmiledandsaid, ‘All this,mychild,Iknowfullywell;butnosoonerdoIhearadogbark,than,somehoworother,myheelstakemeoffasfastastheycancarryme.’

37. Saidayoungmoletohermother,‘Mother,Icansee.’Sohermotherputalumpoffrankincensebeforeher,andaskedherwhatitwas.‘Astone,’saidtheyoungone.‘Omychild!’saidthemother,‘notonlydoyounotsee,butyoucannotevensmell.’

38. ‘Whatareyoudoing,goodoldwoman?’saidtheprincess.‘I’mspinning,myprettychild.’‘Ah,howcharming!LetmetryifIcanspinalso.’

39. ‘Yousay,’saidthejudge,‘thatthebagyoulostcontainedonehundredandten pounds.’ ‘Yes, your honour,’ replied the miser. ‘Then as this onecontainsonehundredpoundsitcannotbeyours.’

40. Heansweredslowly,‘Alas!mydearson,whydoyouasktheonethingIcannotgrantyou?Yourhandsaretooweaktoreinthosefierybeasts;youdonotknowthepath.Come,asksomethingelse,anythingbutthat.’

41. Thespeakersaid,‘Ientirelyobjecttotheproposal.Iobjecttoitasfoundedonawrongprinciple,andIobjecttoitashighlyinconvenientatthistime.Haveyouconsideredallthatthisproposalinvolves?Gentlemen,Ientreatyoutobecautious.’

42. Kausalyasaid toRama, ‘Donotdesire,Omychild, topossess themoon,because it is thousandsofmilesoff, and it isnot aplaything for childrenand no child ever got it. If you wish I will bring some jewels that arebrighterthanthemoon,andyoucanplaywiththem.’

43. Thehenbirdwasjustabouttolay,andshesaidtohermate:‘Cannotyoufindmesomeplaceconvenientforlayingmyeggs?’‘Andisnotthis,’hereplied,‘averygoodplaceforthepurpose?’‘No,’sheanswered.‘foritiscontinually overflowed by the tide.’ ‘Am I, then, become so feeble,’ heexclaimed, ‘that the eggs laid inmyhouse are to be carried awayby the

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sea?’Thehenbirdlaughedandsaid,‘Thereissomeconsiderabledifferencebetweenyouandthesea.’

44. A cat hearing that a henwas laid up sick in her nest, paid her a visit ofcondolence,andcreepinguptoher,said:‘Howareyou,mydearfriend?WhatcanIdoforyou?Whatareyouinwantof?Onlytellme.Is thereanythingintheworldthatIcanbringyou?Keepupyourspirits,anddonotbealarmed.’‘Thankyou,’saidthehen.‘Doyoubegoodenoughtoleaveme,andIhavenofearbutIshallsoonbewell.’

45. ‘Sweetchild,’heanswered, ‘donot fret, for Icanmakeyouhappierherethaneveryoucouldhavebeenontheearth;Iwillgiveyoubeautifulthingsto play with, which a queen would envy. Rubies and diamonds shall beyourtoys,andyourplatesshallbeofsolidgold.Allthebeautifulthingsyousee, belong to me, for I am king of this rich underworld.’ But she onlyreplied,‘Iwashappyplayingwiththepebblesontheseashore,andIcareonlyforthesparkleofthelittlewavesontheshiningsand.Heretherearenoflowers,nosun,’andsheweptanew.

*ThethatisoftenomittedespeciallyinspokenEnglish.

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PARTII

CORRECTUSAGE

CHAPTER17

AGREEMENTOFTHEVERBWITHTHESUBJECT

109.AVerbmustagreewithitsSubjectinNumberandPerson.Often,bywhatiscalledthe“ErrorofProximity”,theverbismade

to agree in number with a noun near it instead of with its propersubject.Thisshouldbeavoidedasshowninthefollowingexamples:

Thequalityofthemangoeswasnotgood.Theintroductionofteaandcoffeeandsuchotherbeverageshasnotbeenwithoutsomeeffect.HisknowledgeofIndianvernacularsisfarbeyondthecommon.Thestateofhisaffairswassuchastocauseanxietytohiscreditors.If it were possible to get near when one of the volcanic eruptionstakesplace,weshouldseeagrandsight.The results of the recognition of this fact are seen in the gradualimprovementofthedietofthepoor.

110. Two or more singular nouns or pronouns joined by andrequireapluralverb;as,

Goldandsilverarepreciousmetals.Fireandwaterdonotagree.Knowledgeandwisdomhaveoftimesnoconnection.Areyourfatherandmotherathome?Inhimwerecentredtheirloveandtheirambition.HeandIwereplaying.

Butifthenounssuggestoneideatothemind,orrefertothesamepersonorthing,theverbissingular;as,

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EitherheorIammistaken. Eitheryouorheismistaken.Neitheryounorheistoblame. Neither my friend nor I am to

Timeandtidewaitsfornoman.Thehorseandcarriageisatthedoor.Breadandbutterishisonlyfood.Honourandgloryishisreward.Theriseandfallofthetideisduetolunarinfluence.Myfriendandbenefactorhascome.Thenovelistandpoetisdead.

111.Words joined toa singular subjectbywith,aswellas, etc.,areparenthetical.Theverbshouldthereforebeputinthesingular;as,

Thehouse,withitscontents,wasinsured.TheMayor,withhiscouncillors,istobepresent.Theship,withitscrew,waslost.Silver,aswellascotton,hasfalleninprice.Sanskrit,aswellasArabic,wastaughtthere.Justice,aswellasmercy,allowsit.Theguidance,aswellastheloveofamother,waswanting.

112.Twoormoresingularsubjectsconnectedbyorornorrequireasingularverb;as.

Nonookorcornerwasleftunexplored.Ourhappinessoroursorrowislargelyduetoourownactions.Eitherthecatorthedoghasbeenhere.Neitherfoodnorwaterwastobefoundthere.Neitherpraisenorblameseemstoaffecthim.

Butwhenoneofthesubjectsjoinedbyorornorisplural,theverbmust be plural, and the plural subject should be placed nearest theverb;as,

NeithertheChairmannorthedirectorsarepresent.

113. When the subjects joined by or or nor are of differentpersons,theverbagreeswiththenearer;as,

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blame.

Heismistaken,orelseIam. Youaremistaken,orelseheis.Heisnottoblame,norareyou. My friend is not to blame, nor

amI.

Greatpainshavebeentaken. Muchpainshasbeentaken.Allpossiblemeanshavebeentried.

The means employed by you issufficient.

Butitisbettertoavoidtheseconstructions,andtowrite:

114.Either,neither,each,everyone,manya,mustbefollowedbyasingularverb;as,

Heaskedmewhethereitheroftheapplicantswassuitable.Neitherofthetwomenwasverystrong.EachofthesesubstancesisfoundinIndia.Everyoneoftheprisonsisfull.Everyoneoftheboyslovestoride.Manyamanhasdoneso.Manyamandoesnotknowhisowngooddeeds.Manyamanhassuccumbedtothistemptation.

115. Two nouns qualified by each or every, even thoughconnectedbyand,requireasingularverb;as,

Everyboyandeverygirlwasgivenapacketofsweets.

116. Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular inmeaning,takeasingularverb;as,

Thenewsistrue.Politicswaswithhimthebusinessofhislife.Thewagesofsinisdeath.Mathematicsisabranchofstudyineveryschool.

117.Pains andmeans takeeither the singularor thepluralverb,buttheconstructionmustbeconsistent;as,

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Inthesenseofincome,thewordmeansalwaystakesapluralverb;as,

Mymeansweremuchreducedowingtothatheavyloss.Hismeansareample.

118.Somenounswhicharesingularinform,butpluralinmeaningtakeapluralverb;as,

Accordingtothepresentmarketratetwelvedozencostonehundredrupees.

119. None, though properly singular, commonly takes a pluralverb(see§132);as,

Nonearesodeafasthosewhowillnothear.Cows are amongst the gentlest of breathing creatures ; none showmorepassionatetendernesstotheiryoung.

120.ACollectivenountakesasingularverbwhenthecollectionisthoughtofasonewhole;pluralverbwhentheindividualsofwhichitiscomposedarethoughtof;as,

TheCommitteehasissueditsreport.TheCommitteearedividedononeminorpoint.

Butwemustbeconsistent.Thus,weshouldsay:

TheCommitteehasappendedanotetoits(nottheir)report.

121.Whenthepluralnounisapropernameforsomesingleobjectorsomecollectiveunit,itmustbefollowedbyasingularverb;as,

TheArabianNightsisstillagreatfavourite.TheUnitedStateshasabignavy.Plutarch’sLivesisaninterestingbook.Gullliver’sTravelswaswrittenbySwift.

122.Whenapluralnoundenotessomespecificquantityoramountconsideredasawhole,theverbisgenerallysingular;as,

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Fifteenminutesisallowedtoeachspeaker.Tenkilometersisalongwalk.Fiftythousandrupeesisalargesum.Threepartsofthebusinessisleftformetodo.

Exercise110.IneachofthefollowingsentencessupplyaVerbinagreementwithitsSubject:1. Totakepayandthennottodowork____dishonest.2. Thecostofallthesearticles____risen.3. Thejury____dividedintheiropinions.4. Thatnighteveryoneoftheboat’screw____downwithfever.5. Oneortheotherofthosefellows____stolenthewatch.6. Thestrainofallthedifficultiesandvexationsandanxieties____morethan

hecouldbear.7. Nonews____goodnews.8. Theaccountantandthecashier_____absconded.9. Agoodmanandusefulcitizen_____passedaway.10. Thefamousjugglerandconjurer____toounwelltoperform.11. TheThreeMusketeers____writtenbyDumas.12. Eachofthesuspectedmen____arrested.13. Theebbandflowofthetides____explainedbyNewton.14. Ninetyrupees_____toomuchforthisbag.15. Thecowaswellasthehorse_____grass.16. Neitherhisfathernorhismother_____alive.17. There_____manyobjectionstotheplan.18. Two-thirdsofthecity_____inruins.19. Theformationofparagraphs_____veryimportant.20. Man’shappinessormisery_____inagreatmeasureinhisownhands.

CHAPTER18

NOUNSANDPRONOUNS123. Words like book, table, flower and apple are “countable

nouns” : they are things that can be counted. Such nouns can havepluralformsandareusedwitha/an.

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Wrong: Hegavemeanadvice.Right: Hegavemesomeadvice(or:apieceofadvice).Wrong: Thescenerieshereareverygood.Right: Thesceneryhereisverygood.

Wordslikeink,milk,goldandwisdomare“uncountablenouns”:theyare things thatcannotbecounted.Normallyuncountablenounsdonothavepluralformsandcannotbeusedwitha/an.

NotethatthefollowingnounsareusuallyuncountableinEnglish:advice, news, information, furniture, luggage, work, business,weather, traffic, scenery, paper (=writingmaterial),bread.Most ofthesearecountableinIndianlanguagesandthereforeIndianstudentsoftenwronglyusethemwitha/anandintheplural.

Ifyouarethinkingofoneseparateitemorunitofanuncountablething,youmaysayapieceof/abottleof,etc.

apieceofadvice,apieceofwork,apiece/barofsoap,abottleofmilk124. The use of the Possessive (or Genitive) Case should be

confinedtothefollowing:(1)Namesoflivingbeingsandpersonifiedobjects;as,

The Governor’s bodyguards ; the lion’s mane ; Nature’s laws ;Fortune’sfavourite.

(2)Afewstereotypedphrases;as,Forconscience’ sake, forgoodness’ sake, athis fingers’ ends,outofarm’sway,theboat’screw.

(3)Nounsofspaceortimedenotinganamountofsomething;as,Aday’swork,ahand’sbreadth,inayear’stime.

125.Whentwonounsinthepossessivecaseareinappositiontheapostrophewithsisaddedtothelastonly;as,

Thisismyuncle,theengineer’soffice.MybrotherHarry’swatch.ForthyservantDavid’ssake.

125A.Whenonenounisqualifiedbytwopossessivenounsboth

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musthavethepossessivesign,unlessjointpossessionisindicated.

TheKingandQueen’sjourneytoIndia.HuntleyandPalmer’sbiscuits.

126.Grammariansformerlyrecommendedthatthecomplementofthe verb to be,when it is expressed by a pronoun, should be in thenominativecase.Todaytheuseofthenominativeformisconsideredextremelyformalandover-correct.Weusuallyusetheobjectiveform.

Itisme.(Rare:ItisI.)Itwashim.

127.TheObjectofaverborofapreposition,whenitisaPronoun,shouldbeintheObjectiveform;as,

Betweenyouandme(notI)affairslookdark.Thereisreallynodifferencebetweenyouandme.Letyouandme(notI)doit.PleaseletJackandmegotothetheatre.Her (notshe),whohadbeen theappleofhiseye,henowbegan toregardwith something like distrust.Him (not he), who had alwaysinspired in her a respect which almost overcame her affection, shenowsawtheobjectofopenpleasantry.Hehasgivengreattroubletomyfatherandme(notI).

128.Apronoundirectlyafterthanorasisusuallyintheobjectivecaseunlessthereisaverbafterit.Ifaverbfollowsit,thenominativeformisused.

Heistallerthanme.[Or]HeistallerthanIam.(Moreformal)Iswimbetterthanhim.[Or]Iswimbetterthathedoes.(Moreformal)Iamastallasher.[Or]Iamastallassheis.(Moreformal)

Thenominativeformwithoutaverbafterit(e.g.‘HeistallerthanI’)isold-fashioned.

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129.APronounmustagreewithitsAntecedentinperson,numberandgender.

Allpassengersmustshowtheirtickets.Everymanmustbearhisownburden.Eachofthegirlsgaveherownversionoftheaffair.Iamnotoneofthosewhobelieveeverythingthey(notI)hear.

130. In referring toanybody,everybody,everyone,anyone,each,etc., the pronoun of the masculine or the feminine gender is usedaccordingtothecontext;as,

Ishallbegladtohelpeveryoneofmyboysinhisstudies.

Whatpronounshouldbeusedtoreferbacktoanybody,everyone,each, etc. when the sex is not determined? Some grammariansrecommendthatthepronounofthemasculinegendershouldbeusedas there isno singularpronounof the thirdperson to representbothmaleandfemale,e.g.,

Anybodycandoitifhetries.Everyoneranasfastashecould.

Inpresent-dayEnglish,anybody,everyone,etc.areoftenfollowedbyapluralpronoun(they/them/their)exceptinveryformalspeechorwriting.

Anybodycandoitiftheytry.Everyoneranasfastastheycould.Eachofthemhadtheirshare.

131. The indefinite pronoun one should be used throughout, ifusedatall.

Onecannotbetoocarefulaboutwhatone(nothe)says.Onecannotbetoocarefulofone’s(nothis)goodname.Onedoesnotliketohaveone’sworddoubted.Onemustnotboastofone’sownsuccess.Onemustuseone’sbesteffortsifonewishestosucceed.

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Didyoubuyanymangoes? Therewerenoneinthemarket.Haveyoubroughtmealetter? Therewasnoneforyou.

Cannotonedowhatonelikeswithone’sown?

It is better to change the form of the sentence than to keep onrepeatingone.

132.None isconstruedinthesingularorpluralasthesensemayrequire;as,

When the singular equallywell expresses the sense, theplural iscommonlyused;as,

Noneofthesewordsarenowcurrentlyused.Noneofhispoemsarewellknown.Nonebutfoolshavebelievedit.

133.Anyoneshouldbeusedwhenmorethantwopersonsorthingsarespokenof;as,

Shewastallerthananyone(noteither)ofherfivesisters.134. Each, either, and neither are distributive pronouns calling

attentiontotheindividualsformingacollection,andmustaccordinglybefollowedbyverbsinthesingular.

Eachofthescholarshas(nothave)donewell.Eachofthemenwas(notwere)paidtwentyrupees.Neitherofthemwasinvitedtotheparty.Neitheroftheaccusationsistrue.Eitheroftheroadsleadstotherailwaystation.Heaskedwhethereitherofthebrotherswasathome.

135. Be careful to usewho (Nominative) andwhom (Objective)correctly.

There’sMr.Dutt,who(notwhom)theysayisthebestportraitpainterinthetown.Who(notwhom)theywereIreallycannotspecify.Iwasthemanwho(notwhom)theythoughtwasdead.Hewasthemanwho(notwhom)theydeterminedshouldbethenextmayor.

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Therearesomewho(notwhom)Ithinkareclever.Therearemanywho(notwhom)weknowquitewellarehonest.One evening of each week was set apart by him for the receptionofwhosoever(notwhomsoever)chosetovisithim.Who(notwhom)didyousaywasthere?Who(notwhom)doyouthinksheis?Theywereapeoplewhomitwasnotadvisabletoexcite.Thestudent,whom(notwho)youthoughtsohighlyof,hasfailedtowinthefirstprize.Whomdoyouwishtosee?

Who(notwhom)doyoubelievehimtobe?Note that today whom is not usual except in formal English.WhoreplaceswhominspokenEnglish.

Whodidyoumeet?Whoareyougoingwith?ThisisthemanwhoItalkedaboutthismorning.

Asarelativepronounwhoreplaceswhomonlyindefiningclauses.136.Whenthesubjectofaverbisarelativepronouncareshould

be taken to see that the verb agrees in number and personwith theantecedentoftherelative;as,

This is one of the most interesting novels that have (not has)appearedthisyear.[Theantecedentofthatisnovels,notone.]Heisoneofthecleverestboysthathavepassedthroughtheschool.Oneofthegreatestjudgesthathaveeverlivedlaidthisdownaslaw.It was one of the best speeches that have ever been made in theParliament.Thisistheonlyoneofhispoemsthatis(notare)worthreading.[Heretheantecedentofthatisone.“Ofhispoemsthisistheonlyonethatisworthreading.”]

137. A definite word as the antecedent of the relative pronounwhich make the sentences easier to understand than is possibleotherwise.Thusthesentence,“Hisfootslipped,whichcausedhimto

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fallheavily,”wouldbeeasierreading,andhencebetter,as;

Hisfootslipped,andthiscausedhimtofallheavily.

Similarlyweshouldsay:

Iwenthomeformyumbrella,andthis(ratherthanwhich)preventedmefrombeingintime.Igavehimasovereign,andthisleftmepenniless.Hefellheavily,andthiscausedhimgreatpain.

138.Andwhich,butwhich—Therelativeitselffulfilsthepurposeof a conjunction ; hence no conjunction should be placed before itexcept to join together two relative clauses referring to the sameantecedent;as,

He possessed a sandalwood table which was of excellentworkmanship,andwhichhadbeeninhisfamilyforgenerations.

Butthefollowingsentencesareincorrect:

Hehasawardrobeofwonderfulcarving,andwhichhasbeeninhisfamilyforgenerations.Theywishedmetodrinkwiththem,butwhichIdeclined.

Exercise111.Fillineachblankwith“who”or“whom”:1. Imetamantoday____Ihadjustheardwasonthecontinent.2. Anyofyoumaytakeit;Idon’tcare____.3. ____didyougivethatletterto?4. Theman____Ithoughtwasmyfrienddeceivedme.5. Therewasnodoubtasto____thespeakermeant.6. The vacancy was filled byMr. Rao ____ the manager said ought to be

promoted.7. Thevacancywas filled byMr.Rao____ themanager thoughtworthy of

promotion.8. ItisSohrab____Ithinkisthebetterofthetwoatswimming.9. Aliwastheman____theyintendedshouldbeourcaptainnextyear.10. ____doyouthinkisthebetterofthetwoattennis?11. EnochArden,____,hiswifethought,haddiedmanyyearsbefore,suddenly

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reappeared.12. Theboy____Itrustedprovedworthyofmyconfidence.13. ____doyoutakemefor?14. ____areyouspeakingto?15. ____domendeclaremetobe?16. Aboy____Ibelievedtobehimjustpassedthisway.17. I____ammostconcerned,wasnotconsulted.18. Theman____youwishedtoseeishere.19. Whereistheboyabout____youwerespeaking?

Exercise112.Correctthefollowingsentences:1. Whereareyourluggages?2. Whatbeautifulsceneries!3. Canyougivemeanadvice?4. Hehaseatentwobreads.5. Ihaveanimportantworktodo.6. Whatanawfulweather!

Exercise113.Tellwhichoftheitalicizedformsisright,andgivethereason:1. Sheisoneofthebestmothersthat(hasorhave)everlived.2. Youarenotthefirstmanthat(hasorhave)beendeceivedbyappearances.3. One of his many good traits that (comes or come) to my mind was his

modesty.4. Thisisoneofthethingsthat(killsorkill)ambition.5. Treasure Island is one of the best pirate stories that (was orwere) ever

written.6. Ambitionisoneofthosepassionsthat(isorare)neversatisfied.7. Thisisoneofthesongsthat(wasorwere)mostpopular.8. Welamenttheexcessivedelicacyofhisideas,which(preventsorprevent)

onefromgraspingthem.9. Tyrannyisoneofthoseevilswhich(tendsortend)toperpetuate(itselforthemselves).

Exercise114.Fillintheblanks:1. Allfailedexcept____.(he,him)2. Thatisamatterbetweenyouand____.(I,me)3. LeaveNelland____totoilalone.(I,me)

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4. Itisnot____whoaretoblame.(we,us)5. Youand____areinvitedtoteathismorning.(I,me)6. Betweenyouand____,hedrinksheavily.(I,me)139.SometimesaPronounisinsertedwhereitisnotrequired;as:

Theapplicant,beingahouseholder,heisentitledtoavote.(Incorrect)Herethepronounheisnotrequired.140.AnounorpronouninthePossessivecaseshouldnotbeused

astheantecedanttoarelativepronoun;as,

Do not forget his enthusiasm who brought this movement so far.(Incorrect)

Changetheconstructionto—

Donotforgettheenthusiasmofhimwhobroughtthismovementsofar.(Correct).

141.TherelativepronounissometimeswronglyomittedwhenitistheSubjectoftheclause;as,

Hehasanimpudencewouldcarryhimthroughanything.(Incorrect)

Say:

He has an impudence that would carry him through anything.(Correct)

142.Whentheantecedentissame,theconsequentshouldbeasorthat.

Thatisthesamemanthat(oras)wesawyesterday.Iplayedwiththesamebatthatyoudid.

143. Pronouns of the third person plural should not be used asantecedentstowhoandthat;as,

Theythatarewholehavenoneedofaphysician.

Herethoseistobepreferredtothey.144. Avoid the use of same as a substitute for the personal

pronoun.

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When you have examined these patterns please return them (notsame)tous.

CHAPTER19

ADJECTIVES145. The Adjective is correctly used with a verb when some

quality of the subject, rather than of the action of the verb, is to beexpressed;as,

Theflowerssmellsweet(notsweetly).Shelooksdainty.Thatstatementsoundsqueer.Ittastessour.Hefeelssad.

As a general rule, if any phrase denoting manner could besubstituted,theadverbshouldbeused;butifsomepartoftheverbtobecouldbeemployedasaconnective,theAdjectiveisrequired.

Theshipappearedsuddenly.Thedecisionappearsunjust.Hisfriendsnowbegantolookcoldlyuponhim.Helookscold.Wefeelwarmlyonthesubject.Wefeelwarm.Hespokeangrily.Helookedangry.

146. The plural forms these and those are often used with thesingularnounskindandsort;as,

Thesekindofthings.

Suchaformofexpressionis,however,constanlyheardandoccursingoodwriters.Somegrammariansinsistthatweshouldsay:

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“Thiskindofthings”or,better,“Thingsofthiskind.”

147.Thewords,superior,inferior,senior,junior,prior,anterior,andposterior,taketoinsteadofthan,as,

AsanovelistJaneAustenissuperiortoMrs.HenryWood.HariisinferiortoRamainintelligence.ThedeathofKingEdwardVIIwaspriortoWorldWarI.Heisseniortome.

148.IncomparingtwothingsorclassesofthingstheComparativeshouldbeused;as,

Ofthetwosuggestions,theformeristhebetter.Ofthetwonovels,thisisthemoreinteresting.Whichisthecheaperofthetwo?Heisthetallerofthetwo.

This rule is, however, not strictly observed. In informal Englishthe superlative is often used when we talk about one of only twoitems.Wecanusebest,most interesting, cheapest and tallest in thesentencesabove.

149.WhenacomparisonisinstitutedbymeansofaComparativefollowedbythan, thethingcomparedmustbealwaysexcludedfromtheclassofthingswithwhichitiscompared,byusingotherorsomesuchwords;as,

Heisstrongerthananyothermanliving.

[Thesentence“Heisstronger thananymanliving”suggests thatthe person referred to is stronger than himself, which is of course,absurd.]

MussolinimaybesaidtohavedonemorefortheunityofItalythananyotherman.The Nile is said to be longer than all other rivers in the easternhemisphere.TheTajismorebeautifulthanallothermausoleums.Solomonwaswiserthanallothermen.

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150. In a comparison bymeans of a Superlative, the latter termshouldincludetheformer;as,

Solomonwasthewisestofallmen(notallothermen.)Thecrocodileisthelargestofallreptiles.TheAmazonisthelargestofallrivers.Ofallmenheisthestrongest.

151. Of any is often used incorrectly in conjunction with aSuperlative;as,

Hehasthelightesttouchofanymusician.

Thisshouldberewrittenasfollows:

Hehasalightertouchthananyothermusician.[Or]Noothermusicianhassolightatouch.

152.Averycommonformoferrorisexemplifiedinthefollowingsentence:

ThepopulationofLondonisgreaterthananycityinIndia.

Say:

ThepopulationofLondonisgreaterthanthatofanycityinIndia.

Thecomparisonisbetween:(i)thepopulationofLondonand(ii)thepopulationofanycityinIndia.

153. Double Comparatives and Superlatives are to be avoided,though their use was once common in English. Thus, we have inShakespeare—

Itwasthemostunkindestcutofall.

Thefollowingsentenceisincorrect:

Seldomhadthelittletownseenamorecostlierfuneral.[Omitmore]

Butlesser(adoublecomparative)isusedevenbythebestauthors.

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Thelesserofthetwoevils.

154.PreferablehastheforceofaComparative,andisfollowedbyto.Wemustnotsaymorepreferable.

Hehasaschemeofhisownwhichhethinkspreferabletothatofanyotherperson.

155. Less (the comparative of little) is used before uncountablenouns, while fewer (the comparative of few) is used before pluralnouns. However, less is also often used before plural nouns ininformalEnglish.

Nofewer(orless)thanfiftyminerswerekilledintheexplosion.

156.Certainadjectivesdonotreallyadmitofcomparisonbecausetheirmeaningisalreadysuperlative;as,

Unique, ideal, perfect, complete, universal, entire, extreme, chief,square,round

Donotthereforesay:

Mostunique,quiteunique,chiefest,extremist.

Butwestillsay,forinstance:

ThisisthemostperfectspecimenIhaveseen.

157.Olderandoldestmaybesaideitherofpersonsorof things,whileelderandeldestapplytopersonsonly,andarebesides,strictlyspeaking,confinedtomembersofthesamefamily.

GladstonewasolderthanMorley.He will succeed to the title in the event of the death of his elderbrother.PatriciaistheeldestoftheVicar’sfamily.OldFarmerGilesistheoldestinhabitantinourvillage.

158.The twofirst isameaninglessexpression,for it implies thattwothingsmaybefirst.Weshouldsay“thefirsttwo.”

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Thefirsttwochaptersofthenovelareratherdull.Thefirsttwoboyswereawardedgoldmedals.

159.Fewandafewhavedifferentmeanings.Fewisnegative,andequivalenttonotmany,hardlyany.Afewispositive,andequivalenttosome.

Fewpersonscankeepasecret.Afewwordsspokeninearnestwillconvincehim.

Similarlylittle=notmuch;alittle=some,thoughnotmuch.

Thereislittlehopeofhisrecovery.Alittletactwouldhavesavedthesituation.

160.Latter isoftenwronglyused for last.Use latterwhen therearetwoonly,lastwhentherearemore.

Of the three, tea, coffee and cocoa, the last (not latter) is hisfavourite.

161.Verbalisoftenwronglyusedfororal.Verbalmeans ‘oforpertaining towords’;oralmeans, ‘delivered

bywordofmouth’,notwritten.Hencetheoppositeofwrittenisoral,notverbal.

Hiswritten statement differs in several important respects from hisoral(notverbal)statement.Theladwassentwithanoralmessagetothedoctor.There are a few verbal differences in the two manuscripts (i.e.,differencesinwords,notinsense).The photograph will give the reader a far better notion of thestructurethananyverbaldescription.Wereyourinstructionsoralorwritten?

162.Donotsay‘ourmutualfriend.’Theproperexpressionis‘ourcommonfriend’.

Theywereintroducedtoeachotherbyacommon(notmutual)friend.Wehappenedtomeetatthehouseofacommonfriend.

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CHAPTER20

VERBS163.Thesubjectofthesentenceshouldnotbeleftwithoutaverb.

Thefollowingsentenceisincorrect:

Hewhohassufferedmostinthecause,lethimspeak.

Recastasshownbelow:

Lethimwhohassufferedmostinthecausespeak.[Or]Hewhohassufferedmostinthecauseshouldspeak.

164. A verb should agree with its subject, and not with thecomplement;as,

What is wanted is (not are ) not large houses with modernconveniences,butsmallcottages.Thedetailsareamatterforfutureconsideration.Ourfollowersarebutahandful.

165.Inacompoundsentenceasingleverbcanbemadetododutyfortwosubjects,onlywhentheformoftheverbissuchastopermitofit;as,

Notadrumwasheard,notafuneralnote[washeard].

But the following sentence is incorrect, because the subjects arenotinthesamenumber:

Hisdietwasabstemious,hisprayerslongandfervent.

Weshouldrewriteitasfollows:

Hisdietwasabstemious,hisprayerswerelongandfervent.

[In a sentence like this, Mr. Fowler regards the ellipsis aspermissible.]

166. Two auxiliaries can be used with one principal verb, only

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Lay,laid,laid. Lie,lay,lainLaythechilddowntosleep. Letmeliehere.Ilaidthebookonthetable. Helayunderthatpipal-tree.Thehenhaslaidanegg.

when the form of the principal verb is appropriate to both theauxiliaries;as,

Ineverhavehurtanybody,andneverwill.Nostatecanorwilladoptthisdrasticmeasure.

Butthefollowingsentenceisincorrect:

Heneverhas,andneverwill,takesuchstrongmeasures.

Rewriteitasfollows:

Heneverhastaken,andneverwilltake,suchstrongmeasures.

167.When there is only one auxiliary to two principal verbs, itshouldbesuchthatitmaybecorrectlyassociatedwithboth;as,

Tenriotershavebeensentenced,andfiveacquitted.

Butthefollowingsentenceisincorrect:

Tennewmembershavebeenenrolled,andsevenresigned.

Rewriteitasfollows:

Tennewmembershavebeenenrolledandsevenhaveresigned.

168.Carefullydistinguishbetweentheverbslayandlie.Theverblay is transitive and is always followedby anobject; the verb lie isintransitiveandcannothaveanobject.

169. An Infinitive should be in the present tense unless itrepresentsactionpriortothatofthegoverningverb;as,

Ishouldhavelikedtogo(nottohavegone).

Butwecorrectlysay—

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HeseemstohaveenjoyedhisstayatMahabaleshwar.

170.Acommonblunder is to leave theParticiplewithoutproperagreementorwithnoagreementatall;as,

Sittingonthegate,ascorpionstunghim.

Here theword “scorpion” towhich the participle “sitting” refersgrammatically is not thatwithwhich it ismeant to be connected insense;inotherwords,theParticipleisleftwithoutproperagreement.

Weshouldthereforerecastitasshownbelow:

Sittingonthegate,hewasstungbyascorpion.[Or]Whilehewassittingonthegate,ascorpionstunghim.

NowreadthefollowingsentencewheretheParticipleis leftwithnoagreementatall:

Beingaveryhotday,Iremainedinmytent.

Here the sentence contains no word to which the Participle canpossiblyrefer.Weshouldthereforewrite:

Asitwasaveryhotday,Iremainedinmytent.

171. Usage, however, permits in certain cases constructions likethefollowing:

Consideringhisabilities,heshouldhavedonebetter.Roughly speaking, the distance from here to the nearest railwaystationistwomiles.Takingeverythingintoconsideration,hislotisahappyone.

Itwillbenoticedthatineachsentencetheunexpressedsubjectisindefinite.Thus:

Taking everything into consideration=Ifone should take everythingintoconsideration.

172.Apresentparticipleshouldnotbeused toexpressanactionwhichisnotcontemporaneouswiththeactionoftheprincipalverb.

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IfIwereyou[butIamnot],Ishouldagree.Meresupposition Ifhewerehere,hewouldsupportme.

ThoughhewerethePrimeMinister,Iwouldsaythesame.

Thefollowingsentenceisthereforeincorrect:

HesailedforNewYorkonMonday,arrivingthereonSaturday.

Rewriteitasfollows:

HesailedforNewYorkonMonday,andarrivedthereonSaturday.

173. The SubjunctiveMood is sometimes wrongly used for theIndicative.Whenthestatementintroducedbyiforthoughisanactualfact,orwhatisassumedasafact,theproperMoodtobeusedistheIndicativeandnottheSubjunctive.

Thoughthewarisover,thereismuchdiscontent.Ifhewasthere,hemusthaveheardthetalk.

ButtheSubjunctiveiscorrectlyusedinthefollowingsentences:

174.Theverbmakeisfollowedbynoun/pronoun+plaininfinitive(= infinitivewithout to).Many studentswrongly use itwith the to-infinitive.

Shemadetheboydothewholework.(not:todothewholework.)

175. When used in the passive, make is followed by the to-infinitive.

Theboywasmadetodothewholework.

176. The following verbs are often wrongly used with the to-infinitive:enjoy,avoid,miss,postpone,suggest.Theyshouldbeusedwiththegerund.

Heenjoysswimming.(not:toswim)Sheavoidsmeetingpeople.(not:toavoid)WemissedseeingthePrimeMinister.(not:tosee)

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1. Wrong:Sureshtoldtomeaboutit.Right:Sureshtoldmeaboutit.

2. Wrong:Shetoldshewouldn’tcome.Right:Shetoldmeshewouldn’tcome./Shesaidshewouldn’tcome.

3. Wrong:Iwantthatyoushouldmeethim.Right:Iwantyoutomeethim.

4. Wrong:Isuggestyoutoapplyforthepost.Right:Isuggestthatyou(should)applyforthepost.

Wrong: Wediscussedaboutthematteryesterday.Right: Wediscussedthematteryesterday.Wrong: Hedescribedaboutthescenery.Right: Hedescribedthescenery.Wrong: Ihaveorderedforthreecupsofcoffee.Right: Ihaveorderedthreecupsofcoffee.Wrong: Sherequestedformyhelp.Right: Sherequestedmyhelp.

Notethefollowing:

Theverbtellisfollowedbyanindirectobject(me,him,her,etc.)withoutto.

Whenusedwithathat-clause,telltakesanindirectobject,whilesaydoesnot.

Theverbwant shouldnotbeusedwitha that-clause. It isusedwiththeto-infinitive.

Theverbsuggest shouldbeusedwitha that-clause. It cannotbeusedwiththeto-infinitive.

177.Theverbsdiscuss,describe,orderandrequestare transitiveverbs.Studentsoftenwronglyusetheseverbswithapreposition.

Exercise115.Recastthefollowingsentences:1. Beingcondemnedtodeath,thescaffoldwaserectedforhisexecution.2. BorninSurat,apartofhiseducationwasreceivedinMumbai.3. Observingthehouseonfire,theenginesweresentfor.4. Beingawetday,Iworemymackintosh.

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5. Havinggonetobedverylate,thesunwokemeataboutnineo’clock.6. Referringtoyouresteemedinquiry,thepricesofthearticlesareasfollows.7. Standingonthetopofthehill,theeyeroamsoverthebeautifullandscape.8. Havingfailedinthefirstattempt,nofurtherattemptsweremade.9. Bearingthisinmind,noparticulardifficultywillbefound.10. TravellingfromKarjattoKhandala,thelineismostbeautifullylaid.11. Beinghissolecompanion,henaturallyaddressedhimselftome.12. Crossingthechannel,aheavystormarose.13. Hopingtohearfromyousoon,yourssincerely.14. Callinguponhimyesterday,hesubscribedahandsomesumtotheFamine

ReliefFund.15. Goingupthehill,anoldtemplewasseen.16. Restingincoolshelter,thehourswerebeguiledwithdesultorytalk.17. Havingobtainedinformation,hewasarrestedforcomplicityintheplot.18. Wearywithtravelling,thedestinationseemedahundredmilesaway.19. Meetingmyfriendinthepark,hetoldmeallthenews.20. Enteringtheroom,thelightwasquitedazzling.

For a detailed treatment of the uses of the Tenses andAuxiliaries,seechapters25,26and32,BookI.

CHAPTER21

ADVERBS178.Adverbsshouldbesoplacedinasentenceastomakeitquite

clear which word or words they are intended to modify. HenceAdverbs should come, if possible, next to the word or words theymodify.

Hehadgotalmosttothetopwhentheropebroke.

179.Asageneralrule,onlyshouldbeplacedimmediatelybeforetheworditisintendedtomodify;as,

Iworkedonlytwosums.OnlyBalusucceededinscoringacentury.Ipraisehimonlywhenhedeservesit.

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InspokenEnglish,however,itisusuallyputbeforetheverb.Therequired meaning is obtained by stressing the word which the onlymodifies;e.g.,

Heonlyworkedtwosums.(Thewordtwoisstressed.)

180.Theadverbsever,never,scarcely,everareoftenmisplaced,asinthefollowingsentence:

Quitethemostremarkablearticleweeverremembertohaveread.[Say:werememberever......]

181. Two negatives destroy each other. Hence two negativesshouldnotbeused in thesamesentenceunlesswewish tomakeanaffirmation.Weshouldsay:

Ihaven’tgotany(notnone).Icouldnotfinditanywhere(notnowhere).Ihavenotgotany(notno)paperformyexercise.Ican’tseeany(notno)witinher.Scarcelyanyonebelievesinsuchghoststoriesnowadays.(Not,Noonescarcelybelieves.......)

182.Adjectives shouldnotbeused forAdverbs.Weshould say,forinstance:

Heatethesweetsgreedily(notgreedy).Hewillpaydearly(notdear)forhismistake.

183.Everissometimesmisusedfornever.Weseldomornever(notever)seethoseforsakenwhotrustinGod.Suchgoodsaremadeforexport,andareseldomornever(notever)usedinthecountry.

Note—Seldom or never and seldom if ever are both correct butseldomoreverisincorrect.

184.Elseshouldbefollowedbybut.Itisnothingelsebut(notthan)pride.

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185.Theuseofneverfornotisincorrect.Wemettheotherday,butheneverreferredtothematter.[Say:hedidnoteverrefer....]KiplingwasneverborninLondon.[Say:Kiplingwasnotborn......]I never remember having met him. [Say: I do not remember everhavingmethim.]

186. Except colloquially, so as an adverb of degreemust not beusedabsolutely(i.e.,withoutacorrelative.)Weshouldsay:

Heisvery(notso)weak.

Cricketisvery(notso)uncertain.Iwasvery(notso)lonely.187. That should not be used instead of so as an adverb. We

shouldsay:

Hewentonlyso(notthat)far.Hewasso(notthat)tiredthathecouldscarcelystand.Hewasso(notthat)angrythatheslammedthebookonthetable.

188.Theadverbtoomeans“morethanenough”andshouldnotbeused insteadofveryormuch. In the followingsentences too isusedcorrectly:

Thenewsistoogoodtobetrue.Myheartistoofullforwords.Theworkistoomuchforanymantodosingle-handed.Heistoomuchexhaustedtospeak.

189.Of course is often loosely used for certainly, undoubtedly.Strictlyspeaking,ofcourseshouldbeusedtodenoteanaturaloraninevitableconsequence.

Doesshesingwell?Certainly(notofcourse)shedoes.

Exercise 116. Correct the following sentences and state yourreasonsfordoingso:1. Itwasbittercold.2. Icouldn’thelpnotlaughingatthejoke.

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3. Ineverremembertohaveseenamoreexcitedfootballmatch.4. Thisnovelistoointeresting.5. Ihaven’tgotnomoney.6. Myfriendsaidheneverrememberedhavingreadamoreenjoyablebook.7. Thishardlywonlibertywasnottobelightlyabandoned.8. Iammuchgladtoseeyou.9. Noonecanwriteasneatlyashedoes.10. Icannotbynomeansallowyoutodoso.11. Theflowerssmellsweetly.12. Idon’tknownothingwhateverofthematter.

CHAPTER22

CONJUNCTIONS190.Exceptisnotnowusedasaconjunctionequivalenttounless.

Ishallnotcomeunless(notexcept)youneedme.Donottroubleyourselfaboutwritingtome,unless(notexcept)youarequiteinthehumourforit.

191.TheuseofwithoutasconjunctionequivalenttounlessisnowbadEnglish.

Unless(notwithout)youapologizeIshallpunishyou.Ishallnotgounless(notwithout)youdo.

192. The adverb like is often wrongly used as a conjunctioninsteadofas.

Hespeaksas(notlike)hisfatherdoes.

Butitisquitecorrecttosay:

Hespeakslikehisfather.[Likeishereapreposition.]

193.Directlyshouldnotbeusedasaconjunctionwhereassoonaswouldineverywaybebetter.

As soon as [not directly] the session of 1999 commenced, the

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Governmentwaspressedtodosomethingfortheunemployed.

According to Fowler, “the conjunctional use of directly is quitedefensible,butischieflycolloquial.”

194.Theconjunctionthatissometimesredundantlyrepeated;as,Hemust remember that, although the first people in Europewouldlikehissociety,andplacehimonanequalitywiththemselves,[that]noneofthemwouldeithergiveorlendhimafarthing.

195. Instead of repeating the conjunction used in the precedingclause, somewritershavea trickof introducinga subsequent clausebythat;as,

If Idonotspeakof themit isbecause theydonotcomewithinmysubject, and not that they are lightly esteemed byme.[Usebecauseinsteadofthat.]

196.Scarcelyshouldbefollowedbywhen,andnotbythan.Scarcely had he gone,when (not than) a policeman knocked at thedoor.

197.Nosoonerisfollowedbythan,andnotbybut.Nosoonerhadhereturnedthan(notbut)hewasoffagain.

198.Thephrase“seldomorever”ismeaningless.Weshouldsay“seldomornever”.

Suchgoodsaremadeforexport,andareseldomorneverusedinthiscountry.

199.Say:IgavenomorethanIcouldnothelp(notthanIcouldhelp).

200.Examinethefollowingsentence:Thisisasgoodifnotbetterthanthat.

Youwillnoticethatasisomittedafter“asgood”.

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Itisbettertosay:

Thisisasgoodas,ifnotbetterthan,that.

Butthebestwaytocorrectthesentenceistorecastit,thus:

Thisisasgoodasthat,ifnotbetter.

201. Care should be taken,when using correlative conjunctions,such as either.....or, neither.....nor, not only....but also, that they arefollowedbythesamepartofspeech;as,

Helostnotonlyhisticket,butalsohisluggage.

Butthefollowingisincorrect:

Henotonlylosthisticket,butalsohisluggage.

202.Neitherisfollowedbynor,notbyor.Hewashedneitherhishandsnor(notor)hisface.

CHAPTER23

ORDEROFWORDS203.InEnglish,owingtothefewnessoftheinflexions,theorder

(orarrangement)ofthewordsinasentenceisofthefirstimportance.ThefollowingistheusualorderofwordsinanEnglishsentence:(1)Thesubjectusuallycomesbeforetheverb;as,

Thedogbitthehorse.Thepeoplerangthebellforjoy.

(2)Theobjectusuallycomesaftertheverb;as,

Thehorsebitthedog.TheKingwearsacrown.

(3)When there is an indirect object and also a direct object, the

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indirectprecedesthedirect;as,

Lendmeyourears.

(4)When the adjective is used attributively it comes before thenounwhichitqualifies;as,

Fewcatslilkecoldwater.Ilikethelittlepedlarwhohasacrookednose.KingFranciswasaheartyking,andlovedaroyalsport.

(5) When the adjective is used predicatively it comes after thenoun;as,

Thechildisasleep.Thehorsebecamerestive.

(6)Theadjectivephrasecomesimmediatelyafterthenoun;as,

OldTubalCainwasamanofmight.Thetopsofthemountainswerecoveredwithsnow.

(7) The adverb is generally placed close to the word which itmodifies;as,

Nothingeverhappensbychance.Johnisaratherlazyboy.Heworkedonlytwosums.Henevertellsalie.

Note.—When an adverb is intended tomodify the sentence as awhole,itisplacedatthebeginningofasentence;as,

Certainlyhemadeafoolofhimself.

(8) All qualifying clauses are placed as close as possible to thewordswhichtheyqualify;as,

Hediedinthevillagewherehewasborn.Thedogthatbitesdoesnotbark.Peoplewholiveinglasshousesshouldnotthrowstones.

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204.Thenormalorderofwordsinasentenceissometimesalteredforemphasis;as,

Uneasyliestheheadthatwearsacrown.MonkeysIdetest.Moneyyoushallhave.Blessedarethemerciful.GreatisDianaoftheEphesians.Greatisthestruggle,andgreatisalsotheprize.JustandtrueareallThyways.Fallen,fallenisBabylon!SilverandgoldhaveInone,butsuchasIhavegiveIuntothee.

205. Owing to faulty arrangement of words a sentence may beturnedintoperfectnon-sense;as,

Fewpeoplelearnanythingthatisworthlearningeasily.Heblewouthisbrains,afterbiddinghiswifegoodbyewithagun.Agentlemanhasadogtosellwhowishestogoabroad.

It is, therefore, essential that all qualifying words, phrases andclauses should be placed as near as possible to thewords towhichtheyrefer.

Exercise 117. Rewrite the following sentences, improving thearrangement:1. Forsale,piano,thepropertyofamusician,withcarvedlegs.2. He tore up the tender letterwhich hismother hadwritten him in a fit of

peevishvexation.3. The captain took the thingswhich the gods providedwith thankful good

humour.4. Sometimesyouwillseeanalligatorlyinginthesunshineonthebankeight

feetlong.5. AllthecourtierstoldtheQueenhowbeautifulshewasallthedaylong.6. Mrs. JeremyDaudwas sittingwithher husbandon the steps of thehotel

whenAmyandDulcecameup,withherlapfullofnewspapers.7. Themanoughttobebroughtbeforeamagistratewhoutterssuchthreats.8. HevisitedthebattlefieldwhereNapoleonwasdefeatedinhisholidays.

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9. Hekilledthesparrowwhichwaseatingsomecrumbswithagun.10. Nomagnanimousvictorwouldtreatthosewhomthefortuneofwarhadput

inhispowersocruelly.11. Theconstablesaid that theprisonerseizingabolster fullof rageandfury

hadknockedtheprosecutordown.12. Anursemaidiswantedforababyabouttwentyyearsold.13. Ispentthethreelastdaysofmyholidayinachairwithaswollenleg.14. Thismonumenthasbeenerected to thememoryof JohnBrownwhowas

accidentallyshotbyhisbrotherasamarkofaffection.15. Inthirty-sevenwrecksonlyfiveliveswerefortunatelylost.16. Thefollowingverseswerewrittenbyayoungmanwhohaslongsincebeen

deadforhisownamusement.17. Manyworksmustcloseifthestrikelastsovertheweekendowingtolackof

fuel.18. Therewillbeameetingofallboyswhoplaycricketandfootballinthelong

roomat4o’clcok.

Exercise 118. Rewrite the following sentences improving thearrangement:1. TheseactswerepushedthroughParliamentinspiteofoppositionwithbut

littlemodification.2. Thebeauxofthatdaypaintedtheirfacesaswellasthewomen.3. Hesawcountlessnumbersofthedeadridingacrossthefieldofbattle.4. Theyonlyworkwhentheyhavenomoney.5. Herefusedtorelievethebeggarwithafrownonhisface.6. Hisbodywasfoundfloatinglifelessonthewateratashortdistancefrom

wheretheboatwasupsetbyafisherman.7. Hewasveryfondofher;hethoughtofmarryinghermorethanonce.8. Itisproposedtoconstructabathformales99feetlong.9. Onedaythebirddidnotperformcertaintrickswhichhadthoughtittohis

satisfaction.10. I have lately received permission to print the following tale from the

author’sson.11. Theyleftthehotelwheretheyhadbeenstayinginamotor-car.12. TheBoard of Education has resolved to erect a building large enough to

accommodate500studentsthreestoreyshigh.13. He spoke of the notion that the national debt might be repudiated with

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absolutecontempt.14. Oneofthecombatantswasunhurt,andtheothersustainedawoundinthe

armofnoimportance.15. Girlwantedfortelephoneofnicemannersandappearance.16. He repeated the whole poem after he had read it only once with perfect

accuracy.17. Hewasshotbyasecretaryundernoticetoquitwithwhomhewasfinding

faultveryfortunatelywithouteffect.18. Acleverjudgewouldseewhetherawitnesswasdeliberatelylyingagreat

dealbetterthanastupidjury.19. Iwasratherimpressedbythemanneroftheoratorthanbyhismatter.20. Hewasdrivingawayfromthechurchwherehehadbeenmarriedinacoach

andsix.21. Storieshavebeenrelatedoftheseanimalswhichareofanentirelyfictitious

character.

CHAPTER24

IDIOMS206.Idiomsmaybedefinedasexpressionspeculiartoalanguage.

Theyplayanimportantpartinalllanguages.207. Many verbs, when followed by various prepositions, or

adverbs,acquireanidiomaticsense;as,

Hebackedup(supported)hisfriend’sclaim.Thepresentdisturbanceswillsoonblowover(passoff).Thepoliceproducedevidencetobearout(substantiate)thechargeofmurder.Youmustnotbuildyourhopesupon(relyupon)hispromises.Thematterhasbeenclearedup(explained).Ireadilyclosedwith(accepted)hisoffer.Heisreadytodisposeof(sell)hiscarforRs.1,50,000.Rusthaseatenaway(corroded)theplate.Theyfixedupon(chose)himtodothework.Mygoodbehavioursofargainedon(wonthefavourof)theemperor

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BEAR: Heseemstobewelloff(incomfortablecircumstances).Satishboreaway(won)manyprizesattheschoolsports.Thenewleaderhasbeenabletobeardown(overthrow,crush)allopposition.Hisevidencebearsout(confirms,corroborates)theevidenceofthefirstwitness.InhismisfortuneGodgavehimstrengthtobearup(tokeepupspirits,nottodespair).Areligioushopebearsup(supports)amaninhistrials.Hisevidencedidnotbearupon(wasnotrelevantto)theinquiry.Itrustyouwillbearwith(havepatiencewith,showforbearanceto)meafewminutesmore.

BREAK: Hebrokedown(failed)inthemiddleofhisspeech.Hebrokeoff(stoppedsuddenly)inthemiddleofhisstory.

thatIbegantoconceivehopesofliberty.The habit of chewing tobacco has been growing upon (is havingstronger and strongerholdover)him.Pleasehearmeout (i.e., hearmetotheend).Ihavehitupon(found)agoodplantogetridofhim.AboutanhouragoIsawafellowhangingabout(loiteringabout)ourbungalow.These events led up to (culminated in) the establishment of arepublic.During excavations one of the workmen lighted upon (chanced tofind,discovered)agoldidol.Duringherlongillnesssheoftenlongedfor(desired)death.Icouldnotprevailon(persuade,induce)himtoattendthemeeting.ForyearsIcouldnotshakeoff(getridof)mymalaria.Ithreatenedtoshowhimup(exposehim).All eyes turned to him because hewas the only personwho couldstaveoff(prevent,avert)theimpendingwar.Heisstickingoutfor(persistsindemanding)betterterms.Imustthinkthematterover(i.e.,considerit).Trainup(educate)achild in thewayheshouldgo;andwhenhe isoldhewillnotdepartfromit.Thatfellowtrumpedup(concocted,fabricated)astory.

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Hebrokeoff(stoppedsuddenly)inthemiddleofhisstory.Igavehimnocausetobreakwith(quarrelwith)me.Theburglarsbrokeinto(enteredbyforce)thehouse.

BRING: Hisfollyhasbroughtabout(caused)hisruin.Idlenessandluxurybringforth(produce,cause)povertyandwant.Hebroughtforward(adduced)severalcogentargumentsinsupportofhisscheme.Thatbuildingbringsin(yieldsasrent)Rs.7000amonth.Ourteacheroftentellsusastorytobringout(show)themeaningofalesson.Thepublishershaverecentlybroughtout(published)acheapeditionoftheirnewdictionary.Hefoundgreatdifficultyinbringingherround(convertingher)tohisviews.Shebroughtup(reared)theorphanasherownchild.

CALL: Hismastercalledfor(demanded)anexplanationofhisconduct.Newresponsibilitiesoftencallout(drawforth)virtuesandabilitiesunsuspectedbefore.Callin(summon,sendfor)adoctorimmediately.Hecalledonme(paidmeabriefvisit)yesterday.Theoldmancouldnotcallup(recollect)pastevents.

CARRY: Heagreedtocarryout(execute)myorders.Hispassioncarriedhimaway(i.e.,deprivedhimofself-control).Hissoncarriedon(managed)hisbusinessinhisabsence.Manypersonswerecarriedoff(killed)byplague.

CAST: Theshipwascastaway(wrecked)onthecoastofAfrica.Hewasmuchcastdown(depressed)byhisloss.

COME: Howdidthesethingscomeabout(happen)?Howdidyoucomeby(get)hispurse?WhendoestheConvocationcomeoff(takeplace)?Atlastthetruthhascomeout(transpired).Thetaxescometo(amountto)alargesum.Thequestioncameup(wasmootedorraisedfordiscussion)beforetheMunicipalCorporationlastweek.Iexpecthewillcomeround(recover)withinaweek.Ihopehewillcomeround(agree)toourviews.

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Ihopehewillcomeround(agree)toourviews.CRY: Menofdissolutelivescrydown(depreciate)religion,

becausetheywouldnotbeundertherestraintsofit.Hecriedoutagainst(protestedagainst)suchinjustice.Thatyoungauthoriscriedup(extolled)byhisfriends.

CUT: Hewascutoff(died)intheprimeoflife.Youmustcutdown(reduce)yourexpenditure.Heiscutoutfor(speciallyfittedtobe)asailor.Hiswife’sdeathcuthimup(afflictedhim,distressedhim)terribly.

DO: Iamdonefor(ruined).Havingwalkedtwentymiles,heisquitedoneup(fatigued,exhausted).

FALL: Atlasttheriotersfellback(retreated,yielded).Atmyfriend’stea-partyIfellinwith(metaccidentally)astrangefellow.Themeasurefallsinwith(happenstomeet)thepopulardemand.Theschemehasfallenthrough(failed)forwantofsupport.Iamtoldthetwobrothershavefallenout(quarrelled).Itissaidthatthestandardofefficiencyinpublicservicehasrecentlyfallenoff(deteriorated).Inthesecondschool-termtheattendancefelloff(diminished).

GET: Hisfriendsexpectedthathewouldgetoff(escape)withafine.Itishardtogetonwith(agreeorlivesociablywith)asuspiciousman.Thethiefgotaway(escaped)withmycash-box.Ican’tgetout(remove)thisstain.Therevoltofthetribalchiefshasbeengotunder(subdued).Thedogtriedtogetat(attack)me.Hehasgotthrough(passed)hisexamination.Theysoongotthefireunder(undercontrol)bypouringbucketsofwateroverit.Youwereluckytogetoutof(escapefrom)hisclutches.

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GIVE: Wearecrediblyinformedthatthemurdererhasgivenhimselfup(surrenderedhimself)tothepolice.Thedoctorshavegivenhimup(i.e.,havenohopeofhisrecovery).Soonafteritwasgivenforth(published,noisedabroad),andbelievedbymany,thattheKingwasdead.Thefiregaveoff(emitted)adensesmoke.Thestrikersseemdetermined,andarenotlikelytogivein(submit,yield).Itwasgivenout(published,proclaimed)thathewasabankrupt.Thehorsesgaveout(wereexhausted)atthenextmilestone.Theropegaveway(broke,snapped)whiletheworkmenwerehaulinguptheironpillar.Hewouldnotlistentomeatfirst,butatlasthegaveway(yielded.)TheGovernorgaveaway(distributed,presented)theprizes.Giveover(abandon)thisfoolishattempt.Inhiscross-examination,heultimatelygavehimselfaway(betrayedhimself).

GO: Youcannotalwaysgoby(judgefrom)appearances.Itisagoodruletogoby(tobeguidedby).Hepromisedtogointo(examine,investigate)thematter.Haveyouanythingtogoupon(i.e.,anyfoundationforyourstatement)?Wehavenodatatogoupon(onwhichtobaseourconclusions).Thestorywon’tgodown(bebelieved).Theconcertwentoffwell(wasasuccess).Theauditorwentover(examined)thebalancesheet.Thepoorwomanhasgonethrough(suffered)much.Imustfirstgothrough(examine)theaccounts.

HOLD: Therebelsheldout(offeredresistance)foraboutamonth.Heholdsout(gives)nopromiseoffutureprospects.Theywereheldup(stoppedonthehighwayandrobbed)bybandits.

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bybandits.Thesubjectisheldover(deferred,postponed)tillnextmeeting.

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KEEP: Afewboyswerekeptin(confinedafterschool-hours).Iwaskeptin(confinedtothehouse)byabadcold.Theykeptup(carriedon)alongconversation.Littledisputesandquarrelsarechieflykeptup(maintained)bythosewhohavenothingelsetodo.Heistryinghisbesttokeepup(maintain)thereputationofhisfamily.Therubbersyndicatekeepsup(maintains)theprice.Shekepton(continued)talking.Ishallkeepback(conceal)nothingfromyou.

KNOCK: Hehasknockedabout(wanderedabout)theworldagreatdeal.Thedressing-tablewasknockeddown(soldatanauction)forRs.900.Weweregreatlyknockedup(exhausted)afteroursteepclimb.

LAY: Therebelslaiddown(surrendered)theirarms.Hehadlaidout(invested)alargesuminrailwayshares.Foolishpeople,whodonotlayout(spend)theirmoneycarefully,sooncometogrief.Heislaidup(confinedtohisbed)withfever.Heresolvedtolayby(saveforfutureneeds)apartofhisincome.

LET: Iwasletinto(madeacquaintedwith)hersecret.Thisbeinghisfirstoffencehewasletoff(punishedleniently)withafine.

LOOK: Hisunclelooksafter(takescareof)him.Helooksdownupon(despises)hispoorcousins.Lookup(searchfor)thewordinthedictionary.Theoldmanislookingforwardto(expectingwithpleasure)thevisitofhisgrandchildren.Iwilllookinto(investigate)thematter.Ilookon(regard)himasmyson.Somelookto(relyon)legislationtohastentheprogressofsocialreforms.Lookto(becarefulabout)yourmanners.Pricesofpiece-goodsarelookingup(rising).Thingsarelookingup(improving).

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Thingsarelookingup(improving).Hisfriendslookupto(respect)him.Hewillnotlookat(i.e.,willreject)youroffer.

MAKE: Contentmentmakesfor(conducesto)happiness.Hemadeover(presented,gaveincharity)hisbungalowtotheIslamOrphanage.Icannotmakeout(discover)themeaningofthisverse.Icannotmakeout(read,decipher)hishandwriting.Youhavefailedtomakeout(prove)yourcase.Sometimeagothetwobrothersquarrelled,buttheyhavenowmadeitup(becomereconciled).

PASS: Hegenerallypassedby(overlooked)thefaultsofhissubordinates.Thecrewoftheboatpassedthrough(underwent)terriblesufferings.Hepassedhimselfoffas(pretendedtobe)anobleman.Heposesallfor(isregardedas)agreatSanskritist.

PICK: TheCommitteepickedout(selected)thebestplayersfortheteam.Helosttwentypoundsinsickness,butisnowpickingup(regainingorrecoveringhealth).

PULL: Unlesswepulltogether(co-operate,worktogetherinharmony)wecannotsucceed.Mycousinpulledthrough(passedwithdifficulty)theexamination.Thedoctorsaysthepatientwillpullthrough(recoverfromhisillness).Itisfareasiertopulldown(demolish)thantobuildup.Hewaspulledup(scolded,rebuked)bythePresident

PUT: Heputson(assumes)anairofdignity.Pleaseputout(extinguish)thelight.Hewasputout(vexed,annoyed)whenIrefusedhisrequestforaloan.Theplaintiffwasputout(disconcerted)whenthesuitwasdismissed.Hetriedtoputmeoff(evademe,satisfyme)withpromises.Hehasputin(made,sentin)aclaimforcompensation.

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WhiletravellingIhadtoputupwith(endure)agooddealofdiscomfort.Icannotputupwith(tolerate)hisinsolence.Theyputhimupto(incitedhimto)mischief.Iamsorrytoputyouto(giveyou)somuchtrouble.Heputoff(postponed)hisdepartureforaweek.Themeasurewasputthrough(passed)withoutopposition.

RUN: Onaccountofoverworkheisrundown(enfeebled).Healwaysrunsdown(disparages)hisrivals.Theleaseofourpremiseshasrunout(expired,cometoanend).Hehasrunthrough(squanderedaway)hisfortune.Thetailor’sbillhasrunupto(amountedto)alargeamount.Hehasruninto(incurred)debt.WhileturningthecornerIranagainst(chancedtomeet)anoldfriend.Recentlymyexpenseshaverunup(increased)considerably.Thecisternisrunningover(overflowing).

SEE: Isawthrough(detected)thetrick.Itishardtoseeinto(discern)hismotive.Hisfriendswerepresentatthestationtoseehimoff(witnesshisdeparture)

SET: TheHighCourtsetaside(annulled)thedecreeofthelowercourt.Heimmediatelysetabout(tookstepstowards)organizingthedepartment.Hesetoff(started)forPeshawarearlythismorning.Theframesetsoffthepicture(i.e.,enhancesitsbeautybycontrast).Hehassetup(startedbusiness)asabanker.Ihaveenoughcapitaltosetmeup(establishmyself)intrade.Hehiredapalatialbungalowandsetupfor(pretendedtobe)amillionaire.Iwasobligedtosethimdown(snubhim).Youmaysetdown(charge)hislosstome.

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Youmaysetdown(charge)hislosstome.Whosetyouon(instigatedyou)todoit?Theseseatsaresetapart(reserved)forladies.Inhisspeechonprohibition,hesetforth(explained,madeknown)hisviewsatlength.Therobberssetupon(attacked)thedefencelesstravellers.WinterinEnglandsetsin(begins)aboutDecember.

SPEAK: Inthiscitythereisnofreelibrarytospeakof(worthmentioning).Iwasdeterminedtospeakout(expressmyopinionfreely).

STAND: Theyaredeterminedtostandupfor(vindicate,maintain)theirrights.Letthismatterstandover(bedeferredorpostponed)forthepresent.ItishardbutIthinkIcanstanditout(endureittotheendwithoutyielding).Heisalwaysstandingupfor(championingthecauseof)theweakandoppressed.Weshallbeformidableifwestandby(support)oneanother.

STRIKE: Heisstruckdownwith(attackedby)paralysis.TheMedicalCouncilstruckoff(removed)hisnamefromtheregisterofmedicalpractitioners.Whilewewereplanningafamilypicnic,mysisterstruckin(interrupted)withthesuggestionthatweinviteourneighbour’schildrenaswell.

TAKE: Thepianotakesup(occupies)toomuchroom.Itwouldtakeup(occupy)toomuchtimetotellyouthewholestory.Hetakesafter(resembles)hisfather.AtpresentIamreadingtheEssaysofBacon,butitissometimesdifficulttotakein(comprehend,understand)hismeaning.Recentlyhehastakento(becomeaddictedto)opiumeating.

TALK: Wetalkedover(discussed)thematterforanhour.Ihopetotalkhimover(convincehimbytalking)toourview.

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TELL: Iamafraidyourantecedentswilltellagainstyou(i.e.,proveunfavourabletoyou).Thestrainistellingupon(affecting)hishealth.

THROW: Myadvicewasthrownaway(wasted)uponhim,becauseheignoredit.Thebillwasthrownout(rejected)bytheAssembly.Indisgusthethrewup(resigned)hisappointment.Whenhebecamerichhethrewover(abandonedordeserted)allhisoldfriends.

TURN: Thefactoryturnsout(produces,manufactures)20,000lbsofclothaday.Ifheislazy,whydon’tyouturnhimoff(dismisshim)?Heturnedout(proved)tobeasharper.Hisveryfriendsturnedagainst(becamehostileto)him.Whocansaywhatwillturnup(happen)next?Hepromisedtocome,butheneverturnedup(appeared).

WORK: Wetemptedhimwithmanypromises,butnothingwouldworkon(influence)him.Heworkedout(solved)theprobleminafewminutes.Heissuretoworkup(excite)themob.Heworkedupon(influenced)theignorantvillagers.

CHAPTER25

IDIOMS(Continued)208. The studentwho studies the following selection of English

idioms will notice that metaphor enters largely into idiomaticphraseology.

1.Inspiteofallhisbraghehadtoeathumblepie(toapologizehumbly,toyieldunderhumiliatingcircumstances).

Takecarewhatyou say!Youwill have to eat yourwords (to retractyourstatements,totakebackwhatyouhavesaid).

Iampreparedtomeetyouhalf-way(cometoacompromisewithyou).It is silly tomeet troublehalf-way (i.e., to anticipate it ; toworry about it

beforeitcomes).

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Thisunexpectednewdifficultyputmeonmymettle (rousedme todomybest.)

Thisisofapiecewith(inkeepingwith)therestofhisconduct.Heisnotworthhissalt(quiteworthless)ifhefailsatthisjuncture.The cost of livinghas increased somuch that he finds it difficult tomake

bothendsmeet(tolivewithinhisincome).Asasocialreformer,hesethisfaceagainst(sternlyopposed)nautchparties.At thebattleofMarengo,Napoleonwaswithinanaceof (on thepointof)

defeat(i.e.,hewasverynearlydefeated).2. The belief in witchcraft is losing ground (becoming less powerful or

acceptable).LordRobertsfirstwonhislaurels(acquireddistinctionorglory)inIndia.Itwasinparliamentarydebatethathewonhisspurs(madehisreputationas

apolitician).Whentheprodigalreturnedtohisfather’shouse,hewasreceivedwithopen

arms(withawarmwelcome).Howcanyoutrustamanwhoplaysfastandloose(saysonethinganddoes

another)?Itookhimtotask(rebukedhim)forreading“pennydreadfuls”.Heturnedadeafearto(disregarded)myadvice.Thatargumentwillnotholdwater(standscrutinyi.e.,itisunsound).Heisdeterminedtoachievehisobjectbyhookorbycrook(byfairmeansor

foul;byanymeanshecan).To all intents and purposes (practically, virtually) the Prime Minister of

Nepalwastherulerofthecountry.3.Thesinger,havingaslightcough,wasnotinvoice(unabletosingwell)at

theconcert.Thesetwostatementsdonothangtogether(i.e.,arenotconsistentwitheach

other).Thisismorethanfleshandblood(humannature)canendure.Heacceptedmystatementwithoutreserve(fully,implicitly).Imusttakeexceptionto(objectto)yourremark.He is indulgent to a fault (i.e., he is over-indulgent; so indulgent that his

indulgenceisafault).The belief in efficacy of vaccination is gaining ground (becoming more

general).

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Fromhisattitudeit isclearthathewantstopayoffoldscores(tohavehisrevenge).

He has been working on and off (at intervals) several years to compile adictionary.

Hevisitsmeoffandon(nowandthen,occasionally).4. At least on the question of child-marriage we are at one (of the same

opinion).Hetookmyadviceingoodpart(withoutoffence;i.e.,hedidnotresentit).Itwashewhoputaspokeinmywheel(thwartedmeintheexecutionofmy

design).Atanearlyagehemadehismark(distinguishedhimself)asachemist.Ihaveitatmyfingers’ends(knowitthoroughly).Thenewplayhasfallenflat(metwithacoldreception).WheredisciplineisconcernedIputmyfootdown(takearesolutestand).It is a matter of gratification to me that he has turned over a new leaf

(changedforthebetter;begunadifferentmodeoflife).Ihavemadeupmymind(resolved,decided)toretirefrombusiness.Thisputsmeinmind(remindsme)ofanamusingincident.5.There’snolovelostbetweenthem(i.e.,theyarenotongoodterms,they

dislikeeachother).Many people in that country live from hand to mouth (i.e., without any

provisionforthefuture).Steadyworkissuretoberewardedinthelongrun(eventually,ultimately).Whateverelseonemaysayofhim,noonedarecallinquestion(challenge,

expressadoubtabout)hishonestyofpurpose.Thepolicecame to thescene in thenickof time (justat the rightmoment,

opportunely).Shestoodbyhimthroughthickandthin(underallconditions,undauntedby

anything).His partner threwcoldwater on his scheme (discouragedhimby showingindifferencetoit).Hecanturnhishandto(adaptorapplyhimselfto)anything.TheSultanruleshissubjectswithahighhand(oppressively).Heishandandglove(onveryintimateterms)withmycousin.6.Heturnsevenhiserrorstoaccount(i.e.,profitsbythem).He is accused of sitting on the fence (halting between two opinions,

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hesitatingwhichsidetojoin).Itisallone(justthesame)tomewhetherhelivesinMumbaiorKolkata.Whatisthepointatissue(indispute)?Theinquiryhasbroughttolight(disclosed)somestartlingfacts.He isnot fit toholdacandle to (not tobenamed incomparisonwith)his

predecessor.He burnt his fingers (got himself into trouble) by interfering in his

neighbour’saffairs.I suspect the fellow lives by his wits (i.e., he has no settled means of

subsistencebutpicksupalivingbydeceitorfraud).Hebidsfair(seemslikely)torivalhisfatherasalawyer.Hestrainedeverynerve(usedhisutmostefforts)togethisfriendelected.7.WhenIsawhimlasthewasbesidehimself(outofhismind)withgrief.Hespentoveritmuchtimeandenergy,andlostalargesumintothebargain

(inaddition,besides).WhenIenteredthehouseeverythingwasatsixesandsevens(indisorderor

confusion).Recentlyhehasbeengivinghimselfairs(behavingarrogantly).Theattackmightbe launchedatanytime,soyoumustbeonthealert (on

yourguard,readytoact).Retrenchement is the order of the day (the prevailing state of things) in

everypublicandprivateoffice.InthemanufactureofdyestheGermansbearthepalm(arepre-eminent).Agriculture inAmerica haskept pacewith (progressed at equal ratewith)

industrialactivities.Thistext-bookofchemistryisquiteoutofdate(obsolete).Thisisthemostup-to-date(modern,recent)bookonthesubject.8.Whatyousayhasnobearingonthesubjectinhand(underdiscussionor

consideration).It speaks volumes for (serves as a strong testimony to) Dr. Johnson’s

industrythatheshouldhavecompiledthedictionarywithoutanyone’shelp.Poorfellow!heishopingagainsthope(hopingevenwhenthecaseseems

hopeless).Iamtoldhehasgotintohotwater(intotrouble).UltimatelyIgotthebetterofhim(overcamehim).Hewasfoundguilty,but,hegotoffeasy(gotalightsentence).

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Iwashmyhandsofthewholematter(i.e.,Irefusetohaveanythingmoretodowithit).

Thesituationseemstohavegotquiteoutofhand(beyondcontrol).Itissaidthathehasafingerinthepie(hassomethingtodowiththeaffair,

ismixedupintheaffair).Thatfellowsetseverybodybytheears(i.e.,heisamischief-maker).9.Youhavehitthenailonthehead(saidordoneexactlytherightthing).Todayheisinhighspirits(cheerful,joyful).Howisthat?Youseemoutofspirits(gloomy,sad).Hello!mylad;youlookasifyou’vebeeninthewars(hurtyourself).Isuspecthehasanaxetogrind(privateendstoserve,apersonalinterestin

thematter).ThenewsoftheAmir’sdeathspreadlikewildfire(spreadrapidly).Hetooktoheart(wasdeeplyaffectedby)thedeathofhiswife.Hewasdisappointed,buthetookheart(cheeredhimselfup)andtriedagain.He has his heart in the right place (means well, is of a kindly and

sympatheticdisposition).Heiscomingtothefront(attainingprominence,becomingconspicuous)in

publiclife.10. He is not a great lawyer but he has the gift of the gab (a talent for

speaking).Prohibitionisgallandwormwood(hateful)todistillers.Thestrikershavethrownoutofgear(disturbedtheworkingof)manyofour

importantindustries.Thoughheaddressedhisboysforafewminutesonly,theearnestnesswith

whichhespokewenthometothem(deeplyappealedtothem).Justnowheissimplycoiningmoney (makingmoneyveryrapidly,earning

largesumseasily).Thescreenisincharacter(inkeeping)withtherestofthefurniture.Heisnotinthegoodbooksof(infavourwith)hismaster.IamafraidIaminhisbadbooks(outoffavourwithhim).Iamquiteatsea(perplexed,atalosswhattodoorhowtoact).Hedoesnotunderstandthathestandsinhisownlight(actsagainsthisown

interests,hindershisownadvancement).11.Althoughhedenies it, I thinkhe isbehind thescenes (in thesecret, in

possessionoffactsnotgenerallyknown).

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Youaresure toputyour foot in it (toblunder, toget intoa scrape) ifyoumeddleinhisaffairs.

Ibeggedhimtoreconsiderhisdecision,butheputhisfootdown(remainedfirm;refusedtoyield).

Heaskedmetodinewithhim,butIhadtofootthebill(payforit).Weshallfighttoothandnail(withallourpower)forourrights.ThepropertybelongedtoaNawab,butrecently itchangedhands (became

someoneelse’sproperty).Heisbylongodds(mostdecidedly)thegreatestoflivingmathematicians.Thethieftooktohisheels(ranoff)onseeingapoliceman.Ourschooliswithinastone’sthrowof(atashortdistancefrom)therailway

station.Afewdaysbeforehisdeath,hemadeacleanbreastof(confessedwithout

reserve)everythingconnectedwiththataffair.12.Hestoodhisground(maintainedhisposition)againsthisadversary.Hekeepsintouchwith(hasintimateknowledgeof)thelatestdevelopments

inwireless.Thatiswheretheshoepinches(wherethedifficultyortroublelies).ItoldhimthatIwaspreparedtoshowmyhand(torevealmyplanofaction,

toletoutmydesigns)providedheagreedtodothesame.Themedicalgraduatestoaman(i.e.,everyonewithoutexception)votedin

favourofhim.He insisted on his orders being carried out to the letter (exactly, with

adherencetoeverydetail).Fora longtimehekepthisfather in thedark (in ignorance)about thetrue

stateofaffairs.Successhasturnedhishead(madehimquitevain).Hisstarisintheascendant(i.e.,fortunefavourshim).13.Theschemeappearsworthlessatthefirstblush(atfirstsight).Itwashisconstantprayerthathemightdieinharness(continuetothelastin

hisbusinessorprofession).Hehastoomanyironsinthefire(i.e.,heisengagedintoomanyenterprises

atthesametime).TheSikhsoldiersweretruetotheirsalt(faithfultotheiremployers).The latest police report says that the situation is nowwell in hand (under

control).

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Hewasathiswit’send(quitepuzzled,atacompletelosshowtoact).What’s the matter with him ? He is falling foul of (quarrelling with)

everybody.Iamsurehewon’tgobackon(failtokeep)hisword.The directors of the company put their heads together (consulted one

another)toformulateanewscheme.Donotgiveearto(listento)atale-bearer.14.SofarasIcouldseetherewasnothingoutoftheway(strange,eccentric)

inthebehaviourofthatstranger.Aspiritofunrestisintheair(prevalent,foundeverywhere).Thecontroversyislikelytocreatebadblood(ill-feeling,bitterness)between

thetwocommunities.Therebelssurrrenderedatdiscretion(unconditionally).The letter is meant to be read between the lines (i.e., it has a hidden or

unexpressedmeaning,notapparentonthesurface).Hewasmurderedincoldblood(i.e.,notintheheatofpassionorexcitement,

butdeliberately).Letushaveyourtermsinblackandwhite(inwriting).Ontheapproachofapolicemanthebullyshowedacleanpairofheels(ran

away).He has politics on the brain (constantly in his thoughts, as a sort of

monomania).ThiswillsuityoutoaT(exactly).15.Hiseldestson,aspendthrift,isathorninhisside(aconstantsourceof

annoyancetohim).Ismellarat(havereasontosuspectsomething).Inippedhisschemeinthebud(i.e.,madeitfailbeforeitcouldmature).Whatyouproposeisoutofthequestion(nottobethoughtof,impossible).Theperformancewasnotuptothemark(quitesatisfactory).The long and the short of it (the simple fact, the whole matter in a few

words)isthatIdonotwanttodealwiththatnewfirm.Iamtoldheisintherunning(i.e.,hehasgoodprospectsinthecompetition).Nowthathehasnothingtofearfromme,heisshowinghisteeth(adoptinga

threateningattitude).He changed colour (turned pale) when I questioned him about his

antecedents.

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Hehadmadeagreatmistakeinchampioningtheircause,but,havingdoneit,hestucktohisguns(remainedfaithfultothecause).

16.Thisisthetimetotakestockof(tosurvey)thewholesituation.What’sthegoodofenteringintonegotiationswithamanofstraw(amanof

nosubstanceorconsequence)?Theelectioncampaignisjustnowinfullswing(veryactive).He is not wise enough to keep his own counsel (to preserve a discreet

silence,tobereticentabouthisopinionsoraffairs).Thatyoungfellowwasbornwithasilverspooninhismouth(borninwealth

andluxury).Itstands toreason (isquiteclear, isanundoubtedfact) that therichnever

havejusticedonetheminplaysandstories;forthepeoplewhowritearepoor.This suit-case has stood me in good stead (proved useful to me) in my

travels.You have taken the wind out of my sails (made my words or actions

ineffectivebyanticipatingthem).Itookhimtotask(reprovedhim)forhiscarelessness.Ihaveabonetopickwithyou(somecauseofquarrelwithyou).17.Itwilldoatapinch(incaseofemergency,ifhardpressed).WhentheopportunitycameIpaidhimbackinhisowncoin(treatedhimin

thesamewayashehadtreatedme).Justnowmyhandsarefull(Iamverybusy).Itisgenerallybelievedthathehadahand(wasconcerned)intheplot.Explorersinthearcticregionstaketheirlivesintheirhands(undergogreat

risks).Naturally he fights shy of (avoids from a feeling ofmistrust, dislikes) his

youngnephew,whoisagambler.Allhisschemesendedinsmoke(cametonothing).Thepolice leftnostoneunturned (usedallavailablemeans,adoptedevery

possiblemethodofsearch)totracetheculprits.Lateronhebecameunpopularbecausehetriedtolorditover(todomineer

over)hisfollowers.Ashewasgrowingold,hisfriendspersuadedhimtorestonhislaurels(to

retirefromactivelife).18. The championwill have to look to your laurels (take care not to lose

yourpre-eminence).

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I am tiredofhearinghimharpon the same string (dwell tediouslyon thesamesubject).

Hisbloodrancold(i.e.,hewashorrified)whenheheardthathisfriendwasmurdered.

Igavehimapieceofmymind(scoldedhim).Thedogisasgoodas(practically)dead.Hewasasgoodashisword(i.e.,kepthispromise).Thechildwasasgoodasgold(i.e.,verygood).Youwillhavetomakegoodtheloss(tocompensatemefortheloss).Hekickeduparow(madegreatnoiseorfuss).Heseemsillatease(uneasy,anxious,uncomfortable).19.Theoldmanishardofhearing(somewhatdeaf).Itwillgohardwithhim (i.e.,hewillsufferseverely) ifhekeepscompany

withthatfellow.PeoplesaythatMr.X,thebanker,isonhislastlegs(onthevergeofruin).Icanmakeneitherheadnortail(nothing)ofit.You’llnevergetthebetterof(gainanadvantageover)thatrascal:withhim

it’salways,‘HeadsIwin,tailsyoulose’(i.e.,inanycasehewillbethewinner).Byhisadvocacyofwidow-remarriage,hestirredupahornet’snest(excited

thehostilityoradversecriticismofalargenumberofpeople).Hemadegreatclaimsforhisdiscovery;butitturnedouttobeamare’snest

(adelusion,aworthlessthing).Ontheveryfirstnightshebroughtdownthehouse(calledforthgeneraland

loudapplause)byhersuperbacting.Heiseveryinch(entirely,completely)agentleman.You have done the handsome thing by him (behaved towards him in a

magnanimous manner) in accepting his apology and foregoing the claim fordamages.

20.Heprovedhisworthbyrisingtotheoccasion(showinghimselfequaltodealingwiththeemergency).Forsomedaysthenewprofessorlecturedovertheheadsof(abovethecomprehensionof)hispupils.

Heknowstheinsandouts(thefulldetails)ofthataffair.Heisoverheadandears(deeply)inlove(or,indebt).Beyondallquestion(undoubtedly)sheisagreatsinger.Youwanttoseehim?Outofthequestion!(i.e.,impossible).Thetwofriendsagreedtodiffer(gaveuptryingtoconvinceeachother)after

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discussingthequestionforaboutanhour.Sincethatdayhehasbeeninbadodour(outoffavour,inbadrepute)with

hisneighbours.Intimatefriendsneednotstandonceremony(actwithreserve,insistonstrict

rulesofetiquettebeingobserved).Hewentoutofhisway(tookspecialtrouble)toobligeme.21.Iamafraidyoutwoareatcross-purposes(misunderstandeachother).Itrustedhimandheplayedmefalse(deceivedme,betrayedme).He is a shrewd man, and it will not be easy to draw him out (to elicit

informationfromhim).Hemadelightof(treatedlightly)hisfriend’swarning.Theproposalwasrejectedwithonevoice(unanimously).Thefigureswhichhequotedwereshowntobe incorrect,and this took the

edgeoffhisargument(madehisargumentineffective).We had on the way tea of a kind (of a poor kind, i.e., tea that scarcely

deservedthename).Irepaidhisinsolenceinkind(inthesameway,i.e.,withinsolence).Bewareofthatfellow!hewillstickatnothing(isunscrupulousandwilldo

anythingtoaccomplishhispurpose).He is not theman to pocket an affront (to receive or submit to itwithout

retaliatingorshowingresentment).22.Iamoutofpocket(aloser)bythetransaction.Thefateoftheaccusedhangsinthebalance(isundecided).Heisamanofwell-balanced(reasonable,moderate)opinions.Hewascarriedoffhisfeet(waswildwithexcitement)whenhewasdeclared

tohavewonthefirstprize.Hemadethemostofhisopportunity(i.e.,usedittothebestadvantage).Thathouseisputonthemarket(offeredforsale).Hesometimesworksninehoursatastretch(continuously).By his skill in arguing he carried his point (defeated his adversaries in

debate).Heisservinghistime(goingthroughanapprenticeship)inabank.Servesyouright(i.e.,you’vegotyourdeserts)!23. I shall manage to serve him out (to retaliate upon him, to have my

revengeonhim).Heisworkingagainsttime(withutmostspeed).

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This year the mango-crop has fallen short of my expectations (i.e., hasdisappointedme).

Whilethemembersofthecommitteewerediscusssingquestionsoffinance,I felt like a fish out of water (like one out of his element ; i.e., in a strangesituation).

A good student works steadily, not by fits and starts (irregularly,capriciously,withoutsteadyapplication).

Hehasmadehisfortuneandnowtakesthingseasy(doesnotworkhard).Mr.X first introduced the systemofpayments by instalments, and shortly

afterwards others took a leaf out of his book (imitated him, profited by hisexample).

The Secretary of the Company was charged with cooking the accounts(preparingfalseaccounts).

Youshouldtakeintoaccount(consider)hispastservices.Youmustlieinthebedyouhavemade(taketheconsequencesofyourown

acts;sufferforyourownmisdeeds).24.He thinksbetterof it now (i.e., hehas thoughtmore carefully about it

andcometoawiserdecision).Iamsurehemeansbusiness(isinearnest).I cannot give you a definite reply on the spur of the moment (at once,

withoutdeliberation).Itisthething(theproperthing)todo.Iseeyouknowathingortwo(arewiseorcunning).Hetookhisfailuretoheart(i.e.,feltitdeeply;grievedoverit).Itgoestohisheart(toucheshimdeeply)toseesomuchmisery.Theofferholdsgood(remainsbinding,isvalid)fortwodays.HeisleavingIndiaforgood(permanently).Itwillgohardwithhim(proveaseriousmatterforhim)ifhispartnerretires

frombusiness.25. Do you expect me to be at your beck and call (under your absolute

control)?Iamafraidheisburningthecandlesatbothends(overtaxinghisenergies).Letusnowburythehatchet(ceasefighting,makepeace),andworkforthe

advancementofthecountry.Mr.X,who is one of the trustees of a certain big charity, is suspected of

featheringhiswonnest(makingmoneyunfairly).

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Itisreportedthatsomeruffianslaidhandson(assaulted)himwhilehewasreturninghome.

Itissuspectedthathehadahandin(wasconcernedin)theplot.Asusualheisblowinghisowntrumpet(praisinghimself).Theexcuseswillnotpassmuster(willnotbeacceptedassatisfactory).As a diplomat he was head and shoulders (very much) above his

contemporaries.Old sets of the Encyclopaedia Britannica are a drug in the market

(unsaleablefromlackofdemand).26. The foolish young man made ducks and drakes of (squandered) his

patrimony.SheknowsFrenchafterafashion(toacertaindegree,notsatisfactorily).ItisallGreek(orHebrew)tome(i.e.,somethingwhichIdonotunderstand).Thethiefwascaughtred-handed(intheveryactofcommittingthetheft).Lateinlifehetriedhishand(madeanattempt)atfarming.What you say is neither here nor there (foreign to the subject under

discussion,irrelevant).EvenhisoldfriendSmith,whohadbeenindebtedtohimformanyfavours

in the past, gave him the cold shoulder (treated him in a cold and distantmanner).

Ifwearetogivecredencetorumours,anothergreatwarisonthecards(notimprobable).

While he spoke, the audience hung on his lips (listened eagerly to hiswords).

TheSpeakerurgedtheCommitteetotakedrasticaction,buttheyhungfire(werereluctant;hesitated).

27.Hestandswellwith(iswellthoughtofby)hismaster.Heclaimsthathehasgivenchapterandverse(fullandprecisereferenceto

authority)foreverystatementmadeinhisbook.The editor of that paper is accused of giving a false colouring to

(misrepresenting)theincident.Throughouthisspeechtheboyswereallears(deeplyattentive).Iwasalleyes(eagerlywatching)toseewhathewoulddo.Iknowmyfriendkeepsagoodtable(providesluxuriousfood,entertainshis

guestssumptuously).With a small income and a large family to maintain, he finds it rather

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difficulttokeephisheadabovewater(tokeepoutofdebt).He will never set the Thames on fire (do some remarkable or surprising

thing).Theschemecametogrief(failed)owingtowantofforesight.Youwillcometogrief(beruined)ifyoufollowhisadvice.28.Ikeepthefellowatarm’slength (atadistance; i.e.,Iholdalooffrom

him).Heiskeepingupappearances (keepingupanoutwardshowofprosperity)

althoughhehaslosthiswholefortune.Lastyearwhen theprincecameofage (reached theageof twenty-one)he

wasinstalledonhisfather’sgadi.Don’ttrustthosemen;theyarevillainstothebackbone(ineveryway).You shall go,bag and baggage (with all your belongings. i.e., altogether,

completely).Theaccountofthemurdermadeherbloodcreep(filledherwithhorror).Thatterritoryisaboneofcontention(asubjectofdispute)betweenthetwo

countries.Hetookawaymybreath(verymuchsurprisedme)whenhecoollyproposed

thatIshouldbuyvotes.Since his easy succcess in the elections, he has become swollen-headed

(conceited).29.Whereverheaddressedpublicmeetingshecarriedallbeforehim (was

completelysuccessful).Thecashier,havingadmitteddefalcation,wasgivenincharge(handedover

tothepolice).“Ifthineenemybehungry,givehimbreadtoeat,andifhebethirsty,give

himwatertodrink;forthoushaltheapcoalsoffireuponhishead(returngoodforevil,andmakehimashamedofhisenmity)andtheLordshallrewardthee.”

Itismeantocrowover(totriumphover)afallenfoe.Hetookupthecudgelsfor(defendedvigorously)hisfriend.He iscurrying favour (usingmeanacts to ingratiatehimself)withhis rich

neighbour.If you endorse that promissory note, you will cut your own throat (ruin

yourself).His father cut him off with a shilling (disinherited him by bequeathing a

triflingsum).

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Whilehewasspeakinghisfathercuthimshort(interruptedhim).30.Thewitnesscutapoorfigure(producedapoorimpression)inhiscross-

examination.Whenhemetmeinthestreet,hecutmedead(deliberatelyinsultedmeby

ignoringme).ThatActisadeadletter(nolongerinforce).A great many faults may be laid at his door (imputed to him), but he is

certainlynotdishonest.We must draw the line (fix the limit) somewhere. The cost of the new

buildingshouldnotexceedtwolakhs.Printingisnotinmyline(isoutofmyprovince).Heisinthecottonline(i.e.,hefollowsthattrade).Idon’texpecthimtoseeeyetoeye(tobeincompleteagreement)withme

onthequestionofProhibition.Hefailedtogetelected,butputagoodfaceon(boreupcourageously)his

defeat.His speech on economic reform fell flat (caused no interest, produced no

effect).31.Thejokefellflat(causednoamusement).Itisafarcry(alongwayoff)fromDelhitoNewYork.Itisafarcry(noeasytransition)fromautocracytodemocracy.Heisfarandaway(verymuch)thebetterofthetwoplayers.The story of the shipwreck, as narrated by one of the survivors,mademy

fleshcreep(horrifiedme).APathan isanuglycustomer (a formidableperson todealwith)whenhis

bloodisup(heisexcited).Sheisadelicatewomanbuthastoroughit(toendurehardship)tosupport

herfamily.Hepinshisfaithto(placesfullrelianceupon)technicaleducation.He sometimes tells lies, so people take his statementswith a grain of salt

(doubt).Heisnotthesortofmantoletthegrassgrowunderhisfeet(toremainidle,

toprocrastinate).32. It’snouse splittinghairs (disputingoverpettypoints, quibblingabout

trifles).Heisagreathandat(expertat)organizingpublicmeetings.

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Byyourstrangeconductyouwillgiveahandleto(furnishanoccasionfor)suspicionandscandal.

Heknowswhatheisabout(isfar-sightedandprudent).You can rely onhim ; heknowswhat’swhat (is shrewd and experienced,

knowsthewaysoftheworld).Mussolini seems tobeara charmed life (tobe invulnerable, ashe escapes

deathinanalmostmiraculousmanner).WhentheArabsconqueredPersia,somePersians,itissafetosay,embraced

Islamforloavesandfishes(materialbenefits).Itneveroccurredtomethatyouwouldleavemeinthelurch(desertmein

mydifficulties,leavemeinahelplesscondition).Ineverythingthathedoeshehasaneyetothemainchance(hisobjectisto

makemoney,heregardshisowninterests).The bank won’t accept the guarantee of a man of straw (a man of no

substance).33.Hisobservationswerebesidethemark(nottothepoint,irrelevant).Not to mince matters (to speak unreservedly), some of these pundits are

merecharlatans.Hisadversariesmovedheavenandearth(madeeverypossibleeffort)toget

himdismissed.Do your worst ! I nail my colours to the mast (refuse to climb down or

surrender).Sticktoyourcolours(refusetoyield,befaithfultothecause),myboys!Themurderedmanwasfoundinastateofnature(naked).Thiscoatfitsyoutoanicety(exactly).Herefusedtobeledbythenose(tofollowsubmissively).His wife, who was the daughter of a millionaire, turned up her nose at

(regardedwithcontempt)herhusband’sproposaltobuyaFordcar.Don’tthrustyournoseinto(meddleofficiouslyin)myaffairs.34.Heissuchanabsent-mindedfellowthathedoesnotknowwhatpasses

underhisnose(inhisverypresence).Successiveministershavefoundthequestionofemploymentahardnutto

crack(adifficultproblemtosolve).Thisgentleman,havingworkedsuccessfullyinthebusinesslineforseveral

years,isnowrestingonhisoars(stoppingworkforatimeandhavingrest).Adisputeinthatcollierycametoahead(reachedacrisis)thisweek.

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Therecentoutburstsofmurderous riotingshouldwarn the labouragitatorsthat they areplayingwith fire (trifling ignorantlywithmatters liable to causetroubleorsuffering).

DuringtheWar,hemadeapile(madeafortune).The famous libel case brought into play (gave an opportunity for the

exerciseof)hisforensicabilities.Iadmitthathepleadedthecauseofthepoorveryeloquently;butwillheput

hishandinhispocket(givemoneyincharity)?To small purpose (without much practical benefit) was the Commission

appointed,ifitsmainrecommendationsarenotadopted.Nowadaysflyingisalltherage(extremelypopular).35.Heisratherblunt,buthisheart is in therightplace (he isfaithfuland

truehearted).Heisregardedashischief’sright-handman(mostefficientassistant).Hisletterstohiswardspeakvolumesfor (serveasstrongtestimonyto)his

forbearanceandgoodsense.The new cotton mill is mortgaged up to the eyes (completely, to its full

extent).Youdon’tlookquiteuptothemark(inexcellenthealth)thisevening.Now,don’tyoucallmeanynames,oryouwillfindthattwocanplayatthat

game(i.e.,Icanretaliateinthesameway).Hewasamanwhocouldputtwoandtwotogether(drawacorrectinference,

reasonlogically).You seehehas two strings tohisbow (has two sourcesof income to rely

upon);hedealsincurios,andalsodoesminiatures.Herunclehastakenherunderhiswing(underhisprotection).I suspect that fellow has sent us on a wild-goose chase (a foolish and

fruitlesssearch).36.Thepoliceman,havingdisarmedthethief,hadthewhip-handof(wasin

apositiontocontrol)him.Ididnotnoticeinhimanythingoutoftheway(strange,eccentric).Iamtoldyourcousinisinhotwater(introuble)overthatspeech.There is nothing sobad aswashingone’s dirty linen in public (discussing

unpleasantprivatemattersbeforestrangers).If their demands are not granted, the strikers threatenwar to the knife (a

bitteranddeadlystruggle).

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Theyareatdaggersdrawn(i.e., their relationsarestrained)eversince thedissolutionofthepartnershipbetweenthem.

WhenplaguefirstbrokeoutinMumbai,Dr.Xdidyeomanservice(excellentwork).

He isstill in thevigoroushealth,althoughhe ison thewrongsideofsixty(morethansixtyyearsofage).

Youcansafelytrusthim;heisamanofhiswords(amantobedependedon,atrustworthyman).

Hefindsnolittledifficultyinkeepingthewolffromthedoor(keepingoffstarvation).

37.Bewareofthatwolfinsheep’sclothing(hypocrite)!Thedoctorsaysthepatienthasturnedthecorner(passedthecrisis).Heverycleverlyturnedthetablesonhisopponent(i.e.,broughthimtothe

positionofdisadvantagelatelyheldbyhimself).I am afraid you have caught a Tartar in him (i.e., found him more

formidablethanyouexpected).Ishouldliketohavethatmattersettledimmediately,becauseitkeepsaman

ontenterhooks(inastateofsuspenseandanxiety).Heisunderthethumbof(completelyundertheinfluenceof)hiswife.He carried out his project in the teeth of (in defiance or regardless of)

oppositionfromhiscommunity.Onlytenyearsagohewasajuniorbarrister,butheisnowatthetopofthe

tree(attheheadofhisprofession).Wemust avoid saying or writing anything that would tread on their toes

(giveoffencetothem).Hismasterputthescrewon(broughtpressuretobearon)himtovoteforhis

friend.38.Inthecontesthecameoffsecond-best(wasdefeated,gottheworstofit).Isenthimabouthisbusiness(dismissedhimperemptorily)asIcouldstand

hisinsolencenolonger.Peoplewho talkshop (talkexclusivelyabout theirbusinessorprofessional

affairs)aregenerallyunbearable.Heappearstohaveanoldheadonyoungshoulders(tobewisebeyondhis

years).Asarule,theyeatbutonesquaremeal(fullmeal)aday.Inhistravelsheclaimstohaverubbedshoulders(comeintoclosecontact)

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withpeopleofallsortsandconditions.Althoughmuchremainstobedoneinthisdirection,thegradualincreasein

thenumberofschoolsclearlyshowsthattheschoolmasterisabroad(educationisspreadingineverydirectionandignoranceisdiminishing).

Hisboorishmannersoccasionallysethisrefinedcousin’steethonedge(i.e.,irritatedhim).

WhentheInspectorenteredtheclasssomeofthepupilsshookintheirshoes(trembledwithfear).

39.Thereareblacksheep(badcharacters,scoundrels)ineverycommunity.Oneofourbestworkerswasill,sowehadtomakeshift(getalongasbestas

wecould)withouthim.Ithreatenedtoshowhimup(todisclosehisvillainy)ifhedidnotmendhis

ways.That solicitor is guilty of sharp practice (underhand or questionable

dealings).Theusurpercannotmaintainhispositionwithoutthesinewsofwar(money).Asawriterhehasoftensnappedhisfingersat(defined)convention.The speakerwas unmercifully heckled, but hemanfully stood to his guns

(i.e.,maintainedhisownopinion).

CHAPTER26

PUNCTUATION209. Punctuation (derived from the Latin punctum, a point)

means the right use of putting in Points or Stops in writing. Thefollowingaretheprincipalstops:

(1)FullStoporPeriod(.)(2)Comma(,)(3)Semicolon(;)(4)Colon(:)(5)QuestionMark(?)(6)ExclamationMark(!)

Other marks in common use are the Dash –; Parentheses ( );

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InvertedCommasorQuotationMarks“”.210.TheFullStoprepresentsthegreatestpauseandseparation.It

isusedtomarktheendofadeclarativeoranimperativesentence;as,

Dear,patient,gentle,nobleNellwasdead.

211.TheFullstopcanbeusedinabbreviations,buttheyareoftenomittedinmodernstyle.

M.A.orMAM.P.orMPU.N.O.orUNO

NotethatincurrentEnglishMrandMrsoccurwithoutafullstop,asthesehavecometoberegardedasthefullspellings.

212.TheCommarepresentstheshortestpause,andisused:(1)Toseparateaseriesofwordsinthesameconstruction;as,

England,FranceandItalyformedanalliance.Helostlands,money,reputationandfriends.Itwasalong,dullandwearisomejourney.Hewrotehisexerciseneatly,quicklyandcorrectly.

Note–Acommaisgenerallynotplacedbeforethewordprecededbyand.

(2)Toseparateeachpairofwordsconnectedbyand;as,

Weshouldbedevoutandhumble,cheerfulandserene.Highandlow,richandpoor,wiseandfoolish,mustalldie.

(3)AfteraNominativeAbsolute;as,

This done, she returned to the oldmanwith a lovely smile on herface.Thewindbeingfavourable,thesquadronsailed.

Thegeniusmakingmenoanswer,Iturnedabouttoaddressmyselftohimasecondtime.

(4)TomarkoffaNounorPhraseinApposition;as,

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Paul,theapostle,wasbeheadedinthereignofNero.Milton,thegreatEnglishpoet,wasblind.

PanditNehru,thefirstPrimeMinisterofIndia,diedin1964.(5)Tomarkoffwordsusedinaddressingpeople

Comeintothegarden,Maud.Howareyou,Mohan?Lordoftheuniverse,shieldusandguideus.

Butwhen thewords are emphatic, we ought to use theNote ofExclamation;as,

Monster!bytheemychild’sdevoured!

(6)TomarkofftwoormoreAdverbsorAdverbialphrasescomingtogether;as,

Then,atlength,tardyjusticewasdonetothememoryofOliver.

(7)BeforeandafteraParticipialphrase,providedthat thephrasemight be expanded into a sentence, and is not used in a merelyqualifyingsense;as,

Caesar,havingconqueredhisenemies,returnedtoRome.

(8)Beforeandafterwords,phrases,orclauses,letintothebodyofasentence;as,

Hedidnot,however,gainhisobject.Itismind,afterall,whichdoestheworkoftheworld.Hisbehaviour,tosaytheleast,wasveryrude.Hisstorywas,inseveralways,improbable.Lettherebenostrife,Ipraythee,betweentheeandme.Theessay-writers,whoseworksconsistedinagreatmeasureofshortmoraldissertations,settheliterarytasteoftheage.ThepeopleofOrleans,whentheyfirstsawherintheircity,thoughtshewasanangel.

(9)Toindicatetheomissionofaword,especiallyaverb;as,

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RamareceivedaParkerpen;Hari,awatch.HewasaBrahmin;she,aRajput.Hewillsucceed;you,never.

(10) To separate short co-ordinate clauses of a Compoundsentence;as,

Therainsdescended,andthefloodscame.Menmaycomeandmenmaygo,butIgoonforever.Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.Thewaywaslong,thewindwascold.Theminstrelwasinfirmandold.

Whenthereisaconjunctionthecommaissometimesomitted;as,

Hecameandsawme.

(11)Tomarkoffadirectquotationfromtherestofthesentence;as,

“Exactlyso,”saidAlice.Hesaidtohisdisciples,“Watchandpray.”“Gothen,”saidtheant,“anddancewinteraway.”

(12)Beforecertainco-ordinativeconjunctions;as,

Toactthusisnotwisdom,butfolly.

(13)ToseparatefromtheverbalongSubjectopeningasentence;as,

Theinjusticeofthesentencepronounceduponthatgreatscientistanddiscoverer,isnowevidenttousall.All thatwe admired and adoredbefore as great andmagnificent, isobliteratedorvanished.

(14) To separate a Noun clause–whether subject or object–precedingtheverb;as,

Whateveris,isright.Howweareevertogetthere,isthequestion.

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Thathewouldsucceedinhisundertaking,nooneeverdoubted.

(15)Toseparateaclausethatisnotrestrictiveinmeaning,butisco-ordinatewiththePrincipalclause;as,

Sailors,whoaregenerallysuperstitious,say it isunlucky toembarkonaFriday.DuringmystayinSriLankaIvisitedMihintale,whichisregardedasthecradleofBuddhism.

When the Adjective clause is restrictive in meaning the commashouldnotbeapplied;as,

ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.TheLordisnighuptothemthatareofabrokenheart.TheechoesofthestormwhichwasthenraisedIstillheargrumblingroundme.The design was disapproved by everyone whose judgement wasentitledtorespect.

(16)ToseparateanAdverbialclausefromitsPrincipalclause;as,

WhenIwasabachelor,Ilivedbymyself.Ifthouwould’stbehappy,seektoplease.

WhentheAdverbialclausefollowsthePrincipalclausethecommaisfrequentlyomitted;as,

Seektopleaseifthouwould’stbehappy.

213.TheSemicolonrepresentsapauseofgreaterimportancethanthatshownbythecomma.Itisused:

(1) To separate the clauses of Compound sentence, when theycontainacomma;as,

Hewasabrave,large-heartedman;andweallhonouredhim.

(2)Toseparateaseriesoflooselyrelatedclauses;as,

Hercourtwaspure;herlifeserene;Godgaveherpeace;herlandreposed.

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Today we love what tomorrow we hate; today we seek whattomorrowweshun;todaywedesirewhattomorrowwefear.

214. The Colon marks a still more complete pause than thatexpressedbytheSemicolon.Itisused(sometimeswithadashafterit):

(1)Tointroduceaquotation;as,

Bacon says :“Reading makes a full man, writing an exact man,speakingareadyman.”

(2)Beforeenumeration,examples,etc;as,

The principal parts of a verb inEnglish are : the present tense, thepasttense,andthepastparticiple.The limitation of armaments, the acceptance of arbitration as thenatural solvent of international disputes, the relegation of wars ofambition and aggression to the categoriesofobsolete follies : thesewillbemilestoneswhichmarkthestagesoftheroad.

(3) Between sentences grammatically independent but closelyconnectedinsense;as,

Studytoacquireahabitofthinking:nostudyismoreimportant.

215.TheQuestionMarkisused,insteadoftheFullStop,afteradirectquestion;as,

Haveyouwrittenyourexercise?Ifyouprickus,dowenotbleed?Ifyoutrickleus,dowenotlaugh?Ifyoupoisonus,dowenotdie?Andifyouwrongus,shallwenothaverevenge?

ButtheQuestionMarkisnotusedafteranindirectquestion;as,

HeaskedmewhetherIhadwrittenmyexercise.

216.TheExclamationMark isusedafter InterjectionsandafterPhrasesandSentencesexpressingsuddenemotionorwish;as,

Alas!Ohdear!

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Whataterriblefirethisis!O,whatafallwasthere,mycountrymen!LonglivetheKing!

Note:WhentheinterjectionOisplacedbeforetheNominativeofAddress, the ExclamationMark, if employed at all, comes after thenoun;oritmaybeplacedattheendofthesentence;as,

Ofather!Ihearthesoundofguns.OHamlet,speaknomore!

217.InvertedCommasareusedtoenclose theexactwordsofaspeaker,oraquotation;as,

“Iwould ratherdie,”heexclaimed,“than join theoppressorsofmycountry.”BabarissaidbyElphinstonetohavebeen“themostadmirableprincethateverreignedinAsia.”

If a quotation occurs within a quotation, it is marked by singleinvertedcommas;as,

“Youmightaswellsay,”addedtheMarchHare,“that‘IlikewhatIget’isthesamethingas‘IgetwhatIlike.”’

218.TheDashisused:(1)Toindicateanabruptstoporchangeofthought;as,

Ifmyhusbandwerealive–butwhylamentthepast?

(2)Toresumeascatteredsubject;as,.

Friends,companions,relatives–alldesertedhim.

219.TheHyphen–ashorterlinethantheDash–isusedtoconnectthepartsofacompoundword;as,

Passer-by,man-of-war,jack-of-all-trades.

It isalsoused toconnectpartsofaworddividedat theendofaline.

220.ParenthesesorDoubleDashesareusedtoseparatefromthe

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main part of the sentence a phrase or clause which does notgrammaticallybelongtoit;as,

HegainedfromHeaven(itwasallhewished)afriend.A remarkable instance of this kind of courage–call it, if you please,resolutewill–isgiveninthehistoryofBabar.

221.TheApostropheisused:(1)Toshowtheomissionofaletterorletters;as,

Don’t,e’er,I’ve.(2)IntheGenitiveCaseofNouns.(3)Toformthepluraloflettersandfigures.

Dotyouri’sandcrossyourt’s.Addtwo5’sandfour2’s.

CAPITALLETTERS222.Capitalsareused:

(1)Tobeginasentence.(2)Tobegineachfreshlineofpoetry.(3)TobeginallProperNounsandAdjectivesderivedfromthem;

as,Delhi,Rama,Africa,African,Shakespeare,Shakespearian.

(4)ForallnounsandpronounswhichindicatetheDeity;as,TheLord,HeistheGod.

(5)TowritethepronounIandtheinterjectionO.

Exercise 119. Insert commas, where necessary, in the followingsentences:1. Thenecessityofamusementmademeacarpenterabird-cageragardener.2. Speakclearlyifyouwouldbeunderstood.3. Evenafoolwhenheholdethhispeaceiscountedwise.4. WhenwehaddinedtopreventtheladiesleavingusIgenerallyorderedthe

tabletoberemoved.5. My orchard was often robbed by schoolboys and my wife’s custards

plunderedbythecats.6. WheneverIapproachedapeasant’shousetowardsnight-fallIplayedoneof

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themostmerrytunes.7. By conscience and courage by deeds of devotion and daring he soon

commendedhimselftohisfellowsandhisofficers.8. Wealthmayseekusbutwisdommustbesought.9. Bewarelestthoubeledintotemptation.10. Brazilwhich is nearly as large as thewhole ofEurope is coveredwith a

vegetationofincredibleprofusion.11. Wejudgeourselvesbywhatwefeelcapableofdoingwhileothersjudgeus

bywhatwehavealreadydone.12. Someareborngreatsomeachievegreatnessandsomehavegreatnessthrust

uponthem.13. Ithereforewalkedbackbythehorsewaywhichwasfivemilesround.14. Readnottocontradictnortobelievebuttoweighandconsider.15. Theleavesasweshallseeimmediatelyarethefeedersoftheplant.16. Apublicspeakershouldbecoolcollectedandprecise.17. SirIwouldratherberightthanbePresident.18. Infacttherewasnothingelsetodo.19. Atmidnight however Iwas aroused by the trampof horse’s hoofs in the

yard.20. SpenserthegreatEnglishpoetlivedinthetimeofQueenElizabeth.21. OneofthefavouritethemesofboastingwiththeSquireisthenobletreeson

hisestatewhichintruthhassomeofthefinestthatIhaveseeninEngland.22. When he was a boy Franklin who afterward became a distinguished

statesman and philosopher learned his trade in the printing office of hisbrotherwhopublishedapaperinBoston.

23. We had in this village some twenty years ago an idiot boywhom Iwellrememberwhofromachildshowedastrongpropensityforbees.

24. Margarettheeldestofthefourwassixteenandveryprettybeingplumpandfair with large eyes plenty of soft brown hair a sweet mouth and whitehandsofwhichshewasrathervain.

25. Aletterfromayoungladywritteninthemostpassionatetermswhereinshelamentsthemisfortuneofagentlemanherloverwhowaslatelywoundedinaduelhas turnedmy thoughts to thatsubjectand inclinedme toexamineintothecauseswhichprecipitatemenintosofatalafolly.Exercise 120. Insert commas, where necessary, in the following

sentences:1. IntheoldPersianstoriesTuranthelandofdarknessisopposedtoIranthe

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landoflight.2. Historyithasbeensaidistheessenceofinnumerablebiographies.3. Attention application accuracy method punctualilty and dispatch are the

principalqualitiesrequiredfortheefficientconductofbusinessofanysort.4. When Iwas inDelhi I visited theRed FortQutabMinarRajGhat India

GateandChandniChowk.5. Hewas now in the vigour of his days forty-three years of age stately in

personnobleinhisdemeanourcalmanddignifiedinhisdeportment.6. Yourwifewouldgiveyoulittlethanksifshewerepresenttohearyoumake

thisoffer.7. Ahigh-bredmanneverforgetshimselfcontrolshistemperdoesnothingin

excessiscourteousdignifiedandthateventopersonswhomheiswishingfaraway.

8. AllthatIamallthatIhopetobeIowetomyangelmother.9. Weallornearlyallfailtolastour“lease”owingtoaccidentsviolenceand

avoidableaswellasunavoidabledisease.10. Nuclear bomb testing fills the air with radioactive dust and leavesmany

areasuninhabitableforcenturies.11. Inastrictandlegalsensethatisproperlythedomicileofapersonwherehe

hashistruefixedpermanenthomeandprincipalestablishmentandtowhichwheneverheisabsenthehastheintentionofreturning.Exercise121.Punctuatethefollowing:

1. AsCaesarlovedmeIweptforhimashewasfortunateIrejoiceatitashewasvaliantIhonourhimbutashewasambitiousIslewhim.

2. The shepherd finding his flock destroyed exclaimed I have been rightlyservedwhydidItrustmysheeptoawolf.

3. However strange however grotesquemaybe the appearancewhichDanteundertakes todescribehenevershrinksfromdescribing ithegivesus theshapethecolourthesoundthesmellthetaste.

4. Perhapscriedhetheremaybesuchmonstersasyoudescribe.5. Sancho ranas fast ashis asscouldgo tohelphismasterwhomhe found

lyingandnotabletostirsuchablowheandRozinantehadreceivedmercyonmecriedSanchodidInotgiveyourworshipfairwarningdidInottellyoutheywerewindmillsandthatnobodycould thinkotherwiseunlesshehadalsowindmillsinhishead

6. Modernideasofgovernmentdatebacktothe1960swhenforthefirsttimepeoplebegantoquestionakingsrighttoruleoncethoughttobegodgiven.

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7. WhenIlookuponthetombsofthegreateveryemotionofenvydiesinmewhen I read theepitaphsof thebeautiful every inordinatedesiregoesoutwhenImeetwiththegriefofparentsuponatombstonemyheartmeltswithcompassionwhen I see the tombof theparents themselves I consider thevanityofgrievingforthosewhomwemustquicklyfollow.

8. Theyhadplayedtogetherininfancytheyhadworkedtogetherinmanhoodtheywerenowtotteringaboutandgossipingawayintheeveningoflifeandin a short time theywill probably be buried together in the neighbouringchurchyard.

9. TakeawaythatbaublesaidCromwellpointingtothemacewhichlayuponthe tableandwhen theHousewasemptyhewentoutwith thekey inhispocket

10. OnedaywalkingtogetherupahillIsaidtoFridaydoyounotwishyourselfin your own country again yes he said what would you do there said Iwouldyouturnwildandeatmensfleshagainhelookedfullofconcernandshakinghisheadsaidno

11. When a great office is vacant either by death or disgrace which oftenhappensfiveorsixofthesecandidatespetitiontheemperortoentertainhismajesty and the court with a dance on the rope and whoever jumps thehighestwithoutfallingsucceedstotheoffice

12. That familiarityproducesneglecthasbeen longobserved theeffectof allexternal objects however great or splendid ceases with their novelty thecourtier stands without emotion in the royal presence the rustic tramplesunderhisfootthebeautiesofthespringwithlittleattentiontotheircoloursor their fragrance and the inhabitant of the coast darts his eye upon theimmensediffusionofwaterswithoutawewonderorterror.

13. Ifyoulookaboutyouandconsiderthelivesofothersaswellasyourownifyouthinkhowfewarebornwithhonourandhowmanydiewithoutnameorchildrenhowlittlebeautyweseeandhowfewfriendswehearofhowmany diseases and howmuch poverty there is in theworld youwill falldownuponknees and insteadof repining at one afflictionwill admire somanyblessingswhichyouhavereceivedfromthehandofGod

14. WethankTheefortheplaceinwhichwedwellforthelovethatunitesusfor thepeaceaccordedus thisdayfor thehopewithwhichweexpect themorrowforthehealththeworkthefoodandthebrightskiesthatmakeourlifedelightfulforourfriendsinallpartsoftheearth

15. Androcleswhohadnoarmsofanykindnowgavehimselfupforlostwhat

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shall I do said he I haveno spear or swordnonot somuch as a stick todefendmyselfwith

16. MyquaintArielsaidProsperotothelittlespritewhenhemadehimfreeIshallmissyouyetyoushallhaveyourfreedomthankyoumydearmastersaid Ariel but give me leave to attend your ship with prosperous galesbeforeyoubidfarewelltotheassistanceofyourfaithfulspirit.

17. Omaster exclaimedAnandaweeping bitterly and is all thework undoneandallbymyfaultandfollythatwhichisbuiltonfraudandimposturecanbynomeansendurereturnedBuddha

18. WretchsaidthekingwhatharmdidIdotheethatthoushouldstseektotakemylifewithyourownhandyoukilledmyfatherandmytwobrotherswasthereplyExercise122.Punctuatethefollowing:

1. Nothingissoeasyandinvitingastheretortofabuseandsarcasmbutitisapaltryandanunprofitablecontest

2. Think how mysterious and often unaccountable it is that lottery of lifewhichgivestothismanthepurpleandfinelinenandsendstotheotherragsforgarmentsanddogsforcomforters

3. Thehumanmindisneverstationaryitadvancesoritretrogrades4. Thelawsofmostcountriestodayarespiltintotwokindscriminallawand

civillaw.5. Islam is one of theworlds largest religionswith an estimated 1100-1300

million believers it was founded in the 7th century by the ProphetMohammad

6. Thereisaslaverythatnolegislationcanabolishtheslaveryofcaste7. Trulyapopularerrorhasasmanylivesasacatitcomeswalkinglongafter

youhaveimaginediteffectuallystrangled8. So far from science being irreligious as many think it is the neglect of

sciencethatisirreligiousitistherefusaltostudythesurroundingcreationthatisirreligious

9. NoneofTelleyrand’smots ismore famous than this speechwasgiven tomantoconcealhisthoughts

10. Thereisonlyonecurefortheevilswhichnewlyacquiredfreedomproducesandthatcureisfreedom

11. Ifyoureadtenpagesofagoodbookletterbyletterthatistosaywithrealaccuracyyouareforevermoreinsomemeasureaneducatedperson

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beg+ed=begged rob+er=robberrun+ing=running sad+est=saddest

begin+ing=beginning occur+ed=occurredpermit+ed=permitted control+er=controller

benefit+ed=benefited suffer+ing=suffering

worship+ed=worshipped handicap+ed=handicappedkidnap+er=kidnapper

quarrel+ed=quarrelled signal+ing=signallingtravel+er=traveller distil+er=distiller

parallel+ed=paralleled

CHAPTER27

SPELLINGRULESFinalconsonant

223. One-syllable words ending in single vowel + singleconsonant double the consonant before a suffix beginning with avowel.

but,

wish+ed=wished(twoconsonants)fear+ing=fearing(twovowels)

224. Words of two or three syllables ending in sigle vowel +single consonant double the final consonant if the last syllable isstressed.

Theconsonantisnotdoubledifthelastsyllableisnotstressed.

Thesewordsareexceptions:worship,kidnap,handicap.

225. In British English the consonant l is doubled, even if thestressdoesnotfallonthelastsyllable.

Notetheexception:

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parallel+ed=paralleled

skill+ful=skilful will+ful=wilful

live+ing=living move+ed=movedhope+ing=hoping drive+er=driver

hope+ful=hopeful engage+ment=engagement

true+ly=truly whole+ly=whollydue+ly=duly nine+th=ninthargue+ment=argument awe+ful=awful

notice+able=noticeable peace+able=peaceablechange+able=changeable courage+ous=courageous

see+ing=seeing agree+ment=agreement

226. If theword towhich the suffix ful is added ends in ll, thesecondlisdropped.

Finale227.Wordsendinginsilentedroptheebeforeasuffixbeginning

withavowel.

Theeremainsbeforeasuffixbeginningwithaconsonant.

Notetheexceptions:

228.Notice thespecialcaseofwordsending inceandgewhichkeeptheewhenaddingableandous.

Insuchwordsthecandgarepronouncedsoftbeforee.Sometimestheeisretainedtoavoidconfusionwithasimilarword.

singe+ing=singeing(avoidsconfusionwithsinging)swinge+ing=swingeing(avoidsconfusionwithswinging)

229.Wordsendingineedonotdropanebeforeasuffix.

230.Wordsendinginiechangetheietoywheningisadded.

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happy+ly=happily carry+ed=carriedbeauty+ful=beautiful marry+age=marriage

carry+ing=carrying marry+ing=marrying

pray+ed=prayed play+er=player

pay+ed=paid day+ly=dailysay+ed=said gay+ly=gailylay+ed=laid

believe receiverelieve receiptachieve deceivegrieve deceityield conceivefield conceit

Finally231.Afinaly followingaconsonantchanges to ibeforeasuffix

excepting.

But,

Butyfollowingavoweldoesnotchange.

Noticeafewexceptions:

ieorei232.Whenieoreiispronouncedlikeeein‘jeep’,icomesbefore

eexceptafterc.

Someexceptions:

CHAPTER28

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THEFORMATIONOFWORDS233.Wordswhich are not derived or compounded or developed

from other words are called Primary Words. They belong to theoriginalstockofwordsinthelanguage.

(i) Compound Words, formed by joining two or more simplewords;as,

Moonlight,nevertheless,undertake,man-of-war.

(ii)PrimaryDerivatives, formedbymakingsomechange in thebodyofthesimpleword;as,

Bondfrombind,breachfrombreak,wrongfromwring.

Note –The most important class of words formed by internalchange consists of thePastTenses ofPrimaryVerbs,which are notusuallyclassedasDerivatives.

(iii) Secondary Derivatives, formed by an addition to thebeginningortheend;as,

Unhappy;goodness.

AnadditiontothebeginningofawordisaPrefix,anadditiontotheendisaSuffix.

(I)COMPOUNDWORDS234.Compoundwords are, for themost part,Nouns,Adjectives

andVerbs.235.CompoundNounsmaybeformedfrom:(1)Noun+Noun;as,

Moonlight, chess-board, armchair, postman, railway, airman,manservant,fire-escape,jailbird,horsepower,shoemaker,ringleader,screwdriver,tax-payer,teaspoon,haystack,windmill.

(2)Adjective+Noun;as,

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Sweetheart, nobleman, shorthand, blackboard, quicksilver,stronghold,halfpenny.

(3)Verb+Noun;as,

Spendthrift, makeshift, breakfast, telltale, pickpocket, cut-throat,cutpurse,daredevil,scarecrow,hangman.

(4)Gerund+Noun;as,

Drawing-room, writing-desk, looking-glass, walking-stick, blottingpaper,stepping-stone,spelling-book.

(5)Adverb(orPreposition)+Noun;as,

Outlaw, afterthought, forethought, foresight, overcoat, downfall,afternoon,bypass,inmate,off-shoot,inside.

(6)Verb+Adverb;as,

Drawback,lock-up,go-between,die-hard,send-off.

(7)Adverb+Verb;as,

Outset,upkeep,outcry,income,outcome.

236.CompoundAdjectivesmaybeformedfrom:(1)Noun+Adjective(orParticiple);as,

Blood-red, sky-blue, snow-white, pitch-dark, breast-high, skin-deep,purse-proud,lifelong,worldwide,headstrong,homesick,stone-blind,seasick,note-worthy,heart-rending,ear-piercing, timeserving,moth-eaten,heart-broken,bed-ridden,hand-made,sea-girl,love-lorn.

(2)Adjective+Adjective;as,

Red-hot,blue-black,white-hot,dull-grey,lukewarm

(3)Adverb+Participle;as,

Long-suffering, everlasting, never-ending, thorough-bred, well-deserved,outspoken,down-hearted,far-seen,inborn.

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Verbs NounsAdvise adviceBear bierBind bondBless blissBreak breachBurn brandChoose choice

237.CompoundVerbsmaybeformedfrom:(1)Noun+Verb;as,

Waylay,backbite,typewrite,browbeat,earmark.

(2)Adjective+Verb;as,

Safeguard,whitewash,fulfil.

(3)Adverb+Verb;as,

Overthrow,overtake, foretell,undertake,undergo,overhear,overdo,outbid,outdo,upset,ill-use.

Note – In most compound words it is the first word whichmodifies themeaningof thesecond.Theaccent isplacedupon themodifyingwordwhentheamalgamationiscomplete.Whenthetwoelementsofthecompoundareonlypartiallyblended,ahyphenisputbetween them, and the accent falls equally on both parts of thecompound.

Exercise 123.Explain the formation of the following compoundwords:

Newspaper, football, moonstruck, turncoat, brand-new, jet-black,onlooker, soothsayer, stronghold, ice-cold, worldly-wise, tempest-tossed,race-horse,ear-ring,cooking-stove,over-dose,fire-proof,top-heavy,heaven-born,skin-deep,widespread,snake-charmer, lifelong,upland.

238.(II)PRIMARYDERIVATIVES(1)FormationofNounsfromVerbsandAdjectives.

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Choose choiceChop chipDeal doleDeem doom

ditchDig dikeFloat fleetGape gapGird girthGrieve griefLive lifeLose lossProve proofSing songSit seatSpeak speechStrike strokeStrive strifeWake watchWeave web

woof

Dull doltHot heatProud pride

Float fleetLie low

Milch MilkWit wise

Adjectives Nouns

Verbs Adjectives

Nouns Adjectives

(2)FormationofAdjectivesfromVerbsandNouns.

(3)FormationofVerbsfromNounsandAdjectives.

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Bath batheBelief BelieveBlood bleedBreath breatheBrood breedCloth clotheDrop dripFood feedGlass glazeGold gildGrass grazeHalf halveKnot knitPrice prizeSale sellSooth sootheTale tellThief thieveWreath wreatheAdjectives VerbsCool chillHale heal

Nouns Verbs

239.(III)SECONDARYDERIVATIVES

ENGLISHPREFIXESA-,on,in;abed,aboard,ashore,ajar,asleep.A-,out,from,arise,awake,alight.Be-,by(sometimesintensive);beside,betimes,besmear,bedaub.For-,thoroughly;forbear,forgive.Fore-,before;forecast,foretell.Gain-,against;gainsay.In-,in;income,inland,inlay.Mis-,wrong,wrongly;misdeed,mislead,misjudge.

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Over-,above,beyond;overflow,overcharge.To-,this;to-day,to-night,to-morrow.Un-,not;untrue,unkind,unholy.Un-,toreverseanaction;untie,undo,unfold.Under-, beneath, below ; undersell, undercharge, undergo,

underground.With-,against,back;withdraw,withhold,withstand.

Note–ThereareonlytwoprefixesofEnglishoriginthatarestillappliedfreelytonewwords,misandun,theformerwiththeforceoftheadjectivebadandthelatterwiththeforceofanegative.

LATINPREFIXESAb,(a,abs),from,away;abuse,avert,abstract.Ad(ac,af,ag,al,an,ap,ar,as,at,a),to;adjoin,accord,affect,

aggrieve,allege,announce,appoint,arrest,assign,attach,avail.Ambi (amb, am), on both sides, around; ambiguous, ambition,

amputate.Ante(anti,an),before;antedate,anticipate,ancestor.Bene,well;benediction,benefit.Bis,(bi,bin),twice,two;biscuit,bisect,binoculars.Circum(circu),around;circumnavigate,circumference,circuit.Con (col, com, cor),with, together ; contend, collect, combine,

correct.Contra(counter),against;contradict,counteract,counterfeit.De,down;descend,dethrone,depose.Dis,(dif,di),apart;disjoin,differ,divide.Demi,half;demigod.Ex(ef,e),outof;extract,effect.Extra,beyond,outside,of;extraordinary,extravagant.In(il,im,ir,en,em),in,into;invade,illustrate,immerse,irrigate,

enact,embrace.In(il,im,ir),not;insecure,illegal,imprudent,irregular.

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Inter (intro, enter), among, within ; intervene, introduce,entertain.

Male(mal),ill,badly;malevolent,malcontent.Non,not;nonsense.Ob(oc,of),inthewayof,against;object,occupy,offend.Pen,almost;penultimate,peninsula.Per(pel),through;pervade,pellucid.Post,after;postscript,postdate,postpone.Pre,before;prefix,prevent,predict.Preter,beyond;preternatural.Pro(por,pur),for;pronoun,portray,pursue.Re,back,again;reclaim,refund,renew,return.Retro,backwards;retrospect,retrograde.Se(sed);apart;secede,separate,seduce,sedition.Semi,half;semicircle,semicolon.Sine,without;sinecure.Sub(suc,suf,sug,sum,sup,sur,sus),under;subdue,succeed,

suffer,suggest,summon,support,surmount,sustain.Subter,beneath;subterfuge.Super,above;superfine,superfluous.Trans(tra,tres),across;transmit,traverse,trespass.Vice,intheplaceof;viceroy,vice-president.

GREEKPREFIXESA(an),without,not;atheist,apathy,anarchy.Amphi,around,onbothsides;amphitheatre,amphibious.Ana,up,back;anachronism,analysis.Anti(ant),against;antipathy,antagonist.Apo(ap)from;apostate,apology.Arch(archi)chief;archbishop,archangel,architect.Auto,self;autocrat,autobiography,autograph.Cata,down;cataract,catastrophe,catalogue.

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Di,twice;dilemma.Dia,through;diagonal,diameter.Dys,badly;dyspepsia,dysentery.En(em),in,;encyclopaedia,emblem.Epi,upon;epilogue,epitaph.Eu,well;eulogy,euphony,eugenics.Ex(ec),outof;exodus,eccentric.Hemi,half;hemisphere.Homo(hom),like;homogeneous,homonym.Hyper,over,beyond;hyperbole,hypercritical.Hypo,under;hypothesis,hypocrite.Meta(met),implyingchange;metaphor,metonymy.Mono,alone,single;monoplane,monopoly.Pan,all;panacea,panorama,pantheism.Para,beside,bythesideof;parallel,paradox,parasite.Peri,round;period,perimeter,periscope.Philo(Phil),love;philosophy,philanthropy.Pro,before;prophesy,programme.Syn,(sym,syl,sy),with,together;synonym,sympathy,syllable,

system.

ENGLISHSUFFIXESOFNOUNS(1)Denotingagentordoer–er(-ar,-or,-yer);painter,baker,beggar,sailor,lawyer.–ster;spinster,punster,songster.–ter(-ther);daughter,father.(2)Denotingstate,action,condition,being,etc.–dom;freedom,martyrdom,wisdom.–hood(-head);manhood,childhood,godhead.–lock(-ledge);wedlock,knowledge.–ness;darkness,boldness,goodness,sweetness.–red;kindred,hatred.

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–ship;hardship,friendship,lordship.–th;health,stealth,growth.(3)FormingDiminutives.–el(-le);satchel,kernel,girdle,handle.–en;maiden,kitten,chicken.–ie;dearie,birdie,lassie.–kin;lambkin,napkin.–let;leaflet.–ling;duckling,darling,stripling,weakling.–ock;hillock,bullock.

OFADJECTIVES–ed,having;gifted,talented,wretched,learned.–en,madeof;wooden,golden,woollen,earthen.–ful,fullof;hopeful,fruitful,joyful.–ish,somewhatlike;boorish,reddish,girlish.–less,freefrom,without;fearless,shameless,hopeless,senseless,

boundless.–ly,like;manly,godly,sprightly.–some,with thequality of ;wholesome,meddlesome,gladsome,

quarrelsome.–ward,incliningto;forward,wayward.–y,with the quality of ; wealthy, healthy, windy, slimy, greedy,

needy,thirsty,dirty.

OFVERBS–en, causative, forming transitive verbs ; weaken, sweeten,

gladden,deaden,strengthen.–se,tomake;cleanse,rinse.–er, intensive or frequentative : chatter, glitter, glimmer, fritter,

flutter.

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OFADVERBS–ly,like;boldly,wisely.–long,headlong,sidelong.–ward,(-wards),turningto;homeward,backwards,upwards.–way,(-ways);straightaway,anyway,always.–wise,manner,mode;likewise,otherwise.Note.–WestillfeeltheforceofafewEnglishsuffixes.Theseare:–er,denotingtheactororagent;as,driver.–hood,indicatingrankorcondition;as,boyhood.–kin,ling,diminutives,as,lambkin,yearling.–ness, ship, th, indicating abstract nouns ; as, loveliness,

friendship,truth.–en,ful,ish,less,ly,some,ward,y,adjectiveandadverbendings

; as, golden, hopeful, oldish, helpless,manly, lonesome, homeward,mighty.

LATINSUFFIXESOFNOUNS(1)Denotingchieflytheagentordoerofathing.–ain(-an,-en,-on);chieftain,artisan,citizen,surgeon.–ar,(-er,-eer,-ier,-ary);scholar,preacher,engineer,financier,

missionary.–ate(-ee,-ey,-y);advocate,trustee,attorney,deputy.–or,(-our,-eur,-er);emperor,saviour,amateur,interpreter.(2)Denotingstate,action,resultofanaction.–age;bondage,marriage,breakage,leakage.–ance (-ence) ; abundance, brilliance, assistance, excellence,

innocence.–cy;fancy,accuracy,lunacy,bankruptcy.–ion;action,opinion,union.–ice(-ise);service,cowardice,exercise.–ment;punishment,judgement,improvement.–mony;parsimony,matrimony,testimony.

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–tude;servitude,fortitude,magnitude.–ty;cruelty,frailty,credulity.–ure;pleasure,forfeiture,verdure.–y;misery,victory.(3)Formingdiminutives.–cule (-ule, -cel, -sel, -el, -le) ; animalcule, globule, parcel,

damsel,chapel,circle.–et;owlet,lancet,trumpet.–ette;cigarette,coquette.(4)Denotingplace.–ary(-ery,-ry);dispensary,library,nunnery,treasury.–ter(tre);cloister,theatre.

OFADJECTIVES–al;national,legal,regal,mortal,fatal.–an(-ane);human,humane,mundane.–ar;familiar,regular.–ary;customary,contrary,necessary,ordinary,honorary.–ate;fortunate,temperate,obstinate.–ble(-ible,able);feeble,sensible,laughable.–esque;picturesque,grotesque.–id;humid,vivid,lucid.–ile;servile,fragile,juvenile.–ine;feminine,canine,feline,divine.–ive;active,attentive,shortive–lent;corpulent,indolent,turbulent,virulent.–ose(ous);verbose,dangerous,onerous,copious.

OFVERBS–ate;assassinate,captivate,exterminate.–esce;acquiesce,effervesce.–fy;simplify,purify,fortify,sanctify,terrify.

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–ish;publish,nourish,punish,banish.

GREEKSUFFIXES–ic(-ique);angelic,cynic,phonetic,unique.–ist;artist,chemist.–isk;asterisk,obelisk.–ism(-asm);patriotism,despotism,enthusiasm.–ize;civilize,sympathize,criticize.–sis(-sy);crisis,analysis,heresy,poesy.–e(-y);catastrophe,monarchy,philosophy.

Note–Westill feel the forceof a numberof suffixesof foreignorigin.Theseare:

ee (French), added to nouns to denote, usually, the person whotakes a passive share in an action; as, employee, payee, legatee,mortgagee,trustee,referee.

or,ar,er,eer,ier,denotingapersonwhoperfomsacertainactorfunction;as,emperor,scholar,officer,engineer,gondolier.

ist, denoting a personwho follows a certain trade or pursuit; as,chemist,theosophist,artist,nihilist.

ism,formingabstractnouns;as,patriotism.ble, forming adjectives that have usually a passive sense; as,

tolerable,bearable.izeorise,formingverbsfromnounsandadjectives;as,crystallize,

moralize,baptize.Exercise124.(a)Giveexamplesshowingtheuseandmeaningof

thefollowingprefixes:–super-, trans-, con-, sub-, auto-,mis-, ante-, post-, vice-, extra-, pre-,arch-.

(b)Giveexamplesofadjectivesformedfromnounsbytheadditionofthesuffixes-en,-ish,-less,andexplainthemeaningofthesuffixes.

(c)Showby theuseof suffixes thatwecanusea singleword toexpressthemeaningofeachofthefollowinggroupsofwords:

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Alittleriver,thestateofbeingachild,tomakefat,thatwhichcannotberead,unfittobechosen.

(d)Givethemeaningsoftheprefixesandsuffixesinthefollowingwords:

Incredible, antidote, anarchy, misconduct, monarch, sympathy,manhood,hillock,archbishop,amiss,bicycle,dismantle,freshen.

(e)FormAdjectivesfromthefollowingnouns:Circumstance,habit,stone,miser,irony,labour,circuit.

(f)FormVerbsfrom:Friend,bath,fertile,grass,clean,sweet,critic.

(g)FormNounsfrom:Sustain,attain,confess,attach,fortify,oblige,give,cruel,hate,govern,sweet.

(h)FormAdjectivesfrom:Muscle,hazard,worth,quarrel,admire,thirst,god.(i)Addtoeachofthefollowingwordsaprefixwhichreversesthe

meaning:

Fortune, legible, visible, agreeable, ever, fortunate, practicable,honour, patience, sense, truth, resolute, legal, capable, organize,credible,creditable.

(j)What is the force ormeaningof the (1)Prefixes : in-, bene-,post-, dys-, dis-, (2) Suffixes :-en, -fy, -ness, -isk, -ing ?Name thelanguagefromwhicheachisderived.

(k)Mentiontwoprefixeswhichdenote(1)reversalofanaction;(2)somethinggood;(3)somethingbad;(4)anegative.

(l)Nametheprimaryderivativesofthefollowingwords:Hale,glass,high,sit,dig,strong,deep.

(m)Bymeansofasuffixturneachofthefollowingwordsintoanabstractnoun:

Grand,discreet,supreme,rival,certain,warm,desolate,dense.240.ARootisthesimpleelementcommontowordsofthesame

origin.

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AFEWLATINROOTSEquus,equal:equal,equator,equivalent,adequate.Ager,afield:agriculture,agrarian.Ago,actus,Ido:agent,agile.active,actor.Alius,another:alien,aliquot,alias,alibi.Amo,Ilove:amiable,amateur,amorous,inimical.Angulus,acorner:angle,triangle.Anima, life ; animus, mind : animal, animate, unanimous,

magnanimous,Annus,ayear:annual,biennial,perennial.Aperio,apertus,Iopen:aperture,April.Aqua,water:aquatic,aquarium,aqueduct.Appello,Icall:appeal,repealArs,artis,art:artist,artisan,artifice.Audio,Ihear:audible,audience,auditor.Bellum,war:belligerent,rebel,rebellious.Bene,well:benefit,benevolent,benefactor.Brevis,short:brevity,abbreviate,abridge.Caedo,caesus,Icut,kill:suicide,homicide,concise,Candeo,Ishine:candle,candid,candour,incandescent.Capio,captus,Itake:captive,capacious,accept.Caput,capitis,thehead:capital,decapitate,captain.Caro,carnis,flesh:carnivorous,carnage.Cedo,cessum,Igo,yield:concede,proceed,accede.Centrum,centre:eccentric,centralize,concentrate.Centum,ahundred:cent,century,centipede.Cerno,cretus,Idistinguish:discern,discreet.Civis,citizen:civil,civilize.Clamo,Ishout:clamour,claim,exclaim.Claudoclausus,Ishut:exclude,conclude,closet.Colo,cultus,Itill:colony,culture,cultivate,agriculture.Cor, cordis, the heart : core, cordial, concord, discord, accord,

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courage.Corpus,thebody:corpse,corps,corporation,corpulent.Credo,Ibelieve:creed,credible,credence,miscreant.Cresco,Igrow:increase,decrease,crescent.Crux,across:crucify,crusade.Culpa,afault:culprit,culpable.Cura,care:curator,sinecure,accurate,secure,incurable.Deus,God:deity,deify,divine.Dico,dictusIsay:dictation,contradict,predict,verdict.Dies,aday:diary,daily,meridian.Do,datus,Igive:add,date,tradition,addition,condition.Doceo,doctus,Iteach:docile,doctrine.Dominus,alord:dominion,dominant.Duco,ductus,Ilead:adduce,conduit,product,education.Duo,two:dual,duel,double,duplicate,duodecimal.Durus,hardlasting:durable,obdurate,duration.Eo,itum,Igo:exit,circuit,transition,ambition.Esse,tobe:essence,essential,present,absent.Facio,Imake:fabric,counterfeit,manufacture.Fero,latus,Icarry:infer,confer,refer,relate.Fido,Itrust:confide,infidel,defy.Finis,anend:finite,infinite,confine.Flectoflexus,Ibend:inflict,inflexible,reflection.Forma,aform:formal,deformed,reform.Fortis,strong:fort,fortress,fortify,fortitude,reinforce.Frango,fractus,Ibreak:fragment,fragile,fraction,infringe.Frater,abrother:fraternal,fratricide.Frons,frontis,forehead:front,affront,frontier,confront.Fugio,Iflee:fugitive,refugee,refuge,subterfuge.Fundo,fusus,Ipour:profuse,diffuse,confuse,refund.Fundus, the bottom : found, foundation, profound, fundamental,

founder.Gens,gentis,arace:congenial,indigenous.

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Gradior,grassus,Igo:grade,degrade,transgress,progress.Gratia,favour:gratitude,gratis,ingratiate,grateful.Gravis,heavy:gravity,gravitation,grief,grievous.Habeo, I have : habit, habitable, habituate, exhibit, inhabit,

prohibit.Homo,aman:homage,homicide,human,humane.Impero,Icommand:imperative,imperial,emperor,empire.Jacio,jactus,Ithrow:ejaculate,reject.Judex,judicis,ajudge:judicial,judgment,judicious,prejudice.Jungo,junctus,Ijoin:junction,conjunction,juncture.Labor,lapsus,Iglide,lapse,collapse,relapse,elapse.Laus,laudis,praise:laudable,laudatory.Lego,lectus,Igather,read:collect,neglect,select.Lego,legatus,Isend:delegate,legation.Levis,light:levity,alleviate,elevate,leaven.Lex,legis,alaw:legal,legislate,legitimate,loyal.Liber,free:liberal,libertine,deliver.Ligo,Ibind:ligature,ligament,religion,league,obligation.Litera,aletter:literal,literary,literate,literature.Locus,aplace:local,locality,locomotive.Loquor,locutus,Ispeak:loquacious,elocution,eloquence.Ludo,lusum,Iplay:elude,delude,ludicrousLumen,alight:luminous,luminary.Luo,lutus,Iwash:lotion,ablution,deluge,dilute,pollute.Lux,lucis,light:lucid,elucidate.Magnus,great:major,mayor,magnate,magnify,magnitude.Malus,bad:malady,malice,maltreat,malaria.Manus,hand:manuscript,amanuensis,manual.Mare,thesea:marine,mariner,submarine,maritime.Mater,amother:maternal,matriculate,matron,matrimony.Medius,themiddle:medium,mediate.Memor,mindful:memory,memorable,memoir.Miles,militis,asoldier:military,militia,militant.

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Mitto,missus,Isend:admit,missionary,promise.Moneomonitus,Iadvise:monitor,admonish.Mons,montis,amountain:mount,dismount,surmount.Moveo,motus,Imove:motor,motion,commotion,promoteMultus,many:multitude,multiple.Munus,muneris,agift:munificent,remunerate.Navis,aship:navy,nautical.Noceo,Ihurt:innocent,noxious,nuisance.Novus,new:novel,novice,innovation.Nox,noctis,night:nocturnal,equinox.Omnis,all:omnipotent,omnipresent,omnibus.Pando,passus,Ispreadout:expand,compass,trespass.Pars,partis,apart:part,partial,particle.Pater,afather:paternal,patron,patrimony.Patior,passus,Isuffer:passive,patient.Pello,pulsus,Idrive:compel,expel,repel.Pendeo,pensum,Ihang:depend,suspend.Pes,pedis,afoot:biped,quadruped,pedestrian,pedestal.Peto,petitus,Iseek:petition,competition,impetuous.Pleo,Ifill:complete,replete,replenish,supplement.Pono,positus,Iplace:position,preposition,composition.Porto,Icarry:portable,portmanteau,import,export.Primus,first:primary,primitive,prince,premier,principal.Probo,Itry:probation,probable,approval.Puto,putatus,Icut,think:amputate,dispute,compute.Rapio,raptus.Iseize:rapacious,ravenous.Rego,rectus,Irule:regal,regent,correct,regulate.Rumpo,ruptus,Ibreak:rupture,rout,bankrupt,eruption.Sanctus,holy:sanctuary,sanctify,saint.Scio,Iknow:science,conscience,omniscience.Scribo, scriptus, I write : describe, scribble, postscript,

inscription,manuscript.Seco,Icut:bisect,dissect,sickle.

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Sentio,Ifeel:sentiment,sensation,nonsense,sensual.Sequor, secutus, I follow : sequel, sequence, consequence,

prosecute,execute.Servio,Iserve:servant,serf,service,servitude.Signum,asign:signal,significant,design.Similis,tike:similar,dissimilar,resemblance.Solvo, solutus, I loose : solution, resolution, absolve, dissolve,

resolve.Specio,spectus,Isee:specimen,spectator,suspicion.Spiro,Ibreathe:aspire,conspire,inspire,expire.Stringo,strictus,Ibind:stringent,strict,restrict.Struo,structus,Ibuild:structure,construction.Sumo,sumptus,Itake:assume,presume,resume.Tango,tactus,Itouch:tangent,contact,contagion.Tempus,temporis,time:tense,temporal,contemporary.Tendo,tensus,Istretch:tend,contend,attend,extend.Teneo,tentus,Ihold:tenant,tenure,content,retentive.Terminus,anend:term,terminate,determination.Terra,theearth:inter,subterranean,terrestrial.Texo,textus,Iweave:textile,texture,context.Torqueo,tortus,Itwist:distort,torture,torment.Traho,tractus,Idraw:contract,abstract,portrait.Tribuo,Igive:tribute,contribute.Unus,one:union,unique,unanimous.Valeo,Iamwell:valid,invalid,equivalent,valiant.Venio,Icome:venture,adventure,convene,prevent.Verbum,aword:verb,adverb,proverb,verbose,verbal.Verto,versus,Iturn:convert,converse,reverse,diversion.Verus,true:verify,verdict,aver,veracious.Video,visus,Isee:vision,survey,evident,television.Vinco,victus,Iconquer:victor,invincible,convince.Vivo,victum,Ilive:vivid,vivacious,revive,survive.Voco,vocatus,Icall:vocal,vocation,vociferous,invoke,revoke.

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Volo,Iwish:voluntary,benevolent,malevolence.Volvo,Iroll:revolve,involve,revolution.Voro,Ieat:voracious,omnivorous,carnivorous,devour.Voveo,votus,Ivow:vote,devote,devotee,votary.Vulgus,thecommonpeople:vulgar,divulge.

AFEWGREEKROOTSAgo,Ilead:demagogue,pedagogue,stratagem.Agon,acontest:agony,antagonist.Anthropos,aman:anthropology,misanthrope,philanthropist.Aster,astron,astar:asterisk,astronomy,astrology.Autos,self:autocrat,autograph,autonomy,autobiography.Biblos,abook;Bible,bibliography,bibliomaniac.Bios,life:biology,biography.Chole,bile:choleric,melancholy.Chronos,time:chronicle,chronology,chronometer,chronic.Deka,ten:decagon,decade.Demos,thepeople:democracy,demagogue,epidemic.Doxa,opinion:orthodox,dogmatic.Gamos,marriage:monogamy,bigamy,polygamy.Geo,theearth:geology,geography,geometry.Gonia,anangle:diagonal,polygon,hexagon.Grapho,Iwrite:biography,telegraph,telegram,phonograph.Helios,thesun:heliograph,heliotrope.Hippos,ahorse:hippopotamus,hippodrome.Hodos,away:period,method,episode.Homos,thesame:homogeneous,homonym.Hudor,water:hydrogen,hydrophobia,hydrant.Idios,one’sown:idiot,idiom,idiosyncrasy.Isos,equal:isosceles.Kosmos,theworld:cosmopolite.Kratos,strength:democrat,autocrat,aristocrat,plutocrat

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Kuklos,acircle:cycle,cyclone,encyclopaedia.Lithos,astone:lithography,aerolite.Logos,aword,speech:dialogue,catalogue,astrology.Luo,Iloosen:analysis,paralysis.Meter,amother:metropolis.Metron,ameasure:thermometer,barometer.Mikros,little:microscope.Monos,alone:monarch,monopoly.Nomos,a,law:astronomy,economy,autonomy.Ode,asong:prosody,parody.Onoma,aname:anonymous,synonymous.Orthos,right:orthodoxy,orthography.Pan,all:pantheist,pantomime,panacea.Pathos,feeling:pathetic,sympathy,antipathy,.Petra,arock:petrify,petroleum.Phileo,Ilove:philosophy,philanthropy.Phone,asound:phonograph,telephone.Phos,photos,light;phosphorus,photograph.Phrasis,aspeech:paraphrase,phraseology.Poleo,Imake:poem,onomatopoeia.Polis,acity:police,policy,politic,metropolisPolus,many:polygamy,polygon.Pous,podos,afoot:antipodes,tripod.Rheo,Iflow:rheumatic,diarrhoea,catarrh.Skopeo,Isee:telescope,microscope.Sophia,wisdom:philosopher,sophist.Techne,anart:technical,architect,pyrotechnics.Tele,far:telegraph,telegram,telephone,telescope.Temno,Icut:anatomy,epitome.Theos,agod:theism,theology,theosophy.Thermos,warm:thermometer.Thesis,aplacing:hypothesis,synthesis,parenthesis.Treis,three:triangle,tripod,trinity.

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Tupos,impression:type,stereotype,electrotype.Zoon,ananimal:zoology,zodiac.

CHAPTER29

FIGURESOFSPEECH241.AFigureofSpeechisadeparturefromtheordinaryformof

expression, or the ordinary course of ideas in order to produce agreatereffect.

242.FiguresofSpeechmaybeclassifiedasunder:(1) Those based on Resemblance, such as Simile, Metaphor,

PersonificationandApostrophe.(2)ThosebasedonContrast,suchasAntithesisandEpigram.(3) Those based on Association, such as Metonymy and

Synecdoche.(4) Those depending on Construction, such as Climax and

Anticlimax.263. Simile–In a Simile a comparison is made between two

objects of different kindswhich have however at least one point incommon.

TheSimileisusuallyintroducedbysuchwordsaslike,asorso.Examples:

1. TheAssyriancamedownlikeawolfonthefold.2. Therighteousshallflourishasthepalmtree.3. Asthehartpantethafterthewater-brooks,sopantethmysoulafterThee,

OGod.4. Wordsarelikeleaves:andwheretheymostabound,

Muchfruitofsensebeneathisrarelyfound.5. Howfarthatlittlecandlethrowshisbeams!

Soshinesagooddeedinanaughtyworld.6. Lifeisastediousasatwice-toldtale

Vexingthedullearofadrowsyman.

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7. Thysoulwaslikeastar,anddweltapart:Thouhadstavoicewhosesoundwaslikethesea.

8. OmyLove’slikeared,redroseThat’snewlysprunginJune;OmyLove’slikethemelodieThat’ssweetlyplayedintune.

Thefollowingaresomecommonsimilesofeverydayspeech:MadasaMarchHare;asproudasapeacock;asboldasbrass;astoughasleather;asclearascrystal;asgoodasgold;asoldasthehills;ascoolasacucumber.

Note – A comparison of two things of the same kind is not aSimile.

244.Metaphor –AMetaphor is an implied Simile. It does not,liketheSimile,statethatonethingislikeanotheroractsasanother,buttakesthatforgrantedandproceedsasifthetwothingswereone.

Thus,whenwesay, ‘He fought like a lion’weuseaSimile,butwhenwesay,‘Hewasalioninthefight’,weuseaMetaphor.

Examples:

1. Thecamelistheshipofthedesert.2. Lifeisadream.3. Thenewswasadaggertohisheart.4. Revengeisakindofwildjustice.

Note1–EverySimilecanbecompressed intoaMetaphorandeveryMetaphorcanbeexpandedintoaSimile.

Thus,insteadofsaying,

Richardfoughtlikealion(Simile),

wecansay,

Richardwasalioninthefight(Metaphor).

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Similarly,insteadofsaying,

Thecamelistheshipofthedesert(Metaphor).

wemayexpanditandsay,

As a ship is used for crossing the ocean, so the camel is used forcrossingthedesert(Simile).

Otherexamples:-–

Varietyisthespiceoflife(Metaphor).Asspiceflavoursfood,sovarietymakeslifemorepleasant(Simile).Thewavesbrokeontheshorewithanoiselikethunder(Simile).Thewavesthunderedontheshore.(Metaphor)

Note 2 – Metaphor should never bemixed. That is, an objectshould not be identified with two or more different things in thesamesentence.

The following is a typical example of what is called aMixedMetaphor.

Ismellarat;Iseeitfloatingintheair;butIwillnipitinthebud.245. Personification – In Personification inanimate objects and

abstractnotionsarespokenofashavinglifeandintelligence.Examples:

1. InSaxonstrengththatabbeyfrowned.2. Laughterholdingbothhersides.3. Deathlayshisicyhandonkings.4. Pridegoethforthonhorseback,grandandgay,

Butcomethbackonfoot,andbegsitsway.

246.Apostrophe–AnApostropheisadirectaddresstothedead,totheabsent,ortoapersonifiedobjectoridea.ThisfigureisaspecialformofPersonification.

Examples:

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1. Milton!thoushould’stbelivingatthishour.2. OFriend!IknownotwhichwayImustlook.

Forcomfort.3. Rollon,thoudeepanddarkblueOcean–roll!4. Odeath!whereisthysting?Ograve!whereisthyvictory?5. Oliberty,whatcrimeshavebeencommittedinthyname?6. Wave,Munich,allthybannerswave,

Andchargewithallthychivalry!7. Ojudgement!thouartfledtobrutishbeasts.8. OSolitude!wherearethecharms

Thatsageshaveseeninthyface?

247.Hyperbole–InHyperboleastatementismadeemphaticbyoverstatement.

Examples:

1. Here’s the smell of blood still ; all the perfumes of Arabia will notsweetenthislittlehand.

2. Why,man,iftheriverweredry,Iamabletofillitwithtears.3. OHamlet!thouhastcleftmyheartintwain.4. Surely never lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a

moredelightfulvisionthanMarieAntoinette.5. ILovedOphelia;fortythousandbrothers

CouldnotwithalltheirquantityofloveMakeupthesum.

248. Euphemism – Euphemism consists in the description of adisagreeablethingbyanagreeablename.

Examples:

1. Hehasfallenasleep(i.e.,heisdead).2. Youaretellingmeafairytale(i.e.,alie).

249.Antithesis–In antithesis a striking opposition or contrast ofwordsorsentiments ismadein thesamesentence. It isemployedtosecureemphasis.

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Examples:

1. Manproposes,Goddisposes.2. NotthatIlovedCaesarless,butthatIlovedRomemore.3. BetterfiftyyearsofEuropethanacycleofCathay.4. Giveeverymanthyear,butfewthyvoice.5. Speechissilvern,butsilenceisgolden.6. Toerrishuman,toforgivedivine.7. Manyarecalled,butfewarechosen.8. Hehadhisjest,andtheyhadhisestate.9. ThePuritanshatedbear-baiting,notbecauseitgavepaintothebear,but

becauseitgavepleasuretothespectators.10. A man’s nature runs either to herbs or weeds ; therefore, let him

seasonablywatertheoneanddestroytheother.

250. Oxymoron–Oxymoron is a special form of Antithesis,wherebytwocontradictoryqualitiesarepredictedatonceofthesamething.

Examples:

1. Hishonourrootedindishonourstood.Andfaithunfaithfulkepthimfalselytrue.

2. Soinnocentarch,socunninglysimple.3. Sheaccepteditasthekindcrueltyofthesurgeon’sknife.

251. Epigram–An Epigram is a brief pointed saying frequentlyintroducing antithetical ideas which excite surprise and arrestattention.

Examples:

1. Thechildisthefatheroftheman.2. Amancan’tbetoocarefulinthechoiceofhisenemies.3. Foolsrushinwhereangelsfeartotread.4. Inthemidstoflifeweareindeath.5. Artliesinconcealingart.6. Hemakesnofriend,whonevermadeafoe.

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7. Knowthenthyself,presumenotGodtoscan;Theproperstudyofmankindisman.

8. The fooldoth thinkhe iswise,but thewisemanknowshimself tobeafool.

9. Lieheavyonhim,earth,forhe*Laidmanyaheavyloadonthee.

10. HereliesourSovereignLordtheKingWhosewordnomanrelieson,WhoneversaidafoolishthingAndneverdidawiseone.

252.Irony–Ironyisamodeofspeechinwhichtherealmeaningisexactlytheoppositeofthatwhichisliterallyconveyed.

Examples:

1. Nodoubtbutyearethepeople,andwisdomshalldiewithyou.2. The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the honourable

gentleman has, with such spirit and decency, charged uponme. I shallneitherattempttopalliatenordeny.

3. HereunderleaveofBrutusandtherest(ForBrutusisanhonourableman:Soaretheyall,allhonourablemen)ComeItospeakinCaesar’sfuneral.Hewasmyfriend,faithfulandjusttome;ButBrutussayshewasambitious,AndBrutusisanhonourableman.

253.Pun–APunconsistsintheuseofawordinsuchawaythatitiscapableofmorethanoneapplication,theobjectbeingtoproducealudicrouseffect.

Examples:

1. Islifeworthliving?–Itdependsupontheliver.2. An ambassador is an honest man who lies abroad for the good of his

country.

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254.Metonymy– InMetonymy (literally,a change of name) anobject is designated by the name of something which is generallyassociatedwithit.

Somefamiliarexamples:

TheBench,forthejudges.TheHouse,forthemembersofLokSabha.Thelaurel,forsuccess.Red-coats,forBritishsoldiers.Bluejackets,forsailors.TheCrown,fortheking.

Since there aremanykindsof associationbetweenobjects, thereareseveralvarietiesofMetonymy.

ThusaMetonymymayresultfromtheuseof–(i)Thesignforthepersonorthingsymbolized;as,

Youmustaddressthechair(i.e.,thechairman).Fromthecradletothegrave(i.e.,frominfancytodeath).

(ii)Thecontainerforthethingcontained;as,

Thewholecitywentouttoseethevictoriousgeneral.Thekettleboils.Forthwithhedrankthefatalcup.Hekeepsagoodcellar.Hewasplayingtothegallery.Hehasundoubtedlythebeststableinthecountry.

(iii)Theinstrumentfortheagent;as,

Thepenismightierthanthesword.

(iv)Theauthorforhisworks;as,

WearereadingMilton.DoyoulearnEuclidatyourschool?

(v)Thenameofafeelingorpassionforitsobject;as,

Heturn’dhischargerashespake

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Upontherivershore,Hegavethebridle-reinsashake,Said‘Adieuforevermore,Mylove!Andadieuforevermore.’

255. Synecdoche–In Synecdoche a part is used to designate thewholeorthewholetodesignateapart.

(i)Apartusedtodesignatethewhole;as,

Giveusthisdayourdailybread(i.e.,food),Allhands(i.e.,crew)tothepumps.Uneasyliestheheadthatwearsacrown.Afleetoffiftysail(i.e.,ships)lefttheharbour.AllthebestbrainsinEuropecouldnotsolvetheproblem.Hehasmanymouthstofeed.

(ii)Thewholeusedtodesignateapart;as,England (i.e., the English cricket eleven) won the first test matchagainstAustralia.

256.TransferredEpithet–In this figureanepithet is transferredfromitsproperwordtoanotherthatiscloselyassociatedwithitinthesentence.

Examples:

1. Hepassedasleeplessnight.2. Theploughmanhomewardplodshiswearyway.3. Alackeypresentedanobsequiouscupofcoffee.

257.Litotes–InLitotesanaffirmativeisconveyedbynegationoftheopposite,theeffectbeingtosuggestastrongexpressionbymeansofaweaker.ItistheoppositeofHyperbole.

Examples:

1. Iamacitizenofnomean(=averycelebrated)city.2. Themanisnofool(=veryclever).3. Iamnotalittle(=greatly)surprised.

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258. Interrogation–Interrogation is the asking of a question notforthesakeofgettingananswer,buttoputapointmoreeffectively.

This figure of speech is also known as Rhetorical Questionbecauseaquestionisaskedmerelyforthesakeofrhetoricaleffect.

Examples:

1. AmImybrother’skeeper?2. Domengathergrapesofthorns,orfigsofthistles?3. ShallIwastingindespair.

Diebecauseawoman’sfair?4. Whoisheresovilethatwillnotlovehiscountry?5. Breathestherethemanwithsoulsodead

Whonevertohimselfhathsaid,Thisismyown,mynativeland?

6. CanstoriedurnoranimatedbustBacktoitsmansioncallthefleetingbreath?

259.Exclamation–In this figure theexclamatory formisused todrawgreaterattentiontoapointthanamerebaldstatementofitcoulddo.

Examples:

1. Whatapieceofworkisman!2. Howsweetthemoonlightsleepsuponthisbank!3. Owhatafallwasthere,mycountrymen!

260.Climax–Climax(Gk.Klimax=a ladder) is thearrangementofaseriesofideasintheorderofincreasingimportance.

Examples:

1. Simple,erect,severe,austere,sublime.2. What a piece of work is man ! How noble in reason, how infinite in

faculties!Inaction,howlikeanangel!Inapprehension,howlikeagod!

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261.Anticlimax–Anticlimax is theoppositeofClimax–a suddendescent from higher to lower. It is chiefly used for the purpose ofsatireorridicule.

Examples:

1. Herethou,greatAnna!whomthreerealmsobey,Dostsometimescounseltake–andsometimestea.

2. Andthou,Dalhousie,thegreatgodofwar,Lieutenant-ColoneltotheEarlofMar.

Exercise 125. Name the various Figures of Speech in thefollowing:1. Themorehaste,thelessspeed.2. Imustbetaughtmyduty,andbyyou!3. Plead,Sleep,mycause,andmakehersoftlikethee.4. Charitysufferethlong,andiskind.5. Hemakesnofriend,whonevermadeafoe.6. Hethatplantedtheear,shallHenothear?Hethatformedtheeye,shallHe

notsee?7. Letnotambitionmocktheirusefultoil.8. Togossipisafault;tolibel,acrime;toslander,asin.9. Oh!whatanoblemindishereoverthrown!10. Excessofceremonyshowswantofbreeding.11. Whyallthistoilfortriumphsofanhour?12. Foolswhocametoscoff,remainedtopray.13. ThePuritanhadbeenrescuedbynocommondelivererfromthegraspofno

commonfoe.14. Thecupthatcheersbutnotinebriates.15. Youareaprettyfellow.16. Hastenslowly.17. Hail!smilingmorn.18. Cantwowalktogether,excepttheybeagreed?19. Cursesarelikechickens;theycomehometoroost.20. Athousandyearsareasyesterdaywhenitispast.21. Theprisonerwasbroughttothedockinirons.22. Wehadnothingtodo,andwediditverywell.

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23. Boyswillbeboys.24. Thecloisteropenedherpityinggate.25. LowlinessisyoungAmbition’sladder.26. Languageistheartofconcealingthought.27. MustIstandandcrouchunderyourtestyhumour?28. Exult,Oshores,andring,Obells!29. Hefollowedtheletter,butnotthespiritofthelaw.30. Onetruthisclear:whateveris,isright.31. Icame,Isaw,Iconquered.32. Labour,wideastheearth,hasitssummitinheaven.33. Justforahandfulofsilverheleftus.34. Theywereswifterthaneagles;theywerestrongerthanlions.35. Swiftlyfliesthefeathereddeath.36. Itisawisefatherthatknowshisownchild.37. BraveMacbeth,withhisbrandishedsteel,carvedouthispassage.38. SweetThames!runsoftly,tillIendmysong.39. There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom

produces–andthatcureisfreedom.40. Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain, Where health and plenty

cheeredthelabouringswain.41. SospaketheseraphAbdielfaithfulfound.

Amongthefaithless,faithfulonlyhe.42. Youthisfullofpleasure,

Ageisfullofcare.43. Likethedewonthemountain,

Likethefoamontheriver,Likethebubbleonthefountain,Thouartgoneandforever.

44. CanHonour’svoiceprovokethesilentdust,OrFlatterysoothethedullcoldearofDeath?

45. Goldenladsandgirlsallmust,Aschimney-sweepers,cometodust.

46. Sweetaretheusesofadversity,Which,likethetoad,uglyandvenomous,Wearsstillapreciousjewelinitshead.

47. ThenakedeverydayhecladWhenheputonhisclothes.

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48. Omischief,thouartswiftToenterinthethoughtsofdesperatemen.

49. Knowledgeisproudthatitknowssomuch,Wisdomishumblethatitknowsnomore.

50. Atoncetheyrush’dTogether,astwoeaglesononepreyComerushingdowntogetherfromtheclouds,Onefromeast,onefromwest.

51. Errors,likestraws,uponthesurfaceflow,Hewhowouldsearchforpearlsmustdivebelow.

52. Thebestwaytolearnalanguageistospeakit.53. Sceptreandcrown

Musttumbledown,AndinthedustbeequalmadeWiththepoorcrookedscytheandspade.

54. OSolitude!wherearethecharmsThatsageshaveseeninthyface?

55. I thought ten thousand swords must have leapt from their scabbards toavengealookthatthreatenedherwithinsult.

56. Thesoldierfightsforglory,andashillingaday.57. Hishonourrootedindishonourstood,

Andfaithunfaithfulkepthimfalselytrue.58. Theyspeaklikesaints,andactlikedevils.59. Hewasalearnedmanamonglords,andalordamonglearnedmen.60. Speechwasgiventomantoconcealhisthoughts.

*Vanburgh,thearchitect

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PARTIII

STRUCTURES

CHAPTER30

VERBPATTERNSPattern1

Subject+Verb.Thisisthesimplestofverbpatterns.Thesubjectisfollowedbyan

intransitiveverb,whichexpressescompletesensewithoutthehelpofanyotherwords.

Pattern2Subject+verb+subjectcomplement

The complement usually consists of a noun (examples1&2), apronoun(3&4),oranadjective(5,6,7&8).

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Pattern3Subject+verb+directobject

Pattern4Subject+verb+indirectobject+directobject

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Pattern5Subject+verb+directobject+preposition+prepositionalobject

ManyverbscanbeusedbothinPattern4andinPattern5.Pattern5 is preferred when the direct object is less important or when theindirectobjectislongerthanthedirectobject.

Pattern6Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+adjective

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In examples 1—6, the adjective denotes a state that results fromthe action expressedby theverb. In the last twoexamples thenounandtheadjectivecombinetobetheobjectoftheverb.

Verbs used in this pattern include get, keep, beat, drive, make,paint,leave,turn,find,like,wish.

Pattern7Subject+verb+preposition+prepositionalobject.

Pattern8Subject+verb+to-infinitive(asobjectoftheverb)

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Thecommonestverbsused in thispatternare : like, love,prefer,begin, start, agree, try, attempt, choose, continue, intend, propose,desire,wish,want, hate, dislike, hope, expect, promise, refuse, fear,remember,forget,offer,learn.

Pattern9Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+to-infinitive.

The chief verbs used in this pattern include ask, tell, order,

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command, persuade, encourage, urge, want, wish, request, intend,expect, force, tempt, teach, invite,help,warn, like, love,hate,allow,permit,remind,cause,mean,dare.

Pattern10Subject+verb+gerund.

Inthispatternthegerundistheobjectoftheverb.Thechiefverbsused in thispattern includebegin, start, love, like,hate, stop, finish,enjoy, prefer, fear, remember, forget, mind, miss, suggest, practise,try, understand, keep, help, advise, admit, avoid, consider, intend,delay,deny.

Pattern11Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+presentparticiple

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Theverbsusedinthispatternincludesee,hear,smell,feel,watch,notice,find,observe,listen,get,catch,keep,leave,set,start.

Pattern12Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+plaininfinitive

The chief verbs used in this pattern are : see, watch, notice,observe,hear,listen,feel,make,let,help,bid.

Pattern13Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+pastparticiple.

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Theverbsusedinthispatternare:see,hear,find,feel,want,wish,like,make,prefer,get,have.

Pattern14Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+(tobe+)complementThecomplementmaybeanadjective,adjectivephraseornoun.

The chief verbs used in this pattern are :appoint, choose, elect,make,call,name,nominate,crown,christen.

Pattern15Subject+verb+that-clause(objectoftheverb)

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That is often omitted, especially after say, think, suppose, hope,expect.

Among the important verbs used in this pattern are say, think,suppose, imagine, know, believe, admit, confess, declare, suggest,complain,hope,expect,fear,feel,hear,intend,notice,propose,show,understand,wonder.

Pattern16Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+that-clause.

Thechiefverbsusedinthispatternaretell,inform,promise,warn,remind,teach,assure,satisfy.

Pattern17

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Subject+verb+interrogative+clause

The important verbs used in this pattern are say, ask, wonder,know,believe,imagine,decide,discuss,understand,show,reveal,findout,suggest,tell(especiallyintheinterrogativeandnegative).

Pattern18Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+interrogative+clause

The chief verbs used in this pattern are tell, ask, show, teach,advise,inform.

Pattern19

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Subject+verb+interrogative+to-infinitive

The commonest verbsused in this pattern areknow,understand,wonder, remember, forget, decide, settle, find out, enquire, see,explain,guess,learn,consider.

Pattern20Subject+verb+noun/pronoun+interrogative+to-infinitive.

The chief verbs used in this pattern are those illustrated in thetable.

Exercise126.Makeupfivesentencesoneachofthepatterns.(Donotcopytheexamplesgiveninthetables.)

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Areyougoingtoschool?

CHAPTER31

QUESTIONTAGS,SHORTANSWERS,ETC.(1) Question Tags. It is a common practice in conversation to

makeastatementandaskforconfirmation;as,‘It’sveryhot,isn’tit?’The laterpart (’isn’t it?’) iscalledaquestion tag.Thepattern is (i)auxiliary+n’t +subject, if the statement is positive, (ii) auxiliary +subject,ifthestatementisnegative.

(i)It’sraining,isn’tit?Youarefree,aren’tyou?Shecanswimwell,can’tshe?Gopibroketheglass,didn’the?Yoursistercookswell,doesn’tshe?

(ii)Youaren’tbusy,areyou?Shecan’tswim,canshe?

Mohandoesn’tworkhard,doeshe?Theyhaven’tcomeyet,havethey?

Notethatthesubjectofthequestiontagisalwaysapronoun,neveranoun.

Notethesepeculiarities:

Iamright,aren’tI?Let’sgotothebeach,shallwe?Waitaminute,canyou?Havesomemorerice,willyou?Thereisamosqueinthatstreet,isn’tthere?Therearesomegirlsinyourclass,aren’tthere?Somebodyhascalled,haven’tthey?

(2)ShortAnswers.Thefollowingisthemostusualformofshortanswers to verbal questions (i.e., questions beginning with anauxiliary):

Yes+pronoun+auxiliaryOr:No+pronoun+auxiliary+n’t(not)

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Areyougoingtoschool?Yes,Iam.No,Iamnot.

Canyoudriveacar? Yes,Ican.No,Ican’t.

Isyoursonmarried? Yes,heis.No,heisn’t.

DoesVenuworkhard? Yes,hedoes.No,hedoesn’t.

Didhesayanything? Yes,hedid.No,hedidn’t.

(3) Agreements and Disagreements with Statements.Agreements with affirmative statements are made with Yes/So/Ofcourse+pronoun+auxiliary.

Itisagoodfilm.—Yes,itis.Mohanhasalreadycome.—Sohehas.HecanspeakHindiverywell.—Ofcoursehecan.Helooksdishonest.—Yes,hedoes.

AgreementswithnegativestatementsaremadewithNo+pronoun+auxiliary+n’t/not.

Theapplesaren’tgood.—No,theyaren’t.Shedoesn’tlikefish.No,shedoesn’t.Hecan’thelpcoughing.No,hecan’t.Theyhaven’tplayedwell.No,theyhaven’t.

Disagreementswith affirmative statements aremadewithNo/Ohno+pronoun+auxiliary+n’t/not.Butisusedindisagreementwithaquestionoranassumption.

Heisdrunk.—No,heisn’t.Youarejoking.—Ohno,I’mnot.Whydidyoubeathim?—ButIdidn’t.IsupposesheknowsBengali.—Butshedoesn’t.

Disagreements with negative statements are made with (Oh)

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yes/(Oh)but+pronoun+auxiliary.

Youcan’tundestandit.—Yes,Ican.Hewon’tcomeagain.—Buthewill.Youdon’tknowhim.—Ohyes,Ido.Ididn’tbreakit.—Ohbutyoudid.

(4) Additions to Remarks. Affirmative additions to affirmativeremarksaremadewithSo+auxiliary+subject.

Anandlikesoranges.SodoI.Shemustgohome.SomustI.Hewaslateforthemeeting.Sowereyou.I’vefinishedmyhomework.Sohasmysister.

Negative additions to negative remarks are made with Nor/Neither+auxiliary+subject.

Rameshdoesn’tlikesweets.NordoI.Hedidn’tbelieveit.NeitherdidI.Ican’tdothesum.Norcanmyfather.Tomwasn’tthere.NeitherwasPeter.

Negative additions to affirmative remarks are made with But +subject+auxiliary+n’t/not.

HeknowsGerman.ButIdon’t.Iunderstoodthejoke.ButMarydidn’t.Heknowshowtocook.Buthiswifedoesn’t.Icanplaychess.Butmybrothercan’t.

Affirmative additions to negative remarks are made with But +subject+auxiliary.

Hedoesn’tknowher.ButIdo.Ididn’tseethefilm.ButGopidid.Hecan’tplaycricket.ButIcan.Shewasn’tlate.Butyouwere.

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EXERCISE127

Addquestiontagstothefollowing:—

1. It’sveryhottoday,____?2. Youlikehim,____?3. Kishorewillcome,____?4. Wemusthurry,____?5. Hewillnevergiveup,____?6. Yourfatherisadoctor,____?7. Youhaveteaforbreakfast,____?8. Ididn’thurtyou,____?9. Youaren’tgoingout,____?10. Theyhavesoldthehouse,____?11. Ineedn’tgetupearlytomorrow,___?12. Itisn’treadyyet,____?13. Gopalhasn’tpassedtheexam.____?14. Theywillgohomesoon,____?15. Hedidn’tpaintithimself,____?

EXERCISE128

Answer the following questions (a) in the affirmative, (b) in thenegative.

1. Canyouswim?2. Doyoulikesweets?3. Areyouangrywithme?4. Isitgoingtorain?5. AmIinyourway?6. Doesyourfathersmoke?7. Didyougotocollegeyesterday?8. Willtheybeatthecinema?9. IsSureshstayingwithhisuncle?10. Hashemetyou?

EXERCISE129

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I.Agreewith thefollowingstatements,usingYes/So/Ofcourse+pronoun+auxiliary.

1. Childrenlikeplaying.2. Hehasleftalready.3. Myauntcameyesterday.4. Theyareplayingbeautifulmusic.5. Mr.Mukherjiknowstenlanguages.6. Abdulhascometoseeyou.

II. Agree with the following statements, usingNo + pronoun +auxiliary+n’t/not.

1. Hedoesn’tliketea.2. Youhaven’tplayedwell.3. Yourbrotherdoesn’tlookhisage.4. Shedidn’tcomplain.5. Hecan’tspeakEnglishfluently.6. Rameshdidn’tattendtheparty.

III. Disagree with the following statements. (Use the patternNo/Ohno/But+pronounauxiliary+n’t/not).

1. Helied.2. Shehaspromisedtoobeyyou.3. Whyhaveyouspoiledmypen?4. Theboywillhurthimself.5. Isupposeheishonest.6. Youareinthewrong.

IV.Disagreewiththefollowingstatements,usingthepattern(Oh)yes/(Oh)But+pronoun+auxiliary).

1. Youcan’tdothesum.2. Radhadoesn’tlikeyou.3. Heisn’treading.4. Shewon’tcome.5. Iamnotinyourway.

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6. Idon’tknowwhereyouwent.

EXERCISE130

I. Add to the following remarks either freely or using thesuggestionsinbrackets.(Pattern:So+auxiliary+subject).

1. Venucamelate.(Gopi)2. MyfriendlivesinMumbai.(hissister)3. Orangeswereverydear.(bananas)4. I’vereadthebook.(mybrother)5. MadhucanspeakTamil.(hiswife)6. Imustleavetoday.(you)

II. Add to the following remarks, either freely or using thesuggestionsinbrackets.(Pattern:Nor/Neither+auxiliary+subject).

1. Idon’tlikemeat.(mywife)2. Shecould’thelplaughing.(I)3. Thisbookdoesn’tbelongtome.(that)4. Monday’sdebatewasn’tveryinteresting.(Wednesday’s)5. Shedoesn’tknowmequitewell.(herhusband)6. Youdidn’tnoticehim.(I)

III.Addcontradictorystatementstothefollowing,eitherfreelyorusingthesuggestionsinbrackets.(Pattern:But+subject+auxiliary+n’t/not.)

1. Hecantypewell.(I)2. Iwontheelection.(myfriend)3. MysistercanspeakMarathi.(I)4. Ilikeplayingchess.(she)5. Heknowsmewell.(hisbrother)6. Hindiiseasytolearn.(English)

IV.Addcontradictorystatementstothefollowingeitherfreelyorusingthesuggestionsinbrackets.(Pattern:But+subject+auxiliary).

1. Idon’tknowTelugu.(mywife)

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2. Mysisterdoesn’tlikefilms.(I)3. Hewon’tleavetomorrow.(We)4. Ididn’tdothehomework.(others)5. Hedidn’tthankme.(she)6. Ididn’tknowtheway.(myfriend)

CHAPTER32

MORESTRUCTURES(1)PreparatoryThere+be+subject.

Thestructure‘There+be......’isgenerallyusedwhenthesubjectisindefinite,i.e.,whenthesubjectisprecededbya,an,some,much,many,afew,etc.

(2)to-infinitiveafteradjectivesexpressingemotionordesire.

(3)It+be+adjective+of+noun/pronoun+to-infinitive.

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Thefollowingadjectivescanbeusedin thispattern:kind,good,generous, considerate, foolish, stupid, unwise, clever, wise, nice,wrong,polite,brave,cowardly,silly,wicked,cruel,careless,etc.

(4)to-infinitiveaftereasy,difficult,hard,impossible,etc.

(5)It+be+adjective+to-infinitive

(6)It+be+nogood,etc.+gerundialphrase.

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(7)It+be+adjective/noun+nounclause

(8)It+totake+me,him,etc.+timephrase+to-infinitive.

(9)too+adjective/adverb+to-infinitive,

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(10)Adjective/Adverb+enough+to-infinitive

(11)So+adjective/Adverb+that-clause

(12)Patternsofexclamatorysentences(i)What+(adjective+)noun(+subject+verb)

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(ii)How+Adjective/Adverb+Subject+Verb

(13)Conditionals:Type1(opencondition)

Conditionals of this type tell us that somethingwill happen if acertain condition is fulfilled. The condition may or may not befulfilled.

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(14)Conditionals:Type2(improbableorimaginarycondition)

Conditionalsof this typeareusedwhenwe talkaboutsomethingwhichwedon’texpecttohappenorwhichispurelyimaginary.

yConditionals:Type3(Unfulfilledcondition)

Conditionals of this type say that something did not happenbecauseacertainconditionwasnotfulfilled.

EXERCISE131

Makeupfivesentencesoneachofthepatterns.

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PARTIV

WRITTENCOMPOSITION

CHAPTER33

PARAGRAPH-WRITINGIf you look at any printed prose book, you will see that each

chapter is divided up into sections, the first line of each beingindented slightly to the right. These sections are called Paragraphs.Chapters, essays and other prose compositions are broken up intoparagraphs,tomakethereadingofthemeasier,forthebeginningofanewparagraphmarksachangeoftopic,orastepinthedevelopmentofanargumentorofastory.Inwritingessaysorothercompositions,itisimportanttoknowhowtodividethemproperlyintoparagraphs;foranessaynotsobrokenup, looksuninterestingandisnoteasytoread.

Definition— A paragraph is a number of sentences groupedtogetherandrelatingtoonetopic;or,agroupofrelatedsentencesthatdevelopasinglepoint.

These definitions show that the paragraphs of a composition arenotmerearbitrarydivisions.Thedivisionofachapterintoparagraphsmustbemadeaccordingtothechangesofideasintroduced.

There is, therefore, no rule as to the length of paragraphs. Theymay be short or long according to the necessity of the case. Aparagraphmayconsistofasinglesentence,orofmanysentences.

Note—In this respect, theparagraphsofapieceofprosedifferfrom the stanzas or verses of a poem. The stanzas of a poem areusually of the same length and pattern; but paragraphs are long orshortaccordingtotheamountofmattertobeexpressedundereach

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head.

PRINCIPLESOFPARAGRAPHSTRUCTURE1.UNITY—Thefirstandmostimportantprincipletobeobserved

in constructing a paragraph is that ofUnity. Just as each sentencedealswith one thought, eachparagraphmust dealwithone topic oridea—andwithnomorethanone. Inwritinganessay,forexample,every head, and every sub-head, should have its own paragraph toitself.Andeverysentenceintheparagraphmustbecloselyconnectedwiththemaintopicoftheparagraph.Theparagraphandeverypartofitmustbetheexpressionofonethemeortopic.

Note—Agoodpracticeistoreadachapterinabook,andgiveashortheadingortitletoeachparagraph,whichwillexpressinawordorbriefphrasethesubjectoftheparagraph.

Thetopic,themeorsubjectofaparagraphisveryoftenexpressedinonesentenceoftheparagraph—generallythefirst.Thissentenceiscalled the topical sentence (because it states the topic), or the key-sentence (because itunlocksoropens thesubject tobedealtwith intheparagraph).

2.ORDER—The second principle of paragraph construction isOrder—that is, logical sequence of thought or development of thesubject.Eventsmustberelatedintheorderoftheiroccurrence,andallideas should be connected with the leading idea and arrangedaccordingtotheirimportanceororder.

Note—The twomost importantsentences in theparagrapharethefirstandthelast.Thefirst,whichshouldasarulebethetopicalsentence,shouldarousetheinterestofthereader;andthelastshouldsatisfy it. The first, or topical, sentence states the topic—a fact, astatement, or a proposition; the last should bring the wholeparagraphonthistopictoaconclusion,orsummingup.

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3. VARIETY—A third principle of paragraph construction isVariety;bywhichismeantthat,toavoidmonotony,theparagraphofa composition should be of different lengths, and not always of thesamesentenceconstruction.

Tosumup :theessentialsofgoodparagraphconstructionare—(1) Unity. (2) A good topical sentence. (3) Logical sequence ofthought. (4) Variety. (5) A full and rounded final sentence inconclusion.

EXAMPLESNow let us examine a few paragraphs by standard authors, in

illustrationoftheseprinciplesofparagraphconstruction.

1.“Henceitisthatitisalmostadefinitionofagentlemantosayheisonewhoneverinflictspain.Thisdescriptionisbothrefinedand,asfarasitgoes,accurate.Heismainlyoccupiedinmerelyremovingtheobstacleswhichhinderthe free and unembarrassed action of those about him; and he concurs withtheirmovements rather than takes the initiativehimself.Hisbenefitsmaybeconsidered as a parallel to what are called comforts or conveniences inarrangementsofapersonalnature,likeaneasychairoragoodfire,whichdotheirpartindispellingcoldandfatigue,thoughnatureprovidesbothmeansofrestandanimalheatwithoutthem.”

—J.E.Newman.

This isaparagraph fromCardinalNewman’s famousdescriptionof a “Gentleman” in his The Idea of a University. Notice that theparagraph is confined to one point in the character of a gentleman,whichisclearlystatedinthefirst,ortopicalsentenceviz.,that“heisonewho never inflicts pain.” The rest of the paragraph is simply adevelopment and illustration of the topical sentence. And theconcludingsentencedriveshomethestatementofthesubjectwithitssimiliesoftheeasychairandthegoodfire.

2.“TheRoadisoneofthegreatfundamentalinstitutionsofmankind.NotonlyistheRoadoneofthegreathumaninstitutionsbecauseitisfundamental

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to social existence, but also because its varied effects appear in everydepartment of the State. It is the Road which determines the sites of manycitiesandthegrowthandnourishmentofall.ItistheRoadwhichcontrolsthedevelopmentofstrategiesandfixesthesitesofbattles.ItistheRoadthatgivesitsframeworktoalleconomicdevelopment.ItistheRoadwhichisthechannelof all trade, and, what is more important, of all ideas. In its most humblefunction it is a necessary guide without which progress from place to placewouldbe a ceaseless experiment; it is a sustenancewithoutwhichorganisedsocietywouldbeimpossible,thustheRoadmovesandcontrolsallhistory.”

—HilaireBelloc.

In this paragraph, the first sentence states the subject. It is thetopical sentence. The body of the paragraph consists of exampleswhich prove the statement in the first sentence. The final sentencesumsupthewhole.

3.“Poetryisthelanguageoftheimaginationandthepassions.Itrelatestowhatevergivesimmediatepleasureorpaintothehumanmind.Itcomeshometo the bosoms and businesses ofmen; for nothing but what comes home tothem in themost general and intelligible shape can be a subject for poetry.Poetry is theuniversal languagewhich theheartholdswithnatureand itself.Hewhohasacontemptforpoetrycannothavemuchrespectforhimself,orforanythingelse.Whereverthereisasenseofbeauty,orpower,orharmony,asinthemotionofawaveofthesea,inthegrowthofaflower,thereispoetryinitsbirth.”

—WilliamHazlitt.

Hereagain,thefirstsentenceisthetopicalsentence.Thesentencesthat follow enforce or restate the statement that “poetry is thelanguage of the imagination and the passions”; and the concludingsentencereinforcesitbyshowingthatpoetryexistswherevermenfeelasenseofbeauty,powerorharmony.

In all these paragraphs, the principles of Unity and Order areobserved, and also the general rules about the place of the topicalsentencesandtheroundingoffthewholewithagoodconclusion.

THEWRITINGOFSINGLEPARAGRAPHS

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Sofarwehavebeentreatingofparagraphswhicharesectionsofamore or less lengthy composition, like an essay or the chapter of abook. But students are often asked in examinations to write shortseparateparagraphs,insteadofessays,onsubjectsofordinaryinterest.Such single paragraphs are really miniature essays ; but the sameprinciples as we have discussed above (except the principle ofvariety),mustbefollowedintheirconstruction.Eachparagraphmustbeaunity,treatingofonedefinitesubject,andmustfollowalogicalorder of thought. In most cases, too, the rules about the topicalsentencesandtheconclusionshouldbeborneinmind.

A few examples should make this clear. Suppose, for example,you are asked towrite a paragraph on “TheCat.” It is obvious thatyoucannottreatthissubjectfully,asyoumightinalongessay.Andyet you must, according to the principle of unity, confine yourparagraphtoonedefinitetopic.Youmust,therefore,chooseonethingtosayaboutacat,andsticktoitthroughout.Youmight,forexample,write of one characteristic of the cat, say, its love of comfort andattachment to its home. In that case, you might write a paragraphsomethinglikethis:

TheCat

Thereissometruthinthecommonsayingthatwhiledogsbecomeattachedtopersons,catsaregenerallyattachedtoplaces.Adogwillfollowhismasteranywhere,butacatkeepstothehouseitisusedto;andevenwhenthehousechangeshand, thecatwill remain there,so longas it iskindly treatedby thenewowners.Acatdoesnotseemtobecapableofthepersonaldevotionoftenshown by a dog. It thinks most of its own comfort, and its love is onlycupboardlove.

Noticetheconstructionofthisparagraph.Itbeginswiththetopicalsentence, which clearly states the subject. The following sentenceexplains the statement by expanding it; and the last sentence, bygivingareasonfortheattachmentofacattoaparticularhouseformsa fitting conclusion. The paragraph is therefore a Unity, treating of

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onecharacteristicofcatcharacter:anditfollowsanorderlyplan.Theparagraphonthecatisdescriptive.Nowtakeanexampleofa

narrativeparagraph,inwhichyouarerequiredtotellastory.Supposethe subject is to be amotor-car accident ; youmight treat it in thisway:

ACarAccident

Itisthemadcrazeforspeedthatisresponsibleformanymotoraccidents.Only last year I witnessed what might have been a fatal accident on theKashmir Road. I was motoring down from Srinagar; and as I was nearingKohala, I came upon thewreckage of two cars on the road. The smash hadbeencausedbyacarcomingdown,whichsweptroundasharpcorneratfortymilesanhourandcrashedintoacarcomingup.Happilynoonewaskilled;butseveralwerebadlyinjured,andthetwocarswerewrecked.Todriveatsuchaspeeddownatwistingmountainroadissimplytocourtdisaster.

Inthisparagraph,thetopicalsentenceisagainfirst;thenarrativethat follows is simply an illustration of the statement in the topicalsentencethatmanyaccidentsarecausedbyamadcrazeforspeed;andtheconcludingsentencesumstheparagraphupbyarestatementofthetopicalsentenceinotherwords.

Thefollowingisanexampleofareflectiveparagraph;thatis,onethatexpressessomereflectionorthoughtonanabstractsubject:

Mercy

To forgive an injury is often considered to be a sign ofweakness ; it isreally a sign of strength. It is easy to allow oneself to be carried away byresentmentandhateintoanactofvengeance;butittakesastrongcharactertorestrainthosenaturalpassions.Themanwhoforgivesaninjuryproveshimselftobe the superiorof themanwhowrongedhim,andputs thewrong-doer toshame.Forgivenessmayeventurnafoeintoafriend.Somercyisthenoblestformofrevenge.

Thetopicalsentenceofaparagraphisusuallythefirst,oratlatestthesecond;andthisisthebestplaceforit.Butforthesakeofvarietyitmaybeplacedinadifferentposition.Inthisparagraph,itcomeslast

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—“So mercy is the noblest form of revenge”. But the openingsentenceisalsoagoodintroductiontothesubject,andiscalculatedtoarouseinterestbystatinganapparentparadox.

To sumup: Inwriting single paragraphs, the principles ofUnityandOrdermustbekeptinmind,andalsotherulesofthetopicalandconcludingsentences.Thelanguageshouldbesimple,thestyledirect,andthesentencesshort;and,asaparagraphislimited,alldiffusenessmustbeavoided.

Exercise132.Writeshortparagraphsonthefollowingsubjects:1.ARainyDay.2.AWalk.3.TheCow.4.Trees.5.Politeness.6.Anger.

7. A picnic. 8. A Fire. 9. A Flood. 10. Some Pet Animal. 11. Rivers. 12.Cricket. 13.Contentment. 14.Gymnastics. 15.Gratitude. 16.AHoliday. 17.TheElephant.18.TheCobra.19.TheTailor.20.TheAstronaut.21.Revenge.22. Thrift. 23. Stars. 24. The Crow. 25. Robots. 26. To-day’sWeather. 27.Yourhobby.28.Humility.29.TheMango.30.Examinations.

CHAPTER34

STORY-WRITINGTo tell even a simple story well requires some practice. An

uneducatedpersongenerally tellsa talebadly.Hedoesnotmentallylookaheadashetellsitandplansitout.Soherepeatshimself,omitsimportantitems,whichhedragsinafterwardsoutofplace,anddwellstoolongonminordetailsandfailstoemphasisetheleadingpoints.Towriteagoodstory,youmusthavethewholeplotclearinyourmind,andthemainpointsarrangedintheirproperorder.

Inthisexerciseyouarenotaskedtomakeupastory.Theplotofeachstoryisgiventoyou,moreorlessfully,intheoutlinesprovided.Butanoutlineisonlyaskeleton;itisyourworktoclothetheskeletonwith flesh and breathe life into it. You must try to produce aconnectednarrative,andtomakeitasinterestingasyoucan.

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1. Ashasbeenalreadysaid,seethatyouhaveaclearideaoftheplotofthestoryinyourmindbeforeyoubegintowrite.

2. Followtheoutlinegiven;i.e.,donotomitanypoint,andkeeptotheorderinwhichthepointsaregivenintheoutline.

3. Becarefultoconnectthepointsgivenintheoutlinenaturally,sothatthewholewillreadwellasaconnectedpieceofgoodcomposition.Otherwisethewholewillbedisconnectedandjerky.Youmustuseyourimaginationinfillinginthedetailsofaction,gestureandconversationthatshouldconnectonepointwiththenext.

4. Wherepossible,introducedialogueorconversation;butbecarefultomakeitnaturalandinteresting.

5. Theconclusionofastoryisimportant.Thewholestoryshouldbemadetoleaduptoitnaturally,andthenitshouldcomeasabitofsurprise.

6. Ifyouareaskedtosupplyaheadingortitletothestory,youmaychoosethemaincharacter,objectorincidentofthestory(e.g.,“TheBarberofBaghdad,”or“ThePotofOlives,”or“AnAccident”);or,aproverborwell-knownquotationthatsuitsthestory(e.g.,“Nopains,nogains,”“Sorrow’sCrownofSorrow”,etc.)

7. SeethatyourcompositionisgrammaticalandidiomaticandingoodsimpleEnglish.Reviseyourwork,andifnecessaryrewriteit,untilitisasgoodasyoucanmakeit.

HINTS

SPECIMENOUTLINEBoysettoguardsheep—toldtocry“Wolf!”ifheseesawolfneartheflock

—watches thesheep for severaldays—gets tiredof themonotonouswork—soonedayshouts“Wolf!”asajoke—allthevillagershastentohishelp-theyfindnowolf—boylaughsatthem—villagersangry—playsthesamejokeafewdayslater—somevillagers takenonotice-somecome runing—findingnothing, theybeat the boy—at last wolf really comes—boy is terrified and shouts “Wolf !Wolf’—villagerstakenonotice—wolfkillsseveralsheep.

COMPLETESTORYTHEBOYWHOCRIED“WOLF!”

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Oneoftheboysinavillagewassentoutintofieldstolookafterthesheep.“Mindyoutakecareofthemanddon’tletthemstray,”saidthevillagersto

him..“Andkeepagoodlookoutforwolves.Don’tgofaraway:andifyouseeawolfcomingnearthesheep,shoutout‘Wolf!’asloudlyasyoucan,andwewillcomeatoncetohelpyou.”

“Allright!”saidtheboy,“Iwillbecareful.”Soeverymorninghedrovehissheepouttothehillsideandwatchedthemall

day.Andwheneveningcame,hedrovethemhomeagain.Butafterafewdayshegotrathertiredofthislonelylife.Nothinghappened

andnowolvescame.Sooneafternoonhesaidtohimself:“Thesevillagershavegivenmeaverystupidjob.IthinkIwillplayatrickonthemjustforfun.”

Sohegotupandbeganshoutingasloudlyashecould,“Wolf!Wolf!”The people in the village heard him, and at once they came runningwith

sticks.“Wolf!Wolf!”shoutedtheboy;andtheyranfaster.Atlasttheycameupto

him,outofbreath.“Where is the wolf ?” they panted. But the boy only laughed and said:

“Thereisnowolf.Ionlyshoutedinfun.Anditwasfuntoseeyouallrunningashardasyoucould!”

Themenwereveryangry.“Youyoungrascal!”theysaid.“Ifyouplayatricklikethatagain,wewill

beatyouinsteadofthewolf.”Andtheywentbacktotheirworkinthevillage.For some days the boy kept quiet. But he got restless again, and said to

himself:“IwonderiftheywillcomerunningagainifIcry‘Wolf!’oncemore.Itwassuchfunthelasttime.”

Sooncemorehebeganshouting,“Wolf!Wolf!”Thevillagersheardhim.Somesaid,“Thatboyisuptohistricksagain.”But

otherssaid,“Itmaybetruethistime;andiftherereallyisawolf,weshalllosesomeofoursheep.”

Sotheyseizedtheirsticks,andranoutofthevillagetothehillside.“Whereisthewolf?”theycried,astheycameup.“Nowhere!”saidtheboylaughing.“Itwasfuntoseeyourunningupthehill

asfastyoucould.”“Wewillteachyoutoplayjokes,”shoutedtheangrymen;andtheyseized

theboyandgavehimagoodbeating,andlefthimcryinginsteadoflaughing.Afewdayslaterawolfreallydidcome.Whentheboysawit,hewasvery

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1. Anoldladybecomesblind—callsinadoctor—agreestopaylargefeeifcured,butnothingifnot—doctorcallsdaily—covetslady’sfurniture—delaysthecure—everydaytakesawaysomeofherfurniture—atlastcuresher—demandshisfees—ladyrefusestopay,sayingcureisnotcomplete—doctorbringsacourtcase—judgeasksladywhyshewillnotpay—shesayssightnotproperlyrestored—shecannotseeallherfurniture—judgegivesverdictinherfavour—moral.

2. Ajackalwantscrabsontheothersideofariver—wondershowtogetacross—tellscamelthereissugarcanetheotherside—camelagreestocarryhimacrossinreturnfortheinformation—theycross—jackalfinisheshismeal—playstrickoncamel—runsroundthefieldshowling—villagersrushout—seecamelinsugarcane—beathimwithsticks—camelrunstoriver—jackaljumpsonhisback—whilecrossing,camelasksjackalwhyheplayedhimsuchatrick—jackalsayshealwayshowlsafteragoodmeal—camelreplieshealwaystakesabathafteragoodmeal—rollsintheriver—jackalnearlydrowned—tit-for-tat.

3. AsonisborntoaRajah—themotherdiesinchildbirth—ayoungmotherwithababyischosenasnurse—shenursesbothbabiestogether—enemiesoftheRajahplottokillhisson—theybribetheguardsandgetintothepalace—thenurseiswarnedjustintime—quicklychangesthechildren’sdresses—leavesherownchilddressedasprinceandflieswithrealprince—murderersenterroomandkillthechildleftbehind—soprinceissaved—Rajahoffersnurserewards—sherefusesthemandkillsherself—Rajahgrieved—erectssplendidtombforthefaithfulnurse.

4. Amiserlosesapurseofahundredpiecesofgold—ingreatdistress—goestotowncrier—criersayshemustofferareward—offersrewardoftenpiecesofgold—thecrierannouncesthis—afewdayslaterafarmercomestothemiser—hehaspickedupthepurse—returnsittomiser—misercountsthemoney—ahundredpiecesofgold—thanksthefarmer—

frightened and began shouting “Wolf !Wolf !Help !Help !” as loudly as hecould.

Thevillagersheardhim,buttheytooknonotice.“He isplayinghis tricksagain,” theysaid.“Wewon’tbemadefools fora

thirdtime.Youcan’tbelieveaboyafteryouhavecaughthimlyingtwice.”Sonoonewenttohishelp,andthewolfkilledseveralsheepandfrightened

theboynearlyoutofhiswits.Exercise 133. Construct readable stories from the following

outlines

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misercountsthemoney—ahundredpiecesofgold—thanksthefarmer—thefarmerasksforthereward—misersaystherewereahundredandtenpiecesinthepurse,sothefarmerhasalreadytakenhisrewardoftenpieces—theyquarrel—farmerappealstothejudge—thejudgehearsthecase,andasksforthepurse—seesthatitonlyjustholdsahundredpieces—decidesitcannotbethemiser’spurse—sogivesthepursetofarmer—themiserhadoverreachedhimself.

5. Akingdistressed—hispeoplelazy—toteachthemalessonhehadabigstoneputinthemiddleoftheroadonenight—nextdaymerchantspassandgoroundit—anofficerdrivinginhiscarriagedidthesame—ayoungsoldiercameriding,didthesame—allcursedthestoneandblamedthegovernmentfornotremovingit—thenthekinghadthestoneremoved—underitwasanironbox,marked,“Forthemanwhomovesawaythestone”—insideapursefullofmoney—thepeoplewereashamed.

6. TigerkillsanIndianladytravellingthroughthejungle—asheeatsherbody,henoticeshergoldbangle—keepsitashethinksitmaybeuseful—laterhehideshimselfbyapool—travellercomestopool,dustyandtired—stripsandbathesincoolwater—seesthetigerinbusheswatchinghim—terrified—tigergreetshimwithamildvoice—saysheispiousandspendstimeinprayer—asasignofgoodwill,offersthetravellerthegoldbangle—traveller’sgreedovercomeshisfear—crossedpooltotakebangle—tigerspringsonhimandkillshim.

7. Ayoungmansettingoutonajourney—accompaniedpartwaybyanoldman—theypartunderapipaltree—youngmanasksoldmantokeepRs.100forhimtillhereturns—oldmanagreesandtakesmoney—oldmansayshenevergavehimanytokeep—youngmantakeshimbeforejudge—judgesendsyoungmantosummontreetocourt—alongtimeaway—judgeasksoldman,“Why?”—oldmansaystreeislongwayoff—judgeseesthattheoldmanknowswhichtreeitis—whenyoungmanreturns,judgegivesverdictinhisfavour.

8. ApoorBrahmintravellingthroughforests—comesacrossatigercaughtinatrap—tigerbegshimtolethimout—Brahmininpitydoesso—tigerknockshimdown—Brahminpleadsforhislifeandsaysthetigerisungrateful—tigeragreesthathemayappealtothreethingsagainsttiger—Brahminfirstasksapipaltree—treesaysallmenareungrateful—treegivesthemshadeandtheycutitsbranches—Brahminnextaskstheroad—theroadsaysthatinreturnforitsservicesmentrampleonitwithheavyboots—Brahminthenasksabuffalo—buffalosayshermasterbeatsher

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boots—Brahminthenasksabuffalo—buffalosayshermasterbeatsherandmakesherturnaPersianwheel—Brahminindespair—consultsajackal—jackalaskshowtigergotintocage—tigerjumpsintoshowhim—jackalshutscageandwalksawaywithBrahmin.

9. Baghdadmerchant,abouttogowithacaravantoDamascus,suddenlyfallsill—entrustshisbalesofsilktoacamel-driver—sayshewillgotoDamascusassoonasheiswell—willpaycamel-driverwhenhearrives—camel-driverwaitsinDamascus—merchantdoesnotcome—camel-driversellsthesilkforalargesum—shaveshisbeard,dyeshishairanddressesinfineclothes—Baghdadmerchantatlastarrives—searchesallDamascusforcamel-driver—onedayrecogniseshim—camel-driverpretendstobeamerchantofSamarkand—Baghdadmerchantbringshimbeforethejudge—judgedecideshecandonothing,astherearenowitnesses—ascamel-driverleavescourt,judgesuddenlycallsout“Camel-driver!”—hestopsandturnsround—judgeputshiminprison,andmakeshimpaymoneytoBaghdadmerchant.

10. AslaveinancientCarthage—cruelmaster—slaverunsawayintodesert—sleepsthatnightinacave—wakedupbyterribleroar—seeslioncomingintocave—terrified—butlionquitegentle—holdsupwoundedpaw—slavetakesoutabigthorn—liongratefulandwagshistail—slaveandlionlivetogetherasfriends—atlastslavehomesick—goesbacktoCarthage—iscaughtbyhismaster—condemnedbyjudgetobethrowntolions—thousandsgotoamphitheatretoseemanfightlion—slavebroughtout—lionrushestoattackhim—butwhenheseesslaveliesdownandlickshisfeet—samelion—greatastonishment—governorsendsforslave—hearshisstory—freesslaveandgiveshimthelion.

11. KingSolomonnotedforhiswisdom—QueenofShebaheardofhisfame—cametovisithim—impressedbyhiswealthandgrandeur—wantedtotesthispowerofsolvingpuzzles—showedhimtwogarlandsofflowers,oneinrighthandandoneinleft—onereal,theotherartificial—asks,“Whichiswhich?”—courtierspuzzled—bothgarlandslookthesame—Solomonsilent—Queenfeelstriumphant—Solomonorderedwindowstobeopened—beesflewinfromgarden—buzzedabouttheQueen—allsettledongarlandinherrighthand—Solomonsaidtheflowersinrighthandreal,inlefthandartificial—Queenimpressedwithhiswisdom.

12. Shipofpiratebecalmednearrockycoast—pirateseesbellfastenedtodangeroussubmergedrock—askswhatitis—istolditwasplacedtheretowarnsailorsinstorms—thinksitwouldbeajoketotakethebell—rowsacrossinboattorock—theycutthechainandsinkthebell—windrises

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acrossinboattorock—theycutthechainandsinkthebell—windrisesandtheysailaway—yearsafterpiratereturnstosamecoast—seacoveredwithfogandstormrising—piratedoesnotknowwhereheis—aterriblecrash—shipstrikesonthesamerock—astheygodownthepiraterealizeshisshipwreckedonthesamerock—wisheshehadleftthebellalone.

13. Richnoblemangivesagrandfeast—manyguests—hisstewardtellshimafishermanhasbroughtafinefish—noblemantellshimtopayhimhisprice—stewardsayshispriceisahundredlashes—noblemanthinksthisamerryjest—sendsforfisherman—fishermanconfirmssteward’sreport—noblemanagrees—fishermanquietlyreceivesfiftylashes—thenstops—says,hehasapartnertowhomhepromisedhalftheprice—“Whoishe?”—nobleman’sporter—“Why?”—porterrefusedtolethiminifhedidnotagree—porterbroughtinandgiventheotherfiftylashes—guestsenjoyjoke—noblemanrewardsfisherman.

14. Ali,abarberinBaghdad—Hassan,awood-seller—HassanbringsAliloadofwoodonadonkey—theybargainabouttheprice—atlastAliofferssomuchfor“allthewoodonthedonkey’sback’’—Hassanagrees—unloadsthewood—Aliclaimsdonkey’swoodensaddles—Hassanprotests—quarrel—AliseizessaddleanddrivesHassanawaywithblows—HassanappealstoKhalif—Khalifgiveshimadvice—somedayslaterHassangoestoAli’sshop—asksAlitoshavehimandafriendforsomuch—Aliagrees—shavesHassanfirst—“Whereisyourfriend?”—“Outside”—Hassanfetchesinhisdonkey—Alirefusestoshavedonkey—drivesHassanaway—HassanreportstoKhalif—KhalifsendsforAli—forceshimtofulfulhisbargain—AlihastoshaveHassan’sfriend,thedonkey,beforeallthecourtiers—greatlaughter,andshameforAli.

CHAPTER35

REPRODUCTIONOFASTORY-POEMWhat you have to do in these exercises, is to tell in your own

words the storywhich is told in a poem.The first thing, then, is toreadthepoemasastory,sothatyouknowwhatthestoryis;andthenextis,totellthesamestoryoveragaininyourownwordsandyourownway.

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1. Readthewholepoemthrough,slowlyandcarefully.Ifafterthefirstreading,thestoryisnotquiteclear,readthepoemagain,andyetagain,untilyoufeelyouunderstanditthoroughly.

2. Writedownbrieflythechieffactsofthestory,inordertoguideyouinyournarration.Donotleaveoutanyimportantpoint.

3. Nowtrytowriteoutthestoryinsimple,straightforwardEnglish,tellingtheincidentsofthestoryintheirnaturalorder.

4. Donotcopythelanguageofthepoem.Youmustuseyourownwordsintellingthestory.Butdonottrytousethefinelanguage;besimpleandchooseplainwords.

5. Whenyouhavefinishedtheexercise,readitthroughtoseewhetheryouhaveleftoutanyimportantfact,orhavestatedanywrongly.

6. Finally,examineyourcompositionformistakesinspelling,grammarandpunctuation.Andseethatyoursentencesareproperlyconstructed,andthatthewholecompositionreadswell.

HINTS

SPECIMENS1. Tell concisely in the form and style appropriate to a prose-narrative thestoryofthefollowingpoem:

THEGLOVEANDTHELIONSKingFranciswasaheartyking,andlovedaroyalsport;Andoneday,ashislionsstrove,satlookingonthecourt;Thenoblesfilledthebenchesround,theladiesbytheirside,And ‘mongst themCountdeLorge,withonehehoped tomakehisbride.Andtruly‘twasagallantthing,toseethecrowningshow.Valourandlove,andakingabove,andtheroyalbeastsbelow.Rampedandroaredthelions,withhorridlaughingjaws;They bit, they glared, gave blows like beams, and went with theirpaws;Withwallowingmightandstifledroartheyrolledoneonanother,Tillallthepit,withsandandmanewasinathund’roussmother;Thebloodyfoamabovethebarscamewhizzingthroughtheair;SaidFrancisthen,“Goodgentlemen,we’rebetterherethanthere!”

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DeLorge’sloveo’erheardtheking,abeauteouslivelydame,With smiling lips, and sharp bright eyes,which always seemed thesame;Shethought,“TheCount,mylover,isasbraveasbravecanbe;“Hesurelywoulddodesperatethingstoshowhisloveofme!“King,ladies,loversalllookon;thechanceiswondrousfine;“I’lldropmyglovetoprovehislove;greatglorywillbemine!”She dropped her glove to prove his love ; then looked on him andsmiled;Hebowed,andinamomentleapedamongthelionswild;Theleapwasquick;returnwasquick;hesoonregainedhisplace—Then threw the glove, but not with love, right in the lady’s face !“Welldone!”criedFrancis,“bravelydone!”andherosefromwherehesat:“Nolove,”quothhe,“butvanity,setsloveatasklikethat!”

REPRODUCTIONTHEGLOVEANDTHELIONS

KingFranciswasagreat loverofallkindsofsport ;andonedayheandhiscourtiers,noblemenandladies,satwatchingwildsavagelionsfightingeachother in theenclosurebelow.Amongst thecourtierssatCountdeLorgebesideabeautifulandlivelyladyofnoblebirthwhomhelovedandhoped tomarry.The lionsroared,andbitand toreeachotherwithsavagefury,untilthekingsaidtohiscourtiers,“Gentlemen,wearebetterupherethandownthere!”Thelady,hearinghim,thoughtshewouldshowthekingandhiscourthow devoted her loverwas to her : so she dropped her glove downamong the fighting lions, and then looked at Count de Lorge andsmiledathim.Hebowed toher, and leapeddownamong the savagelionswithouthesitation,recoveredtheglove,andclimbedbacktohisplace in a fewmoments.Thenhe threw theglove right in the lady’sface.KingFranciscriedout,“Wellandbravelydone!But itwasnot lovethatmadeyouladysetyousuchadangerousthingtodo,buthervanity!”

2. Tell the story of LeighHunt’s “Plate ofGold” in five short

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paragraphs:

THEPLATEOFGOLDOnedaytherefellingreatBenares’temple-courtAwondrousplateofgold,whereonthesewordswerewrit:“Tohimwholovethbest,agiftfromHeaven.”

ThereatThepriestsmadeproclamation:“Atthemiddayhour,Eachday,letthoseassemblewhoforvirtuedeemTheirrighttoheaven’sgiftthebest;andwewillhearThedeedsofmercydone,andsoadjudge.’’

ThenewsRanswiftaslight,andsoonfromeveryquartercameNoblesandmunshis,hermits,scholars,holymen,Andallrenownedforgraciousorforsplendiddeeds,MeanwhilethepriestsinsolemncouncilsatandheardWhateachhaddonetomeritbestthegiftofHeaven.Soforayeartheclaimantscameandwent.

Atlast,Afterapatientweighingoftheworthofall,ThepriestsbestowedtheplateofgoldononewhoseemedThelargestloveroftherace—whosewholeestate,Withintheyear,hadbeenpartedamongthepoor.Thisman,alltremblingwithhisjoy,advancedtotakeThegoldenplate—whenlo!athisfirstfingertouchItchangedtobasestlead!Allstoodaghast;butwhenThehaplessclaimantdroppeditclangingonthefloor,Heaven’sguerdonwasagaintransformedtoshininggold.Soforanothertwelvemonthssatthepriestsandjudged,Thricetheyawarded—thricedidHeavenrefusethegift.Meanwhileahostofpoor,maimedbeggarsinthestreetLayallaboutthetemplegate,inhopetomoveThatlovewherebyeachclaimanthopedtowinthegift.Andwellforthemitwas(ifgoldbecharity),ForeverypilgrimtothetemplegatepraisedGod.Thatlovemightthusapproveitselfbeforethetest.Andsothecoinsrainedfreelyintheoutstretchedhands;

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Butnoneofthosewhogave,somuchasturnedtolookIntothepoorsadeyesofthemthatbegged.

AndnowThesecondyearhadalmostpassed,butstilltheplateOfgold,bywhomsoevertouched,wasturnedtolead.Atlengththerecameasimplepeasant—notawareOfthatstrangecontestforthegiftofGod—topayAvowwithinthetemple.AshepassedalongThelineofshrivelledbeggars,allhissoulwasmovedWithinhimtosweetpity,andthetearswelledupAndtrembledinhiseyes.

NowbythetemplegateTherelayapoor,sorecreature,blind,andshunnedbyall;Butwhenthepeasantcame,andsawthesightlessfaceAndtrembling,maimedhands,hecouldnotpass,butknelt,Andtookbothpalmsinhis,andsoftlysaid;“Othou,Mybrother!bearthetroublebravely.Godisgood.’’Thenhearoseandwalkedstraightwayacrossthecourt,AndenteredwheretheywrangledoftheirdeedsofloveBeforethepriests.

Awhilehelistenedsadly;thenHadturnedaway;butsomethingmovedthepriestwhoheldTheplateofgoldtobeckontothepeasant.SoHecame,notunderstanding,andobeyed,andstretchedHishandandtookthesacredvessel.Lo!itshoneWiththriceitsformerlustre,andamazedthemall!“Son”,criedthepriest,“rejoice.ThegiftofGodisthine.Thoulovestbest!’’Andallmadeanswer,“Itiswell.”And,onebyone,departed.ButthepeasantkneltAndprayed,bowinghisheadabovethegoldenplate;Whileo’erhissoullikemorningstreamedtheloveofGod.

REPRODUCTIONTHEPLATEOFGOLD

OnedayawonderfulplatemadeofgoldfellfromHeavenintothecourtofatempleatBenares ; andon theplate thesewordswere inscribed:“Agift from

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Heaven tohimwho lovesbest.”Thepriests at oncemade aproclamation thatevery day at twelve o’clock, all who would like to claim the plate shouldassembleatthetemple,tohavetheirkinddeedsjudged.

Everyday for a whole year all kinds of holy men, hermits, scholars andnoblescame,andrelatedtothepriests theirdeedsofcharity,andthepriests insolemncouncilheardtheirclaims.Atlasttheydecidedthattheonewhoseemedtobethegreatestloverofmankindwasarichmanwhohadthatveryyeargivenallhiswealthtothepoor.Sotheygavehimtheplateofgold.butwhenhetookitin his hand, it turned to worthless, lead; though, when he dropped it in hisamazementontothefloor,itbecamegoldagain.

For another year claimants came; and the priests awarded the prize threetimes.Butthesamethinghappened,showingthatHeavendidnotconsiderthesemenworthyofthegift.

Meanwhilea largenumberofbeggarscameandlayabout thetemplegate,hoping that theclaimantswhocamewouldgive themalms toprove theywereworthy of the golden plate. It was a good time for the beggars, because thepilgrimsgavethemplentyofmoney;buttheygavethemnosympathy,norevenalookofpity.

At last a simple peasant, who had heard nothing about the plate of gold,came;andhewassotouchedbythesightofthemiserablebeggars,thathewept;andwhen,hesawapoorblindandmaimedwretchatthetemplegate,hekneltathissideandtookhismaimedhandsinhisandcomfortedhimwithkindwords.When this peasant came to the temple, hewas shocked to find it full ofmenboastingoftheirkinddeedsandquarrellingwiththepriest.Onepriest,whoheldthegoldenplateinhishand,seeingthepeasantstandingthere,beckonedtohim;andthepeasantcame,andknowingnothingabouttheplate,tookitinhishands.Atonceitshoneoutwiththreetimesitsformersplendour,andthepriestssaid:“Son,thegiftisyours:foryoulovebest.”

EXERCISE134

1. Tell in your own words the story of Leigh Hunt’s “Abou Ben Adhem,”Whatisthemoralofthelegend?[Wren’s“LotusBookofEnglishVerse”,No.128.Wren’s“StoryPoems”,No.20.].

2. Imagineyourself tobeKingBruce,and tell thestoryof“KingBruceandtheSpider”[“Lotus”,No.5.“StoryPoems”,No.10]

3. Tell the story of “BishopHatto” in a letter to a friend [“Lotus”,No. 59.

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“StoryPoems”,No.37]4. Tell at length the story told inCampbell’s “Adelgitha,” supplying details

leftoutbythepoet.[“StoryPoems”No.62]5. Tellinyourownwordsthestoryof“TheBlindMenandtheElephant”as

toldbyJ.G.Saxe.[“Lotus”,No.16.“StoryPoems”,No.1.]6. TellthestoryofSouthey’s“InchcapeRock”inyourownwords.[“Lotus”,

No.60.“StoryPoems”,No.9]7. Tellthestoryof“AndroclesandtheLion”,asrelatedbyAndrocles.[”Story

Poems”,No.14.]8. Tell the storyofBrowning’s “Incidentof theFrenchCamp” inyourown

words.[“Lotus”,No.108.“StoryPoems”,No.21.]9. Relate inafewplainsentences thebarefactsnarratedinW.R.Spencer’s

“BethGelert”.[“Lotus”,No.51.“StoryPoems”,No.36.]10. Rewrite the story of “The Fisherman and the Porter”, as told by the

fisherman.[“StoryPoems”,No.39.]11. TellthestoryofLeighHunt’s“Mahmoud”,usingthedialogueformforthe

conversationalparts.[“Lotus”,No.61.“StoryPoems”,No.41]12. Put yourself in the place of Ibrahim, and tell the story told in Lowell’s

“Yussouf” fromhis point of view. [“Lotus”,No. 62. “StoryPoems”,No.42.]

13. TellthestorynarratedinTrench’s“Harmosan,”astoldbyamemberoftheCaliph’sretinue.[“Lotus”,No.63.“StoryPoems”,No.43.]

14. Readthepoem“JohnMaynard”,andthendescribeinyourownwordstheheroismofJohnMaynard.[“StoryPoems”,No.55]

15. Imagineyourselftobethecountrymouse;thentellthestoryof“TheTownandtheCountryMouse”.[“StoryPoems,”No.57]

16. Thetwopoems,Campbell’s“EarlMarch”andScott’s“MaidofNeidpath”,aretwoversionsofthesameincident.Readboththesepoemsandthentellinsimplelanguagetheonestorywhichbothrelate.[“StoryPoems’,Nos.94and95.]

17. Tell in your ownwords the story ofThackeray’s “Canute and theTide”.[“Lotus”,No.18.“StoryPoems”,No.64.]

18. Tell in your ownwords the beautiful legend related inW.Bruce’s poem“TheStranger”.[“StoryPoems”,No.81.]

19. Relate in your own words, the Talmudic legend about Solomon and theBeesasnarrated inversebyJ.G.Saxe. [“Lotus”,No.64.“StoryPoems”,No.89.]

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20. RelateinsimplelanguageandintheformofadialoguetheincidenttoldinJ.Merrick’s“Chameleon”.[“Lotus”,No.17.“StoryPoems”.No.77.]

21. TellthestoryofHay’s“EnchantedShirt”inyourownwords.[“Lotus”,No.8.“StoryPoems”,No.65.]

22. Tell in your ownwords the story of the jesterwho, condemned to death,savedhislifebyhiswits.[“StoryPoems”.No.72.]

23. ReadLowell’s“Dara”:thenrelateinfourparagraphs(a)theearlylifeandriseofDara;(b)thejealousywhichhisriseexcited;(c)theincidentofthechestand(d)theclearingofthesuspicionabouthisintegrity.[“Lotus”,No.66.“StoryPoems”.No.66.

CHAPTER36

LETTER-WRITINGEvery educated person should know how to write a clear and

readable letter. Everyone has sometimes towrite business letters ofsomesort,andmayhavetofacetheproblemofwritinganimportantletter that will vitally affect his interests in life. The art of letter-writing is, therefore, no mere ornamental accomplishment, butsomething that every educated person must acquire for practicalreasons.

I.THEFORMOFLETTERSLetters are messages, and certain letter-forms have been

established by experience and custom as the most useful formslearnedandusedbyeveryletter-writer,forneglectofthemisasignofignoranceandcarelessness.

Thereareseveraldifferentkindsofletters(suchasfriendlyletters,businessletters,etc.)eachofwhichhasitsownparticularform;buttherearecertainmattersofformwhichapplytoall,andthesemaybeexplainedfirst.

Inallkindsofletterstherearesixpointsofformtobeattendedto,namely:

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1. TheHeadingconsistingof(a)thewriter’saddressand(b)thedate.2. ThecourteousGreetingorSalutation.3. TheCommunicationorMessage—Thebodyoftheletter.4. TheSubscription,orcourteousLeave-taking,orConclusion.5. TheSignature.6. TheSuperscriptionontheenvelope.1.TheHEADING—Thisinformsthereaderwhereyouwrotethe

letter,andwhen.Thewhere(whichshouldbethewriter’sfullpostaladdress) gives the address to which the readermay reply ; and thewhenisforreference,asitgiveshimthedateonwhichyouwrote.

Thepositionoftheheadingisthetopright-handcornerofthefirstpage—theaddressaboveandthedatejustbelowit.Theheadingandthedatemayalternativelygoontheleft.24PoorviMargNewDelhi11005710October2001

Thedatemaybewritteninanyofthefollowingways:

2. SALUTATION or Greeting — The form of Greeting willdependupon the relation inwhichyoustand to theperson towhomyouarewriting.

Tomembersofyourfamily,forexample,itwillbe—DearFather,MydearMother,DearUncle,DearHari,etc.Tofriends,itwillbe—DearShriDesai,orDearDesai,orDearRamchandra,etc.Tobusinesspeople,itwillbe—DearSir,DearSirs,etc.[Fullexampleswillbegivenforeachkindofletterlater.]

Note—TheuseofthetermDearispurelyformal,andisamerepoliteexpression,notnecessarilyimplyinganyspecialaffection.

ThepositionoftheSalutationisattheleft-handofthefirstpage,

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atalowerlevelthantheHeading.3.TheCOMMUNICATIONorBodyof the letter—This is, of

course,theletteritself,andthestyleinwhichitiswrittenwilldependupon thekindof letteryouwish towrite.Thestyleofa letter toanintimate friendwill be very different from that of a purely businessletteroranofficialcommunication.Buta fewhints thatapply toalllettersaregivenbelow.

(a)Divideyourletter(unlessit isveryshort)intoparagraphs, tomarkchangesofSubject-matter,etc.

(b)Usesimpleanddirectlanguageandshortsentences.Donottryto be eloquent, and drag in long words, just because they are longwords.Beclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay,andsayitasdirectlyaspossible.

(c)Trytobecomplete.Itisasignofslovenlythinkingwhenyouhavetoaddpostscriptsattheendofaletter.Thinkoutwhatyouwanttosaybeforeyoubegintowrite;andputdownyourpointsinsomelogicalorder.

(d)Write neatly. Remember that your correspondent has to readwhat you write, and do not give him unnecessary trouble with badpenmanshipandslovenlywriting.

(e)Mindyourpunctuation,andputincommasandsemicolonsandfullstops in their proper places. Incorrect punctuation may alter thewholemeaningofasentence.

4. The SUBSCRIPTION or courteous Leave-taking— A lettermust not end abruptly, simply with the writer’s name. This wouldlookrude.Socertainformsofpoliteleave-takingareprescribed.Suchas—

Yourssincerely,Yoursincerefriend,Yoursfaithfully,etc.[Differentleave-takingformsareusedindifferentkindsofletters,

andthesewillbegivenundertheirproperheads.]The subscription, orLeave-taking phrase,must bewritten below

thelastwordsoftheletter,andtotherightsideofthepage.Thisisthetraditional method. Note that today there is a growing tendency to

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placethesubscriptionontheleftside.

Note— The first word of the Subscriptionmust begin with acapitalletter;e.g.,

Sincerelyyours5.TheSIGNATUREor name of thewriter— Thismust come

belowtheSubscription.Thus:Yourssincerely,K.R.Deshpande

In letters to strangers, the signature shouldbe clearlywritten, sothatthereadermayknowwhomtoaddressinreply.

Awomanshouldprefix to thenameMissorMrs (or:KumariorSmt)inbrackets.MscanbeusedbyawomanwhodoesnotwishtobecalledMissorMrs.Yoursfaithfully,(Mrs.)J.L.Desai

6.Theaddressontheenvelope(orpostcard):Theaddressontheenvelopeorpostcardshouldbewrittenclearly,likethis:

Tosumup:Inwritingaletter,firstwriteyouraddressandunderitthedatein

thetopright-handcornerofthefirstpage.Youmayalternativelywritethemontheleft.

Thenwrite theSalutation (e.g.,DearShriDesai,) lowerdownattheleftsideofthepage,beginningwithacapitalandputtingacommaafterit.

Nextbeginyourletter(withacapitalletter)onthenextlowerline,

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(1) Social Letters, including Friendly Letters and Notes ofInvitations.

(2) BusinessLetters;includingLettersofApplication,LetterstogovernmentofficersandLetterstoNewspapers.

totherightofthesalutation.AttheendoftheletterwritetheSubscription,orwordsofleave-

taking(e.g.,Yourssincerely),atright/leftsideofthepage,withyoursignaturebelowit.

Forexample:6NorthUsmanRoad

Chennai6000174October2001

DearSir,IshallbemuchobligedifyousendmeassoonaspossiblethebookswhichI

orderedaweekago.Yoursfaithfully,AbdulGhani

II.CLASSIFICATIONOFLETTERSLetters may be classified according to their different purposes.

Thus:

Thesehavedifferentcharacteristicswhichmustbeconsidered.

SOCIALLETTERS1.FRIENDLYLETTERS

Letters to relations and intimate friends should be written in aneasy, conversational style. They are really of the nature of friendlychat; and, being as a rule unpremeditated and spontaneouscompositions, theyare informaland free-and-easyascomparedwithessays.Justasinfriendlytalk,soinfriendlyletters,wecantouchonmany subjects and in anyorderwe like ; andwecanuse colloquialexpressionswhichwould informalessaysbequiteoutofplace.Butthisdoesnotmeanthatwecanbecarelessandslovenlyindashingoff

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our letters, for it is insulting to ask a friend to decipher a badly-written,ill-composedandconfusedscrawl;sowemusttakesomecareand preserve some order in expressing our thoughts. Above all, itmustbe remembered that,however free-and-easymaybeour style,we are just as much bound by the rules of spelling, punctuation,grammarand idiom inwritinga letterasweare inwriting themostformalessay.Suchungrammaticalexpressionsas“anadvice”“thosesort of things” and “he met my brother and I,” are no morepermissible in a friendly letter than in a literary article.Mistakes inspelling, punctuation and grammar at once stamp a letter-writer asuneducated.

Formsof address— In friendly letters to relations and intimatefriends, theproper formofaddress is thename(without title)of thepersontowhomyouarewriting,prefixedbysuchqualifyingtermsasDear,Mydear,Dearest,etc.Forexample:

Dear Father or Mother, Dear Brother, Dearest Sister, DearEdward,MydearAbdul,etc.

Butifyouarewritingtoanordinaryfriendwhoismucholderthanyou are, or of superior rank, it is respectul to use a prefix likeMr,Mrs, Shri etc. e.g.DearMrKrishna Rao. (N.B.—Studentswritingfriendly letters to their teachersorprofessors,shouldalwaysaddressthemthus).

Theformsofsubscriptionarevaried.Thefollowingcanbeusedinletters to relatives and near friends :Yours affectionately, Youraffectionate(orloving)son,orbrotherorfriend,Yoursverysincerely(tofriends);oryoucanusesomesuchformasthis:Withloveandbestwishes,Fromyouraffectionatefriend,AhmadHassan

In concluding letters to friends or acquaintances whom youaddressas“ShriorMr......”(e.g.,MyDearShriDurgaPrasad)youshoulduse thewordsincerelyorverysincerely, in thesubscription ;and this may be preceded byWith kind (or very kind or kindest )

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regards.Thus:Withkindregards,Yourssincerely,ChamanLal

N.B.—Sincerelyshouldnotbeusedinlettersbeginningwiththeformal Dear Sir, after which the proper word of subcription isfaithfullyortruly.

[Toyouruncleonhis70thbirthday]

18PatelRoad,Mumbai400014.24Sept.2001MydearUncle,

I have just remembered that it is yourbirthdayonSaturdayand so Imustsend you a birthday letter at once. And I begin with the old greeting, Manyhappyreturnsof theday! Ihope theday itselfwillbepeacefulandhappyforyouandthatyouwillbesparedinhappinessandhealthtousallforyearsyet.You have always been a kind and generous uncle to me, and I take thisopportunityofthankingyoufromthebottomofmyheartforallyouhavedoneforme.AndIknowallyourniecesandothernephewsfeelthesame.

Iwassogladtohearfromfatherthatyouarestillhaleandhearty,andcantakeyourfour-milewalkeveryday,andstillplayagoodsetoftennis.

I am sending you a bookwhich I think youwill like.Youwere always agreatreader,andIamgladthatyoureyesightremainsasgoodasever—sofathersays.

I am getting on well in my business and hope to enlarge it considerablybeforetheendoftheyear.

Withloveandbestwishes,Yourlovingnephew,Sohrab

[Fromaboyinaboarding-schooltohismother,tellingherthathedislikesthelifeofaboarder.]

St.Dominics,Pune411002.

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24thOctober,2001

DearestMother,Iwassoglad togetyour letteryesterday.Thankyousomuch! I

readitjustaftermorningschool;butitmademefeelveryhomesick.ItseemsyearssinceIlefthomethoughitisreallyonlyaboutamonth.ItseemsagestotheChristmasholidays,whenIshallbeabletocomehome. It was much nicer when I was at the day-school, and camehomeeveryafternoon.

I do hate being a boarder. I am in a big dormitory, with abouttwentyotherboys.Someofthemareallright;butthebiggerboysarealways playing nasty jokes on us smaller ones ; andwedaren’t sayanything, orwe should get amost awful licking.Themaster comesround to see all lights out, but all the larking goes on after he hasgone;soheknowsnothingaboutit.AndIdon’tlikethemasters.Theysimplymakeyouworkallday,andcaneyouforeveryfault.Mostoftheboysarehorrid;butIliketwoorthree.

Please ask Dad to put me into a day-school again. I would bemuchhappierthere.WithLove,yourlovingson,Tommy

[Themother’sreply]

Hill-topHouse,Matheran,26thOctober,2001

MydearTommy,Thankyouforyourletter.ButIamsorryyouaresounhappyatSt.

Dominic’s.Idon’twonderyoufeelratherhome-sick,foritisthefirsttime you have been away from home ; and I, too, often want youhomeagain,mychild.Butyouknow,wecan’talwayshavewhatwewantinlife.IfIwereselfish,Iwouldkeepyoualwaysathome,forI

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don’t likeanyofmychildren tobeaway ;but thenhowwouldyouevergetyoureducationandgrowuptobeamanabletomanageyourownlife?Yourfatherthinksthatafewyearsataboarding-schoolisnecessaryforallboys,tomakemenofthem;andheknowsbest.

Somydearboy,youmustbebraveandsticktoyourschool.Iamsure youwill soon get to like it, as other boys do. Don’tmind thejokesboysplayonyou,and ifyoudo,don’t let themknowyoudo.Whentheyseeyoudon’tmind,theywillsoongettiredofteasingyou.Socheerup!andbeabraveladdie.Withmuchlove,YourslovinglyMummy

EXERCISE135

Writeashortletter:1. Toyourcousin,requestingtheloanofacameraduringyourholidays.2. Fromaboyinaboarding-schooltohismotherwhoiskeepingpoorhealth.3. To your father, who has been away from home for a fortnight, about

anythingofinterestthathastakenplaceinhisabsence.4. Toyourcousinaboutwhatparticularlypleasedyouatthecircus.5. Fromaboyataboarding-schooltohisparentsontheapproachingvacation.6. Froma son tohis father, statinghowhehopes to fare in theapproaching

School-LeavingExamination.7. Toyouryoungerbrother,scoldinghimforhavingneglectedhisstudies.8. Replytotheabove.9. From a mother to her daughter, on receiving a bad report from her

boarding-school.10. Replytotheabove.11. Youhaverecoveredfromalongillness.Writeaboutyourexperienceinbed

etc.,toyourcousin.12. You have been delayed one night by a railway accident near a small

countryout-station.Writealetterhomerelatingyourexperience.

[Toafriendinahospital]

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RaceCottageLucknow22600328thDecember,2001

DearMelaRam,Ihaveonlyjustheardfromyourbrotherthatyouhavebeenillinthehospital

for the last twoweeks. Iamverysorry. If Ihadknown, I shouldhavewrittenbefore.But I am glad to know that theworst is now over, and you aremuchbetter.Hesayshesawyou theotherday,andyouwerequitecomfortableandcheery.Ihopeyouwillsoonbeallright,andcomingoutagain.Assoonasyoucan,writeandletmeknowhowyouare.Yoursverysincerely,SantRam

[Toafriend,aboutyourfavouritegame]

18EastRoad,Junglepore.6thMarch,2001DearSharif,

Thanksforyourletter,withyourpraisesofcricketasthefinestgameintheworld. I don’t want to dispute that; but it is not my favourite. I have twofavouritegames,oneforout-of-doors,andoneforindoors.

For exercise and interest, I like tennis best of all outdoor games. Footballand hockey are too violent to suit me ; cricket is too slow ; badminton ischildish.But tennisgivesyouplentyofexercise ; itdevelopsquicknessofeyeandlimb;anditcallsyourbrain,yourthinkingpower,intoaction.Afewsetsoftennisintheeveningkeepmephysicallyandmentallyfit.

Forindoors,chessisthequeenofgames.Itakenointerestincardgames;anddraughts after chess is likewater afterwine.People say chess is a selfishgame,becauseonlytwocanplayatatime.Well,Idon’tseethatbridgeisonlylessselfish,simplybecausefourplayinsteadoftwo.Theyalsosayitisslow.Nochess-player ever says this. For an outsider itmay look slow to see twomensittingsilentandmakingamoveonlyeveryfewminutes.Buttothetwoplayers,it is all the time intensely exciting.There is nogame that so absorbsyou likechess.

Youwillprobablyscoff;butIdon’tmind.

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Yoursverysincerely,LalKhan

[Toafriend,describingafootballmatchinwhichyouwerereferee]

54KhazanchiRoad,Patna800004.5Jan.2001

DearDeviPrasad,My advice to those who are about to act as football referees is—Don’t!

Why?Hearmysadstory.WehaveheretwolocalteamscalledtheBrilliantsandtheValiants.Theyare

easilythebestteamsinthedistrictandineverytournamentthefightintheendisbetweenthese two.Andwhentheirbloodisup, theybothfight towin,byfairmeans or foul—mostly foul.Moreover, the town is divided into two bitterlyopposedfactions—BrilliantsandValiants,whorollup,tothematchestocheerandjeer,andtosee“fair”play.

Thegamehadnotlongbegun,beforeIhadtoturnoffoneoftheBrilliantsforfoulplay.Theteamprotested,thecrowdroaredandthingslookedugly;butIstucktomypoint,andtheysettleddown.Buttheyweresulky.ThentheValiantsscored;andtheBrilliantslookedsulkierstill.

ButthefunbeganwhenIawardedtheValiantsapenaltykickclosetogoal,bywhich they promptly scored again.Then all theBrilliants rushed on to thefield,yellingandshouting,andwentforme.Iwasjostled,struckandkickedandknocked down; and the match came to an end in free fight between the twoparties.

Iamsittingup,nursingmywounds,andvowing,“Nomore refereeing forme!”Yoursinsorrow,Kartikey

[Toafriend,greetinghimontheoccasionoftheIndependenceDay.]

SatpuraHostel,VindhyachalBlock,Varanasi-221001.

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10thJuly,2002

DearSatishI hope this letter finds you in the best of spirits. It’s time we exchanged

greetings, for our nationswill soon be celebrating the fifty-fifth IndependenceDay.My friends and I ofHimalayanAcademy,Rajganjwould like to expressourspiritofbrotherhoodandonenessontheoccasionoftheIndependenceDay.May the internal and communal disturbances give way to religious tolerance,harmonyandspace.Sinceyouareinaresidentialschool,Isupposewewillbecelebratingitwithasenseofpatrioticdiscipline.Let’snourishthespiritofSolidarityfornowandalltimestocome.Yourlovingfriend,CaramelMoghbelpoor

[Replytotheabove]

GodavariHouse,SainikSchool,Bhubaneshwar.18thJuly,2002

DearCaramelItwaswonderfultoseeyourletterinmymailbox.Asyourightlysaid,the

futuremonthAugustwillsoonseeusmarchingfortheIndependenceDayparadeinourschoolaswellasonthestreetsleadingtotheGovernor’sHouse.

The rehearsal sessionhasstartedandwehave little time tospare forotheractivities. Truly we have tomotivate our little ones with patriotic favour andenthusiasm. Our country has withstood external aggressions and internalconflicts.Weneedtostandunitedinallsuchcircumstances.I’mgratefultoyouforkindlingthespiritofanidealchildaswewouldallbetomorrow’scitizens.

Hope Martha is fine. I conclude this letter like a typical citizen of anhonourablecountry.JAIHINDSatishTriphul

EXERCISE136

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Writeashortletter:1. Toafriend, tellinghimhowyouplayyourfavouritegame,assumingthat

heknowsnothingaboutit.2. Toafriend,describingyourfavouritehobby.3. Toa friend,describinga recentexcitingcricketmatch inwhichyourside

won.4. Toafriend,describingafootballmatch.5. Toafriend,describingatennistournament.6. Toyourfriendwhomyouaresendingaphotographrecentlytakenofyour

schoolfootballteam,referringtosomecommonfriendsinthegroup.7. Replytotheabove.8. Toafriend,describingyourmishapsinanobstacleraceintheshcool.9. Toafriend,describingamagicperformance.10. Toafriend,describingafilmwhichappealedtoyouverymuch.11. ToanEnglishboy,describingtheIndianJuggler.12. To your friend, about some memory feats you have witnessed or heard

about.13. Toafriendwhohasfailedtotakehisdefeatwell.14. Friend’sreplytotheabove.15. Toyourfriendwhodidnot“playfair”.16. Friend’sreplytotheabove.17. Toafriend,expressingyourpreferenceforoutdoorgames.18. Friend’sreply,expressingpreferenceforindoorgames.19. Toyoursister,aboutarealorimaginaryflightinanaeroplane.

[Toafriend,arrangingforanexcursiontogether.]

5RailwayRoad,Allahabad.15thMay,2001

DearSmith,WebothhaveaholidaynextMonday.Whatdoyousaytoatripto

Murreeandarambleinthegullies?Wecouldstartearly,say6a.m.,inmycar,andtakesomegrubwithus,andmakeadayofitupinthecool. Itwouldbeachangefromthisheatdownhere.Ifyouagree,Iwillarrangethepicnic,andberoundatyourhouseatquartertosixon

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Mondaymorning.Bringyourcamerawithyou.Yourssincerely,R.P.Brown

[Reply,accepting]

CircularAvenue,Allahabad.16thMay,2001

DearBrown,Many thanks for your invitation. I shall be delighted to go, and shall be

ready for you at 5-45 a.m., next Monday. A day in Murree will be a grandchange.Yes,I’llbringmycamera,andhopetogetsomegoodsnapshots.

Yoursforever,A.B.Smith

[Reply,regrettinginabilitytojoin]

CircularAvenue,Allahabad.16thMay,2001DearBrown,

Itisawfullygoodofyoutoproposeaday’spicnicatMurree.IonlywishIcouldjoinyouasIamsickofthisheat.ButIamsorrytosayIshallnotbeabletogetaway,asIhavealreadypromisedtoseeafriendinJhelumnextMonday.Thanksallthesame.Yoursverysincerely,A.B.Smith

[Writealetterofintroductionforafriendtotaketoanotherfriendwholivesinadifferentpartofthecountry.Saywhyyouthinkeach

willenjoyknowingtheother.]

5ArmernianLane,Kolkata700005.7thFebruary,2001

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MydearHaiderAli,Youhaveoftenheardmespeakofmyfriend,AbdulLatif,whoisabarrister

here.Heisanoldfriendofmine,andoneforwhomIhaveagreatadmiration.Well,heisgoingtoMumbaiinafewdaysandwillprobablymakeafairlylongstay there.And as Iwant you two tomeet and get to know each other, I amgivinghimthisletterforyouasanintroduction.IamsureyouwilldoyourbesttomakehisstayinMumbaihappy.Atfirstyouwilldoitformysake;butintheendyouwilldoitforhisalso.ForIknowyouwilllikehimandbothofyouwillfindyouhavemanyinterestsincommon.

AbdulLatifis,likeyou,veryinterestedinsocialreformofallkinds.HealsomakesIslamichistoryahobby,asyoudo.And,perhapsaboveall,heplayschess;andyouareachessenthusiast.Heisalsoagoodtennis-player.Soyoushouldgetonwelltogether.

Ihopeyouhavegotridofyourcold,andarekeepingquitewell.Yoursverysincerely,GhulamSamdani

[Toyoursister/friendaboutarealorimaginaryflightinaspaceshuttle]

ClevesonBuildings,NorthCampus,FIIT,NewDelhi.28thFeb.2000

DearAnjali,Hi.

IamdelightedtoknowthatyouaregoingtodoaprojectonSpaceVoyages.Theotherday,myteacherShaliniaskedustogoonaPhantasyflightinaspaceshuttletoVenus.

Well,asadvisedbytheNASAscientists,wedidnoteatanythinginthefirstplace.Beforewewentoffintospacewewentthrougharigorous14-daytrainingprogramme developed by the engineers of Russian Space Agency and touroperator Space Adventures. We also underwent an extensive medicalexaminationandtrainingontheSoyuzSimulator.

ThefirstspacetravellerwasDennisTitofromtheUnitedStates.Well,dear,fancyingaholiday inspacecostsquitea fortune: twentymillionUnitedStatesdollarsanda14-dayrigoroustrainingprogramme.

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Sinceoneneeds towear a space suit. I had tobear the theheavinessof itwith an oxygen cylinder and a mask. Added to the mask were helmets. Thegarmentisdesignedtoallowanastronauttosurviveinspace.However,thereIenriched my vocabulary, by prefixing everything to ‘space’. Space telescope,space time, space travel and space vehicle were perhaps some of the wordswhichIlearntandIwillbeexplainingthetermsatlengthatalaterdate.

Inshort,Itravelledinaspaceshuttlewhichisarocketlaunchedspacecraftabletolandlikeanunpoweredaircraft,usedtomakerepeatedjourneysbetweentheearthandthespacestation.Moreinmynextletter.Yourslovingly,Mahima

EXERCISE137

Writeashortletter:1. Toafriend,givingabriefdescriptionofaholidaytouryouintendtomake.2. Toafriend,tellinghimhowyouspentyoursummervacation.3. Toyourfriend,aboutthelongestjourneymadebyyou.4. ToanEnglishfriendgivinghimanideaofthelifeinyourtownorvillage.5. Toafriend,describingyourvisittosomenotablepublicbuilding.6. A friendwrites to say that he is spending aweek in your town.Write a

lettersayinghowsorryyouarethatyouwillbeaway,buttellinghimwhatheoughttosee.

[Fromaboytohisfriendwhohasmetwithanaccident]

OldGate,Rampur,1stApril,2001

MydearAhmad,Razaktoldmethismorningthatyouhadbeenknockedoffyourbicyclebya

tongayesterdayandbadlyhurt.Iamawfullysorry;butIhopeitisnotreallyasbadasRazakmadeout.Ifyoucanwrite,pleaseletmeknowhowyouare.Thosetongawallasareawfullycarelessbeggars.Ihadanastyspillmyselfafewweeksago in the sameway.Happily no boneswere broken.Mind you letme know

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howyouaregettingon.Yoursforever,Karim

EXERCISE138

Writeashortletter:1. Toafriend,givingdetailsofarailwayaccident(realorimaginary).2. Fromaboarding-schoolgirltoherfriend,describingaterribleaccidentthat

happenedtosomeofherfriendswhileswinging.3. Toafriend,givinganaccountofastrikingincidentwhichhappenedtoyou

oranother.4. Toafriend,describingathunderstorminwhichyouwererecentlycaught.5. Toafriend,givinganaccountofabravedeed,realor imaginary,noticed

byyouinyourstreet.6. To a friend, about a striking example (real or imaginary) of presence of

mind.

[Toaschoolfellowwhohasbeenabsentfromschoolforaweek.]

HighSchool,Junglepore.16thFebruary,2001

DearYaqub,Whatisthematterwithyou?Youhavenotbeenatschoolforaweek,and

theHeadmasterisaskingwhereyouareandwhatyouareupto.Ihopeyouarenotill.Pleasewrite,andsaywhenyouarecomingback.

YoumissedthefootballmatchagainsttheMissionSchoollastMonday,andI can tell you theCaptainwas jolly crosswhen he found youwere not there.Salimtookyourplace.However,inspiteofyourabsence,wewonbytwogoalstoone.

Ihopeyouwillsoonbebackagain.

Yourssincerely,AhmedDin

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EXERCISE139

1. Write to a friendwhoneedlessly runs down the school he used to attendsometimeago.

2. Itisafortnighttoyourexamination,andyouareunprepared.Writetoyourfriendaboutyourdifficulty.

3. Replytotheabove.4. Write a letter to your friendwhoworks on Sundays as well as on other

holidays.5. “Itisbettertowearoutthantorustout.”Discussthissayinginalettertoa

friendwhoholdsthisview.6. “A short life and amerry one.”Write a reply to a friendwho holds this

view.7. Writetoafriendwhoisexclusivelyoccupiedwithhisstudies,advisinghim

totakepartinathleticgames.8. Writea letterofadvice toa friendwhocomplains thathedoesnotknow

howtospendhissparetime.9. Inalettertoyourveryintimatefriend,writeplainlyabouthisfaults;also

dwelluponthegoodpointsofhischaracter.

[TotheSubdivisionalOfficerSeekingforaTelephoneConnection]

AmanPandit,G-114B,LajpatNagar,NewDelhi.To

TheSubDivisionalOfficer,TheMahanagarTelecommunicationNetworkLimitedVikaspuriNewDelhi

DearSir,IamaresidentofVikasApartmentsatLajpatNagar,NewDelhi.Iamanew

inhabitant of this region. I would be extremely grateful if you could kindlyconsidermyapplicationfor installationofanewtelephoneconnectionasearlyas possible. Since I am a doctor by profession serving at the Indra PrasthaApolloHospitals,Ineedthetelephoneconnectionurgently.Myprofessionfallsunder the ESMA category (Essential Services Maintenance Act) which is of

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primeimportance.

Thankyou

Yoursfaithfully,AmanPandit(Dr.AmanPandit)

NewDelhi8thMarch,2001

[LetterforissueofaDrivingLicense]

FromPremaVindhyachal,66-B,HillPartDrive,I.I.T.,Powai,Mumbai.

ToTheTransportCommissioner,(MinistryofRoadTransport),ChatrapatiShivajiBuilding,Mumbai.

DearSir,I’ma residentofPowai and since Iwill be shortlydriving tomyplaceof

workIneedadrivinglicense.TheregistrationnumberofmycarisMLZ9999.I’dbeextremelygratefulif

youcouldkindlygrantmeadriving license. I canbe contactedat the addressgivenabove.IwouldappreciateanearlyreplysothatIcantakeadayoffformydrivingtest.

Yoursfaithfully,

P.Vindhyachal(PremaVindhyachal)Mumbai.16thJune2001

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[Letteraccompanyingabirthdaypresent]

42AshokMargLucknow22600116December2001

MydearCharley,It isyourbirthdayonSaturday,so—Manyhappyreturnsof theday!Iam

sending you a camera to celebrate the event, as I know you are keen onphotography,andhopeyouwillfindituseful.

Withallbestwishesforthebestofluckfromyourfriend.Tom

[Replytotheabove.]

26M.G.StreetAhmedabad38000518December2001MydearTom,

Ever so many thanks for your good wishes and your jolly present. Thecameraisabeauty—justthekindIhavebeenwantingforalongtime.Ishallbeabletotakesomereallyfinepictureswithit.Thankyouverymuch!

Yoursaffectionately,Charley

[Toafriendwhohasrecentlylosthismother.]

72PatelStreetMumbai4000146Jan.2001DearFred,

ItwaswithrealsorrowthatIheardthismorningofyourgreatloss.Iknewyourmotherwasill, foryourbrother toldmeseveralweeksago;but,asheatthat timedid not seem to think the illnesswas very serious, the newsof yourmother’s death came to me as a shock. You have my sincere and heartfeltsympathy,mydear fellow, inyour sorrow. I knowyouwill feel it deeply, foryoualwaysthoughtsomuchofyourmotherandlovedhersotruly.Ifeelitalsoasapersonallosstomyself;foryourmotherwasalwaysverykindtome,andIadmiredherasagoodandnoblewoman.Herdeathmustbea terriblegrief to

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yourfather,too;pleaseassurehimalsoofmysinceresympathy.Words, Iknow,arepoorcomforters. “Theheartknoweth itsownsorrow,”

andinsuchsorrowswearealwaysalone.But it isnotmerewordswhenIsaythatIfeelwithyouinyoursorrow.Yoursincerefriend,Jack

[Replytotheabove]

16ChurchStreetPune4110039Jan.2001MydearJack,

Thankyouverymuch for yourmost kind and sympathetic letter.You saythatwordsarepoorcomforters;butthesympathyoftruefriendslikeyourselfisagreatcomfortintimesofsorrow;andIamgratefultoyouforitsexpression.

Mother’sdeathwasagreatshocktome,thoughIdonotfullyrealizeitevenyet.Wewerealwayssomuchtoeachother;anditishardtofacethefactthatImustlivetherestofmylifewithouther.

Happily her end cameverypeacefully.Shehadnopain, andpassed awayquietly in her sleep. She was fond of you, and spoke of you several timestowardstheend.

Youwillexcusemefromwritingmoreatpresent.Idon’tfeelequaltoit.Withmanythanks,againfrom,

Yoursincerefriend,Fred

[Toafriend,fromagirlwhoisgoingabroadwithherfatherandmother.]

JaiprakashNagarGoregaonMumbai40006210thMarch,2001

MydearNora,Iamawfullyexcited !Mydaddyandmummyaregoingabroadona long

tour;andIamgoingwiththem.Weshallbeawayforabouttwomonths.Weareleavingon20th.

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WearegoingfirsttoHongKong,wheremyfatherhassomebusiness.Thenwe are travelling to Japan. Think of it ! I shall see the Japanese and all theirinterestingways.Weshallstaytheresometime,andthenflytoSanFrancisco.AfterthatwearetotraveltoNewYork,andstaythereforsometime.ThenweshalltraveltoEngland.

Bythetimewegethome,Ishallhaveseenhalftheworldandwillbeamuchtravelledperson.

Ishallwriteyoulonglettersfromalltheplaceswestayinandtellyouofallthenewandstrangethingswesee.

Withbestwishes,

Verysincerelyyours,Naomi

EXERCISE140

Writeashortletter:1. Fromayoungmanwhohasrecentlybecomepossessedofafortunelefthim

byhisuncle,tohisintimatefriend.2. Toafriend,advisinghimtoinsurehislife.3. Tothesamegivinginformationaboutlife-insurance.4. Toafriend,proposingtheformationofadebatingunion.5. Replytotheabove.6. Toafriend,describingapleasantdream.7. Toafriend,describingahorriddream.8. Toafriend,givinganaccountofyourfavouritestory-bookorauthor.9. Toa friend, askinghim to return abookwhichyou lenthima long time

ago.Couchyourletterinsuchtermsthatyourfriendwillnottakeoffence.10. Toafriend,apologizingfornothavingkeptanappointment.11. Toasickfriend,congratulatinghimonthegoodprogressheismaking.12. Toasickfriendinahospital.13. Toafriendwhohaslongbeensilent.14. Replytotheabove.15. Fromasistertoherbrother,decribinghervisittoanorphanage.16. ToyouruncleinJapan,askingforinformationaboutthehabitsandcustoms

oftheJapanese.17. Replytotheabove.

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18. Fromasontohisfather,askingpermissiontobecomealawyer.19. Thefather’sreplytotheabove.

EXERCISE141

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1. Writea letter toavillage-boy,yourcousin, tellinghimwhatyour townislike.

2. AnunclehassentyouapresentofRs.300.Writealetterthankinghimandtellinghimhowyouproposetospendit.

3. WritealettertoyourAmericanfriendtoaccompanyasmallmodeloftheTajMahalatAgrawhichyouaresendinghim.

4. Reply,referringtothesky-scrapersofNewYork.5. Yourfriendisamemberofalargefamily;youarenot.Writetohim.6. Replytotheabove.7. Writealettertoafriend,tellinghimthatyouhaveshiftedtoanewhouse,

anddescribeyournewneighbourhood.8. Ina letter toyoursick friend,advisehim togo toahospitalas,owing to

variouscircumstances,hecannotbelookedafterproperlyathome.9. Imagine that youhave returned fromavisit to youruncle.Write a letter,

thankinghimforhiskindnessanddescribingyourjourney.10. Writealettertoafriend,describingabookyouhavejustreadandstrongly

recommendingittohim.

2.NOTESOFINVITATIONSA formal invitation is generally written in the third person, and

shouldcontainnoheading,nosalutation,andnocomplimentaryclose.Thewriter’snameshouldappearinthebodyoftheletter.Theaddressof the writer and the date should be written to the left, below thecommunication.

The reply to such a note should also be in the third person, andshouldrepeatthedateandtimementionedintheinvitation.

[Formalnoteofinvitation.]

MrandMrsV.A.PaulrequestthepleasureofMrK.Gopalan’scompanyatdinneronFriday,14July,ateighto’clock.

18PetersRoadChennai600014

[Formalnoteofacceptance.]

MrK.GopalanhaspleasureinacceptingthekindinvitationofMrandMrs

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V.A.PaultodinneronFriday,14July,ateighto’clock.12KamarajSalaiChennai600005

[Formalnoteofrefusal.]

MrK.GopalanregretsthatapreviousengagementpreventshisacceptingthekindinvitationofMrandMrsV.A.PaultodinneronFriday,July.

12KamarajSalaiChennai600005Informal notes of invitation, acceptance and refusal are like

ordinary friendly letters, though using more formal language. Theyareaddressedtotherecipientbyname(MydearShriJoshi),andtheformalcloseisusuallyanyofthefollowing:

Sincerely yours, Yours sincerely, Yours very sincerely, Yoursaffectionately(torelations,orintimatefriends).

[Informalnoteofinvitation.]

12Alwarpet22November

DearPramila,Will you giveme the pleasure of your company at dinner on Sunday, the

27that8o’clock?Yourssincerely,V.Saroja

[Informalnoteofacceptance.]

PoesGarden23NovemberMydearSaroja,

IshallbepleasedtobewithyouatdinneronSunday,the27th.Thanksalotforyourinvitation.Yourssincerely,S.Pramila

[Informalnoteofrefusal.]

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Poesgarden23NovemberMydearSaroja,

I am very sorry that a previous engagementwill preventme from joiningyouatdinneronSunday.Thankyouverymuchforyourkindinvitation.sincerely,S.Pramila

II.BUSINESSLETTERSBusiness letters should be terse, clear, and to the point.

Businessmenarebusymen,andhavenotimetoreadlong,ramblingandconfusedletters.

Business letters are naturally much more formal in style thanfriendlyletters.Certainformsofpoliteexpressionareused,suchas—

“Ishallbemuchobligedifyouwillsendme,”“Pleasedespatchatyourearliestconvenience,”etc.At the same time certain phrases of business “jargon” should be

avoided.Theyarecommonlyused,butarenotgoodEnglish;andthemeaning can be conveyed as clearly in simple, everyday language.Examplesofsuchexpressionsare—

“Yoursofevendatetohand.”“Despatchsameatonce.”Avoid so far as possible abbreviations (like advt. for

advertisement,exam. for examination, etc.) and theomissionof I orwe(e.g.,“Havereceived”insteadof“Wehavereceived”).

In business letters ordering goods, care should be taken to giveclearandexactdescriptionsofthearticleswanted.Anitemizedlistofthe goodswanted should be supplied,with the quality and quantityrequired.

Directionsforforwardingshouldbegiven(byrail,post,etc.)andthe manner in which payment will be made indicated (by MoneyOrder, V.P.P., cheque, or by debiting to the writer’s account).Everythingshouldbeclearandprecise.

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FORM —The form of business letters is the same as alreadydescribed,withone addition,viz., theAddress (i.e., thenameof thefirmorbusinessmantowhomtheletterisaddressed),whichshouldbewrittenonthefirstpage,lowerdownthantheHeadingandtotheleftof thepage.(Itmaybeplacedat theendof the letter lower thanthesignatureandat the leftsideof thepage,but theusualposition isatthebeginning.)

MODESOFADDRESS—Themodesofaddressvary.(1)Toatradesman:

ShriB.V.RaoBookseller12RingRoadBangalore

BeginDearSir,andconcludeYoursfaithfully.(2)Toafirm:

MessrsK.R.Das&Co.TeaMerchants24RingRoadKolkata

BeginDearSirs,andconcludewithYoursfaithfully.Note—If the firmhasan impersonal title,Messrs shouldnotbe

prefixed.Forexample:EurasiaPublishingHouse,VijayTradingCo.(3)Toprofessionalmenorprivategentlemen:

Mr.K.BhaskarCharteredAccountantPratibhaHouseThiruvananthapuram695002

Mr.K.R.Misra32BhandarkarRoadPune411004

BeginDear Sir orMy dear Sir, and conclude Yours faithfully,Yourstruly,etc.(notYourssincerely).

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Whenaclerksignsabusinessletteronbehalfofhisemployer,heputs the letter p.p. (Latin per pro = on behalf of) or for before thenameofthefirm,andwriteshissignaturebeneath.Forexample:YoursfaithfullyForR.Gomes&SonsK.S.Kumar

IfagentlemanisentitledtobecalledHonourable,heisaddressed,forexample,asTheHon.ShriK.R.Patil.

(N.B.—ThetitleTheHon.cannotbeusedbyitself;youmustnotwriteTheHon.K.R.Patil).

REPLIES — In replying to a business letter, always quote thenumberofreference(ifthereisone)andthedateoftheletteryouareanswering.Forexample:

“Inreply toyour letterNo.502/P,datedJuly26,20......, Iwouldliketosay,”etc.

[Exampletoshowtheformofabusinessletter.]

16ChurchStreetAnaparthi53334114Dec.2001

TheManagerSouthernAgencyRajahmundry533101

DearSir,I shall begrateful if youwill kindly supply the following itemsofGodrej

furniture:1almirah–model23chairs–model42chairs–model61table–model101Pleasesendthemcarriageforwardtotheaboveaddress,andyourbillwillbe

paidonreceipt.Yoursfaithfully,V.J.Manohar

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(Lettertoabankmanageraskinghimtostoppaymentofacheque)

37NrupatungaRoadBangalore5600013December2001

TheManagerIndianBankBangalore560001

DearSir,Wouldyoupleasestopthepaymentofcheque104662dated2December?I

signeditinfavourofMrK.Ramakrishna.ThesumwasRs.500

Yoursfaithfully,K.V.Gokak(Accountno.986)

Note:Achequehastobestoppedonlywherethereissomegoodreasonforit,suchasfraud.

[Orderingajournal]

23PatelNagarGurgaon122001Haryana1December2001

TheBusinessManager‘EmploymentNews’EastBlockIVLevel-7,R.K.PuramNewDelhi110066

DearSir,I enclose a draft for Rs. 120 for one year’s subscription to your journal

EmploymentNews.Kindlyarrange toput thisorder intoeffect immediately sothatImayreceivethenextissue.

Yoursfaithfully,

www.wisegot.com

AbdulRahim

[Fromashopkeepertoacustomer,askingforthesettlementofanoverdueaccount]

FashionandStyleLtd.R.G.StreetMumbai4000125Jan.2001

Mr.V.N.Patil43ParklanePune411004

DearSir,WewishtocallyourattentiontoourbillforRs.16,500,paymentofwhichis

longoverdue.Wehavesentyouseveralreminders,buthavereceivedfromyouno reply.Wemust ask you to settle this accountwithout further delay, orweshallbeobligedtotakelegalstepstorecovertheamountduetous.

Yoursfaithfully,S.NazeeruddinManager

(Orderforbooks)

16RingRoadRavulapalem53323830November2001

TheManagerSudhithaBookCentreKakinada533001

DearSir,I shall be grateful if you will send me by VPP one copy each of the

following books (Collin’s Retold classics, published by Messrs S. Chand &CompanyLtd.)asearlyaspossible.

1. DavidCopperfield2. HuckleberryFinn

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3. TreasureIsland4. MonteCristo5. PickwickPapers

Myaddressisasabove.Yoursfaithfully,N.Chaitanya

EXERCISE142

1. Write a letter toMessrsBabcock andSinger, complaining that thewatchlatelyboughtfromthemdoesnotkeepgoodtime.

2. Writealettertoalandlord,askingthatcertainrepairsbedonetothehouseinwhichyouareliving.

3. Duringthelasttwoweeksyourbakerhasbeensupplyingbreadofaqualityinferior to what you were getting previously. Write a letter calling hisattentiontothis.

4. Draftoutthebaker’sapology.5. Writealettertoyourbaker,tellinghimnottodeliveranybreadwhileyou

areawayonaholiday.6. ShriRameshBannerjeesendsalettertoafirm,askingfortheircatalogues.

The firm reply that the catalogues are being reprinted, and that theywillsendoneassoonaspossible.Writethesetwoletters.

7. Writeonbehalfofyourfathertoahouse-agentaboutasuitableflat,statingclearlyyourrequirements.

8. Writethehouse-agent’sreply.9. WritetothelocalGasorElectricCompany,sayingthatyouneedthelight,

etc.,onyourpremises,andaskingthemtoforwardthelowestestimate.Donotforgettosupplyfullparticularsofyourrequirements.

10. You have sprained your anklewhile playing football.Copy out the letteryourfatherwritestoyourfamilydoctor.

11. M.O.ofRs.100 toyouraunt—no reply fromaunt—noreceipt fromPostOffice.WritetothePostMaster.

12. Write a letter to a railway company, complaining that your furniture hasbeendamagedintransit,andclaimingdamages.

13. Writealettertothemanagerofafactory,askingpermissionforapartytovisitthefactory.

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14. Writealettertothesecretaryofajoint-stockcompanyofwhichyouareashareholder,notifyingyourchangeofaddress.

LETTERSOFAPPLICATIONAletterapplyingforemploymentshouldcontain:(a)Ashortintroductionstatingwhetherthewriterisansweringan

advertisementorisapplyingonhisownresponsibility.(b)Astatementofhisage,educationandexperience.(c)Aconclusiongivingreferences,testimonials,oranexpression

oftheapplicant’searnestnessofpurpose.Lettersofapplicationshouldbeintheformofbusinessletters.

[Replytoanadvertisementforajuniorclerk.]

24OldGateSaranpur3rdOctober,2001MessrsAbdulRahim&SonsMerchantsSaranpurGentlemen,

I wish to apply for the position of junior clerk, advertised in today’sTheHindu.

Iameighteenyearsold,andhavejustpassedtheMatriculationExaminationfromtheSaranpurHighSchool. Ihavealso takenacourse in type-writingandbook-keeping.

I enclose some testimonials, and would refer you to the Principal of theSaranpurSchoolformycharacter.

If I am given the post, I can assure you I will do my best to give yousatisfaction.

Yoursfaithfully,NathuRamBaxi

EXERCISE143

1.Answerthefollowingadvertisement—Wanteda clerkwith agoodknowledgeofEnglish andArithmetic.Apply,

Manager,NewPress,Allahabad.

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2.Applyforpositionasbook-keeper,advertisedinadailypaper,statingage,education,experience,qualification,reasonsforleavinglastposition,references,previoussalary,salaryrequired,etc.

3. Speaking to a friend, a prominent businessman said, “I require asuccessfulapplicant foremploymentunderme todemonstrate thathe issober,energeticandadaptable,andthathepossessespracticalknowledgeoftheworkhe proposes to undertake.”Make an application to the gentleman, saying youpossesstherequiredqualifications.

4. Sir, having tried very earnestly to fit myself for advancement in youremploy,Iwouldlike toapproachyouin thematterofanadvanceinsalary.Insupportofmyrequest,Iwouldliketopointoutthefollowingfacts:

Finishthisletter,referringtothelengthofyourservice,lastpromotion,whyyoudeservepromotion,etc.

FURTHEROFFICIALLETTERS(RequesttothePostmaster)

46KingswayNagpur44000118Jan.2001

ThePostmasterHeadPostOfficeNagpur440001

DearSir,Ihaverecentlyshiftedfrom25ParkStreet,Nagpur440002to46Kingsway,

Nagpur440001.Ishallbegratefulifyouwillkindlyredirectmyletterstothenewaddress.Yoursfaithfully,

K.Joseph

(Letterofinquirytoaneducationalinstitution)

DesaipetaVetapalem52318721May2001

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TheDirectorAPTECH4/7BrodipetGuntur522002

DearSir,I have passed the B.Sc. degree examination with Electronics as the main

subject.IintendtohaveacourseinComputerScienceandwouldliketoknowthedetailsofthecoursestaughtatyourinstitution.Couldyoupleasesendmeacopyofyourprospectus?Yoursfaithfully,

N.Mahesh

EXERCISE144

Write:

1. TotheDirectorofEducation,applyingforappointmentasateacherintheEducationalService.

2. TotheCommissionerofPolice,aboutthegrantforanappointmentasSub-Inspector.

3. To theCommissioner of Police, about the grant of licence to carry arms,statingreasons.

4. To the Municipal Commissioner on the necessity of public parks in acrowdedcitylikeMumbai.

5. To the Postmaster of your town, asking for particulars about PostOfficeCashCertificates.

6. To the Superintendent, Government Central Press, asking for a list ofGovernmentpublicationsrelatingtodairyinginIndia,andinquiringifanyperiodicalispublishedonthesubject.

7. To the Jailor, Yerawada Prison, as from a prisoner’s mother, askingpermissiontoseeherson.

LETTERSTONEWSPAPERSThese should always be addressed to “The Editor,” and they

usuallyendwithYoursfaithfully.

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TheformofSalutationisSir/DearSir.If the writer gives his address for publication, it is often placed

belowtheletterandtotheleftofthesignature.If thewriterdoesnotwishhisnametobepublished,hecansign

hisletterwithanonde-plume(suchas“Interested”,“Anxious”,“Onewhoknows”,etc.);butinanycasehemustgivehisnameandaddress(inacoveringletter)totheEditor,fornorespectablenewspaperwillpublishanonymousletters.

[Toanewspaper,aboutabadpieceofroadthatisinneedofrepair.]

ToTheEditor“TheHindu”

Sir,OurMunicipalitywantswakingup ; and, asprivateappeals to theiroffice

havehadnoeffect,perhapsalittlepublicitywilldonoharm.ForthelastmonthChettyRoadhasbeenalmostimpassable.Thesurfaceisbadlybrokenupbytheheavyrains,andonadarknightitispositivelydangerousformotorsorcarriagestopass thatway.Moreover, there are heapsof roadmetal onboth sidesof theroad,whichleaveverylittleroominthemiddle.Itisscandalousthatweshouldbe inconvenienced in this way for weeks, and I hope the public will bringpressure to bear on those responsible so that the roadmaybe put in thoroughrepairwithoutfurtherdelay.

Yoursfaithfully,AnirudhKumar

EXERCISE145

Write:

1. TotheEditorofanewspaper,onrecklessdriving.2. To a newspaper, drawing attention to the insanitary condition of the city

bazaars.3. Toanewspaper,protestingagainststreetnoises.

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4. To a newspaper, advocating the establishment of a Free Library in yourtown.

5. Toanewpaper,appealingforthefundsforanorphanage.6. Toanewspaper,complainingof thebadqualityand inadequatesupplyof

Municipalwaterinyourtown.7. Toanewspaper,suggestingtothepublicthedesirabilityofaSocialService

Leagueinyourtown.8. Toanewspaper,ontheevilsofstreet-begging.9. Toanewspaper,appealingforfundstorelievethesufferersfromaflood.

MORELETTERS[Toaverynearneighbouraboutquietforthebenefitofaperson

whoisseriouslyill.]

21OsborneStreet7thMay,2001

DearShriNaik,Iamsorrytohavetoworryyouwithmytroubles,butwhenIhaveexplained

Iamsureyouwillunderstand.IregrettosaythatMrs.Pradhanisseriouslyill.The doctor, who has just been, says she is in a critical condition, and thatabsolutequietisessentialforherrecovery.Shehashadseveralbadnights,andcannot get sufficient sleep. I am sure you will not be offended if, in thecircumstances,Iaskyoutotellyourservantandyourchildrentomakeaslittlenoiseastheycanduringthenextfewdays.Ourhousesaresoclosetogetherthatwe cannot help hearing shouting, and even talking ; and the slightest noisedisturbsmywife,whoisinaverylow,nervousstate.Ifshecanonlyhaveafewdaysandnightsofquiet,Ithinkitwillworkwonders.

Apologizingforputtingyoutothisinconvenience.

YourssincerelySatishPradhan

[Afatherreportstothepolicethathissonhasnotreturnedhomefromschool,givingparticularsoftheboy,hisdress,etc.]

35PatelStreetAhmednagar4Jan.2001

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TheInspectorofPolicePoliceStationIIAhmednagar

DearSir,My son,AbdurRashid, a lad twelve years old, ismissing, and I am very

anxiousabouthim.Asallmyeffortstotracehimhavefailed,Imustappealtoyou forhelp.Hewent toschool thismorningasusual,butalthough it iseighto’clock, he has not returned. He generally comes home before 4-30 p.m.,everyday. I havemade inquiries at the school (theGovernmentHighSchool),buttheheadmastercannotthrowanylightonthematter.HesaysAbdurRashidleftschoolasusualatabout4-15p.m.,andhewasquitewell.TheonlyclueIcanfindisfromoneofhisschoolfriends(aboycalledMhd.Hussain)whosayshesawmysongoingalongthecanalbankatabout4-30p.m.,withamanwhomhedidnotknow.Hecannotdescribethisman,butsayshewaswearingawhitepagriandabrownjacket.

AbdurRashidwaswearingaredfez,awhitecoatandtrousers.Heisrathertallforhisage,andwalkswithaslightlimp.

Icannot thinkhehasgot intomischief,ashehasalwaysbeenagoodboyandmostregularinhishabits.Inviewofthekidnappingcaseafewweeksago,Iamnaturallyveryanxiouslesthemayhavesufferedfromsomefoulplay.Pleasedo your best to trace him, and letme know as soon as you have anything toreport.Yoursfaithfully,AbdurRahim

[Certificatetoapupil]

IdealCollegeVaranasi12May2001

AhmadHasanhasstudiedinthiscollegefortwoyears,andhasjustappearedin the IntermediateExamination.As he hasworkedwell and is intelligent, hestandsagoodchanceofpassing.Hisconducthasbeenmostsatisfactoryandhebearsagoodcharacter.Physicallyheisrobustandactive,andwasamemberofthe college football team. I am sure he will do any work entrusted to himconscientiouslyandefficiently.

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N.SolomonPrincipal

EXERCISE146

1. Writeacourteouslettertoaneighbourwhosedogannoysyoubybarkingatnight.

2. Replytotheabove.3. Writeasfromthefatherofaboytoagentlemanwhorescuedhissonfrom

drowning.4. Yourfatherthinksyouareapreciousboy;sohewrites,“Therehavebeen

manymenwhoseearlylifewasfullofbrilliantpromise,butwhosecareershave ended in failure, owing to lack of industry.”Write to him, assuringhimthatyouwillnotbeliethepromiseofyourboyhood.

5. Write,asfromafathertohisson,aboutadrunkardandhisunhappyfamily.6. Writeanimaginaryletterasfromagreat-grandfathertohisgreat-grandson

aboutthemeansofcommunicationinhisdays.7. Youhaveleftschoolandareseekingasituation.WritetoyourHeadmaster,

askingforatestimonial.8. Write to your Headmaster, asking for a letter of recommendation and

explainingwhatyouwant.9. WritealettertoyourHeadmaster,thankinghimforthetestimonial.10. WritetotheSocietyforthePreventionofCrueltytoAnimalsaboutacase

ofcrueltytoabullock,givingdetailsincludingthedateandplaceandnameandaddressoftheguiltyperson.

11. “It isoften thesteadyplodderwhogetsprizes.”Writeas fromafather tohisson.

12. Writetoafriend,settingforthyourviewsonprize-givinginschools.13. Itiswonderfulhowarumourgrows.Inanimaginarylettertoyourfriend,

giveastorywhich,thoughfoolishenough,wasacceptedbyalargenumberofcredulouspeople.

14. Writetoafriendwho,youthink,is“arollingstone”.15. Writeasfromagrandfathertohisgrandsonwholivesbeyondhisincome.16. Writealettertoyouryoungerbrother,advisingtemperance.17. “It is often at school that life-friendships aremade.”A fathermakes this

observationwhenwritingtohissonataboardingschool.Imaginetheletterandcopyitout.

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18. Writeasfromafathertohisson,askinghimtomakeahabitofreadingthedailynewspaper,andpointingoutwhatportionsheshouldparticularlyread,etc.

19. Writetoaprince,asfromhisteacherwhobelieves,“Thereisnoroyalroadtolearning.”

20. Write a letter from a shopkeeper to another shopkeeper about “cut-throatcompetition.”

21. Writetoyoursportmaster,criticisingthedecisionoftherefereeinahockeymatch.

22. Writealettertothemanagerofalocalpaper,enclosinganadvertisementofyourschoolconcert.

23. Youhaveadvertisedyourbicycle for sale.Reply to an inquirer, andgivehimfulldetails.

24. Youseeinalocalpaperanadvertisementofferingasecond-handbicycle.Write to theadvertiser,askingforanappointment,asyouwish to inspectthebicyclewithaviewtopurchase.

25. Drafttheseadvertisements:(i)Seekingacheapsecond-handcomputer.(ii)Offeringforthesaleofyourcar.(iii)Announcingthelossofyourdogandofferinga

substantialreward.

CHAPTER37

COMPREHENSIONA comprehension exercise consists of a passage, upon which

questionsaresettotestthestudent’sabilitytounderstandthecontentofthegiventextandtoinferinformationandmeaningsfromit.

Hereareafewhints:1. Readthepassagefairlyquicklytogetthegeneralidea.2. Readagain,alittleslowly,soastoknowthedetails.3. Study the questions thoroughly. Turn to the relevant portions of the

passage,readthemagain,andthenrewritetheminyourownwords,neatlyandprecisely.

4. Usecompletesentences.

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5. Ifyouareaskedtogivethemeaningofanywordsorphrases,youshouldexpress the idea as clearly as possible in your ownwords.Certainwordsrequire the kind of definition that is given in a dictionary. Take care toframethedefinitioninconformitywiththepartofspeech.

SPECIMENReadthepassagebelowandthenanswerthequestionswhich

followit.IthasbeenpartofNelson’sprayerthattheBritishfleetmightbe

distinguishedbyhumanity in thevictorywhichheexpected.Settingan example himself, he twice gave orders to cease firing upon theRedoubtable, supposing that she had struck because her great gunsweresilent;forasshecarriednoflag,therewasnomeansofinstantlyascertainingthefact.Fromthisship,whichhehadthustwicespared,hereceivedhisdeath.Aballfiredfromhermizzen-topwhich,inthethensituationofthetwovesselswasnotmorethanfifteenyardsfromthatpartofthedeckwherehewasstanding,strucktheepauletteonhisleft shoulderaboutaquarterafterone, just in theheatofaction.Hefell upon his face on the spot which was covered with his poorsecretary’s blood. Hardy, who was a few steps from him turninground,sawthreemenraisinghimup.“Theyhavedoneformeatlast,Hardy!”saidhe.“Ihopenot!”criedHardy.“Yes,”hereplied;“myback-bone isshot through!”Yetevennownot foramoment losinghispresenceofmind,heobservedastheywerecarryinghimdowntheladder, that the tiller-ropeswhich had been shot away,were not yetreplaced and ordered that new ones should be roped immediately.Then that he might not be seen by the crew, he took out hishandkerchiefandcoveredhisfaceandhisstars.Hadhebutconcealedthesebadgesofhonourfromtheenemy,Englandperhapswouldnothave had cause to receive with sorrow the news of the battle ofTrafalgar.Thecockpitwascrowdedwithwoundedanddyingmen ;over whose bodies he was with some difficulty conveyed, and laiduponapalletinthemidshipmen’sberth.Itwassoonperceived,uponexamination, that the wound was mortal. This, however, was

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concealed from all, except Captain Hardy, the chaplain, and themedicalattendants.Hehimselfbeingcertain,fromthesensationinhisback,andthegushofbloodhefeltmomentlywithinhisbreast,thatnohuman care could avail him, insisted that the surgeon should leavehimandattendtothosetowhomhemightbeuseful.

QUESTIONS1. Whatismeantby‘supposingthatshehadstruck’?2. How can Nelson be said to have been partly responsible for his own

death?3. Whatdoyouunderstandbythe‘mizzen-top’?4. Why didNelson insist that the surgeon should leave him and attend to

others?5. WhatqualitiesinNelson’scharacterarerevealedbythispassage?

ANSWERS1. ‘Supposingthatshehadstruck’means‘thinkingthatthemenintheship

hadsurrendered’.2. Nelson ordered his men two times to cease firing on theRedoubtable.

Fromthesameshipaballwasfiredathimandbroughtabouthisdeath.Hewasthuspartlyresponsibleforhisdeath.

3. The‘mizzen-top’istheplatformroundthelowerpartofthemastnearestthestern.

4. Nelson was certain that it would be impossible to save his life. He,therefore,insistedthatthesurgeonshouldleavehimandattendtoothers.

5. Hispatriotism,hishumanityandhispowersofendurancearerevealedbythispassage.

EXERCISE147

Read each of the passages carefully and answer the questionsgivenbelowit:

1.Peopletalkofmemorialstohiminstatuesofbronzeormarbleorpillarsandthustheymockhimandbeliehismessage.Whattributeshallwepaytohimthathewouldhaveappreciated?Hehasshownusthewaytoliveandthewayto

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1. Aboutwhomisthepassagewritten?2. WhydoesNehrumakethedifferenceaboutbeinga“Hindu”andan

“Indian”?Isthereanydifferencereally?

dieandifwehavenotunderstoodthatlesson,itwouldbebetterthatweraisednomemorialtohim,fortheonlyfitmemorialistofollowreverentlyinthepathheshowedusandtodoourdutyinlifeandindeath.

HewasaHinduandanIndian,thegreatestinmanygenerations,andhewasproudofbeingaHinduandanIndian.TohimIndiawasdear,becauseshehadrepresented throughout the ages certain immutable truths. But though he wasintenselyreligiousandcametobecalledtheFatheroftheNationwhichhehadliberated,yetnonarrowreligiousornationalbondsconfinedhisspirit.Andsohebecamethegreatinternationalist,believingintheessentialunityofman,theunderlyingunityofallreligions,andtheneedsofhumanity,andmorespeciallydevoting himself to the service of the poor, the distressed and the oppressedmillionseverywhere.

Hisdeathbroughtmore tributes thanhavebeenpaidat thepassingofanyotherhumanbeinginhistory.Perhapswhatwouldhavepleasedhimbestwasthespontaneous tributes thatcamefromthepeopleofPakistan.On themorrowofthe tragedy, all of us forgot for a while the bitterness that had crept in, theestrangement and conflict of these pastmonths andGandhiji stood out as thebeloved champion and leader of the people of India, of india as itwas beforepartitioncutupthislivingnation.

Whatwashisgreatpoweroverthemindandheartofmandueto?Evenwerealize, that his dominating passionwas truth. That truth led him to proclaimwithoutceasing thatgoodendscanneverbeattainedbyevilmethods, that theenditselfisdistortedifthemethodpursuedisbad.Thattruthledhimtoconfesspublicly whenever he thought he had made a mistake—Himalayan errors hecalled some of his ownmistakes. That truth led him to fight evil and untruthwherever he found them, regardless of the consequences. That truthmade theserviceofthepoorandthedispossessedthepassionofhislife,forwherethereisinequality and discrimination and suppression there is injustice and evil anduntruth.And thushebecame thebelovedof all thosewhohave suffered fromsocial andpolitical evils, and thegreat representativeofhumanityas it shouldbe.Becauseofthattruthinhimwhereverhesatbecameatempleandwherehetrodwashallowedground.

—JawaharlalNehru

QUESTIONS

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“Indian”?Isthereanydifferencereally?3. Whatgreatlessondidthisgreatmanshowusforlife?4. Mentionsomeofthevirtuesof“thegreatinternationalist.”5. Nehruseemstosuggestthathisherowas“thebelovedchampionand

leaderofthepeopleofIndia”onlybeforethepartitionofPakistanandIndia.Doyouagreewiththat?Explain.

6. Whatdid“truth”meantothisgreatman?7. Givethemeaningofthefollowing:memorials,immutable,

essential,estrangement,spontaneous,discrimination,dominating,Himalayan.

2.TheVoicehadtobelistenedto,notonlyonaccountofitsformbutforthematterwhichitdelivered.Itgaveamessagetothecountrythatitneededgreatly.It brought to the common people a realization of their duty to concernthemselveswiththeiraffairs.Thecommonpeopleweremadetotakeaninterestinthemannerinwhichtheyweregoverned,inthetaxestheypaid,inthereturnthey got from those taxes.This interest in public affairs—politics as youmaycall it—was tobe theconcernno longerof thehighlyeducated fewbutof themany—thepoor,thepropertyless,theworkingmenintownandcountry.Politicswasnot tobe theconcernofa small aristocracyof intellectorpropertyof themasses.AndwiththechangeinthesubjectsofpoliticsthatVoicebroughtaboutalsoachangeintheobjectsofpolitics.TillthenpoliticshadbusieditselfmainlywiththemachineryofGovernmenttowardsmakingitspersonnelmoreandmorenative,withproposals forabetterdistributionofpoliticalpower,withprotestsagainstthesinsofomissionandofcommissionoftheadministration.ThisVoiceswitched politics on to concern for the needs of the common people. Theimprovementofthelotofthepoorwastobethemainconcernofpoliticsandthepolitician. The improvement, especially of the lives of the people of theneglected villages, was to be placed before Governments and politicalorganizationsasthegoalofallpoliticalendeavour.Theraisingofthestandardoflivingofthepeopleofthevillages,thefindingofsubsidiaryoccupationswhichwouldgive the agriculturalpoorwork for their enforced leisureduring theoffseason and an addition to their exiguous income, the improvement of thehousing of the poor, the sanitation of the villages—these were to be theobjectivestobekeptinview.Inthetowns,theslumsandcheriesweretoreceiveespecial attention. There was especially a class of the poor for which thatcompassionate Voice pleaded and protested. This was for the so-calleddepressedclass,theoutcastesofHindusociety.Thedenialofelementaryhuman

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1. Whyhadpeopletolistento“TheVoice”ofMahatmaGandhi?2. Whyhadpeopletotakeaninterestinpolitics?3. Whatwasthechangebroughtaboutintheobjectsofpolitics?4. Whatimprovementsweremadeforthecommonman?5. Explain:—

rightstothisclassofpeopleisconsideredthegreatestblotonHindusocietyandhistory. It raised itself in passionate protest against the age-oldwrongs of thisclass and forced those that listened to it to endeavour to remove the mostoutrageousofthemlikeuntouchability.ItcausedarevolutioninHindureligiouspracticebyhavingHindutemplesthrownopentothesepeople.ItmadethecareofthemareligiousdutyoftheHindusbyre-namingthemHarijans.

—Mr.Ruthnasami

QUESTIONS

(a)Sinsofomissionandofcommissionoftheadministration.(b)No longer themonopoly of the classes, but the property of themasses.

3.Thenextingredientisaveryremarkableone:GoodTemper.“Loveisnoteasilyprovoked”.Nothingcouldbemorestrikingthantofindthishere.Weareinclinedtolookuponbadtemperasaveryharmlessweakness.Wespeakofitasamereinfirmityofnature,afamilyfailing,amatteroftemperament,notathingtotakeintoveryseriousaccountinestimatingaman’scharacter.Andyethere,right in theheartof thisanalysisof love, it findsaplace ;and theBibleagainand again returns to condemn it as one of the most destructive elements inhumannature.Thepeculiarityofilltemperisthatitistheviceofthevirtuous.Itisoftentheoneblotonanotherwisenoblecharacter.Youknowmenwhoareallbutperfect,andwomenwhowouldbeentirelyperfect,butforaneasilyruffledquick-tempered or “touchy” disposition. This compatibility of ill temper withhighmoralcharacterisoneofthestrangestandsaddestproblemsofethics.Thetruth is there are two great classes of sins—sins of the Body, and sins ofDisposition. The Prodigal son may be taken as a type of the first, the ElderBrotherofthesecond.Nowsocietyhasnodoubtwhateverastowhichoftheseistheworse.Itsbrandfalls,withoutachallenge,upontheProdigal.Butareweright?Wehavenobalancetoweighoneanother’ssins,andcoarserandfinerarebuthumanwords;butfaultsinthehighernaturemaybelessvenialthanthoseinthe lower,and to theeyeofHimwhoisLove,asinagainstLovemayseema

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1. Whatisthepopularnotionabout“badtemper”?2. Howisbadtemper“theviceofthevirtuous”?3. Whichclassofsinsisworse,andwhy—sinsofthebody,sinsofthe

disposition?4. Mentionsomeevilsofbadtemper.5. Why,accordingtotheauthor,willtherebenoplaceinHeavenfor

bad-temperedfolk?6. Findwordsfromthepassagewhichmean:breakingup;running;

scandalising;souring;easilyorquicklyoffended.

hundred timesmorebase.Noformofvice,notworldliness,notgreedofgold,notdrunkennessitselfdoesmoretoun-christianisesocietythaneviltemper.Forembittering life, for breaking up communities, for destroying themost sacredrelationships, for devastating homes, for withering up men and women, fortaking thebloomoffchildhood ; in short for sheergratuitousmiseryproducingpower, this influence stands alone. Jealousy, anger, pride, uncharity, cruelty,self-righteousness, touchiness, doggedness, sullenness—in varying proportionsthesearetheingredientsofallilltemper.Judgeifsuchsinsofthedispositionarenotworse to live in,andforothers to livewith thansinsof thebody.There isreallynoplace inHeavenforadisposition like this.AmanwithsuchamoodcouldonlymakeHeavenmiserableforallthepeopleinit.

—HenryDrummond

QUESTIONS

4.Yes, therewere giants before the JamSahib (the great Indiancricketer, Kumar Shree Ranjitsinhji, better known to the world ofcricketasRanji).AndyetIthinkitisundeniablethatasabatsmantheIndianwill liveas the supremeexponentof theEnglishman’sgame.Theclaimdoesnotrestsimplyonhisachievementsalthough,judgedby them, the claim could be sustained. His season’s average of 87with a total of over 3,000 runs, is easily the high-water mark ofEnglishcricket.Thricehehastotalledover3,000runsandnooneelsehasequalledthatrecord.Andisnothistheastonishingachievementofscoring twodoublecenturies inasinglematchonasingleday—notagainst a feeble attack, but against Yorkshire, always the mostresoluteandresourcefulofbowlingteams?

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1. Correctthefollowingstatistics,ifnecessary:—

2. “Manyrunsandmuchdullnessmaybeassociated.”Provethis.3. Mentionsomereasonswhycricketislosingitslustre.4. Whatgivescricketits“character”?

Butwedonotjudgeacricketersomuchbytherunshegetsasbythewayhegets them.“In literatureas in finance,”saysWashingtonIrving,“muchpaperandmuchpovertymayco-exist.”Andincrickettoo many runs and much dullness may be associated. If cricket ismenacedwithcreepingparalysis,itisbecauseitislosingthespiritofjoyous adventure and becoming a mere instrument for compilingtablesofaverages.Therearedull,mechanicfellowswhoturnoutrunswithaslittleemotionasamachineturnsoutpins.Thereisnocolour,noenthusiasm,nocharacterintheirplay.Cricketisnotanadventureto them ; it is a business. Itwas sowith Shrewsbury.His technicalperfectionwasastonishing;butthesoulofthegamewaswantinginhim.Therewasnosunshineinhisplay,noswiftsurpriseorsplendidunselfishness. And without these things without gaiety, daring, andthespiritofsacrificecricketisadeadthing.Now,theJamSahibhastherootof thematter inhim.Hisplayisassunnyashisface.Heisnotamiserhoardingupruns,butamillionairespendingthem,withasplendid yet judicious prodigality. It is as though his pockets areburstingwithrunsthathewantstoshowerwithhisblessingsupontheexpectant multitude. It is not difficult to believe that in his litttlekingdomNawangarwherehehaspoweroflifeanddeathinhishandsheisextremelypopularforitisobviousthathispleasureisingivingpleasure.

—A.G.Gardiner

QUESTIONS

(a)Hisseason’saverageof87withatotalofover3,000runsiseasilythehigh-watermarkofEnglishcricket.(b) Thrice he has totalled over 3,000 runs, and no one else hasequalledthatrecord.(c)Hescoredtwodoublecenturiesinasinglematchonasingleday.

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5. Howshouldrealcricketbeplayed?6. DescribeinyourownwordsthesecretoftheJamSahib’swizardry

withthebat.7. Makealistof“do’s”and“don’ts”forapromisingcricketer.

5.SupposingyouhavetomakeapaymentofRs.100,youcandoso in rupee-coins ; but itwould be cumbersome to pay in nickel orcoppercoins,becausetheyareheavytocarryandalsobecauseittakesmuch time tocount them.TheGovernment thereforepermitsyou tomakethepaymentinrupee-notes.Whataretheserupee-notesreally?Theyare akindofmoney, right enough, although they aremadeofpaper insteadofmetal.Youcanuse them in just the sameway thatyouuseordinarymoney.Thereasonwhytheyaremadeofpaperandused is that they save the trouble of carryingmetal coins about—ofcourse, paper is lighter thanmetal—and they also save using silverandothermetalswhentheyarescarce.

What makes these mere pieces of paper bear the value of thenumberof rupees that isprintedupon them?Whyshouldapieceofpaper,with“100”printedon itbeworth twenty timesasmuchas apiece of paperwith “five” printed on it—and alsoworth a hundredtimesasmuchasasilverrupee-coin?ThereasonisthatGovernmentguarantees that thepieceofpaper isworth theamountprintedon itandpromisestopaythatamounttoanybodywhowishestoexchangethis paper for the rupee-coins. Also, if you think about it you caneasily realize thatcroresandcroresmoreof rupee-coinswouldhavetobeminted,ifallpaper-moneywereabolished.

Perhaps youmay ask, “Thenwhy not have papermoney only ?Whyusesilverandnickelandcopperatall?”Theansweris—becausemoney must, as we have already said, be something so useful thateveryonewants.Alsobecausethemetalsarethebestformofmoney;and thirdly because it would be impossible to print just the rightamountofpapermoneythatwouldkeeppricesattheirpropernaturallevel.IfanyGovernmentprintstoomuchpapermoney,thenpricesgoupatonce.Thesupplyofmoneyis increasedandthereforeitsvalue

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1. WhydoestheGovernmentallowpaymenttobemadeinpapernotes?

2. Whatismorevaluable,tohave100rupee-coinsinsilveroraRs.100noteinpaper?

3. Ifmetalissocumbersome,whyshouldwenothaveonlypapermoney?Whyshouldwenotprintasmuchofitaspossible?

4. Whatistherealuseofmoney?5. Whyshouldthepricesofcommoditiesgoupwhenthereisplentyof

papermoney?6. WhydoestheGovernmentprintonlyacertainnumberofpaper

notes,andnotasmanyasitlikesarbitrarily?

(infood,clothes,books,houses,land,toolsandeverythingelse)goesdown.

Youmaythinkatfirst that it isqueer totalkofhavingtoomuchpapermoney and thatmoney is so nice and useful that you cannothave too much of it. But if you think that, I am afraid you areforgettingthatmoneyisonlyusefulforwhat itwillbuy;soit isnogoodatallhavingmoremoneyiftherearenomorethingstobuywithit. The more money there is, the higher will be the prices ofeverything. The same thing happenswith rupee-coins aswith papermoney.Butitisnotlikelytohappen,forthisreason:itisveryeasytoprintagreatdealofpapermoney,butnotatalleasy to increase theamount of rupee-coins. Silver has to be dug out ofmines, and verydifficult to get; so the amount there is if it keeps very steady andchangesverylittle.Infactthatisoneofthechiefreasonswhyitwaschosentomakecoinsof.

—ErnestF.Row

QUESTIONS

6.Youseemedatfirsttotakenonoticeofyourschool-fellows,orrathertosetyourselfagainstthembecausetheywerestrangerstoyou.Theyknewaslittleofyouasyoudidofthem;sothatthiswouldhavebeenthereasonfor theirkeepingalooffromyouaswell,whichyouwould have felt as a hardship. Learn never to conceive a prejudice

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againstothersbecauseyouknownothingofthem.Itisbadreasoning,andmakesenemiesofhalftheworld.Donotthinkillofthemtilltheybehaveilltoyou;andthenstrivetoavoidthefaultswhichyouseeinthem.Thiswilldisarmtheirhostilitysoonerthanpiqueorresentmentor complaint. I thought you were disposed to criticize the dress ofsomeoftheboysasnotsogoodasyourown.Neverdespiseanyoneforanythingthathecannothelp—leastofall,forhispoverty.Iwouldwishyoutokeepupappearancesyourselfasadefenceagainsttheidlesneers of the world, but I would not have you value yourself uponthem. I hope you will neither be the dupe nor victim of vulgarprejudices. Instead of saying above “Never despise anyone foranything that he cannot help,” I might have said, “Never despiseanyoneatall” ; forcontempt impliesa triumphoverandpleasure intheillofanother.Itmeansthatyouaregladandcongratulateyourselfontheirfailingsormisfortunes.

Youhavehithertobeenaspoiltchild,andhavebeenusedtohaveyour own way a good deal, both in the house and among yourplayfellows,withwhomyouweretoofondofbeingaleader;butyouhave good nature and good sense, andwill get the better of this intime.Youhave nowgot amongother boyswho are your equals, orbigger and stronger than yourself and who have something else toattendtobesideshumouringyourwhimsandfancies,andyoufeelthisasa repulseorpieceof injustice.But the first lesson to learn is thatthereareotherpeopleintheworldbesidesyourself.Themoreairsofchildish self-importance you give yourself, you will only exposeyourselftobethemorethwartedandlaughedat.Trueequalityistheonlytruemoralityorwisdom.Rememberalwaysthatyouarebutoneamong others and you can hardlymistake your place in society. Inyour father’shouseyoumightdoasyoupleased ; in theworldyouwillfindcompetitorsateveryturn.Youarenotbornaking’sson,todestroyordictatetomillions;youcanonlyexpecttosharetheirfate,orsettleyourdifferencesamicablywiththem.Youalreadyfinditsoat school, and Iwishyou tobe reconciled to your situation as soon

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1. Canyoutellwhoiswritingtowhominthispassage?Whatwouldyoucallthiskindofwriting—aspeech,adiary,aletter,asermon?

2. Whatreasonsdoestheauthorgivefornotharbouringaprejudiceagainstothers?

3. Whataresomeoftheblessingsoflivingwithothersinthesameclassorthesameschool?

4. Paraphrase:—

5. “Contemptimpliesatriumphoverandpleasureintheillofanother.”Whoarethosewhofeellikethisandwhy?

6. Theauthorsaysthat“intheworldyouwillfindcompetitorsateveryturn.”Butcompetitionisaverygoodthing.Whydoesheseemtowarnhissonaboutit?

andwithaslittlepainasyoucan.—WilliamHazlitt

QUESTIONS

(a)Trueequalityistheonlytruemoralityortruewisdom.(b)Tobethedupeorvictimofvulgarprejudices.(c)Settleyourdifferencesamicablywiththem.

7.Unquestionably a literary life is for themost part an unhappylife ; because, if you have genius, you must suffer the penalty ofgenius ; and, if you have only talent, there are so many cares andworries incidental to thecircumstancesofmenof letters,as tomakelifeexceedinglymiserable.Besidesthepangsofcomposition,andthecontinuousdisappointmentwhichatrueartistfeelsathis inabilitytoreveal himself, there is the ever-recurring difficulty of gaining thepublic ear.Youngwriters are buoyedupby the hope and the beliefthattheyhaveonlytothrowthatpoemattheworld’sfeettogetbackinreturnthelaurel-crown;thattheyhaveonlytopushthatnovelintoprinttobeacknowledgedatonceasanewlightinliterature.Youcanneverconvinceayoungauthor that theeditorsofmagazinesandthepublishersofbooksareapracticalbodyofmen,whoarebynomeansfranticallyanxiousaboutplacingthebestliteraturebeforethepublic.Nay, thatfor themostpart theyaremerebrokers,whoconduct their

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1. WhyistheLiteraryLifemostlyanunhappyone?2. Whataretheambitionsofayoungauthor?3. Areeditorsandpublisherssympathetictoyoungauthors?4. Whataresomeoftheordealsawaitingtheyoungauthorsfromthe

critics?5. Whatattitudeshouldanauthoradoptinthefaceofbittercritics?6. Explain:SiouxIndians;abandontheprofessionofthepen;laurel-

crown;torunthegauntlet;houndedtodeath.7. WriteinsimpleEnglish:thepangsofcomposition;buoyedupby

thehope;merebrokers;thirstingforyourscalp.

business on the hardest lines of a Profit and Loss account. Butsupposing your book fairly launches, its perils are only beginning.Youhavetorunthegauntletofthecritics.Toayoungauthor,again,this seems to be as terrible an ordeal as passing down the files ofSiouxorComanche Indians, eachoneofwhom is thirsting foryourscalp.Whenyouarea littleolder,youwill find thatcriticism isnotmuchmoreseriousthanthebye-playofclownsinacircus,whentheybeataroundtheringthevictimwithbladdersslungattheendoflongpoles.Atimecomesinthelifeofeveryauthorwhenheregardscriticsascomical rather than formidable, andgoeshiswayunheeding.Buttherearesensitivesoulsthatyieldunderthechastisementand,perhapsaftersufferingmuchsilenttorture,abandontheprofessionofthepenfor ever. Keats, perhaps, is the saddest example of a fine spirithounded to death by savage criticism ; because, whatever hisbiographers may aver, that furious attack of Gifford and Terryundoubtedly expedited his death. But no doubt there are hundredswhosufferkeenlyhostileandunscrupulouscriticism,andwhohavetobear that suffering in silence, because it is a cardinal principle inliterature that themostunwise thing in theworld foranauthor is totake public notice of criticism in the way of defending himself.Silenceistheonlysafeguard,asitistheonlydignifiedprotestagainstinsultandoffence.

—P.A.Sheehan

QUESTIONS

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thehope;merebrokers;thirstingforyourscalp.

8.ThenonedaytherepassedbythatwayaPashupataascetic.AndhesaidtotheBrahman:“Myson,whatareyoudoinghere?”Sohereplied:“ReverendSir,Iamperformingpenance,fortheexpiationofsin,onthebanksoftheGanges.”Thentheasceticsaid:“WhathasthismiserablepuddletodowiththeGanges.”AndtheBrahmansaid:“Isthisthen,nottheGanges?”Andtheasceticlaughedinhisface,andsaid:“Truly,oldasIam,Ididnotthinkthattherehadbeenfollylikethisintheworld.Wretchedman,whohasdeludedyou?TheGangesishundredsofmilesaway,andresemblesthiscontemptiblebrooknomorethanMountMeruresemblesananthill.”ThentheBrahmansaid:“ReverendSir, I ammuchobliged toyou.”And takinghispot andstaff,hewentforward,tillatlengthhecametoabroadriver.Andherejoiced greatly, saying : “Thismust be the sacred Ganges.” So hesettledon itsbanksand remained there for fiveyears,bathingeverydayinitswaters.ThenonedaytherecamebyaKapalika,whosaidtohim,“Whydoyouremainhere,wastingprecioustimeoverariverofno account or sanctity, instead of going to the Ganges ?” But theBrahmanwasamazed,andsaid;“Andisthis,thennottheGanges?”ThentheKapalikareplied:“ThisistheGanges!Isajackal,lionoraChandala a Brahman ? Sir, you are dreaming.” Then the Brahmansigheddeeply.Andhesaid,“Sir, Iamenlightenedbyyou.”Andhetookhispotandstaff,andwentforward.

But he was now very old and feeble. And long penance hadweakenedhisframeandexhaustedhisenergies.Andashetoiledonintheheat of thedayover theburning earth, the sunbeat onhis headlike the thunderbolt of Indra, and struck him with fever. Still hegathered himself together and struggled on, growing weaker andweakerdaybyday,tillatlasthegotnofurther,butfelldownandlaydyingontheground.Butcollectingallhisremainingstrength,withalastdesperateefforthedraggedhimselfupalowhillinfrontofhim.And lo! there before him rolled themighty stream ofGanges,withcountlessnumbersofpilgrimsdoingpenanceonitsbanksandbathing

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1. ExplaintheallusiontoMountMeruandthecomparisonbetweenitandanant-hill.Whatwas“thethunderboltofIndra”?

2. Whatisa“Pashupata”ascetic,aKapalikaoraChandala?3. Whatdoyousurmiseistheintientionoftheauthorintellingthis

verysadstory?Quotephrasesfromthetexttoshowthepathos.4. Commentonthesignificanceandtheauthor’suseofthefollowing

expressions:—

5. Whatisthepurposeofthewords:“ReverendSir,Iamperformingpenance,fortheexpiationofsin____?

initsstream.Andinhisagonyhecriedaloud:“OMotherGanges!alas!alas!IhavepursuedyouallmylifeandnowIdieherehelplessinsightofyou.”Sohisheartbroke,andheneverreacheditsshore.

—F.W.Bain

QUESTIONS

(a)“ThisistheGanges!Isajackalalion____?”(b)“OMotherGanges!alas!alas!”

9.Onecommonmistakethatmanypeoplehavemadeisthis:theyhave thought that it would be a very good thing if everybody hadexactly the same amount ofmoney, nomatterwhether theyworkedhardorlivedquiteidly.Theyforgetthatveryfewpeoplewouldworkat all if itwere not for themoney theirwork brings them, and thatwithoutworktherewouldbenomoney.Andtheyhaveimaginedthatifallthemoneyinthecountrywereequallydividedeverybodywouldberich.Nowthatisaverygreatmistake,becausetheresimplyisnotenoughmoney tomakeeverybody rich. If itweresharedequallyallroundeveryonethenwould,onthebasisofthecalculationsmadein1935,receiveonlyaboutRs.65ayear.TodaywithariseinthepricelevelitmightbeRs.150ayear.Thatmaybemorethanyoureceivenoworitmaybeless,butwouldcertainlynotmakeyoureallyrich.Itisquitetruethatthereareinthiscountryasmallnumberofveryrichpeople;buttheyaresofewincomparisonwiththewholepopulationthatevenif theyweretoshareoutall theirwealthamongtherest, itwouldmakevery littledifference. It is said that if you flattenedout

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1. Whyisitreallynecessarytowork?2. Ifallthemoneyintheworldwereequallydivided,everybodywould

beveryhappy.Doyouagree?3. TheauthortellsusaboutflatteningMontBlancandthelittle

differenceitwouldmakeinraisingthelevelofFrance.Whatishispointingivingusthisexample?

4. Whichisthebestjobintheworld?Whymustyouembraceitlovingly?

that great French mountain Mont Blanc, the highest mountain inEurope,andspreaditoverthewholeofFranceyouwouldonlyraisethelevelofthelandbyaboutsixinches.SeeifyoucanthinkoutwhatthathastodowiththequestionIhavebeentalkingabout.

Manypeople, unfortunately, seem to think also thatGovernmentcanalwayspayoutmoneyquiteeasilyandinanyquantity,andtheyforget, or else theydonotknow, that theGovernment canonlypayoutmoneythatithasreceivedintaxes—moneythatthetax-payerhashadtoworkfor.

AndnowhereisonefinalmistakethatIshouldliketowarnyouagainst.Don’teverimaginethatthereisanythingtobeashamedof,oranythingundignified,togrumbleaboutinhavingtoworkhardforyour living. Ifwhenyou startworkyou cango into a job that suitsyou,sothatyoucanreallyenjoytheworkitself,somuchthebetter:Ihopethatiswhatwillhappen.Butiftheworkisnotexactlythekindthatyouwouldchoose,youmusttrytorememberthatyouarehelpingtoproducethethingsthatotherpeopleneed;youare“doingyourbit”andplayingyourpartintheworkoftheworld.Youarelikeawheel,even if it isonlyavery tinywheel, in thegreatworld-machineryoftrade and industry that is always busily at work providing for thewantsofhundredsofmillionsofpeople,andyoumust“putyourbackintoit”andseetoitthatyourparticulartaskisalwaysdoneaswellasyoucanpossiblydoit.

—ErnestF.Row

QUESTIONS

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5. Whatisthemeaningof:“putyourbackintoit?”:“doingyourbit”?6. Paraphrase:“Youarelikeawheel......millionsofpeople.”

10.AllGreatThinkersliveandmoveonahighplaneofthought.Itisonlytheretheycanbreathefreely.Itisonlyincontactwithspiritslike themselves they can live harmoniously and attain that serenitywhich comes from ideal companionship. The studies of all greatthinkersmust range along the highest altitudes of human thought. Icannot remember the name of any illuminative genius who did notdrink his inspiration from fountains of ancient Greek and Hebrewwriters ; or such among the moderns as were pupils in ancientthought, and, in turn, became masters in their own. I have alwaysthoughtthatthestrongestargumentinfavouroftheBaconiantheorywas,thatnoman,howeverindubitablehisgenius,couldhavewrittentheplaysandsonnetsthathavecomedowntousunderShakespeare’snamewhohadnot the liberaleducationofBacon.Howthishabitofintercourse with the gods makes one impatient of mere men. Themagnificentidealsthathaveeverhauntedthehumanmind,andgivenus our highest proofs of a future immortality by reason of theimpossibility of their fulfilment here, are splintered into atoms bycontactwithlife’srealities.Hencecomesoursublimediscontent.Youwillnoticethatyourfirstsensationafterreadingagreatbookisoneofmelancholy and dissatisfaction. The ideas, sentiments, expressions,aresofarbeyondthoseofordinaryworkinglifethatyoucannotturnaside from one to the other without an acute sensation andconsciousness of the contrast. And the principles are so lofty, sosuper-human that it is a positive pain, if once you become imbuedwith them, to come down and mix in the squalid surroundings ofordinary humanity. It may be spiritual or intellectual pride that isengenderedonthehighplaneofintellectuallife.Butwhateveritis,itbecomes inevitable.Ahabitualmeditationon thevastproblems thatunderlinehumanlife,andareknitintohumandestinies—thoughtsofimmortality,of the littlenessofmereman,of thegreatnessofman’ssoul, of the splendours of the universe that are invisible to the

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1. Onwhatplanemustgreatthinkersliveandmove?2. Isaliberaleducationnecessarytoproducegreatliterature?3. Whydoesthereadingofagreatbook,accordingtotheauthor,make

onemelancholyanddisappointed?4. Whatarethethingsthatmakeithardtounderstandtheaverage

humanbeing?

ordinarytraffickersinthestreet,asthevastnessofSt.Peter’sistothespiderthatweavesherwebinacornerofthedome—thesethingsdonot fitmen tounderstand the averagehumanbeing, or toleratewithpatience the sordid wretchedness of the unregenerate masses. It iseasytounderstand,therefore,whysuchthinkersflytothesolitudeoftheirownthoughts,orthesilentcompanionshipoftheimmortals;andiftheycaretopresenttheirviewsinproseorversetotheworld,thattheseviewstakeasombreandmelancholysettingfrom“thepalecastofthought”inwhichtheywereengendered.

—P.A.Sheehan

QUESTIONS

11. Although religion does not inhibit the acquistion of wealth,although it does not hold up large fortunes as evil, the tenor of itsteaching, by and large, is to induce an attitude of indifference toworldly things, things which gratify one’s lower self and keep oneengrossed inmoney-making. The student should bemade to realizethattherealgoodsoflifearespiritual,loveofthingsofthespiritandserviceofone’sfellowmen, joyofanordereddisciplinedlife.Theseareblessingsmoneycannotbuy.Whatiswealthbeforesuchthingsofthe spirit ? Of all religious teachers Jesus Christ has dealt morecomprehensivelythananyotherwiththeproblemofwealthinall itsaspects.Hemaybecalledthegreatestexponentofthescienceofthewealth. With only four words “Blessed are ye poor!” he changedaltogether the values which man attached to human existence andhumanhappinessandacquisitionandpossessionofwealth.Realblissconsisted,hetaught,notinrichesnorinanythingelsewhichtheworld

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1. What,accordingtotheauthor,isthemeaningof“indifference”?Isitapplicabletoallreligions?

2. Whicharesomeoftherealgoodsofspiritualliving?Isiteasytomakethestudentrealisethis?

3. InwhatsensecanitbesaidthatJesusChristhasdealtmorecomprehensivelywiththeproblemofwealth?DidMahatmaGandhiteachasimilardoctrine?

4. Whatdoyouunderstandbythephrase:“poorinspirit”?Inthatcase,woulditbemoreperfecttogiveawayallyourbelongingsandpropertyandlivelikeapauper?

regardedasprosperityorfelicity,butinthejoyandhappinessderivedfrombeing at peacewith one‘s fellowmen through perfect love andfellowshipandselflessserviceandsacrifice.

The word “poor” on the lips of the Master had a spiritualsignificance—the poor so far as they were poor in spirit, humblebeforeGod, simple,God-fearing, teachable, faithful. It could surelynothavebeenhis intention toholdupdestitutionandprivationas ablessinginitself.Thatwouldhaveturnedlifeintoaterribleordealanditwouldhavebeenheartlesstoexhortthepoortobelievethatmoneywas not necessary for one’s sustenance or the joys and blessings oflife.Eventhingsofthespiritcannotbehadwithoutmoney.Extremepoverty is as liable to lead to the stagnation and impoverishment ofthe soul as excessivewealth.Not outward poverty but inward spiritwaswhat JesusChrist desired and demanded.Every religion asks amantoregardhiswealthasatrust.Givingincharityforthereliefofthepoorandpublicwelfare isnotmerelyanactof compassion,notmerely a religious duty, but also an act of social justice. All thegospelsofwealtharebasedonthefundamentalconceptthatnonecanclaimanabsoluteor inherent right toproperty.Everyoneholds it intrustfromGodtopromotethegoodofmankind.AllrightstoprivatepropertyaresubjecttothisprimaryobligationtoGodandman.

—R.P.Masani

QUESTIONS

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5. Describesomeofthedrawbacksofpovertyandshowhowmoneyisabsolutelynecessaryinlife.

6. Writeashortparagraphinwhichyoudeveloptheideacontainedinthefollowing:“Everyreligionasksamantoregardhiswealthasatrust.”

7. BernardShawhassaidthatpovertyisacrime.Doyouagree?

12. The third great defect of our civilization is that it does notknowwhattodowithitsknowledge.Sciencehasgivenuspowersfitforthegods,yetweusethemlikesmallchildren.Forexample,wedonotknowhow tomanageourmachines.Machinesweremade tobeman’sservants;yethehasgrownsodependentonthemthattheyareinafairwaytobecomehismasters.Alreadymostmenspendmostoftheir lives looking after and waiting upon machines. And themachines are very stern masters. They must be fed with coal, andgivenpetrol todrink,andoil towashwith,andtheymustbekeptatthe right temperature.And if theydonot get theirmealswhen theyexpectthem,theygrowsulkyandrefusetowork,orburstwithrage,andblowup,andspreadruinanddestructionall round them.Sowehavetowaituponthemveryattentivelyanddoallthatwecantokeeptheminagoodtemper.Alreadywefinditdifficulteithertoworkorplaywithoutthemachines,andatimemaycomewhentheywillruleusaltogether,justasweruletheanimals.

AndthisbringsmetothepointatwhichIasked,“Whatdowedowithallthetimewhichthemachineshavesavedforus,andthenewenergytheyhavegivenus?”Onthewhole, itmustbeadmitted,wedoverylittle.Forthemostpartweuseourtimeandenergytomakemore and bettermachines ; butmore and bettermachineswill onlygiveusstillmore timeandstillmoreenergy,andwhatarewetodowiththem?Theanswer,Ithink,isthatweshouldtrytobecomemerecivilized. For the machines themselves, and the power which themachines have given us, are not civilization but aids to civilization.But you will remember that we agreed at the beginning that being

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1. Insteadofmakingmachinesourservantstheauthorsaystheyhavebecomeourmasters.Inwhatsensehasthiscomeabout?

2. Theuseofmachineshasbroughtusmoreleisureandmoreenergy.Buttheauthorsaysthatthishasbeenacurseratherthanablessing.Why?

3. Whatexactlyisthemeaningof“civilization”?Doyouagreewiththeauthor’sviews?

4. “Makingmorebeautifulthings”–Whatdoesthisexpressionmean?Makealistofthebeautifulthingsthatyouwouldliketomakeandhowyouwouldmakethem.

5. Mentionsomeplansyoumayhavetopreventpovertyintheworld.Whowouldreceiveyourmostparticularattention,andwhy?

6. Theauthorusesphraseslike“fedwithcoal”;“givenpetroltodrink”;“oiltowash”;“keptattherighttemperature”.Whatmachineswouldrequirethesethings?

civilizedmeantmakingand linkingbeautiful things, thinking freely,and living rightly andmaintaining justice equally betweenman andman.Manhasabetter chance today todo these things thanheeverhadbefore ;hehasmore time,moreenergy, less to fearand less tofightagainst.Ifhewillgivehistimeandenergywhichhismachineshave won for him to making more beautiful things, to finding outmoreandmoreabouttheuniverse,toremovingthecausesofquarrelsbetweennations, todiscoveringhowtopreventpoverty, thenI thinkourcivilizationwouldundoubtedlybethegreater,asitwouldbethemostlastingthattherehaseverbeen.

—C.E.M.Joad

QUESTIONS

13. The other daywe heard someone smilingly refer to poets asdreamers.Now,itisaccuratetorefertopoetsasdreamers,butitisnotdiscerningtoinfer,asthispersondid,thatthedreamsofpoetshavenopracticalvaluebeyondtherealmofliterarydiversion.Thetruthisthatpoets are just as practical as peoplewho build bridges or look intomicroscopes;andjustasclosetorealityandtruth.Wheretheydiffer

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1. Arepoetsdreamers?Inwhatsense?2. Isapoetapracticalman?Inwhatway?3. Aredreams,accordingtotheauthor,usefultotheworld?Why?4. WhatwasFulton’sachievement?5. Ifthepoetdidnotdream,whatwouldhappen?6. Inwhatwayisthepoetaspecialist?

fromthelogicianandthescientistisinthetemporalsensealone;theyareaheadoftheirtime,whereaslogiciansandscientistsareabreastoftheir time.Wemust not be so superficial thatwe fail to discern thepracticablenessofdreams.Dreamsarethesunrisestreamersheraldinga new day of scientific progress, another forward surge. Everyforward stepman takes in any field of life, is first taken along thedreamy paths of imagination. Robert Fulton did not discover hissteamboatwith full steamup, strainingat ahawser at someHudsonRiver dock; first he dreamed the steamboat, he and other dreamers,and then scientific wisdom converted a picture in the mind into areality of steel and wood. The automobile was not dug out of thegroundlikeanuggetofgold;firstmendreamedtheautomobileandafterward, long afterward, the practical-minded engineers caught upwithwhathadbeencreatedbywingingfantasy.Hewholooksdeeplyandwithaseeingeyeinto thepoetryofyesterdayfinds thereall thecold scientific magic of today and much which we shall not enjoyuntil some tomorrow. If the poet does not dream so clearly thatblueprintsof thisvisioncan immediatelybedrawnand thepracticalconversions immediately effected, he must not for that reason besmileduponasmerelythementalhostforasortofharmlessmadness.Forthepoet,liketheengineer,isaspecialist.Hisbeing,tunedtothelifeoftomorrow,cannotbeturnedsimultaneouslytothelifeoftoday.Tothescientisthesays,“Here,Igiveyouaflashofthefuture.”Thewisescientistthankshim,andtakesthatflashofthefutureandmakesitoverintoafibreoftoday.

—GlenFalls

QUESTIONS

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1. WhatwasthematterwiththeattendantashewalkedwithMissJoantothehotel?Whydidtheynottalktoeachother?

14. This romantic life in Kashmir was drawing to its end afterthreegloriousmonths.MissJoanwasleavingaweekearlierthanMrs.Rhodes, and about two days before she left I took her alone to thehotelfordinner.Wewalkedtothehotelinperfectsilence,asilencesoheavy that I could hardly breathe.The hotel seemed to be far awayand yet not far enough. That night, as I served her at table thetemptationtotouchherwasoverpowering,andIhadalmostforgottenmyselfwhen I dropped her coffee cup,whichmademe pullmyselftogetherandrealizemypositionandmycaste.Onthewayhometherewasabridgeoverthecanaltobecrossed.Shestoppedonthebridgewithoutaword,soIstoppedbesideherlookingontothecalmwaterofthecanalshiningbetweenthegiganticchenartrees.Inthedistanceagramophonewasplayingandthemusicfloatedoverthewater.Westoodforalongtimewithoutsayingawordtoeachother.Ithinkthepartingwasdisturbingher.Therewassomethingwhichshecouldnothave explained andwhich shewas trying to express. Itmight havebeen just a fancyofherown,or itmayhavebeen the subconsciousknowledgeofthesecret,consumingpassionofherattendantthatwasaffecting her on this calm and beautiful night as we tarried on thebridge.Itseemedtomethatwestoodthereforages,asifneitherofusdare break the magic spell of night and music. Our houseboat wasonly a few yards from the bridge, and the Goodnight was the onlywordthatpassedbetweenusasweparted—everythingthenwentintothedarkness.TheMail lorrycameuptothebridgetotakeherawayfromtheromanticcityofSrinagar—andawayfromme.AftershehadtakenherseatIputawoollenrugoverherkneestokeepherwarmonthejourney,andshehandedmeaten-rupeenoteasapartinggiftandsweetlysaidGood-bye.Iwatchedherwaveherhandtillthelorrywasoutofsight.ThenIrealizedwhatIhadlost,andlostforever.

—Hazari

QUESTIONS

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tothehotel?Whydidtheynottalktoeachother?2. Afterreadingthepassagecanyougivereasonstoshowwhatcaste

theattendantbelongedto?3. TheauthormentionsthechenartreesofKashmir.Giveabriefbut

graphicdescriptionofthesetrees.4. “Ithinkthepartingwasdisturbingher.”Wasittheroamantic

atmosphereofthesurroundings,thethoughtofhavingtoleaveKashmir,thekindnessofherattendant,orthoughtsofhomethatwerethecauseofthedisturbance?

5. WhydoestheauthorcallSrinagararomanticcity?Givethemeaningof“romantic.”ShowhowitmayapplytoSrinagar.

6. WhydidMissJoangivetheattendantaten-rupeenote?Dofriendsdosuchthings?

15.Longyearsagowemadeatrystwithdestiny,andnowthetimecomes when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in fullmeasure, but very substantially.At the stroke of themidnight hour,when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom. Amomentcomes,whichcomesbutrarelyinhistory,whenwestepoutfrom theold to thenew,whenan age ends, andwhen the soulof anation,longsuppressed,findsutterance.Itisfittingthatatthissolemnmomentwetakethepledgeofdedicationto theserviceofIndiaandherpeopleandtothestilllargercauseofhumanity.

At the dawn of history India started on her unending quest, andtracklesscenturiesarefilledwithherstrivingandthegrandeurofhersuccess andher failures.Throughgoodand ill fortune alike shehasnever lost sight of that quest or forgotten the idealswhich gave herstrength. We end today a period of ill fortune and India discoversherself again. The achievementwe celebrate today is but a step, anopeningofopportunity,tothegreatertriumphsandachievementsthatawait us. Are we brave enough and wise enough to grasp thisopportunityandacceptthechallengeofthefuture?

Freedomandpowerbringresponsibility.That responsibility restsupon this Assembly, a sovereign body representing the sovereignpeopleofIndia.Beforethebirthoffreedomwehaveenduredallthe

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1. Expressinyourownwords:(a)wemadeatrystwithdestiny;(b)atthestrokeofthemidnighthour;(c)whentheworldsleeps;(d)whenwestepoutfromtheoldtothenew;(e)wetakethepledgeofdedication;(f)atthedawnofhistory;(g)Indiadiscoversherselfagain;(h)withthememoryofsorrow.

2. Inwhatdoesthe“serviceofIndia”consist,accordingtotheauthor?3. WhataretheidealswhichIndiahasneverforgotten?4. Mentionsomeoftheresponsibilitiesoffreedomandpower.5. Thisspeechisconcernedwiththelivingaswellasthedead.Inwhat

waydoesNehruappealtohislisteners?WhatmotiveurgesNehrutorousetheIndiaoftodaytoaction?

6. QuotethelinethathasadirectreferencetoMahatmaGandhi.

pains of labour and our hearts are heavy with the memory of thissorrow.Someofthosepainscontinueevennow.Neverthless,thepastisoveranditisthefuturethatbeckonstousnow.Thatfutureisnotoneofeaseor restingbutof incessant strivingso thatwemayfulfilthepledgeswehavesooften takenand theoneweshall take today.TheserviceofIndiameans theserviceof themillionswhosuffer. Itmeanstheendingofpovertyandignoranceanddiseaseandinequalityofopportunity.Theambitionofthegreatestmanofourgenerationhasbeentowipeeverytearfromeveryeye.Thatmaybebeyondus,butaslongastherearetearsandsuffering,solongourworkwillnotbeover.

—JawaharlalNehru

QUESTIONS

16.TheArtistco-operateswithGodinmakingincreasinglylargernumbers of people see the beauty of the world which these peoplecouldneverseeforthemselves.Theworldis,ofcourse,God’sartisticmasterpiece;butitistheartistwholendspeopleeyestoseeitwith.Browning’sFraLippohasthelastwordonthesubject:—

For,don’tyoumark,we’remadesothatweloveFirstwhenweseethempainted,thingswehavepassedPerhapsahundredtimesnorcaredtosee?

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Inthissense,OscarWilde’sparadoxisperfectlytrue:thatNatureimitatesArt;forthemajorityofmenseeinNaturewhatArthastaughtthem to see in Nature. The fogs of London, said Wilde, were theinventionofWhistler.Tolovebeautythereforebecomestotheartist,asanartist,hisfirstduty.Tolovebeauty,thatis,toseeitforhimselffirst,and then tocommunicate it toothers ; for love impliesatoncevisionandreproduction.Itmustbethefirstarticleinanartist’screed,as an artist, that beauty is the best interpreter ofGod toman ; that,whenhehasgotholdofbeauty,hehasgotholdofthesurestkeytotheknowledgeofGod.KeatshassaidthatBeautyisTruth.Now,thisisnot true.But toushere,Beauty is,asPlatosaid, thesplendourofTruth.Theartist,asanartist,mustbecontentwiththesplendourand,throughthissplendourstrivetoconveythetruth.Hehasnobusinesswith truth as such as the philosopher, for instance, has. He has noconcernwithconductassuch,as themoralist, for instance,has.It isnothisfunctiontoexhortmentogoodworks,ortoprovethings;butmerelytoexhibitthem.Platothoughtapicture,forinstance,wasjustacopyofanobject—acopyoftheidea.ItwasAristotle,Plato’spupil,who pointed out that, though a picturewas in one sense certainly acopyandthereforesomethinglessthantheobject,inanothersenseitwas somethingmore than the object. Itwas, briefly, the idea of theobjectmadevisibletotheeye.Art,therefore,doesnotconsistmerelyin lineandcolour, soundand image ;butprimarily in ideas.Beautymay not be useful. Beautymay not improve ourminds.But beautymustplease.Indeed,suchistheinherentdelightfulnessofbeautythat,byitsmagictouch,notonlytheuglybecomespleasureable,butevensorrowbecomesajoy.Thatistheexplanationofthepleasurewefeelintragedy.Whatwouldshockusinactuallifegivesuspleasureinatragedy.Fortragedymakesexperiencesignificant;andbymakingitsignificant,itmakesitbeautiful;andbymakingitbeautiful,itmakesit pleasant. And yet, it does not aim at pleasing ; it only aims atexhibiting.Pleasureisnotitsaim;itisitseffect.

—ArmandoMenezes

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1. Whatdoestheartistdoformostofus?2. Whydoestheartist“lend”hiseyestopeople?3. Explain:“NatureimitatesArt.”4. Whatistheartist’sfirstduty?Why?5. WhatisthesurestkeytotheknowledgeofGod?Why?6. Whatistheartist’srealfunction?7. InwhatdoesArtprimarilyconsist?8. Whendoessorrowbecomeajoy?

QUESTIONS

CHAPTER38

PRECIS-WRITINGAprecis* is a summary, and precis-writingmeans summarising.

Precis-writing is an exercise in compression.A precis is the gist ormain theme of a passage expressed in as fewwords as possible. Itshouldbelucid,succinct,andfull(i.e.includingallessentialpoints),sothatanyoneonreadingitmaybeabletograspthemainpointsandgeneraleffectofthepassagesummarised.

Precis-writing must not be confused with paraphrasing. Aparaphraseshouldreproducenotonlythesubstanceofapassage,butalsoallitsdetails.Itwillthereforebeatleastaslongas,andprobablylonger than, the original.But a precismust always bemuch shorterthan the original ; for it is meant to express only the main theme,shornofallunimportantdetails,andthatasterselyaspossible.Asthestylesofwritersdiffer,somebeingconciseandsomediffuse,norigidrulecanbelaiddownforthelengthofaprecis;butsomuchmaybesaid,thataprecisshouldnotcontainmorethanathirdofthenumberofwordsintheoriginalpassage.

I.USESOFPRECIS-WRITING1. Precis-writing is a very fine exercise in reading.Most people

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readcarelessly,andretainonlyavagueideaofwhattheyhaveread.Youcaneasilytestthevalueofyourreading.Readinyourusualwayachapter,orevenapage,ofabook;andthen,havingclosedthebooktrytoputdownbrieflythesubstanceofwhatyouhavejustread.Youwillprobablyfindthatyourmemoryofitishazyandmuddled.Isthisbecauseyourmemoryisweak?No;itisbecauseyourattentionwasnot fully centred on the passage while you were reading it. Thememorycannot retainwhatwasnevergiven it tohold ;youdidnotrememberthepassageproperlybecauseyoudidnotproperlygraspitasyoureadit.Nowprecis-writingforcesyoutopayattentiontowhatyouread;fornoonecanwriteasummaryofanypassageunlesshehas clearly grasped its meaning. So summarizing is an excellenttraining inconcentrationofattention. It teachesone to readwith themind,aswellaswiththeeye,onthepage.

2. Precis-writing is also a very good exercise in writing acomposition. It teaches one how to express one’s thoughts clearly,concisely and effectively. It is a splendid corrective of the commontendency to vague and disorderly thinking and loose and diffusewriting.Haveyounoticedhowanuneducatedperson tells a story ?Herepeatshimself,bringsinalotofirrelevantmatter,omitsfromitsproperplacewhatisessentialanddragsitinlaterasanafter-thought,andtakestwentyminutestosaywhatatrainedthinkerwouldexpressinfive.Thewholeeffectismuddledandtedious.Inaprecisyouhavetoworkwithinstrictlimits.Youmustexpressacertainmeaninginafixednumberofwords.Soyoulearntochooseyourwordscarefully,to construct your sentences with an eye to fullness combined withbrevity,andtoputyourmatterinastrictlylogicalorder.

3.Sopracticeinprecis-writingisofgreatvalueforpracticallife.Inanypositionoflifetheabilitytograspquicklyandaccuratelywhatis read,orheard,and to reproduce itclearlyandconcisely, isof theutmostvalue.Forlawyers,businessmen,andgovernmentofficialsitisessential.

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II.METHODOFPROCEDUREYou must make up your mind from the beginning that precis-

writing means intensive brain-work. There is no easy short cut tosummarising a passage. To tear the heart out of a passage meansconcentrated thought, and you must be prepared for close attentionandhardthinking.

1.Reading. (a) First read the passage through carefully, but nottooslowly,togetageneralideaofitsmeaning.Ifonereadingisnotsufficient to give you this clearly, read it over again, andyet again.Themoreyoureadit,themorefamiliarwillitbecometoyou,andtheclearerwillbe(i)itssubject,and(ii)whatissaidaboutthatsubject.Askyourself,“WhatisitIamreading?Whatdoestheauthormean?Whatishissubject?Whatishesayingaboutit?CanIputinafewwordsthepithofwhathesays?”

(b)Usuallyyouarerequiredtosupplyatitleforyourprecis.Thisis a good stage atwhich to do this. Think of someword, phrase orshort sentence that will sum up briefly the main subject of thepassage. Sometimes this is supplied by what we may call a key-sentence.Thiskey-sentencemaybefoundat thebeginningorat theend of the passage. For example, look at Exercise 148, No. 20, inwhich the first sentencegives the subject, all the restof thepassagebeinganexpansionandillustrationof it :“Hospitality isavirtueforwhich the natives of the East in general are highly and deservedlyadmired”. This at once suggests the short title of “EasternHospitality”. But you will not always find such convenient key-sentencesinthepassageyouhavetosummarise.Intheirabsence,youmustgetaclearideaofthesubjectfromthepassageasawhole,andthensumitupinasuitableheading.

The effort to find a suitable title at this stage will help you todefine inyourmindwhat exactly the subject,ormain theme,of thepassageis.

(c)Furtherreadingisnownecessarytoensurethatyouunderstand

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the details of the passage as well as its main purport. Take it nowsentence by sentence, and word by word. If the meanings of anywords arenot clear, look themup in adictionary.Detailed studyofthiskindisnecessary,becauseaphrase,asentence,orevenasingleword, may be of prime importance, and the misunderstanding of itmaycauseyoutomissthewholepointofthepassage.

(d)You shouldnowbe in a position to decidewhat parts of thepassage are essential and what parts are comparatively unimportantand so canbeomittedwithout any loss.Thisprocessofselection isnot so easy as some people think. Beginners select ; but they oftenselectinahaphazardormechanicalway.Itrequiressomepracticetobeable to say, “This is essential to themeaningof thepassage, andthatisonlyincidentalandunimportant.”Thebestguide,ofcourse,isthe subject or main theme of the passage. If you have a clear andcorrect ideaof thatyouwill soon seewhat is important andwhat isunimportant.

Atthisstageitisusefultojotdownyourconclusionsinbriefnotes—writing down the subject, the title, and the details which youconsideressentialorimportant.(Thisisabetterplanthanunderliningsentencesandphrasesintheoriginal.)

2. Writing. (a) Rough Drafts—You should now be ready toattempt the writing of the precis ; but be sure of the limits withinwhich itmust be compressed. If the number ofwords is given you,thisiseasy;butifyouaretoldtoreducethepassagetosay,athirdofits length, count the number ofwords in the passage and divide bythree.Youmayusefewerwordsthanthenumberprescribed,butinnocasemayyouexceedthelimit.

It isnot likely thatyour firstattemptwillbeacompletesuccess.Thedraftwillprobablybetoolong.Infactyoumayhavetowriteoutseveraldraftsbeforeyoufindhowtoexpress thegistof thepassagefullywithinthelimitsset.Agooddealofpatienceandrevisionwillberequiredbeforeyougetitright.Itisagoodplantowritethefirstdraftwithouthavingtheactualwordsoftheoriginialpassagesbeforeone’s

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eyes.(b)ImportantPoints—Thefollowingpointsmustbekeptinmind:(i)Theprecis shouldbeall in yourownwords. Itmustnotbea

patchworkmadeupofphrasesandsentencesquotedfromtheoriginal.(ii)Theprecismustbeaconnectedwhole.Itmaybedividedinto

sectionsorparagraphs,accordingtochangesinthesubject-matter,butthesemustnotappearasseparatenotes,butmustbejoinedtogetherinsuchawayastoreadcontinuously.

(iii) The precis must be complete and self-contained ; that is, itmust convey its message fully and clearly without requiring anyreferencetotheoriginaltocompleteitsmeaning.

(iv) It is only the gist, main purport, or general meaning of thepassagewhichyouhavetoexpress.Thereisnoroominaprecisforcolloquial expressions, circumlocutions, periphrasis or rhetoricalflourishes.Allredundanciesofexpressionmustberigorouslypruned.If faithful reproduction of themain theme is the first essential of asummary,concisenessisthesecond.

(v)Theprecismustbeinsimple,directgrammaticalandidiomaticEnglish.

(c)The Art of Compression—You are not bound to follow theorginalorderofthoughttothepassagetobesummarised,ifyoucanexpressitsmeaningmoreclearlyandconciselybytransposinganyofitsparts.

Incondensing, aim rather at remodelling, thanatmereomission.Wemay omit mere repetitions, illustrations and examples ; but wechange figures of speech into literal expressions, compress wordysentences,andalterphrasestowords.

Takeafewexamples:—

“His courage in battle might without exaggeration be called lion-like”.Hewasverybraveinbattle.“Theaccount thewitnessgaveof the incidentmovedeveryone thatheardittolaughter.”Thewitness’sstorywasabsurd.

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“Therecametohisrecollection.”Heremembered.“Theclerkwhoisnowinhisemploy.”Hispresentclerk.“Theyactedinamannerthatrenderedthemliabletoprosecution.”Theyactedillegally.“Hegotupandmadeaspeechonthespurofthemoment.”Hespokeoff-hand.“Johnfellintotheriverand,beforehelpcouldreachhim,hesank.”Johnwasdrownedintheriver.“Hewashardupformoneyandwasbeingpressedbyhiscreditor.”Hewasinfinancialdifficulties.“TheEnglandofourowndaysissostrongandtheSpainofourowndaysissofeeble,thatit isnotpossible,withoutsomereflectionandcare, to comprehend the full extent of the perilwhichEngland hadfromthepowerandambitionofSpaininthe16thcentury.

(51words.)We cannot nowadays fully realise what a menace Spain was toEnglandinthe16thcentury.

(16words.)

(d) Indirect Speech—As a rule, a precis should be written inindirect speech, after a “verb of saying” in the past tense. Forexample:—

“Whetherwelookattheintrinsicvalueofourliterature,orattheparticularsituationofthiscountry,weshallseethestrongestreasontothink that of all foreign tongues the English tongue is that whichwouldbethemostusefultoournativesubjects.”—Macualay

Condensedinindirectspeech:—Lord Macaulay said that England’s noble literature and the

universalityofherlanguagemadeEnglishtheforeignlanguagemostusefulforIndia.

Thechangefromdirecttoindirectspeechcallsforattentiontothefollowingpoints:—

(i)Correctsequenceoftensesafterthe“verbofsaying”inthepasttense.

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(ii)Clear differentiation of the various personsmentioned in thepassage.Caremustbetakenwithpronounshe,sheandthey.Toavoidconfusionpropernamesshouldbeusedoccasionally.

(iii)Correctuseofadverbsandotherwordsindicatingtime.(iv) Proper choice of “verbs of saying”, to indicate questions,

commands,warnings,threatsorexhortations.Great caremust be taken to avoid lapsing into direct speech—a

verycommonfault.Somepassages,however,arebestsummarisedindirectspeech.3. Revision—When you have made your final draft, carefully

revise itbeforeyouwriteout thefaircopy.Besurethat its lengthiswithin the limitsprescribed.Compare itwith theoriginal tosee thatyouhavenotomittedanyimportantpoint.Seewhetheritreadswellasa connected whole, and correct any mistakes in spelling andpunctuation,grammarandidiom.

Thenwrite out the fair copy neatly, prefixing the title you havechosen.

III.TOSUMUP1. First carefully read the passage, if necessary, several times,

apprehendclearlyitsmainthemeorgeneralmeaning.2.Examinethepassageindetail, tomakesureofthemeaningof

eachsentence,phraseandword.3.Supplyashorttitlewhichwillexpressthesubject.4. Select and note down the important points essential to the

expressionofthemaintheme.5.Note the lengthofnumberofwordsprescribed for theprecis,

andwriteoutafirstdraft.6. Indoing this remember thatyouare to express thegist of the

passageinyourownwords,andnotinquotationsfromthepassage;thatyoushouldcondensebyremodellingthanbymereomission;andthatyourprecismustbe self-containedandaconnectedwhole.Add

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nothing;makenocomment;correctnofacts.7.Reviseyourdraft.Compareitcarefullywiththeoriginaltosee

thatyouhaveincludedall the importantpoints. If it is toolong,stillfurthercompressitbyomittingunnecessarywordsandphrasesorbyremodellingsentences.Correctallmistakesinspelling,grammarandidiom, and see that it is properly punctuated. Let the language besimpleanddirect.

8. Write out neatly the fair copy under the heading you haveselected.

SPECIMEN—1Onegreatdefectofourcivilizationisthatitdoesnotknowwhat

to dowith its knowledge. Science, aswe have seen, has given uspowersfitforthegods,yetweusethemlikesmallchildren.

For example, we do not know how to manage our machines.Machines were made to be man’s servants; yet he has grown sodependentonthemthattheyareinafairwaytobecomehismasters.Already most men spend most of their lives looking after andwaiting uponmachines. And themachines are very sternmasters.Theymust be fed with coal, and given petrol to drink, and oil towashwith,andmustbekeptattherighttemperature.Andiftheydonot get their meals when they expect them, they grow sulky andrefusetowork,orburstwithrage,andblowup,andspreadruinanddestruction all round them. So we have to wait upon them veryattentively and do all thatwe can to keep them in a good temper.Already we find it difficult either to work or play without themachines, anda timemaycomewhen theywill ruleusaltogether,justasweruletheanimals.

(C.E.M.Joad)

SUMMARY

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MENANDMACHINESWe do not know what to do with our knowledge. Science has

given us superhuman powers, which we do not use properly. Forexample,weareunabletomanageourmachines.Machinesshouldbefed promptly and waited upon attentively; otherwise they refuse toworkorcausedestruction.Wealready find itdifficult todowithoutmachines.Inthecourseoftimetheymayruleoverusaltogether.

SPECIMEN—2Astampis,tomanypeople,justaslipofpaperthattakesaletter

fromone townorcountry toanother.Theyareunable tounderstandwhywestampcollectorsfindsomuchpleasureincollectingthemandhowwe find the time inwhich to indulge in our hobby.To them itseemsawasteof time,awasteofeffort andawasteofmoney.Buttheydonotrealisethattherearemanywhodobuystamps,manywhofindtheeffortworth-whileandmanywho,iftheydidnotspendtheirtime collecting stamps, would spend it less profitably.We all seeksomething to do in our leisure hours and what better occupation isthere to keep us out ofmischief than that of collecting stamps?Analbum, a packet of hinges, a new supply of stamps, and the timepassesswiftlyandpleasantly.

Stamp-collectinghasnolimitsandacollectionneverhasanend;countries are always printing and issuing new stamps to celebratecoronations, great events, anniversaries and deaths. And thefascinationofcollectingistryingtoobtainthesestampsbeforeone’srivals. Every sphere of stamp-collecting has its fascination —receivinglettersfromdistantcountriesanddiscoveringoldstampsintheleavesofdustyoldbooks.Astampitselfhasafascinationall itsown. Gazing at its little picture we are transported to the wilds ofCongo,thehomesoftheArabs,andtheendlesstracksoftheSaharadesert.Thereisahistoryineverystamp.TheancientRomanEmpireandtheConstitutionofAmerica,India’sIndependenceandtheAllied

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victory,areallconveyedtoourmind’seyebymeansofstamps.Weseefamousmen,pictures,writers,scientists,soldiers,politiciansandfamous incidents. Stamps, so small and minute, contain knowledgethatisvastandimportant.

SUMMARY

STAMP-COLLECTINGTo many people a stamp is merely something necessary for

sending a letter. They regard stamp-collecting as a waste of time,effortandmoney.Buttherearemanypeoplewholovebuyingstampsandfindthishobbyworthwhileandmoreprofitablethanotherleisurepursuits. Collecting stamps helps to pass the time quickly andpleasantly.

Stamp-collecting is limitless and endless. Countries are alwaysissuing stamps to celebrate important events. It is fascinating toreceive letters from distant countries and to discover stamps in oldbooks.Astampitselfhasacharm.Stampsshowusgeographicalandhistorical pictures, famous people and incidents. These small thingscontainvastknowledge.

EXERCISE148

Write summariesof the followingpassagesof about one-thirdoftheoriginallength:

1. Ineverycountrypeople imagine that theyare thebestand thecleverestandtheothersarenotsogoodasarenotsogoodastheyare.The Englishman thinks that he and his country are the best; theFrenchman is very proud of France and everything French. TheGermansandItaliansthinknolessoftheircountriesandmanyIndiansimaginethatIndiaisinmanywaysthegreatestcountryintheworld.This is wrong. Everybody wants to think well of himself and hiscountry.Butreallythereisnopersonwhohasnotgotsomegoodand

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somebadqualities.Inthesameway,thereisnocountrywhichisnotpartlygoodandpartlybad.Wemusttakethegoodwhereverwefinditand try to remove thebadwherever itmaybe.Weare,ofcourse,mostconcernedwithourowncountry,India.Unfortunately,itisinabadwaytoday.Manyofourpeoplearepoorandunhappy.Theyhaveno joy in their lives.We have to find out howwe canmake themhappier.Wehavetoseewhatisgoodinourwaysandcustomsandtryto keep it, andwhatever is badwe have to throw away. Ifwe findanythinggoodinothercountries,weshouldcertainlytakeit.

2. There are hundreds of superstitions which survive in variouspartsofthecountry,andthesturyofthemisratheramusing.Wearetold, for example, that it is unlucky to point to the newmoonor tolookatitthroughglass,butifwebowninetimestoitweshallhavealuckymonth.

Now suppose you tell a scientist that you believe a certainsuperstition—letussay,thatthehowlingofadogisasignofdeath.Thescientistwill immediatelyrequireevidencebeforehecanacceptyourbelief.Hewillwantfigurestoproveit.Itwillbeuselesstoquotetwoorthreecases;hewillwanthundreds.Hewillwantalsotoknow(a) if it ever happens that the howlingof dogs is not followedby adeath,(b)ifeveraperson’sdeathispredictedbythehowlingofdogs.The answer to the former question is in the affirmative, and to thelatterinthenegative.Yoursuperstitionwillnotbearinvestigation.Itmayimpressanignorantperson;butitcannotfacethelightoffacts.Yourcasewouldnotcarryconvictioninacourtoflaw.

Apart from thisprocessof testingby results, any intelligentmanwillwant to know the “reasonwhy”.What connection can there bebetweenahowlingdogandanapproachingdeath?Canitbecauseandeffect?Canitbethatthedoghasagiftofforeseeingsuchevents?Oris the dog the instrument employed by some uncanny power thatmovesinvisiblyinourmidst?

3.Over-eatingisoneofthemostwonderfulpracticesamongthosewhothinkthattheycanaffordit.Infact,authoritiessaythatnearlyall

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who can get asmuch as they desire, over-eat to their disadvantage.Thisclassofpeoplecouldsaveagreatmorefoodthantheycansaveby missing one meal per week and at the same time they couldimprovetheirhealth.

Aheavymealatnight,theso-called“dinner”,isthefashionwithmanyandoftenitistakenshortlybeforeretiring.Itisunnecessaryandcould be forgone, not only once a week but daily without loss ofstrength. From three to five hours are needed to digest food.Whilesleeping, this foodnotbeing required togive energy forwork, is inmanycasesconvertedintoexcessfat,givingrisetoover-weight.Theeveningmealshouldbelight,takenthreeorfourhoursbeforeretiring.This prevents over-eating, conserves energy and reduces the cost offood.

4. Trees give shade for the benefit of others and while theythemselvesstandin thesunandendurescorchingheat, theyproducethefruitbywhichothersprofit.Thecharacterofgoodmenislikethatoftrees.Whatistheuseofthisperishablebody,ifnouseofitismadeforthebenefitofmankind?Sandalwood—themoreitisrubbedthemorescentdoes ityield.Sugarcane—themore it ispeeledandcutinto pieces, themore juice does it produce. Gold— themore it isburnt,themorebrightlydoesitshine.Themenwhoarenobleatheartdo not lose these qualities even in losing their lives. What does itmatterwhethermenpraisethemornot?Whatdifferencedoesitmakewhetherrichesabidewiththemornot?Whatdoesitsignifywhethertheydieatthismomentorwhethertheirlivesareprolonged?Happenwhatmay, thosewho tread in the rightpathwillnot set foot in anyother.Lifeitselfisunprofitabletoamanwhodoesnotliveforothers.Toliveforthemeresakeoflivingone’slifeistolivethelifeofdogsandcows.Thosewholaydowntheirlivesforthesakeofafriend,orevenforthesakeofastranger,willassuredlydwellforeverinaworldofbliss.

5.Wemust insist that free oratory is only the beginning of freespeech;itisnottheend,butameanstoanend.Theendistofindthe

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truth. The practical justification of civil liberty is not that theexamination of opinion is one of the necessities of man. Forexperience tellsus that it isonlywhen freedomofopinionbecomesthecompulsion todebate that theseedwhichourforefathersplantedhas produced its fruit. When that is understood, freedom will becherishednotbecauseitisaventforouropinionsbutbecauseitisthesurestmethodofcorrectingthem.

‘Theunexaminedlife’,saidSocrates,‘isunfittobelivedbyman’.This is the virtue of liberty, and the ground onwhichwemay bestjustifyourbeliefinit,thatittolerateserrorinordertoservethetruth.Whenmoremenarebroughtfacetofacewiththeiropponents,forcedtolistenandlearnandmendtheirideas,theyceasetobechildrenandsavagesandbegintolivelikecivilizedmen.Thenonlyisfreedomareality, when men may voice their opinions because they mustexaminetheiropinions.

The only reason for dwelling on all this is that if we are topreserve democracy we must understand its principles. And theprinciplewhichdistinguishesitfromallotherformsofgovernmentisthatinademocracytheopposition not only is tolerated as constitutional but must bemaintainedbecauseitisinfactindispensable.

The democratic system cannot be operated without effectiveopposition.For, inmakingthegreatexperimentofgoverningpeoplebyconsentratherthanbycoercion,itisnotsufficientthatthepartyinpowershouldhaveamajority.Itisjustasnecessarythatthepartyinpower should never outrage the minority. That means that it mustlistentotheminorityandbemovedbythecriticismsoftheminority.

6.Idesigned,aftermyfirstvoyage,tospendtherestofmydaysatBaghdad,butitwasnotlongereIgrewwearyofanindolentlife,andI put to sea a second time, with merchants of known probity. Weembarkedonboardofagoodship,andafterrecommendingourselvestoGod,setsail.OnedaywelandedonanIslandcoveredwithseveralsorts of fruit-trees, but we could see neither man nor animal. We

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walkedinthemeadows,alongthestreamsthatwateredthem.Whilstsomedivertedthemselveswithgatheringflowers,andothersfruits,Itookmywineandprovisions,andsatdownnearastreambetwixttwohightrees,whichaffordedadelightfulshade.Imadeagoodmeal,andafterwardsfellasleep.IcannottellhowlongIslept,butwhenIawoketheshipwasnolongerinview.

In thissadcondition,Iwasreadytodiewithgrief. Icriedout inagony,beatmyheadandbreast,and threwmyselfupon theground,whereIlaysometime,overwhelmedbyarushingcurrentofthoughts,eachmoredistressing than the last.When I gazed towards the sea Icoulddiscernnothingbutskyandwater;butlookingoverthelandIbeheldsomethingwhite ;andcomingdown, I tookwhatprovisionIhadleft,andwenttowardstheobject,whichwassodistantthatatfirstcouldnotdistinguishwhatitwas.

AsIapproached,Ithoughtittobeawhitedome,ofaprodigiousheightandextent.Idrewneartoit,andwalkedroundit;butfoundnodoortoit;andIfoundthatIhadnotstrengthnoractivitytoclimbit,onaccountof its exceeding smoothness. Imadeamarkat theplacewhereIstood,andwentroundthedome,measuringitscircumference;andlo!itwasfiftyfullpaces;andImeditateduponsomemeansofgaining an entrance into it ; but no means of accomplishing thisoccurredtome.

Bythistimethesunwasabouttoset,andallofasuddentheskybecame as dark as if it had been coveredwith a thick cloud. IwasmuchastonishedatthissuddendarknessbutmuchmorewhenIfounditoccasionedbyabirdofamostextraordinarysize,thatcameflyingtowardsme.IrememberedthatIhadoftenheardmarinersspeakofamiraculous bird called the roc, and conceived that the great domewhichIsomuchadmiredmustbeheregg.Shortlyafterwards,thebirdalighted,andsatovertheegg.

7. It is very easy to acquire badhabits, such as eating toomanysweetsor toomuchfood,ordrinkingtoomuchfluidofanykind,orsmoking.Themorewedoathing,themorewetendtolikedoingit;

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and,ifwedonotcontinuetodoit,wefeelunhappy.Thisiscalledtheforceofhabit,andtheforceofhabitshouldbefoughtagainst.

Things which may be very good when only done from time totime,tendtobecomeveryharmfulwhendonetoooftenandtoomuch.Thisapplieseven to suchgood thingsasworkor rest.Somepeopleformabadhabitofworkingtoomuch,andothersofidlingtoomuch.Thewisemanalways remembers that this is trueabouthimself,andchecksanybadhabit.Hesaystohimself,“Iamnowbecomingidle,”or“Iliketoomanysweets,”or“Ismoketoomuch”andthenadds,“Iwillgetmyselfoutofthisbadhabitatonce.”

Oneofthemostwidelyspreadofbadhabitsistheuseoftobacco.Tobacco is now smoked or chewed by men, often by women, andeven by children, almost all over the world. It was brought intoEuropefromAmericabySirWalterRaleigh,fourcenturiesago,andhasthencespreadeverywhere.Iverymuchdoubtwhetherthereisanygoodinthehabit,evenwhentobaccoisnotusedtoexcess;anditisextremely difficult to get rid of the habit when once it has beenformed.

Alcoholistakeninalmostallcoolandcoldclimates,andtoaverymuchlessextentinhotones.Thus,it istakenbypeoplewholiveintheHimalayaMountains,butnotnearlysomuchbythosewholiveintheplainsofIndia.Alcohol isnotnecessaryinanywaytoanybody.Millionsofpeoplearebeginningtodowithout itentirely ;andoncethe United States of America have passed laws which forbid itsmanufacture or sale throughout the length and breadth of their vastcountry.InIndiaitisnotrequiredbythepeopleatall,andshouldbeavoidedbythemaltogether.Theregularuseofalcohol,eveninsmallquantities,tendstocausemischiefinmanywaystovariousorgansofthe body. It affects the liver, it weakens the mental powers, andlessensthegeneralenergyofthebody.

8.Thegreatadvantageofearlyrisingisthegoodstartitgivesusin our day’swork. The early riser has done a large amount of hardworkbeforeothermenhavegotoutofbed.Intheearlymorningthe

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mind is fresh,and thereare fewsoundsorotherdistractions,so thatworkdoneatthattimeisgenerallywelldone.Inmanycasestheearlyriser also finds time to take some exercise in the freshmorning air,andthisexercisesupplieshimwithafundofenergythatwilllastuntilthe evening.By beginning so early, he knows that he has plenty oftimetodothoroughlyalltheworkhecanbeexpectedtodo,andisnottempted to hurry over any part of it.All hiswork being finished ingood time, he has a long interval of rest in the evening before thetimelyhourwhenhegoestobed.Hegetstosleepseveralhoursbeforemidnight,atthetimewhensleepismostrefreshingandafterasoundnight’srest,risesearlynextmorningingoodhealthandspiritsforthelaboursofanewday.

It is very plain that such a life as this is farmore conducive tohealth than thatof themanwhoshortenshiswakinghoursbyrisinglate, and so can afford in the course of the day little leisure fornecessaryrest.Anyonewholiesinbedlate,must,ifhewishestodoafull day’swork, go onworking to a correspondingly late hour, anddenyhimselfthehourortwoofeveningexercisethatheoughttotakefor the benefit of his health. But, in spite of all his efforts, hewillprobablyproduceasgoodresultsastheearlyriser,becausehemissesthebestworkinghoursoftheday.

It may be objected to this that some find the perfect quiet ofmidnight by far the best time forworking. This is no doubt true incertain cases. Several great thinkers have found by experience thattheirintellectisclearest,andtheycanwritebest,whentheyburnthemidnight oil.But even in such cases the practice ofworking late atnight cannot be commended. Few men, if any, can exert the fullpower of their intellect at the time when nature prescribes sleep,withoutruiningtheirhealththereby;andofcoursetheinjurydonetothehealthmustinthelongrunhaveabadeffectonthequalityoftheworkdone.

9. The human race is spread all over the world, from the polarregionstothetropics.Thepeopleofwhichitismadeup,eatdifferent

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kindsoffood,partlyaccordingtotheclimateinwhichtheylive,andpartly according to the kind of food which their country produces.Thus, in India, the people live chiefly on different kinds of grain,eggs,milk,orsometimesfishandmeat.InEuropethepeopleeatmorefleshand lessgrain. In theArctic regions,wherenograinand fruitsareproduced,theEskimoandotherraceslivealmostentirelyonflesh,especiallyfat.

Themen of one race are able to eat the food of another race, iftheyarebroughtintothecountryinhabitedbythelatter;butasaruletheystillprefertheirownfood,atleastforatime—owingtocustom.Inhotclimates,fleshandfatarenotmuchneeded;butintheArcticregionstheyseemtobeverynecessaryforkeepinguptheheatofthebody.

Thekindoffoodeatenalsodependsveryoftenoncustomorhabit,and sometimes upon religion. Brahmins will not touch meat ;MohammedansandJewswillnottouchthefleshofpigs.Mostraceswouldrefusetoeatthefleshofmanyuncleananimals,although,quitepossibly,suchfleshmayreallybequitewholesome.

Allracesofmankindhavetheirowndifferentideasonthismatter.Thus the English used to laugh at the French because the latter atefrogs’ legs and some kind of snails ; theAustralians dislike rabbitsalthough the English eat them ; and the Burmese eat the flesh ofcrocodilesandelephants.

Neverthless there are many reasons for these likes and dislikes.Thus, swine in eastern countries are very dirty feeders, whereas inEurope they are kept on clean food. The result is that their flesh iseaten inEurope but not in India.Mendislike eating the flesh of alldraughtanimals.Hence theEnglishmanwillnoteathorse-flesh,andtheHinduwillnottouchthefleshofcattle.

Lastly,certainsavagepeoplesusedtobecannibals—thatistosay,theyatehumanflesh—thoughthiscustomhasnowfortunatelyalmostceasedthroughoutthewholeworld.

There isanotherreasonfordislikingcertainkindsofflesh,anda

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very good reason too. It is because these kinds are apt to containdangerous parasites,whichmayget into the bloodof thosewho eattheflesh.Certainkindsofswine,forexample,aredangerousasfood,astheirfleshcontainsaparasiteintheformofalittleworm.

10.Dearboy,nowthatyouaregoingalittlemoreintotheworldIwill take this occasion to explain my intentions as to your futureexpenses,thatyoumayknowwhatyouhavetoexpectfromme,andmakeyourplanaccordingly.Ishallneitherdenynorgrudgeyouanymoney that may be necessary for either your improvement orpleasures;Imeanthepleasuresofarationalbeing.Undertheheadofimprovement Imean thebest books, and thebestmasters costwhatthey will ; I also mean all the expense of lodgings, coach, dress,servants,etc.,which,accordingto theseveralplaceswhereyoumaybe, shall be respectively necessary to enable you to keep the bestcompany. Under the head of rational pleasures I comprehend, first,proper charities to real and compassionate objects of it ; secondly,properpresentstothosetowhomyouareobliged,orwhomyoudesireto oblige ; thirdly, a conformity of expense to that of the companywhich you keep ; as in public spectacles, your share of littleentertainments,afewpistolesatgamesofmerecommerceandotherincidentalcallsofgoodcompany.TheonlytwoarticleswhichIwillneversupplyare,theprofusionoflowriot,andtheidlelavishnessofnegligence and laziness. A fool squanders away without credit oradvantagetohimself,morethanamanofsensespendswithboth.Thelatter employs his money as he does his time, and never spends ashillingoftheone,noraminuteoftheother,butinsomethingthatiseither useful or rationally pleasing to himsel for others. The formerbuyswhateverhedoesnotwant,anddoesnotpayforwhathedoeswant. He cannot withstand the charms of a toy-shop ; snuff-boxes,watches, heads or canes, etc., are his destruction. His servants andtradesmenconspirewithhisownindolencetocheathim,andinaverylittle time he is astonished, in the midst of all the ridiculoussuperfluities, to find himself in want of all the real comforts and

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necessariesof life.Without careandmethod the largest fortunewillnot, and with them almost the smallest will, supply all necessaryexpenses.Keepanaccountinabook,ofallthatyoureceive,andofallthatyoupay;fornoman,whoknowswhathereceivesandwhathepays,everrunsout.

11.AgreatpartofArabiaisdesert.Herethereisnothingbutsandand rock.Thesand is sohot thatyoucannotwalkover itwithyourbare feet in thedaytime.Here and there in thedesert are springsofwaterthatcomefromdeepdownundertheground—sodeepthatthesun cannot dry them up. These springs are few and far apart, butwherever there is one, trees grow tall and graceful, making a cool,green,shadyplacearoundthespring.Suchaplaceiscalledanoasis.

TheArabswhoarenot in thecities liveinthedesertall theyearround. They live in tents that can be put up and taken down veryeasilyandquickly so that theycanmove fromoneoasis toanother,seeking grass and water for their sheep, goats, camels and horses.ThesedesertArabseat ripe, sweet figs,andalso thedates thatgrowuponthepalmtrees;theydrythem,too,andusethemasfoodalltheyearround.

TheseArabshavethefinesthorsesintheworld.AnArabisveryproudofhisridinghorse,andloveshimalmostasmuchasheloveshiswifeandchildren.Heneverputsheavyloadsuponhishorse,andoftenletshimstayinthetentwithhisfamily.

The camel is much more useful to the Arab than his beautifulhorse, however, for he ismuch larger and stronger. One camel cancarryasmuchasormorethantwohorses.TheArabloadsthecamelwithgoodsandrideshim,too,formilesandmilesacrossthedesert—just as if hewere really the “Shipof theDesert,”whichhe is oftencalled.

12.FerdinandandIsabella,informedofthereturnanddiscoveriesof their admiral, awaited him at Barcelona with honour andmunificence worthy of the greatness of his services. The nobilitycamefromalltheprovincestomeethim.Hemadeatriumphalentry

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asaprinceoffuturekingdoms.TheIndiansbroughtoverasa livingproofof theexistenceofnewraces in thesenewly-discovered lands,marchedattheheadoftheprocession,theirbodiespaintedwithdiverscolours,andadornedwithgoldnecklacesandpearls.Theanimalsandbirds,theunkonwnplants,andthepreciousstonescollectedontheseshores, were exhibited in golden basins, carried on the heads ofMoorishorNegroslaves.Theeagercrowdpressedcloseuponthem,andwondroustaleswerecirculatedabouttheofficersandcompanionsof Columbus. The admiral himself, mounted on a richly chargerpresented by the king, next appeared, accompanied by a numerouscaparisoned cavalcade of courtiers and gentlemen. All eyes weredirected toward themaninspiredofHeaven,whofirsthaddared lifttheveilofOcean.Peoplesoughtinhisfaceforasignofhismissionand thought they could discern one. The beauty of his features, themajestyofhiscountenance, thevigourofeternalyouthjoinedto thedignityofagethecombinationofthoughtwithaction,ofstrengthwithexperience,athoroughappreciationofhisworthcombinedwithpiety,made Columbus then appear (as those relate who saw him enterBarcelona)likeaprophet,oraheroofHolyWritorGrecianstory.

“Nonecouldcomparewithhim,”theysay;“allfelthimtobethegreatestormostfortunateofmen.”

FerdinandandIsabellareceivedhimontheirthrone,shadedfromthe sunbyagoldencanopy.They roseupbeforehim,as thoughhehadbeen an inspiredmessenger.They thenmadehim sit on a levelwith themselves, and listened to the circumstantial account of hisvoyage. At the end of his recital, which habitual eloquence hadcolouredwithhisexuberant imagination, thekingandqueen,movedtotears,fellontheirkneesandrepeatedtheTeDeum,athanksgivingfor the greatest conquest the Almightly had yet vouchsafed tosovereigns.

13. Up the River Hudson in North America are the CatskillMountains. In a certain village at the foot of thesemountains, therelived longagoamannamedRipVanWinkle.Hewasa simpleand

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good-natured person, a very kind neighbour and a great favouriteamong all the good wives of the village. Whenever there was asquabble in thefamilyofRip, thewomenin thevillagealways tookhispartandlaidalltheblameonDameVanWinkle.

The children of the village too would shout with joy, wheneverthey saw him.He helped at their sports,made playthings for them,taughtthemtoflykitesandshootmarblesandtoldthemlongstoriesofghosts,witchesandIndians.

Riphadnoloveforlabour,ifitwouldbringhimprofit.Hewouldsit for awhole day on awet rock and fishwithout amurmur, eventhoughhedidnotcatchasinglefish.Hewouldcarrya lightgunonhisshoulderforhourstogetherandshootonlyafewsquirrelsorwildpigeons.

Hewouldneverrefusetoassistaneighboureveninroughesttoil.Thewomenofthevillageoftenemployedhimtoruntheirerrandsandto do little jobs for them. In a word, Rip was ready to attend toanybody’sbusinessbuthisown.Hewas,however,oneofthosemenwho take the world easy. He would eat coarse bread or fine,whichevercouldbegotwith least thoughtor trouble.Andhewouldratherstarveonapennythanworkforapound.

If left to himself, Rip would have whistled away life in perfectcontentment.Buthiswifealwayskeptdrumminginhisearsabouthisidleness,hiscarelessnessandtheruinshewasbringingonhisfamily.Rip had but one way of replying to all her lectures—he shook hishead, cast up his eyes and said nothing.He had one good friend athomeandthatwashisdogWolfwhichwasasidleasthemaster.

14.Themanwhoisperpetuallyhesitatingwhichofthetwothingshewilldofirst,willdoneither.Themanwhoresolves,butsuffershisresolutiontobechangedbythefirstcounter-suggestionofafriend,—whofluctuatesfromopiniontoopinion,fromplantoplan,andveerslikeaweather-cocktoeverypointofthecompass,witheverybreathof caprice that blows—can never accomplish any thing great oruseful. Instead of being progressive in any thing, hewill be at best

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stationary,andmoreprobablyretrogradeinall.Itisonlythemanwhofirst consults wisely, then resolves firmly, and then executes hispurpose with flexible perseverance, undismayed by those pettydifficultieswhichdauntaweakerspirit,thatcanadvancetoeminenceinanyline.Takeyourcoursewisely,butfirmly;andhavingtakenit,hold upon itwith heroic resolution, and theAlps andPyreneeswillsinkbeforeyou.

15.Natureseemstohavetakenaparticularcaretodisseminateherblessingsamongthedifferentregionsoftheworldwithaneyetothismutualintercourseandtrafficamongmankind,thatthenativesoftheseveralpartsoftheglobemighthaveakindofdependenceupononeanother, and be united together by their common interest. Almosteverydegreeproducessomethingpeculiartoit.Thefoodoftengrowsin one country, and the sauce in another. The fruits of Portugal arecorrectedby theproductsofBarbadoes, and the infusionofaChinaplant is sweetened by the pith of an Indian cane. The Philippineislands give a flavour to ourEuropean bowls.The single dress of awomanofqualityisoftentheproductofahundredclimates.Themuffand the fan come together from the different ends of the earth.Thescarfissentfromthetorridzone,andthetippetfrombeneaththepole.ThebrocadepetticoatrisesoutoftheminesofPeru,andthediamondnecklaceoutofthebowelsofIndostan.

16.Itistheheightofselfishnessformen,whofullyappreciateintheirowncasethegreatadvantageofagoodeducation,todenytheseadvantages to women. There is no valid argument by which theexclusion of the female sex from the privilege of education can bedefended. It is argued that women have their domestic duties toperform,andthat,iftheywereeducated,theywouldburythemselvesintheirbooksandhavelittletimeforattendingtothemanagementoftheirhouseholds.Ofcourseitispossibleforwomen,asitisformen,to neglect necessary work in order to spare more time for readingsensationalnovels.Butwomenarenomore liable to this temptationthanmen,andmostwomenwouldbeabletodotheirhouseholdwork

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all thebetter forbeingable to refresh theirminds in the intervalsofleisurewithalittlereading.Nay,educationwouldevenhelptheminthe performance of the narrowest sphere of womanly duty. Foreducationinvolvesknowledgeof themeansbywhichhealthmaybepreservedandimproved,andenablesamothertoconsultsuchmodernbooksaswilltellherhowtorearupherchildrenintohealthymenandwomenandskilfullynursethemandherhusbandwhendiseaseattacksher household.Without education she will be not unlikely to listenwithfatalresultstotheadviceofsuperstitiousquacks,whopretendtoworkwondersbycharmsandmagic.

Butaccordingtoahigherconceptionofwoman’ssphere,womanoughttobesomethingmorethanahouseholddrudge.Sheoughttobeablenotmerely tonurseher husband in sickness, but also to behiscompanion in health. For this part of her wifely duty education isnecessary,fortherecannotwellbecongenialcompanionshipbetweenaneducatedmanandanuneducatedwife,whocanconversewithherhusbandonnohighersubjectsthancookeryandservants’wages.Alsooneofamother’shighestdutiesistheeducationofherchildrenatthetimewhentheirmindismostamenabletoinstruction.Achild’swholefuture life, to a large extent, depends on the teaching it receives inearlychildhood,anditisneedlesstosay,thatthisfirstfoundationofeducation cannot be well laid by an ignorant mother. On all thesegroundsfemaleeducationisavitalnecessity.

17.Theeffectproducedonthemindbytravellingdependsentirelyon the mind of the traveller and on the way in which he conductshimself.Thechiefideaofoneverycommontypeoftravelleristoseeasmanyobjectsofinterestashepossiblycan.Ifhecanonlyafterhisreturn home say that he has seen such and such a temple, castle,picturegallery,ormuseum,heisperfectlysatisfied.Therefore,whenhearrivesat a famouscity,he rushes through it, so thathemaygetoverasquicklyaspossiblethetaskofseeingitsprincipalsights,enterthembynameinhisnote-bookasvisitedor,inhisownphraseology‘done’,andthenhurryontoanothercitywhichhetreatsinthesame

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unceremoniousway.Anotherkindoftravellerinallheseesfindsentertainmentforhis

foolish spirit of ridicule. The more hallowed any object is fromhistorical and religious associations or artistic beauty, the more hedelightstodegradeitbyapplyingtoitfamiliartermsofvulgarslangthathemistakesforwit.Suchaonebringsdisgraceuponhisnationbytherudeinsolencewithwhichhelaughsatforeignersandtheirways,andeverythingelsethatattractsthenoticeofhisfeebleunderstanding.Attheendofhiswanderingshereturnstohishomealivingexample,showing

HowmuchthefoolthathathbeentaughttoroamExcelsthefoolsthathathbeenkeptathome.

Far different is the effect of travels uponwho leave their nativecountrywithmindspreparedbyculturetofeel intelligentadmirationforallthebeautiesofnatureandarttobefoundinforeignlands.Theirobject is not to seemuch, but to seewell.When they visit Paris orAthens or Rome, instead of hurrying from temple to museum, andfrommuseumtopicturegallery, theyallowthespiritof theplace tosinkintotheirminds,andonlyvisitsuchmonumentsasthetimetheyhave at their disposal allows them to contemplatewithout irreverenthaste.Theyfinditmoreprofitableanddelightfultosettledownforaweek or so at centres of great historical and artistic interest or ofremarkablenaturalbeauty,thantopayshortvisitstoalltheprincipalcities that they pass by. In this way they gain by their travelsrefreshment and rest for theirminds, satisfaction to their intellectualcuriosityorartistictastes,andincreasedknowledgeoftheworldanditsinhabitants.Suchpeople,whohavetravelledwiththeireyesopen,returntotheirnativelandwithagreaterknowledgeofitsgloriesanddefectsthanthestay-at-homecaneverhave.

18. It is in the temperate countries of northern Europe that thebeneficialeffectsofcoldaremostmanifest.Acoldclimateseemstostimulateenergybyactingasanobstacle.Inthefaceofaninsuperableobstacle our energies are numbed by despair ; the total absence of

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obstacles, on the other hand leaves no room for the exercise andtrainingofenergy ;butastruggleagainstdifficulties thatwehaveafairhopeofovercoming,callsintoactiveoperationallourpowers.Inlike manner, while intense cold numbs human energies, and a hotclimateaffordslittlemotiveforexertion,moderatecoldseemstohaveabracingeffectonthehumanrace.Inamoderatelycoldclimatemanis engaged in an arduous, but no hopeless struggle with theinclemencyoftheweather.Hehastobuildstronghousesandprocurethick clothes to keep himselfwarm.To supply fuel for his fires, hemusthewdowntreesanddigcoaloutof thebowelsof theearth. Inthe open air, unless hemoves quickly, hewill suffer pain from thebitingwind. Finally, in order to replenish the expenditure of bodilytissuecausedbyhisnecessaryexertions,hehastoprocureforhimselfplentyofnourishingfood.

Quite different is the lot of man in the tropics. In theneighbourhoodoftheequatorthereislittleneedofclothesorfire,anditispossiblewithperfectcomfortandnodangertohealth,topassthelivelongdaystretchedoutonthebaregroundbeneaththeshadeofatree. A very little fruit or vegetable food is required to sustain lifeunder such circumstances, and that little can be obtained withoutmuchexertionfromthebounteousearth.

Wemayrecognizemuchthesamedifferencebetweenourselvesatdifferentseasonsoftheyear,asthereisbetweenhumannatureinthetropics and in temperate climes. In hot weather we are generallylanguid and inclined to take life easily ; but when the cold seasoncomes,wefindthatwearemoreinclinedtovigorousexertionofourmindsandbodies.

19.Oneofthepeculiaritieswhichdistinguishthepresentageisthemultiplication of books. Everyday brings new advertisements ofliteraryundertakings,andweare flatteredwith repeatedpromisesofgrowingwiseoneasiertermsthanourprogenitors.

How much either happiness or knowledge is advanced by thismultitudeofauthors,isnotveryeasytodecide.

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He that teaches us anything which we know not before, isundoubtedlytobelovedasabenefactor;andhethatsupplieslifewithinnocent amusement, will be certainly caressed as a pleasingcompanion.

But few of those who fill the world with books, have anypretensions to the hope either of pleasing or instructing. They haveoftennoother task than to lay twobooksbefore themoutofwhichtheycompileathird,withoutanynewmaterialsoftheirown,andwithlittle application of judgement to those which former authors havesupplied.

That all compilations are useless, I do not assert. Particles ofscienceareoftenverywidelyscatteredupontopicsveryremotefromthe principal subject, which are often more valuable than formaltreatises,andwhichyetarenotknownbecausetheyarenotpromisedinthetitle.Hethatcollectsthoseunderproperheadsisverylaudablyemployed ; for though he exerts no great abilities in the work, hefacilitates the progress of others, and, by making that easy ofattainment which is already written, may give some mind morevigorousormoreadventurousthanhisown,leisurefornewthoughtsandoriginaldesigns.

Butthecollectionspouredlatelyfromthepresshaveseldombeenmadeatanygreatexpenseoftimeorinquiry,andthereforeonlyservetodistractchoicewithoutsupplyinganyrealwant.

20. Hospitality is a virtue for which the natives of the East ingeneralarehighlyanddeservedlyadmired;andthepeopleofEgyptare well entitled to commendation on this account. A word whichsignifiesliterally“apersononajourney”(“musafir”)isthetermmostcommonlyemployedinthiscountryinthesenseofavisitororguest.Thereareveryfewpersonsherewhowouldthinkofsittingdowntoameal, if there were a stranger in the house without inviting him topartakeofitunlessthelatterwereamenial;inwhichcase,hewouldbeinvitedtoeatwiththeservants.Itwouldbeconsideredashamefulviolation of goodmanners if aMuslim abstained from ordering the

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tabletobepreparedattheusualtimebecauseavisitorhappenedtobepresent. Persons of themiddle classes in this country, if living in aretiredsituation,sometimestaketheirsupperbeforethedooroftheirhouse, and invite every passenger of respectable appearance to eatwith them. This is very commonly done among the lower order. Incitiesandlargetowns,claimsonhospitalityareunfrequent;astherearemanywekalehs, or khans,where strangersmay obtain lodging ;and food is very easily procured ; but in the villages, travellers areoftenlodgedandentertainedbytheSheykhorsomeotherinhabitant;and if theguestbeapersonof themiddleorhigherclasses,orevennotverypoorhegivesapresenttohishost’sservants,ortothehosthimself. In thedesert,however, apresent is seldomreceived fromaguest.ByaSunneh law,a travellermayclaimentertainment fromapersonabletoaffordittohim,forthreedays.

21.Daybydayherinfluenceanddignityincreased.Firstofallshereceived the title of Noor Mahal, ‘Light of the Harem’ but wasafterwardsdistinguishedbythatofNoorJahanBegam,‘LightoftheWorld.’All her relations and connexionswere raised to honour andwealth......Nograntoflandswasconferreduponanyoneexceptunderherseal.Inadditiontogivingherthetitlesthatotherkingsbestowed,the Emperor granted Noor Jahan the rights of sovereignty andgovernment. Sometimes shewould sit in the balcony of her palace,whilethenobleswouldpresentthemselves,andlistentoherdictates.Coinwasstruckinhername,withthissuperscription:‘ByorderoftheKingJehangir,goldhasahundredsplendoursaddedtoitbyreceivingtheimpressionofthenameofNoorJahan,theQueenBegam.’Onallfarmans also receiving the Imperial signature, the name of ‘NoorJahan, theQueenBegam,’was jointlyattached.At lastherauthorityreachedsuchapassthattheKingwassuchonlyinname.Repeatedlyhe gave out that he had bestowed the sovereignty on Noor JahanBegam, andwould say, ‘I requirenothingbeyondasir ofwine andhalfasirofmeat.’Itisimpossibletodescribethebeautyandwisdomof theQueen. Inanymatter thatwaspresented toher, ifadifficulty

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arose, she immediately solved it. Whoever threw himself upon herprotectionwas preserved from tyranny and oppression ; and if evershelearntthatanyorphangirlwasdestituteandfriendless,shewouldbring about her marriage, and give her a wedding portion. It isprobablethatduringherreignnotlessthan500orphangirlswerethusmarriedandportioned.

22.Dantewasofmoderateheightandafterreachingmaturity,wasaccustomedtowalkingsomewhatbowed,withaslowandgentlepace,cladalwaysinsuchsoberdressasbefittedhisripeyears.Hisfacewaslarge,andthelowerlipprotrudedbeyondtheupper.Hiscomplexionwas dark, his hair and beard thick, black, and curled, and hisexpressionevermelancholyandthoughtful.

Inbothhisdomesticandhispublicdemeanourhewasadmirablycomposed and orderly, and in all things courteous and civil beyondanyother.Infoodanddrinkhewasmosttemperate,bothinpartakingof them at the appointed hours and in not passing the limits ofnecessity. Nor did he showmore epicurism in respect of one thingthan another, He praised delicate viands, but ate chiefly of plaindishes,andcensuredbeyondmeasurethosewhobestowagreatpartoftheirattentionuponpossessingchoicethings,andupontheextremelycarefulpreparationofthesame,affirmingthatsuchpersonsdonoteattolive,butratherlivetoeat.

Nonewasmorevigilantthanheinstudyandinwhateverelseheundertook,insomuchthathiswifeandfamilywereannoyedthereby,until theygrewaccustomed to hisways, and after that theypaid noheed thereto. He rarely spoke unless questioned, and thenthoughtfully, and in a voice suited to thematterwhereof he treated.When, however, there was cause he was eloquent and fluent inspeech,andpossessedofanexcellentandreadydelivery.Inhisyouthhe took the greatest delight in music and song, and enjoyed thefriendship and intimacy of all the best singers andmusicians of histime. Led on by this delight he composed many poems, which hemadethemclotheinpleasingandmasterlymelody.

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23.Peoplemoanaboutpovertyasagreatevil;anditseemstobeanacceptedbeliefthatifpeopleonlyhadplentyofmoney,theywouldbehappyandusefulandgetmoreoutoflife.Asarule,thereismoregenuinesatisfactioninlifeandmoreobtainedfromlifeinthehumblecottageofthepoormanthaninthepalacesoftherich.Ialwayspitythesonsanddaughtersofrichmen,whoareattendedbyservants,andhavegovernessesatalaterage;at thesametimeIamgladtothinkthattheydonotknowwhattheyhavemissed.

It isbecauseIknowhowsweetandhappyandpure thehomeofhonest poverty is, how free from perplexing care and from socialenviesandjealousies—howlovinganduniteditsmembersareinthecommoninterestofsupporting thefamily that Isympathizewith therichman’s boy and congratulate the poorman’s son. It is for thesereasonsthatfromtheranksofthepoorsomanystrong,eminent,self-reliantmenhavealways sprungandalwaysmust spring. Ifyouwillread the list of the “Immortalswhowere not born to die,” youwillfindthatmostofthemhavebeenbornpoor.

Itseemsnowadaysamatterofuniversaldesirethatpovertyshouldbe abolished.We should be quitewilling to abolish luxury ; but toabolishhonest,industrious,self-denyingpovertywouldbetodestroythesoiluponwhichmankindproducesthevirtuesthatwillenableourracetoreachastillhighercivilizationthanitnowpossesses.

24.ThesituationofColumbuswasdailybecomingmoreandmorecritical.Inproportionasheapproachedtheregionswhereheexpectedtofind land, the impatienceofhiscrewsaugmented.Thefavourablesigns which increased his confidence were decided by them asdelusive;andtherewasdangeroftheirrebellingandobliginghimtoturnback,whenonthepointofrealizingtheobjectofallhislabours.They beheld themselves with dismay still wafted onward over theboundless wastes of what appeared to them a mere watery desertsurroundingthehabitableworld.Whatwastobecomeofthemshouldtheirprovisions fall ?Their shipswere tooweakanddefectiveevenfor thegreatvoyage theyhadalreadymade,but if theywerestill to

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press forward, adding at every moment to the immense expansebehind them, how should they ever be able to return, having nointerveningportwheretheymightvictualandrefit?Weretheytosailinuntiltheyperished,oruntilallreturnbecameimpossible?Insuchcasetheywouldbetheauthorsoftheirowndestruction.

Ontheotherhand,shouldtheyconsult theirsafetyandturnbackbefore too late,whowould blame them ?Any complaintsmade byColumbuswouldbeofnoweight;hewasaforeigner,withoutfriendsor influence ; his schemes had been condemned by the learned anddiscountenanced by people of all ranks. He had no party to upholdhim, and a host of opponents whose pride of opinion would begratified by his failure. Or, as an effectualmeans of preventing hiscomplaints, theymight throwhim into the seasandgiveout thathehad fallen overboard while busy with his instruments contemplaingthestars,a reportwhichnoonewouldhaveeither the inclinationorthemeanstocontrovert.

Columbus was not ignorant of the mutinous disposition of hiscrew, but he still maintained a serene and steady countenance—soothingsomewithgentlewords,endeavouringtostimulatetheprideoravariceofothers, andopenlymenacing the refractorywith signalpunishment,shouldtheydoanythingwhatevertoimpedethevoyage.

25.ThegreatRomanorator,Cicero, inhis celebrated treatiseonFriendship, remarks with truth that it increases happiness anddiminishesmiserybythedoublingofourjoyandthedividingofourgrief.Whenwe dowell, it is delightful to have friendswho are soproudofoursuccessthattheyreceiveasmuchpleasurefromitaswedoourselves.Forthefriendlessmantheattainmentofwealth,power,and honour is of little value. Such possessions contribute to ourhappinessmost by enabling us to do good to others but if all thosewhomweareabletobenefitarestrangers,wetakefarlesspleasureinour beneficence than if it were exerted on behalf of friends whosehappinessisasdeartousasourown.Further,whenwedoourdutyinspiteoftemptation,thementalsatisfactionobtainedfromtheapproval

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ofourconsciencesisheightenedbythepraiseofourfriends;fortheirjudgementisasitwereasecondconscience,encouragingusingoodanddeterringusfromevil.Ouramusementshavelittlezestandsoonpall upon us ifwe engage in them in solitude, orwith uncongenialcompanions, forwhomwecan feelnoaffection.Thus ineverycaseour joys are rendered more intense and more permanent by beingsharedwithfriends.

It isequally true that,asCiceropointsout, friendshipdiminishesourmiserybyenablingustosharetheburdenofitwithothers.Whenfortunehas inflictedaheavyunavoidableblowuponus,ourgrief isalleviatedbyfriendlycondolence,andbythethought thatas longasfriendsarelefttous,lifeisstillworthliving.

Butmanymisfortuneswhichthreatenusarenotinevitableandinescaping such misfortunes, the advice and active assistance of ourfriendsmaybeinvaluable.Thefriendlessmanstandsalone,exposed,without protection to his enemies and to the blows of fortune ; butwhoeverhas loyal friends is therebyprovidedwitha strongdefenceagainsttheworstthatfortunecandotohim.

26.Thebestfriendamanhasinthisworldmayturnagainsthimand become his enemy.His son or his daughter, that he has rearedwith loving care,may prove ungrateful. Thosewho are nearest anddearest tous, thosewhomwetrustwithourhappinessandourgoodname,maybecometraitorstotheirfaith.

Themoney that aman has hemay lose. It flies away from himperhapswhenheneedsitmost.

A man’s reputation may be sacrificed in a moment of ill-consideredaction.Thepeoplewhoarepronetofallontheirkneestodoushonourwhensuccessiswithus,maybethefirsttothrowstonesofmalicewhenfailuresettlesitsclouduponourheads.

The one absolutely unselfish friend that man can have in thisselfishworld,theonethatneverdesertshim,theonethatneverprovesungratefulortreacherousishisdog.

Aman’sdogstandsbyhiminprosperityandinpoverty,inhealth

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and in sickness.Hewill sleepon thecoldground,where thewintrywinds blow and the snow drives fiercely, if only hemay be by hismaster’sside.Hewillkissthehandthathasnofoodtooffer,hewilllickthewoundsandsoresthatcomeinencounterwiththeroughnessoftheworld.

He guards the sleep of his paupermaster as if hewas a prince.Whenallotherfriendsdesertheremains.

When riches take wings and reputation falls to pieces, he is asconstant inhis loveas thesun in its journey through theheavens. Iffortune drives the master forth an outcast in the world, friendless,homeless, the faithful dog asks no higher privilege than that ofaccompanying him to guard against danger, to fight against hisenemies.Andwhen the last sceneof all comes, anddeath takes themasterinhisembrace,andhisbodyislaidawayinthecoldground,nomatterifallotherfriendspursuetheirway,therebythegravesidewillthenobledogbefound,hisheadbetweenhispaws,hiseyessadbutopeninalertwatchfulness,faithfulandtrueeventodeath.

*AFrenchword (pronouncedpressee) connectedwith theFrenchwordprecise.

CHAPTER39

EXPANSIONOFPASSAGESThis exercise is the exact opposite of Precis-writing. In Precis-

writing we have to compress; and in these exercises we have toexpand. A sentence, or a short passage, has to be enlarged into aparagraphbythefullerandmoreelaborateexpressionofitsmeaning,orbyaddingillustrations,detailsorproofstoasimplestatement.Suchexercisepracticallyamountstothewritingofminiatureessaysonthesubjectoftheoriginalsentenceorpassage.Nostrictrulecanbelaiddownfor the lengthof theexpansion; itmustnotbe tooshort,or it

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willscarcelybeanexpansion,orso longas tobecomeanessay.Ontheaverage,eightytoonehundredwordsshouldbeaimedat.

METHODOFPROCEDURE1.Carefully read the original sentence or passage, until you feel

thatyouclearlyunderstanditsmeaning.(Itisagoodpracticetotrytoexpress themain idea inawordoraphrase;e.g., therealsubjectofthesecondspecimenis,“PrideinOne’sWork.”)

2.Havinggraspedthesubjectandmeaningofthepassage,proceedto expand it by adding details, illustrations, proofs, examples etc.,untilitisatinyessayonlylongenoughtomakeaparagraph.

3.Theexpansionmustcontainallthatwasintheoriginalpassage;andmorecanbeadded,solongasitisstrictlyrelevanttothesubject.[Forinstance,inSpecimenNo.3(Letthysecret,unseenacts,etc.)thestoryoftheGreeksculptorisnotintheoriginal,butitwellillustratesthemeaningofthepassage.]

4.Thesentenceforexpansionisaconclusionorfinishedproduct:anditisyourworktotracethestepsbywhichthisthoughthasbeenarrivedat.

5. If it is ametaphor, explain its fullmeaning inplain language,andgivereasonstosupportit.

6.Yourexpansionshouldreadasacompletepieceofcomposition,expressed in good English ; such that it can be clearly understoodapartfromtheoriginalpassage.So,whenyouhavewrittenit,gooverit carefully to see that nothing essential has been omitted or leftobscure.

7.Correctallmistakesinspelling,grammarandpunctuation.

SPECIMENS

—1—A great deal of talent is lost in the world for the want of a little

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courage.

EXPANSIONSELF-CONFIDENCETimidityandself-distrustarealmostasgreatfaultsasconceitand

over-confidence. There are many people who have real talent indifferentlines,andyetwhoneveraccomplishanything,becausetheyareafraidtomakethefirstventure;andinthiswaygoodandusefulthings are lost to the world. A reasonable amount of confidence inone’sownpowersisnecessaryforsuccess.

–2–IfIwereacobbler,itwouldbemyprideThebestofallcobblerstobe;IfIwereatinker,notinkerbesideShouldmendanoldkettlelikeme.

EXPANSIONPRIDEINONE’SWORKIt is a great thing to take a pride in our work. Anything that is

worthdoingatall,isworthdoingwell.Eveninthehumblesttaskweshouldbeambitioustodoitaswellaswecan,ifpossiblebetterthananyoneelse.Forexample,acobblershouldnotthinkthatbecausehisjobisahumbleone,itcanbescampedanddoneanyhow;heshouldbe determined to make better shoes than any other cobbler ; and atinkershouldtakeprideinmendingevenanoldkettlebetterthananyothertinkercan.

–3–Letthysecret,unseenacts,BesuchasifthementhouprizestmostWerewitnessesaroundthee.

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EXPANSIONTOWARDGOODNESSAGreeksculptor,whenhewasaskedwhyhecarvedthebacksofhisstatues,

whichnomanwouldever see, as carefullyashecarved the front, said : “Thegodswill see them !” So it is not enough for us to live outwardly good liveswhileinsecretweallowevilinourhearts,forGodknowsevenifmendonot!We should never do in secret what we should be ashamed of doing in thepresenceofourmostvaluedfriends.

–4–Howevermeanyourlifeis,meetitandliveit;donotshunitandcallithardnames.

EXPANSIONMAKINGTHEBESTOFLIFEMenwhoarealwaysgrumblingabout theirpoverty,complaining

oftheirdifficulties,whiningovertheirtroubles,andthinkingthattheirlotinthisworldismeanandpoor,willnevergetanyhappinessoutoflifeorachieveanysuccess.Howevermeanourlifemaybe,ifwefaceitbravelyandhonestlyandtrytomakethebestofit,weshallfindthatafterallitisnotsobadaswethought:andwemayhaveourtimesofhappiness and the joys of success. There is nothing common orunclean,untilwemakeitsobythewrongattitudeweadopttowardsit.

–5–PeacehathhervictoriesNolessrenownedthanwar.

EXPANSIONTHEVICTORIESOFPEACEThewordvictoryisgenerallyassociatedinourmindswithwar,andcallsup

visionsofbattles,bloodshed,andconquestbyforce:andwethinkofwarasagloriousthingbecauseofitsfamousvictoriesandsplendidtriumphs.Butwhen

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wethinkoftheachievementsofgreatmen–statesmen,scholars,socialreformers,scientists, philanthropists, explorers, discoverers and honest workers–for thebettermentofthehumanraceandtheprogressandcivilizationoftheworld,werealize that the victories of peace are evenmore glorious than the victories ofwar.

EXERCISE149

Expandtheideacontainedineachofthefollowing:–1. Itisagreatlosstoamanwhenhecannotlaugh.2. Charityisauniversalduty,whichitisineveryman’spowersometimesto

practise.3. Slowandsteadywinstherace.4. Hewhofollowstwoharescatchesneither.5. Agreatcityis,tobesure,theschoolforstudyinglife.6. Midpleasuresandpalacesthoughwemayroam,

Beiteversohumble,there’snoplacelikehome.7. Thenoblestmenthatliveonearth,

Aremenwhosehandsarebrownwithtoil.8. Wherethere’sawillthere’saway.9. Perseveranceistheveryhingeofallvirtues.10. Honourandshamefromnoconditionrise:

Actwellyourpart;thereallthehonourlies.11. Theyareslaveswhodarenotbe

Intherightwithtwoorthree.12. Greattalkersarenevergreatdoers.13. ThecrownandgloryoflifeisCharacter.14. Lifeindeedwouldbedull,iftherewerenodifficulties.15. Onlytheactionsofthejust

Smellsweet,andblossomintheirdust.16. Tellmenot,inmournfulnumbers,

Lifeisbutanemptydream.17. Toanyonewhowishestoamendhislifethereisnotimelikethepresent.18. Therealdignityofamanlies,notinwhathehas,butinwhatheis.19. Hethatishumble,evershall

HaveGodtobehisguide.20. Whatisthislife,iffullofcare,

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Wehavenotimetostandandstare?21. Home-keepingyouthshaveeverhomelywits.22. Housesarebuilttoliveinandnottolookon.23. Nothingwaseverachievedwithoutenthusiasm.24. Trainupachildinthewayheshouldgo.25. Whateverisworthdoingatall,isworthdoingwell.26. Customreconcilesustoeverything.27. Dotheworkthat’snearest,

Thoughit’sdullatwhiles,Helpingwhenwemeetthem,Lamedogsoverstiles.

28. Eachman’sbeliefisrightinhisowneyes.29. Thegoodarealwaysthemerry,savebyanevilchance.30. Theheightsbygreatmenreachedandkept,

Werenotattainedbysuddenflight;Butthey,whiletheircompanionsslept,Weretoilingupwardsinthenight.

31. OnecrowdedhourofgloriouslifeIsworthanagewithoutaname.

32. BreathestherethemanwithsoulsodeadWhonevertohimselfhathsaid,Thisismyown,mynativeland?

33. FullmanyagemofpurestraysereneThedarkunfathomedcavesofoceanbear;Fullmanyaflowerisborntoblushunseen,Andwasteitssweetnessonthedesertair.

CHAPTER40

ESSAY-WRITINGThewordEssayisdefinedin“TheConciseOxfordDictionary”as

“a literary composition (usually prose and short) on any subject.”Properly speaking, it is a written composition giving expression toone’s own personal ideas or opinions on some topic ; but the termusually covers also any writtten composition, whether it expresses

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personal opinions, or gives information on any given subject, ordetailsofanarrativeordescription.

Infacttheword“Essay”issomewhatlooselyappliedtoavarietyofcompositions,fromBacon’scompressed“Essays”ontheonehand,to thosesocalled“Essays”ofMacaulay,someofwhichare lengthyarticles,almostasbigassmallbooks,ontheother.

[Addison’sEssaysaregoodmodelsforIndianstudents,becauseoftheirbrevityandsimpledirectnessofstyle.]

So far as we are concerned here, an essay is an exercise incomposition;andit iswell torememberthat thewordessaymeans,literally,anattempt.(Comparetheverb“toessay”,withtheaccentonthesecondsyllable,meaningtoattemptortry.)Theessaysyouwriteatschoolaretrialexercisesor“attempts”toexpressyourthoughtsingood English. (School essays of this kind are sometimes called“themes,” from the fact that such an essay is a compositionwrittenuponagiventheme,orsubject).

CHARACTERISTICSOFAGOODSCHOOLESSAY

1.Unity.Anessaymustbeaunity,developingonethemewithadefinitepurpose.Thesubjectmustbeclearlydefinedinthemindandkept inview throughout.Nothing that isnot relevant to it shouldbeadmittedtotheessay.Atthesametime,thesubjectmaybetreatedinavarietyofwaysandfromdifferentpointsofview.

2.Order.Theessayshouldfollowacertainorderedlineofthoughtandcometoadefiniteconclusion.Itshouldnotconsistofhaphazardreflections put down anyhow. There should be not only unity ofsubjectbut alsounityof treatment.Hence thenecessity for thinkingoutalineofthoughtbeforebeginningtowrite.

3.Brevity.Schoolessaysshouldnotbelong.Thelimitshouldbeaboutthreehundredwords; though,ofcourse,therecanbenostrictruleastolength,whichwilldependagooddealonthenatureofthe

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subject.Butanessayshouldbeabriefexercise,conciselyexpressed.4.Style. In friendly letters, the style should be conversational—

easy, natural and familiar ; and in writing such letters wemay usecolloquialtermswhichwouldbeoutofplaceinabook.Butthestyleof an essay must be more dignified and literary. Slang, colloquialtermsand freeandeasyconstructionsarenotproper inanessay.Atthesametimeitisamistaketoattemptanyflightsoffinewriting.Thelanguage and sentence construction should be simple, direct andnatural.The secret of clearwriting is clear thinking. “If you clearlyunderstandall aboutyourmatter, youwillneverwant thoughts, andthoughtsinstantlybecomewords.”ThiswassaidbyCobbett,awriterwhosestyleisamodelofclearness,simplicityanddirectness.

5. The Personal Touch. An essay should reveal the personalfeelingsandopinionsofthewriter.Itshouldhavehisindividualityinit. Strictly speaking, as has been already said, an essay is awrittencompositiongivingexpressiontoone’spersonalideasoropinionsonasubject;andthispersonaltouchshouldnotbelost,ortheessaywillbe colourless and devoid of individuality. So do not be afraid toexpress in your essays your ownviews, and do not be contentwithrepeatingtheopinionsofothers.Lettherebeanoteofsincerityinallthatyouwrite.

To sum up :–An essay must be a unity, treating in an orderlymanner of one subject ; it should be concisely written and not toolong, and thestyleshouldbysimple,directandclear; and it shouldhaveanindividuality,orshowthepersonaltouchofthewriter.

Three features are necessary in a good essay—suitable subject-matter,properarrangement,andadequatepowerofexpression.Whereallthesethreearepresent,theessaywillbeasuccess.

CLASSIFICATIONOFESSAYSEssaysmaybeclassifiedasNarrativeEssays,DescriptiveEssays,

Expository Essays, Reflective Essays and Imaginative Essays. The

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classificationisuseful,solongasitisrememberedthattheseclassesarenotmutuallyexclusive,and thatsomeessaysmaypartakeof thepeculiarities ofmore than one class. For example, a narrative essaymay contain a good deal of description ; and essays of all classesshouldbemoreorlessreflective,fortheoriginalideaofthisformofcompositionisanexpressionofthewriter’sownfeelingsandopinionsaboutagivensubject.Forthisreason,letusbeginwith–

1.ReflectiveEssays.–Areflectionisathoughtonsomesubject—on an idea arising in the mind. So a reflective essay consists ofreflections or thoughts on some topic, which is generally of anabstract nature ; for example ; (a) habits, qualities, etc., such astruthfulness, thrift, temperance, cowardice, heroism, patriotism,industry,etc.,(b)social,politicalanddomestictopics,suchasrichesand poverty, caste, democracy, liberty, government, family life,education,marriage,business,etc.,(c)philosophicalsubjects,suchasrightandwrong,reality,consciousness, themeaningof theuniverse,etc.;or(d)religiousandtheologicaltopics.

Intreatingsuchthemes,youshouldtry(i)toexplain,forexample,theimportanceoradvantagesofpossessinggoodhabitsandqualities,and the risks anddisadvantagesof lacking them ; andquote stories,fables, or historical or literary references in support of yourstatements;(ii)discusstheimportanceofsocialinstitutionsetc.;(iii)expound and discuss philosophical and theological theories. Youshouldreasonandsupportyourstatementswithargumentsandfacts.

2. Narrative Essays.–A narrative essay consists mainly in thenarrationofsomeevent,orseriesofevents.Isay“mainly”becauseanarrative essay must not be confused with a short story or bits ofhistory. The narrative it relates should be treated as a subject forthought and comment, and so the essay should be more or lessreflective. Narrative essays may treat of–(a) historical stories orlegends (e.g., the reign ofAkbar, the story of Rama and Sita) ; (b)biographies(e.g.,lifeofShivajee,orofBabar);(c)incidents(e.g.,astreet quarrel, a festival, a marriage) ; (d) an accident or natural

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disaster (e.g., a flood, a fire, a ship-wreck, an earthquake ; (e) ajourneyorvoayge;(f)astory(realorimaginary).

3. Descriptive Essays.– A descriptive essay consists of adescriptionofsomeplaceorthing;e.g.,(a)animals,plants,minerals(such as the elephant, the pipal tree, coal); (b) towns, countries,buildings, etc., (e.g.,Mumbai, Italy, theTajMahal); (c)aspectsandphenomena of nature (such as volcanoes, the monsoon, sunlight,organic life); and (d) manufactured articles (such as motor-cars,steam-engines,silk,paper,etc.).

4. Expository Essays–An expository (or explanatory) essayconsists of an exposition or explanation of some subject ; e.g. : (a)institutions, industries, occupations (e.g., parliament, the press, silk-weaving, farming, etc.): (b) scientific topics (such as gravitation,evolution,astronomy,etc.) ;(c) literarytopics(suchasthenatureofpoetry, prose styles, the genius of Shakespeare, the novels of Scott,historyoffiction,etc.).

5.ImaginativeEssays–Essaysonsubjectssuchasthefeelingsandexperiences of the sailor wrecked on a desert islandmay be calledimaginative Essays. In such the writer is called to place himself inimagination in apositionofwhichhehashadno actual experience.Such subjects as “If I were a king,” or “The autobiography of ahorse,”wouldcallforimaginativeessays.

HINTSONESSAY-WRITING1.GeneralPreparation–Oneofthechiefdifficultiesyoungpeople

feel in essay-writing is lack of matter. They do not easily findanything to say about a subject. This is natural, because theirexperienceandgeneralreadingarelimited.Butitmayberemediedbyreading,andbytrainingthepowerofobservation.

(a)Reading–Baconsaid,“Readingmakethafullman”; that is,aperson who reads much and widely stores his mind with a largevarietyoffacts,thoughts,illustrationsandgeneralinformation.Ifyou

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want to write good essays you must acquire a love of reading–notsimply reading stories for amusement, but reading good books ofhistory, travel, biography and science. Fill your mind with finethoughts andaccurate information.By sodoingyouwill become“afullman”, and “a fullman” can always find plenty to say onmostsubjects.

(b)Observation–But all knowledge does not come from books.Wemay learnmuchfromthe lifearoundus—whatweseeandhearandobserve forourselves.Keepeyesandearsopen, and learn fromyourownexperience.Practisewritingshortdescriptionsofwhatyouseeineverydaylife—thepeopleyoumeet,bitsofscenerythatstrikeyou,buildings,streetscenes, treesandflowers,hillsandvalleys, thehabits of animals and birds. Don’t be content with reading otherpeople’s description of such things, but see them for yourself. It issurprisingwhatalotmaybelearntfrompersonalobservation.

(c)Conversation–Books arewrittenbymenandwomen ; and ifwecan learn from thebooks theywrite,wecan learn also from thewords they say.Listen to people’s conversation; get them to talk toyouaboutthethingstheyknow,anddiscusssubjectsthatinterestyou,withyourfriends.Inthisway,also,youmaylearnmuch.

A writer reads, observes, and gets people to talk ; and in thesewaysheisalwaysenrichinghismindwithideasandknowledge.

2.SpecialPreparation–Nowwe come to the special preparationneededforwritinganessayonsomeparticularsubject;andthefirstthingwemustdoistodefinethesubject.

(a)DefiningtheSubject–Itisveryimportantthatyoushouldhaveaclearandaccurateconceptionofthesubjectoftheessaybeforeyouattempttowriteonit—whatexactlyitisand(equallyimportant)whatit is not. Some subjects are so simple that you can scarcelymake amistake about them ; but some want looking into to define themexactly. For example, “TheUses ofComputers”. The subject is nothow computers work. Nor is it the history of computers. Yet somestudents, carelessly reading the subject,might easily takeup a large

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partoftheiressaywithsuchtopics.Inashortschool-essaythereisnoroomforirrelevantmatter.Youhavetocometothepointatonce,andstart away with the subject. The subject in this case is the uses ofcomputersinoffices,inindustries,inaircraft,inspacecraft,etc.Itis,therefore,verynecessarythatyoushoulddefinethesubjectclearlyinyourownmind,oryoumaywastemuchtimeandpaperinwritingonmoreorlessirrelevantmatters.

(b)Collectingmaterials–(i)Readingup theSubject–Whenyouhavegotaclearideaofyoursubject,thenextstepwillbetothinkofwhat you can say about it. Some subjects are so simple that a littlereflectionshouldsupplyyouwithsufficientmaterialforashortessay;butforothers,specialinformationwillbeneededforwhichyoumayhave to do some special reading. For instance, if you have towriteaboutsomehistoricalsubjects,orgiveadescriptionofsomecountryyouhaveseen,youwillhavetogetholdofsomebookandreadthesubject up. But in any case, you have to collect materials for youressay before you can write it. In schools, class-discussions on thesubject, under the guidance of the teacher, are very helpful in thisstageofspecialpreparation. Inanycase,donotattempt towrite theessaybeforeyouhavegivensometimetothinkingoverwhatyoucansayonthesubject.Thecommonhabitofbeginningtowritedownthefirst thing that comes into one’s head, without knowing what is tocomenext,isfataltogoodessay-writing.

(ii) Collection–As you think over the subject, ideas, facts, andillustrationswillpassthroughyourmind.Butifyoudon’tcatchthemastheycome,youmayforgetthemjustwhenyouwantthem.So,asyoucatchbirdsandputtheminacage,catchandcagethesefleetingthoughtsbyjottingthemdownonapieceofpaperjustastheycomeinto your head, without troubling yourself at this stage about theirorder or suitability. You can examine the birds thus caught at yourleisure later. (To save time afterwards, and for convenience ofreference,numberthesenotesasyoujotthemdown.)

(iii) Selection–When you think you have collected enough

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material foryour essay, oryoucan’t thinkof anymorepoints, readoverthenotesyouhavejotteddowntoselectthepointsmostsuitableforyourpurpose.Examineatyourleisurethebirdsinthecage,toseewhat they are worth. You may find that some points are not veryrelevantorwon’tfit in;cross themout.Youmayfindthatsomearemererepetitionsofothers;andothersmaybesimplyillustrationstobebroughtundermainheads.Thisprocessofselectionwillprobablysuggesttoyouinageneralwaythelineofthoughtyoumayfollowintheessay.

(c)LogicalArrangement–Nowyoushouldbereadytodecideonthelineofthoughtoftheessay,i.e.,thelogicalorderinwhichyoucanarrangethepointsyouhaveselected.Thenecessityofthusarrangingyourthoughtsaccordingtosomeordinaryplancannotbetoostronglyinsistedupon.Without it, theessaywillprobablybebadlyarranged,rambling,disproportioned,andfullofrepetitionsandirrelevancies.

(i) Making the outline–Bearing your subject definitely in yourmind and with your purpose clearly before you, sketch out a bareoutlineofthemainheads,underwhichyouwillarrangeyourvariousmaterials in a natural, logical and convincing order—from a briefIntroductiontoaneffectiveConclusion.

(ii) Filling in the Outline–Having thus mapped out the mainpointswithwhichyouaregoing todeal,arrange the ideasyouhavecollected each under its proper main head, rejecting all those notreallyrelevanttoyoursubjectorwhichsimplyrepeatotherthoughts,andtakingcarethateachreallybelongstothedivisioninwhichyouplaceit.

Youwillnowhaveafulloutline,whichistobeaguidetoyouinwritingtheessay.Butthisisnottheessay,butonlyitswell-articulatedskeleton. You must now clothe the skeleton with flesh, and (mostdifficult of all) breathe into it thebreathof life, beforeyoucan callyourproductionanessay.

EXAMPLE

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Toillustratethismethodofcollectingmaterialsanddrawingupanoutline, let uswork out together a simple example for an essay on,say,“TheElephant.”

Thesubjectissosimplethatweneednotspendanytimedefiningit.WhatiswantedisevidentlyaDescriptiveEssay,andallwehavetodoistothinkofallwecansayabouttheElephant.

Sowecansettoworkatoncecatchingandcagingourbirds,or,inother words, jotting down, as they come into ourmind, all we canrememberaboutelephants.The thoughtsmaycome tous somethinglikethis,andwewillputthemdownandnumberthemastheyoccurtous.

THEELEPHANT

1. Largestofallanimals.2. Usedintiger-hunting.3. Revengeful–storyoftailorandelephant.4. Itstrunkandlargeears.5. FoundinIndiaandAfrica–twokinds.6. Itsskillinpilinglogs.7. Itsgreatstrength.8. InIndia,usedinstateprocessions.9. Howcaughtandtamed.10. Madelephants.11. Elephantgrass.12. Itstusks–huntedforivory.13. Howdahandmahout.14. Storyofblindmenandelephant.15. Inoldtimesusedinwar.16. Itsintelligence.17. Feedsonleavesandgrass.18. Decoyelephants,andKeddahs.

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19. Candrawheavyloads.

Hereisplentyofmaterial;butitisinnoorder,anditwillwantalotofsiftingbeforeitcanbeused.Wemustexamineallthesedetailstoseewhicharesuitableandarrangethem.

A little scrutinywill show that theymay bearranged in groupsunderdifferentheadings.

Nos.1,4,7,12,and16arepartsofadescriptionofanelephant.Nos. 2, 6, 8 (with 13), 12, 15 and 19 refer to different ways in

whichelephantsareofusetoman.Nos.7and16givereasonswhytheelephantisusefultoman.Nos.9,12and18refertothehuntingoftheelephant.Nos.5and17mentionthehabitatandfoodoftheelephant.WehavenowclassifiedallthepointsexceptNos.3,10,11and14.

AstoNo.11,itisofnousetous,asthegrassreferredtogetsitsnamesimplyfromitsgreatsize.No.14wouldbetoolong;andbesidesthestory isnot somuchabout theelephant asan illustrationof the factthattruthismany-sided.No.10mightbebroughtinincidentally,andperhapstakenalongwithNo.3;butwemayhavemorethanenoughmaterialwithoutthem.

Alreadysomethinglikeanoutlineisemergingfromthedisorderlymassofmaterial.Weseehowwemaygroupthedifferentitemsundersuch heads as Description, Habitat, Uses, Hunting, etc. Very soonsomesuchprovisionalbareoutlineasthismaysuggestitself:–

BAREOUTLINE1. Description.2. Habitatandfood.3. Howandwhyhunted.4. Strengthandintelligence,makingelephantusefultoman.5. Itsdifferentuses.

Now we must fill in this bare outline by grouping the various

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pointsunder themainheads. Indoing this,wemayfindoccasion tomodify or alter the bare outline, and additional detailsmay suggestthemselves.

FULLOUTLINE

THEELEPHANT1.Description–(Nos.1,4,7,12.)

Great size and strength ; trunk (its uses) ; big ears ; small tail ; tusks ;speed.

2.Habitat–(Nos.5and17.)Found inAfricaandIndia ; twokinds ; lives inherds ; feedson leavesandgrassinjungles.

3.Ofgreatusetoman (becauseof itsstrengthandintelligence)–(Nos.7and16)Differentuses:

(a)Drawsheavyloads(No.19).(b)Pileslogs(No.6).(c)Usedintiger-hunting(No.2);howdahandmahout(No.13).(d)Usedinbattlesinolddays(No.15).(e)UsedinstateprocessionsinIndia(No.8).

4.Elephanthunting–Whyandhow.(a)Huntedforivorywithelephantguns(No.12).(b)Caught alive to be tamed (No. 9)–Decoy elephants entice herd intoKeddahs(No.18).

Theoutlinewillbequitelongenoughforanordinaryschoolessay;so we had better omit some of the points we first jotted down andmarked as doubtful, viz.,Nos. 3, 10, 11 and 14. This illustrates thenecessityforselection.

When we come to write the essay, we must keep this outlinebeforeusasaguide;but,unlesswearerequiredtodoso,theoutlineshouldnotappearinthefaircopyoftheessay.(Inexaminations,theoutline canbewritten on the left-handpageof the answer-book, onwhichscribblingisallowed.)

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WRITINGTHEESSAY1. Paragraphs–Every essay should be divided into paragraphs,

and each heading should have at least one paragraph to itself. Anessaynotthusparagraphedlooksunattractive,andisnoteasytoread.

[Aparagraphisagroupofrelatedsentencesthatdevelopasinglepoint. Inconstructingaparagraph theseprinciples shouldbekept inview :–(i)Unity. The paragraphmust treat of one subject only. (ii)Variety. Paragraphs should not all be of the same length or of thesame monotonous structure. (iii) Logical sequence of thought. (iv)Topicalsentence.Themostimportantsentencesofaparagrapharethefirst and the last. In many paragraphs the first sentence states thesubject, and is called the topical sentence (or key-sentence). Theconcludingsentencemaysumupeffectivelywhathasbeensaidintheparagraph.]

2.StructureofanEssay–Wemaydivideanessayintothreeparts—theIntroduction,theBodyoftheEssay,andtheConclusion.

(a)TheIntroduction–This,inashortessay,mustbeverybrief.Itwouldbeabsurd tohave theporchbigger than thebuilding itself. Itmay be simply a sentence, or a very short paragraph. But it shouldalwaysbearrestingandpertinenttothesubject.Theintroductionmayconsist of a definition or a quotation, proverb, very brief story, orgeneralremark,leadinguptothesubject.

(b) The Body of the Essay–This is really the essay itself—thehousetowhichtheintroductionisthefrontdoor,andtheconclusionthebackdoor,orexit.

Inarrangingthebodyoftheessayobserveproportion;thatis,leteachparthavedueweightgiventoit.Ifthesubjectis“Thegoodandbad influence of Newspapers,” do not devote three-quarters of theessay to good influences and so leave only a quarter for the bad.Closelyfollowyourfulloutlinethroughout.

Theparagraphsshouldbewellconstructedandshouldberelatedtooneanotheraccordingtothedirectionofyouroutline;and,asfar

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aspossible,theconnectionbetweenoneandanothershouldbeshown.Avoid“padding”andkeeptothepoint.

Takepains inselectingwordsandphraseswhichexactlyexpresstheideaswhichyouhaveinmind;andframeyoursentencessothattheyarequiteclearandforceful.

Avoidtheuseofunneccessarywords.Inrevisingyouressay,lookoutforuselessrepetitionsandredundantexpressions,andstrikethemout.

Match thewords to the sense, andadapt the style to the subject-matter.Donotwritefrivolouslyonaserioussubject,orponderouslyonalightandhumoroussubject.

(c)TheConclusion–Astheintroductionshouldarouseinterest,theconclusion should satisfy it. An effective and satisfying end to anessay is as important as an arrestingbeginning.An abrupt or feebleendingmay spoil thewhole effect of the essay.A good conclusionmayconsistof:–(a)asummingupoftheargumentsoftheessay;(b)final conclusion drawn from the subject-matter ; (c) a suitablequotation;(d)asentencethatstrikinglyexpressesthemainpointyouwanttodrivehome.

3.Finally,afewwordsaboutyourStyleinWriting–Toacquireasimple,directandforcefulstyleinwritingcallsforconstantpractice.Itdoesnotcome“bynature.”AsthepoetPopesays:–

“Trueeaseinwritingcomesfromart,notchance;Asthosemoveeasiestwhohavelearnedtodance.’’

Thesecretofclearwritingisclearthinking.So,beperfectlyclearaboutwhatyouwanttosay,andthensayit–asdirectly,assimply,asconciselyaspossible.Bedirect:useshortsentencesinpreferencetolong and involvedperiods.Be simple : don’t attempt anyoratory orflowery languagebut use simplewords and constructions and avoidelaborateandsuperfluouswords;saywhatyouwanttosayasterselyasisconsistentwithmakingyourmeaningclear.Neverusetwowordswhereone(therightone)willdo.Benatural:don’ttrytoimitateanyauthor’sstyle,howevereloquent,butbeyourself.

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1. Clearlydefineyoursubjectinyourownmind.2. Thinkoverit,until ideasaboutitcomeintoyourmind,and

jotthepointsdownonpaperastheyoccurtoyou–numberingthem.

3. Classify these points in groups under suitable headings,rejectinganythatareunsuitable.

4. Arrangetheseheadingsinabareoutline.5. Fillintheouline,makingafulloutline.6. Nowbegintowritetheessay,dividingitintoparagraphs.7. The essay should consist of introduction, body and

conclusion.(a)Maketheintroductionarresting.(b) Keep the parts of the body of the essay in properproportion; and take pains in choosingwords, constructingsentencesandbuildingupparagraphs.(c)Maketheconclusioneffectiveandsatisfying.

8. Writeinasimple,concise,clear,directandnaturalstyle.

SUMMARYOFMETHODOFPROCEDURETosumup:–

1.HOLIDAYSThere is not much need of proving to most schoolboys that holidays are

necessary.Theyarequiteconvincedthattheyare–andmostdesirable,too.Theywelcomeaholidayfromschoolwithhilariousjoy,andplaguetheheadmasterontheleastexcusetoletthemofftheirlessons.Itwouldbemoreinplacetotrytoconvince themof the necessity ofwork and study.Yet itmay be desirable toshow that regular intervals of rest, recreation, or a change of occupation arereallynecessary.Astheoldrhymesays,

“Allworkandnoplay,MakesJackadullboy.’’Holidaysatproperintervalsareespeciallynecessaryforyoungpeople,and

for thoseengagedinhardmentalwork; forcontinuouswork,withoutabreak,will injure the health, andmay cause a nervous breakdown. A short holiday,

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rightlyused,willsendusbacktoourworkwitrenewedzestandvigour.“Rightlyused.”Italldependsuponthat.Forholidaysmaybeabused.Ifthe

holiday is spent in stupid idleness, or in an exhausting round of excitingamusements, or shut up in close stuffy rooms drinking and playing, or in anyotherunhealthyway,theboyormanwillcomebacktohisworktired,listless,anduninterested.Theholiday,insteadofdoinggood,hasdoneharm,muchmoreharmthansteadyworkcouldeverdo.

Howcanaholiday,then,bebestused,sothatattheendofitweshallcomebacktoorworkwithenergiesrenewedandinterestkeenerthanever?Ifwearestudents,orhavebeenshutupinstuffyoffices,weshouldgetawayintothepureairofthecountryandliveahealthy,openairlife,enjoyinggamesorsports.Weshould avoid unhealthy amusement, keep early hours and get plenty ofrefreshingsleep.Andweshouldnotbecompletelyidle.Changeofoccupationisarest.Andifwehavealittleregularworktodo,workthatwetakeaninterestin,itwillmakeourholidaynotonlyhealthier,butmoreenjoyable.

2.BOOKSANDREADINGHappyis themanwhoacquires thehabitofreadingwhenhe isyoung.He

hassecuredalife-longsourceofpleasure,instructionandinspiration.Solongashehashisbelovedbooks,heneednever feel lonely.Healwayshasapleasantoccupation of leisure moments, so that he need never feel bored. He is thepossessor of wealth more precious than gold. Ruskin calls books. “Kings’Treasures”–treasuries filled, not with gold and silver and precious stones, butwithrichesmuchmorevaluablethanthese–knowledge,noblethoughtsandhighideals.Poorindeedisthemanwhodoesnotread,andemptyishislife.

The blessings which the reading habit confers on its possessor are manyprovidedwechoose therightkindofbooks.Readinggives thehighestkindofpleasure.Somebookswereadsimplyforpleasureandamusement–forexample,good novels. And novels and books of imagination must have their place ineverybody’s reading. When we are tired, or the brain is weary with seriousstudy,itisahealthyrecreationtoloseourselvesinsomeabsorbingstorywrittenbyamasterhand.

Buttoreadnothingbutbooksoffictionislikeeatingnothingbutcakesandsweetmeats.Asweneedplain,wholesomefoodforthebody,sowemusthaveserious reading for themind.And herewe can choose according to our taste.Therearemanynoblebooksonhistory,biography,philosophy,religion,travel,

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andsciencewhichweoughttoread,andwhichwillgiveusnotonlypleasurebutaneducation.Andwecandevelopatasteforseriousreading,sothatintheenditwill give us more solid pleasure than even novels and books of fiction. Norshould poetry be neglected, for the best poetry gives us noble thoughts andbeautifulimaginingsclothedinlovelyandmusicallanguage.

Booksarethemostfaithfuloffriends.Ourfriendsmaychange,ordie;butour books are always patiently waiting to talk to us. They are never cross,peevish, or unwilling to converse, as our friends sometimes are.Nowonder areaderbecomesa“book-lover.”

3.AVISITTOABOOKFAIRThe year 2002 was declared “The year of Books” by the National Book

TrustofIndia.Withthisnotethenation’scapitalplayedhosttotheWorldBookFairattheTradeFairPragatiMaidan.

Onhearing thismyfriendsand Iexpressedoureagerness togoandwatchthismegafestival.Ourprincipalreadilyagreedandstudentswentbybatchestobeapartof thisgrandevent.TheinauguraldaywasmarkedwithawalkfromtheParliamentHousetotheTradeFairGrounds.

The book fair was indeed a spectacle to watch. There were hoardingseverywhere “All for books and books for all”. Each hall was segmented intomanystallsmanagedbytherespectivepublishinghouses.OvertheyearsIwastoldbyourprincipalabouttheincreasingnumberofpublishinghouses.Wehadlocalpublishers,nationalpublishersandinternationalpublishers.Thebookfairattracted a large number of men and women and a much larger number ofchildren.

While the stalls, had the art of finesse, each stall was a delight towatch.Theydisplayedchildren’sbooks,subjectorientedbooks,booksonlanguageandliterature,booksonperformingarts,scienceandtechnologybooks,softwareandhardware books, books on finance and management, books on anatomy andmedicine,booksonlawandincometax,academicbooksandsponsoredbooks.Totopthemallwasahugecollectionofdictionaries.

While every stall was impressive, what attracted us most was the specialseating arrangementmade for enthusiastic readers by S. Chand andCompanyLtd,.Toaddtothiswewereallservedwithacupofcoffee,everyoneofus.Thecoffeerelievedourfatigueandweweretwostepsandthirtymilesawayfromtherestof theworld.Therewerecafeteriasand icecreamparlours, Iboughtsome

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bookswhichappealedtome.Astheclockstruckeight.Iwalkedhomewiththefeeling of Francis Bacon’s memorable words: “Reading maketh a full man,conferenceareadymanandwritinganexactman”.

I wish we hosted such book fairs three times a year so that we can bestimulatedtoreadmoreandmorebooksandbroadenourvisions.

4.AHOUSEONFIREIhadneverseenahouseonfirebefore.So,oneeveningwhenIheardfire

engineswith loud alarmbells rushingpastmyhouse, I quickly ranout and, afewstreetsaway,joinedalargecrowdofpeople;butwecouldseethefireonlyfromadistancebecausethepolicewouldnotallowanyonenearthebuildingonfire.

WhataterriblesceneIsawthatday!Hugeflamesoffirewerecomingoutofeachfloor,andblackandthicksmokespreadallaround.Everynowandthentongues of fire would shoot up almost sky-high, sending huge sparks of fireround-about.

Threefireengineswerebusilyengagedandthefiremenintheirdarkuniformwereplayingthehoseonvariouspartsofthebuilding.Therushingwaterfromseveralhosessoakedthebuildingbut itdidnotseemtohaveanyeffectontheflames.ThenthetallredladdersofthefireenginewerestretchedupwardsandIcould see some firemen climbing up with hoses in their hands. On reachingalmostthetopoftheladder,theybegantopourfloodsofwateronthetopmostpartofthebuilding.Thiscontinuousfloodingbroughtthefireundercontrolbutthebuildingwascompletelydestroyed.

Whilefireisablessinginmanyways,itcanalsobeagreatdangertohumanlifeandproperty.

5.THEELEPHANTNowthat themammothisextinct, theelephant is thelargestofallanimals

living.andthestrongest.Itisastrange-lookinganimal,withitsthicklegs,hugesidesandback,largehangingears,smalltail,littleeyes,longwhitetusks,and,above all, its long nose, called the trunk. The trunk is the elephant’s peculiarfeature, and it puts it to various uses. It draws upwater by its trunk, and cansquirtitalloveritsbodylikeashowerbath;andwithit,itpicksleavesfromthetreesandputsthemintoitsmouth.Infact,itstrunkservestheelephantasalongarmandhand.Elephants lookvery clumsy andheavy, andyet they canmove

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veryquicklywhentheylike.ElephantsarefoundinIndiaandinAfrica.TheAfricanelephantdiffers in

somepointsfromtheIndian,beinglarger,withlongertusksandbiggerears.Infact,thetwoareconsideredtobedifferentspecies.Inbothcountries,theyliveinherds in the jungles, and are naturally shy animals that keep away frommen.Elephants, with their great size and strength, are fine advertisement forvegetarianism,fortheyliveentirelyonleavesoftrees,grass,rootsandbulbs.

Theelephantisaveryintelligentanimal,anditsintelligencecombinedwithitsgreatstrength,makesit,whentamed,averyusefulservanttoman;andithasbeentrainedtoserveinvariousways.

Elephantscancarryheavyloadsaboutathousandseerseach;andtheyareusedtodrawheavywagonsandbiggunsthatwouldrequiremanyhorses.Theyareveryskilful,too,inpilingtimber.Thetrainedelephantwillkneeldown,liftaheavylogofwoodwithitstusks,carryittotheplacewhereitiswanted,andlayitexactlyinposition.

Elephantsarealsotrainedfortiger-hunting.Thehuntsmensitinthehowdahonthebackoftheelephant,whichisdrivenandguidedbythedriver,calledthemahout,whosquatsonitsneck.Inthiswaythehuntersarecarriedthroughthethickest, and at such aheight that they can see and fire at the tigerwhen it isdrivenout.

In old days elephantswere used in battles, and all Indian Rajas had theirregimentsof trained fightingelephants.And they stillhave theirplace in stateprocessions,whentheyarepaintedwithbrightcoloursandcoveredwithsilkandvelvetclothes.

In Africa elephants are huntedmainly for their tusks, which are made ofivoryandareveryvaluable.Theirskinsaresothickthatanordinarybulletwillnot pierce them ; and so large guns, called elephant-guns, are used to kill theanimals.

Many elephants are caught alive to be tamed and trained. But catchingelephants alive is difficult and dangerouswork ; for, though the elephant is ashy,wildanimalwhen leftalone, itcanbeadangerousenemywhenattacked.Elephantsaregenerallycaughtaliveingreattrapsorenclosures,calledkeddahs.Theyareeitherdriven into thesekeddahs,or led into themby tameelephants,calleddecoys,whicharetrainedtoleadtheirwildbrothersintocaptivity.

6.POPULATIONGROWTH

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One major problem that faces the world today is the rapid growth ofpopulation, often referred to as population explosion.Until about 800AD theworld’s population stayed below 200 million. Since then it has risendramatically.Therisehasbeengreatestinthe20thcentury.Thepopulationhasrecentlyrisentoaboutsixbillion:itisthreetimesaslargeasitwasin1960.Itisnotsomuchtheactualpopulationasitsrateofincreasethatisalarming.Expertspredict that by 2020 there will be about ten billion people, causing seriousproblemsofhunger,overcrowdingandenvironmentalpollution.

Thisenormousincreaseofpopulationisduetobetterfood,betterhygiene and, above all, the advances made in medicine. Rapiddevelopmentsinmodernmedicinehaveconqueredmanydiseasesandconsequentlythedeathratehasdecreased.Untilthebeginningofthe19th century most people died before the age of 50. Today indeveloped countries the average lifespan has risen to more than 70years.Thepopulationgoesonincreasingatanalarmingrate inspiteof the practice of birth control inmany parts of theworld. ThomasMalthus,aBritishmathematicianandeconomist,wenttotheextentofdeclaring that, if unchecked, human population would grow ingeometricprogression(i.e.1,2,4,8andsoon)whilefoodproductioncouldonlygrowinarithmeticprogression(i.e.1,2,3,4andsoon).Hewas,ofcourse,verypessimistic.

With a population of over one billion, India is the secondmost populouscountryintheworld.(Chinaisthefirst.)India’spopulationhasrisendrasticallysince 1950: the population today is 2½ times as large as itwas in 1950. It isrising by 2.9 per cent per year, and in consequence, every year an extra 26millionpeoplehave tobeprovided for.Thegovernment is takingmeasures tocheck the population growth and a large percentage of people practise birthcontrol.Recentadvances in farminghavemade thecountryproductiveenoughto feed the present population. Failure to arrest further increase of populationmay have disastrous effects, though there seems to be some truth in thestatementmade by Julian Simon of the University ofMaryland: according tohim,althoughpopulationgrowthmeanstherewillbemoremouthstofeed,therewillbe“morehandstoworkandmorebrainstothink.”

7.‘‘SPREADINGGREENERYFORAHEALTHY

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LIVING’’‘Athingofbeautyisajoyforever’

JohnKeatsThegrandeurofadrawingroomandalivingroomisbestfeltwhenthereisanelementofnature’spridepossession-atree,oranindoorplant,orevenforthatmatterasapling.Childrenasofnowgettoseeless of greenery andmore of technologically driven software parks.Fortunatelywehavecometoapointwherewecanbringtheworldoffloratoourhomes.In the emerging world scenario, interior decoration has become apassionandadictumforhealthy living.Theartofplanting insmallpots with its branches neatly trimmed gives rise to small neatstructuresofplants.Theseplantsareeasytogrowindoorsaslongastheyhavesoil,air,lightandwater.Plantscanbegrowninthehouseallyearround.OflateBonsaihaveattractedtheattentionofoneandall.Botanistssaythatbonsaiareornamentaltreesorshrubsgrowninapot and artifically prevented from reaching their normal size. TheJapanese specialise in bonsai and Ikebana. The latter flowers aredisplayedaccordingtostrictrules.

EXERCISE150

Writeashortessayon:–1.OldCustom.2.TheKangaroo.3.SchoolGames.4.FairyTales.

5. Space Travel. 6. The Pleasures of Reading. 7. PopularSuperstitutions. 8.TheUse andAbuseofLeisure. 9.Life in a largeCity : itsAdvantages andDisadvantages. 10.Advertising : itsUsesand Abuses. 11. The Book you like Best. 12. Travel as a part ofEducation. 13. My Role Model. 14. The Best Way of Spendingholidays.15.TheTelephone.16.TheInternet.17.Pollution.18.TheNarmada 19. Traffic Jams. 20. Your Favourite Hobbies. 21.Counselling in Schools. 22. The Importance of the Study of

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Geography.23.NoManisaJudgeofhisownMerits.24.SafetyFirst.25. The Use and Abuse of Strikes. 26. Scouting for Boys. 27. TheUsesofPaper.28. India in thenewmillennium.29.HijackingofanAeroplane. 30. My greatest wish. 31. The influence of CableTelevisionNetwork inIndia.32.TheCyberRevolution.33.Nucleardisarmament.34.AMetroStation.35.AWetDay.36.TheUsesofRubber.37.AVisittoaPlaceofHistoricInterest.38.Indiain2020.

EXERCISE151

Writeashortessayon:–1.Shouldboyslearntocook?2.Islifeforusbetterthanitwasfor

our forefathers ? 3. The Olympic Games. 4. Is life in the citypreferabletolifeinthecountry?5.Streethawkers.6.Shouldgamesbe compulsory for schoolboys ? 7.An important day inmy life. 8.Howyouhopetocontinueyoureducationwhenyouleaveschool.9.Whatdoyouthinkisthemostenjoyablemonthoftheyear?Saywhyyouthinkso.10.“Playingthegame”.11.Examinationday.12.Goodmanners.13.Howtokeepfit.14.Theconquestoftheair.15.Ghostsandghost stories. 16.AnExcursion.17.Thedream I should like tohave. 18. Milk. 19. Adventure in a Space Craft. 20. Fresh air. 21.Pocket-money. 22.Mycountry. 23.Aeroplanes. 24.The careof theteeth.25.Ourduty to thebackwardcommunities inourcountry.26.Some desirable improvements in your home town. 27. An Englishdictionary. 28.Walking tours. 29. The influence of the cinema. 30.Electricity in theserviceofman.31.TheInfluenceofTelevisiononourLives.32.Thevalueandpurposeofaschooldebatingsociety.33.Thehousingoftheworkingclasses.34.“Themanwhowillsucceedin life is he who can adapt himself easily.” 35. Some wonders ofmodern science. 36. The educational possibilities of “broadcasting.”37.“Gluttonykillsmorethanasword.”38.Thefascinationofagreatcity.

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CHAPTER41

AUTOBIOGRAPHIESA Biography is the history of the life of a person written by

someone else (e.g., Southey’s “Life of Nelson,” Boswell’s “Life ofJohnson,”etc.).AnAutobiographyisthehistoryofthelifeofapersonwrittenbyhimself(e.g.,JohnStewartMill’s“Autobiography”).

In the following exercises, the pupil is asked to use hisimagination by pretending to be another person, an animal, or aninanimateobject,andtoinventanautobiographyofhimorit.Hemustconsider himself to be the animal or object, and, in the first person,writeasthatparticularanimalorobjectmightbesupposedtotell itsownstory.

The story must be made as interesting as possible and told insimplelanguage,suchasineverydaytalk.

SPECIMENS

1.THEAUTOBIOGRAPHYOFAEUROAs soon as I entered this fascinatingworld Iwas looked uponwith great

expectations.TheworldwasfullofracismyetIwasheldinhighesteem.PeoplefromtheUnitedStatesofAmericatoAntarticalookedatmeasIsoonrolledoutfromtheparentageofEuropeans.Sinceeconomists, ragingbullsandbearsdidnot knowmuch aboutme, I caught the apprehension ofmyparents, the sharemarketholders,thefinancialexperts,scholars,studentsandsoon.OnmybirthIwasplacedonthelapofmymothertheFederalBank.

Frankly, my brother Lira, my sister sterling and my extended familymembersliketheDeutscheMarkandtheYenwerequitejealousofme.Iknowmyworth. I reveal this secret ofmine. I am a form ofmoney held or tradedoutside thecountry, inwhosecurrency itsvalue isstated. In future Iwouldbegloballyacceptablebythemembersofallthethenations.

InowtakeprideofplaceintheEuromarket,afinancialmarketwhichdealswithEuropeancurrencies.IdonotwanttorolloverbutI’dlovetobeaccepted

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bythedevelopingaswellasunderdevelopednations.

2.THEAUTOBIOGRAPHYOFAHORSENow that I amgetting old and stiff in the joints, I like tomeditate,while

grazinginthepasture,onmyfoaldays.Ithinkthatwasthehappiestpartofmylife.Ihadnoworktodo,andcouldrunaboutaftermymother,whowasafinewhiteArabmare,withoutanyrestraint.Mostofmytimewasspentinthefields,where I nibbled the tender grass and capered about, while my mother wassteadilygrazing.

But that couldnot last for ever.When Iwasold enough, the trainer cameand, tomygreat indignation, fasteneda longrope tomyhead,and thenbegandrivingmeroundandroundincircleswithhislongwhip.Iwasfrightenedandangry,buthewentontillIwassotiredthatIcouldscarcelystand.However,mymothertoldmethatitwasnousemyresisting,andtomakealongstoryshort,Iwasatlastthoroughlytrainedasariding-horse.

Iwasboughtbyayoungofficerasapolopony,andIsoongottolovethegame. He was a kind master, and a good rider ; and in the end I would doanythingforhim,andwasquiteproudwhenhissidewonthegame.Buthegotintodebt,andhadtosellme;andIwasboughtbyagentlemanandaladywhokeptabuggy,andwastrainedtoruninshafts.Ihatedthiswork;andIamafraidIgavealotoftrouble,bygoingasslowlyasIcould.Whenmydrivergavemethewhip,Istartedshyingatanyobjectontheroad.AndthenIfoundthatjibbingwasaverygoodtrick,andwheneverIwaswhipped,Isimplybacked.Myownergotdisgustedatlast,andsoldmetoagentlemanwhowasfondofhunting.

I was delighted to get back to saddle-work ; and thoroughly enjoyed mygallopswith thehoundsafter the jackal inopencountry.Butanaccidentputastoptothatjollylife;foronedaymymasterpressedmetoabigjumpwhichIknewIcouldnotdo.Ididmybestbutfellshort,andfell.Mymasterwasthrownandbrokehisarm,andIbadlysprainedoneofmylegs.

Iwasinhospitalforweeks,andthenwassoldtoagentlemanwhowantedaquiet riding-horse.Hewasakindmaster, andusedmewell ; and Iwas inhisserviceforagoodnumberofyears.NowIamold,hegivesmeverylittlework,and I spend most of my time grazing in the pasture, and leading a quiet,contentedlife.

EXERCISE152

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Writeautobiographiesofthefollowing:–1.ABee–(Readupsomethingabout thehabitsofhive-bees; thenbringin

thevariousdutiesoftheworker-bee;feedingandtendinglarvae(young),stronghoney, sweeping hive, guarding, fetching nectar from flowers tomake honey,etc.)

2.AnAnt–(Onthesamelines.)3. A St. BernardDog–(Training as a puppy bymonks of St. Bernard to

rescuetravellerslost insnow;describethedog;sentoutwithflaskofbrandyfastenedrounditsneck;someofthedog’sadventures.)

4.ASheepDog–(Training by the shepherd to look after flock ; as youngdog, imitateshismother inherwork; learns tounderstand the shepherd’s signandverbalorders;knowseachsheep,andcanpickoutandbringwhichevertheshepherd wants ; can separate certain numbers from others ; drives sheep topastures,andintofoldatnight;guardsflockagainstenemies.)

5.AnElephant–(Wildlifeinjunglewhenyoung;howcaughtinkeddahbydecoy; training ; itswork : carrying loads, piling logs, drawing carts, carryinghuntersintiger-shooting,marchinginstateprocessions,etc.)

6.ARoseTree–[Earlycultivation;thefirstpruningresented;learnslateritisnecessaryforproducingfineflowers;getsrichmanure;learnsthatcultivationmakesitdifferentfromwildrose;suffersfromdisease,likegreenfly,blight,etc.;howgardenercuresit;producessplendidredroses;muchadmired;nextyear,somebloomsgainprizeatFlowerShow;cuttingstaken(itschildren),etc.]

7.AWatch–(Describe.–silverwatch;injeweller’sshop;otherwatchesitscompanions ; e.g., proud gold watch, humble gun-metal watch, repeatingwatches,wristwatches,etc.Boughtaspresentforyoungman;stolenoutofhispocket;soldbythief;putinpawnshop;boughtbyman;fallssickandgoestohospital.i.e.,jeweller’s–newmainspring.)

8. A River–(Rises as spring in mountains, or from a glacier ; mountaintorrent, rocky bed,water-falls, tributaries, swollenwhen snowmelts ; reachesplains;slowsteadyriver;cultivatedfieldsonbanks;irrigationcanalstakenoff;passesvillagesandsmalltowns;flowsthroughabigtown;pollutionofwaters;boatsandships;fallintoseaatbigport,etc.)

9. A Kite or Hawk–(Young in a nest in a tall tree, fed by mother andfatherkite ;howit learns to fly ;hunting itsprey–mice,chickens,smallbirds ;teasedbycrowsandminas;choosesmate;buildsnest;etc.)

10.A Fish (Salmon).–(Its youth as a smelt in river ; journey to the sea ;returnsupriverleapingweirs;choosesamate;growsbig;fishedfor;howitis

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deceivedbybait; nearlyhooked ; escapes andvows to takenomorebaits; itsenemies;proudofbeingkingofriverfishes,etc.)

EXERCISE153

Writeautobiographiesof:–1. A Camel. 2. A Spider. 3. A Donkey. 4. A Tiger. 5. A Seagull 6. A

Kingfisher. 7.ACaterpillar andButterfly. 8.AComputer. 9.ARobot. 10.AHouse.11.AMotor-car.12.AnAeroplane.13.ACrocodile.14.ACrow.15.ASteamship.16.ACobra.17.ABuffalo.18.ATractor.19.AChild’sToy.20.ARifle.

EXERCISE154

Tellthelife-storyofeachoneofthefollowingastoldbyitself:–1.APieceofCoal.2.AnOwl.3.APariahDog.4.AParrot.5.ACocoanut

Tree.6.ABanyanTree.7.ATelevision8-SuperMarket9.Anairport.10.AStadium.

CHAPTER42

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DIALOGUE-WRITINGADialogueliterallymeans“talkbetweentwopeople”.Dialogue-

writing is a useful form of composition, especially for the Indianstudentwho is trying to gain a command of spokenEnglish.Underproper guidance, it should introduce him to the colloquial way oftalking English, and train him to express his thoughts in easy andnaturalconstructions.ThespokenEnglishoftheIndianschool-boyistoooftenratherstiltedandbookish,owingtothefactthathehasnotmuchchanceof talkingwithEnglishpeople ;andanything thatwillhelphimtoacquirenaturalnessandeaseinspeakinginEnglishisofvalue.

Towriteadialoguesuccessfully,callsforalittledramaticpower;forthewriterhasnotonlytoseebothsidesofaquestion,buthasalsoto put himself, so to speak, inside two imaginary persons so as tomake them express their opposite opinions naturally and in keepingwiththeircharacters.Hehasinturntobeeachone,andseethepointofviewofeachonthequestion.

Awritten dialogue should be so composed that it appears to bespontaneousor impromptu.Thereaderof it shouldnot feel that it ispremeditated,stiltedanddull.

At the same time, careful preparation is necessary for writing adialogue,thoughthismustnotappear.Thewritermusthavethearttoconcealhisart.Itisalwaysadvisabletomakeaplanoroutlineofthedialogue before beginning towrite ; otherwise the dialoguemay beramblingandpointless.

METHODOFPROCEDURE1.Carefullythinkoverthesubjectgiven,andjotdownbrieflythe

argumentsoropinionsabout itwhichmightreasonablybeexpressedbytheimaginarypersonswhoaresupposedtobetalking.

2.Arrangetheseideasinsomelogicalorder,sothatonewillarise

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(i) A.–“Whatwillyoudoifhedoesnotansweryourletter?”

naturallyfromanotherinthecourseoftheconversation.(Itiswelltowritedownthesepointsintheformofanoutline,ornumberedheads,asaguidetofollowinwritingthedialogue.)

3.Trytoimaginewhatwouldbethewayinwhicheachcharacterinthedialoguewouldexpresshisviews.Todothis,youmusthaveinyour mind a clear idea of the imaginary persons taking part in theconversation,soastomakethemspeakincharacter.(Forinstance,inSpecimenNo.2,Swarup,thebookishstudenttalksinadifferentwayfromDulipSingh,theathleticstudent.)

4.Keepinmindthatyourdialogue,whencompleted,shouldreadlikeareal,spontaneousconversation.Sotrytomakeyourimaginarycharacters talkinaneasy,familiarandnaturalmanner.Avoidstiltedandbookishphrases.Trytorememberhowrealpeopletalkinfriendlyconversation, and reproduce that conversational style aswell as youcan.

SPECIALHINTS1. (a) Don’t let any of your characters monopolize the

conversation,asifheweregivingapubliclecture.Giveallachance,andkeeptheballrolling.Lettheconversationbebriskandrapid.

(b)Inrealconversation,onepersonsometimesinterruptstheother,orbreaksinonwhatheissaying.Asparinguseofsuchinterruptionsinwrittendialogueisquitepermissible,andaddstoitsnaturalness.

Forexample:A.–“Iamperfectlycertainhewouldneverdosuch thing.Why,only the

otherdayhetoldme–”B.–“Idon’tcarewhathetoldyou!Iknowforafactthathedidit.”

(c) In real conversation, a speaker often answers a question byaskinganother ;or sometimes, seeingwhat is coming,heanswersaquestionbeforeitisasked.Youmayenlivenyourdialoguebymakingyourcharactersdothesamenowandthen.

Forexample:–

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B.–“Well,whatwouldyoudo?”(ii) D.–“Iheardsomethingaboutyoutheotherday,John.”

J.–“Iknow!YouaregoingtoaskmewhyIwasabsentfromofficelastMonday.Well,Iwilltellyou–etc.”

(d) In real conversation, people often use exclamations, surprise(e.g., “Myword !” “Good heavens !” “You don’t say so !” “Well”etc.);irritation(e.g.,“Bother!”“Odear!”“Confoundit!”);pleasure(“How nice !” “Splendid !”)–and so on. Such interjections may beintroducedfromtimetotime,sparingly;buttheuseofthemshouldnotbeoverdone.(Note.–Slangandprofanewordsshouldbeavoided).

2. The dialogue should begin in an interesting way, so that thereader’s attention may be arrested from the very first. And theconversationshouldleaduptosomedefiniteconclusion.Itshouldnotend abruptly and in the air, so to speak.Special attention shouldbepaidtotheopeningsentencesandtheconclusion.

3. The fact that language should be as far as possible colloquialdoes not, of course, mean that it may be ungrammatical. Howeverfree-and-easythestyleinwhichthepersonsinthedialoguearemadetotalk,theymusttalkgoodEnglish.Theymustnot,forexample,bemadetousesuchexpressionsas,“HeaskedmybrotherandItotea,”or“CanIgiveyouanadvice?”

4.Keepingthesepointsinview,writeyourdialogueinasnatural,interestingandrealisticamanneraspossible.Thewholeconversationshouldbebrief,andthequestionsandrepliesasconciseandpointedaspossible.

SPECIMENS1.Aconversationbetweentwoboys,oneofwhomishabituallydespondent

andthinksthatluckisagainsthim,whereastheotherisofamorepracticalturnofmind.

Nasarullah Jan.–Come, Hussain, you are taking your failure toomuch toheart.Iknowitisagreatdisappointment,andIsympathizewithyou;butyoumustnotallowittomakeyousounhappy.

Mohd. Hussain.–It is all very well for a lucky chap like you, Nasarullah.

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Youhavepassedthefirsttime,andthisismysecondfailure.Youwouldnotfeelsocheeryifyouwereinmyplace.

N.J.–Iknow;butyoumustpullyourselftogether,andmakeupyourmindyouwillpassnexttime.Remembertheoldsaying“Ifatfirstyoudon’tsucceed,try,try,again!”

M.H.–Ithinktheotherversionofthesayinghasmoresenseinit,“Ifatfirstyoudon’tsucceed,quit,quit,quit,atonce!”

N.J.–Ohnonsense !You’llneverdoanything ifyoudon’tpersevere.Nowwhydoyouthinkyoufailed?

M.H.–All this year fate has been againstme. First, I was ill with enteric,whichlostmeawholeterm.Thenjustbeforemyexamination,myfatherdied,andthatsoupsetmethatIcouldnotprepareproperly.

N.J.–Well,youcertainlydidhavebad luck, Iamsorry.But Iamsureyouwillsucceednexttime;soyoumustmakeupyourmindtowinthrough.

M.H.–It’snouse.IthinkIwasbornunlucky.IseemtofailineverythingItouch.Itriedseveraltimestogetascholarship,butsomeotherboyalwaysgotitinstead.Ishallgiveitup.

N.J.–Indeed,youmustnot.Rememberit’sthedarkesthourbeforethedawn.Oftenwhenthingsareattheworst,theybegintoimprove.Idon’tbelieveinallthetalkaboutbadandgoodluck.Abravemanmakeshisownluck.Youhaveayearbeforeyou;youhavebrains,andifyouwillonlypullyourselftogetherandputyourheartintoyourwork,youwillwinthrough.

M.H.–Iwish Ihadyourdisposition.Still, Iwill takeyouradviceandhaveanothertry.

N.J.–That’s thestyle !AndIamsureyouwillsucceedandbreakyourso-called“badluck”onceforall.

2. An imaginary conversation between a bookish student and an athleticstudentonthecomparativemeritsofmentalandphysicalculture.

DulipSingh.–Hello,Swarup!Swottingawayasusual.Comeout,man;shutupyouroldbooks,andcomeandhaveagameoftennis.

Swarup.–I am sorry I cannot do that, Dulip. The examination is drawingnear,andIwanteveryhourIcangetforstudy.

DulipSingh.–Oh!hangallexaminations!Idonotworryaboutmine.Whatistheuseofthem,anyway?

Swarup.–Well,youcan’tgetadegreeifyoudon’tpasstheexamination;andIhavesetmyheartonbeingaB.A.

Dulip Singh.–And pray what good will B.A. do you ? You may get a

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clerkship in a government office ; but that’s all. And there are hundreds offellowswhohavegottheirdegrees,andarenonearergettingjobsofanysort.

Swarup.–That may be so; but I am not studying so much to pass myexamination and obtainmy degree, as to storemymindwith knowledge anddevelopmyintellectualfaculties.

DulipSingh.–Myword!Howfineyou“highbrows”can talk!Developmyintellectualfaculties,!Itellyou,allamanwantstogetonintheworldissomebrains,plaincommonsense,andplentyofpush.Andyoucan’tlearnthesethingsfrombooks.Andwhileyouare“developingyourintellectualfaculties,”youarespoilingyourhealth.Youwillsoonbeathin,white,narrow-chested,half-blindweakling ifyoustick toyourbelovedbooks like this.Lookatmybroadchestand feelmy biceps !Anyway, I am developingmy physical powerswithmygamesandathletics.

Swarup.–Well, if I have to choose, I would rather have a learned andcultivatedmindthanastrongandwell-developedbody;forthemindisfarmoreimportantthanthebody.

DulipSingh.–Oh!Isee!Youmeantosaythatamanwhoplaysfootballandhockeyandisasstrongasahorse,cannothaveanybrains?

Swarup.–Ididnotsaythat;butyoumayrememberwhatKiplingsaidabout“muddiedoafsandflannelledfools.”

DulipSingh.–Well, Imustsayyouareverycomplimentary !Kiplingmusthavebeenanassifhesaidthat.AnywayIwouldratherbe“amuddiedoaf”thanawhitefaced,spectacledbook-worm,asblindasanowl.

Their teacher (coming in).–Hello! What are you two fellows quarrelingabout?

[Theyexplained.]Teacher.–I see.Well, you are both right and bothwrong. Swarup, a little

morephysicalexercisewilldoyougoodandwillnotinterferewithyourmentalculture ; andDulip Singh, a littlemore studywill not in anyway spoil yourphysical strength. So, go and have a game of tennis, Swarup ; and afterwardsyou,Dulip,settledowntoafewhours’study.

3. A dialogue between a countryman and a townsman, bringing out thecomparativeadvantagesoftownandcountrylife.

Smith.–Goodmorning,Mr.Jones.ItisalongtimesinceIsawyouintown.Areyoustayinglong?

Jones.–Goodmorning.No,Mr.Smith,Ionlycameuponbusinessforafewhours,andhopetogethomeagainthisevening.

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Smith.–Runningawaysosoon?Whynotstayafewdaysandenjoyyourself?

Jones.–Notme.Idon’tfindmuchenjoymentinthesmokyairofatown,andallitsnoiseandracket.Givemethecleanair,thesunshine,andthequietofthecountry.

Smith.–Well,Igrantyouhavetheadvantageofpurerairintheountry;butasfornoise,yousoongetusedtoit.Infact,Icouldnotstandyourquiet–itwoulddrivemecrazy.Iliketofeelplentyoflifeandmovementaboutme.

Jones.–Really?Why,Icouldnotgetawinkofsleepinanoisytown.Andtownsaresougly–nothingtoseebutuglysmoke-grimedhouses,drearystreets,hideous advertisements on every hoarding, factory chimneys belching smoke,andadull,smokysky.Ihavethebeautyofthegreenfieldsandshadywoodsandflowerymeadowsofthecountry.

Smith.–Ah!myfriend,butdonotforgetwhatDr.Johnsonsaid:“Whenyouhaveseenonegreenfieldyouhaveseenallgreenfields;comewithmedownFleetStreetandstudyman.”

Jones.–Well,allIcansayisthatDr.Johnsonneversawagreenfieldinhislife, or hewould have known that there is an infinite variety in nature if youhavetheeyestoseeit.

Smith.–Butwhat in theworlddoyoudowithyourself inyourvillage ? Itmustbeaverydullandslowlife,withnotheatres,noconcerts,nocinemas,nopubliclectures,noexcitingpoliticalmeetings.Youmustleadastupidvegetablelife,likeacabbage.

Jones.–Notsostupidanddullasyouimagine.Ihavemygarden,whichisagreat sourceofpleasure ; and there is fishing, anda littlehunting.And then Ilove tramping over the hills, and seeing the beautiful scenery. And in theeveningsIhavemybooks.

Smith.–Well,everymantohistaste;buttomeyourswouldbeadulllife.Jones.–Dullornot, it ismuchhealthier.Inthepurecountry,wedonotget

theepidemicsanddirt-produceddiseasesyouhaveinthetowns.Andourquiethabitsgiveuslongerlives.

Smith.–Yes,youmaylivelongerinthecountry.Butyoudon’tgetsomuchoutoflifeaswedointown.Ashortlifeandamerryone,Isay.

4.Adialoguebetweentwoboysdiscussingtheirhobbies.George.–Iaminluck,Will.MyunclehasjustsentmealetterfromJapan,

wherehe isonbusiness,withsomeJapanesestamps.HeknowsIcollect themandoftensendsmeforeignstampsfromtheplaceshevisits.

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Will.–Theylookrathernice.Areyougoingtopastetheminyouralbum?George.–Yes,hereitis.Ihavegotquiteanicecollectionnow.Will.–Whatalot!French,Italian,Dutch,German,American,Turkish.You

seemtohavesomefromalmosteverycountry.George.–Oh!therearealotIhavenotgotyet.Andsomerareonesarevery

expensive,andcostpoundsofmoney.Will.–Butwhatistheuseofcollectingstamps?George.–Oh!Well,it’sahobby.Anditteachesyousomegeography;and

sometimesitbringsmoney.Will.–Howisthat?George.–Why, a really good collection sometimes sells for hundreds of

pounds.Whydon’tyougoinforstamp-collecting?Will.–I like somethingmore active.Myhobby is collecting ferns andwild

flowers.And toget theseyouhave togo long countrywalks, and explore thewoods,andclimbthehills.Itisquiteanadventurewhenyoufindarareplantorferninsomewildplace.

George.–Butwhatdoyoudowiththemwhenyougetthem?Will.–Ipressthem,andthenmountthemneatlyonsheetsofpaper,andname

them.Ihavegotquiteanicecollection.George.–Howdoyoupressthem?Will.–Ilaythefernorplantbetweensheetsofblotting-paper,andputthem

in a press, or under a board with heavy weights. You have to change theblotting-papereveryday,andinaboutaweektheplantisdriedandpressed,andwilllastlikethatforyears.

George.–Andwhatisthegoodofyourhobby?Will.–Well, it teaches me a lot of botany ; and takes me into beautiful

country;anddoesmegoodphysically,becauseitmeansexerciseintheopenair.5.Adialoguebetweenamasterandapupilonpublicspeaking.Master.–Well Ram Narain, I hear you are taking part in the speaking

competition.Pupil.–Yes,Sir;andIcametoaskyoutogivemesomehintsontheartof

thepublicspeaking.Master.–Withpleasure,RamNarain.Haveyoupreparedyourspeech?Pupil.–Yes,Sir;andnowIamlearningitbyheart.Master.–Oh!butthatisagreatmistake.Alwayscarefullypreparewhatyou

wanttosay,butnevertrytolearnitoffbyheart.Pupil.–Butwhy,Sir?

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Master.–Becausewhenyouarespeaking,youshouldwatchyouraudiencetoseewhethertheyarefollowingwhatyousay.Youcanseebytheirfaceswhethertheyunderstandandareinterested;andif theyarenot,youcanthenwintheirattentionbyadding,oremphasizing,orchangingsomething.Butifyourspeechislearntbyheart,youcan’talterit.

Pupil.–Butitseemssomucheasiertolearnit.Master.–It is not so in the end.Memorising is a great strain.Also, if you

forgetonesentence,youmaybreakdownaltogether.Pupil.–Well,ImightmanageifIcouldhavemynoteswithmewhenIspeak.Master.–Atfirstyoumaytakeashortnoteofoutline,ormainpoints,ofyour

speech,lestyoushouldforget;butwhenyougetusedtospeakinginpublic,itisbesttodowithoutnotesaltogether.

Pupil.–ButifIdon’tusenotes,andmustnotlearnmyspeechesoffbyhearthowcanIrememberwhattosay?

Master.–Youmustpreparecarefully,and thinkoutwhatyouwant tosay ;andlearnthemainpoints,oroutline,ofyourspeech.Then,whenyougetuptospeak,youwillfindthatthewordswillcome.

Pupil.–ButIfeelsonervouswhenIhavetospeak.Master.–Thatisnatural,especiallyatfirst.Butasyougetusedtospeakingin

public,youwillovercomethat.Evenpractisedspeakersoftenfeelverynervousbefore theybegin to speak ;butwhen theygeton to their feet, they forget allaboutit.

Pupil.–WhenIamnervous,IthinkIspeaktoofast.Master.–Well,youmustpractisespeakingslowlyanddistinctly.Anddon’t

shout–itstrainsyourvoiceandpreventspeoplehearingyou;anddon’tspeaktoolow.Speaknaturally,sothatallcanhear.

Pupil.–Thankyou,Sir,foryourhints.Iwilltrytofollowthem.6.Adialogueonthechoiceofaprofession–lawormedicine.JaiDyal.–Thankgoodness!ourexaminationsareoveratlast.SainDas.–Whatarelief!IhopeIshallpass;forIhavejustgotaletterfrom

myfatherpromisingtosendmetotheMedicalCollegeifIgetthroughClass12.JaiDyal.–Oh!areyougoingtobeadoctor?SainDas.–Yes;andIamveryglad.Myfatherisadoctor,youknow,andI

havealwayswantedtobeonetoo.Itseemsaveryinterestingprofession.Whatareyougoingtodo?

JaiDyal.–Myambitionistobealawyer;andwhenIhavegotmyB.A.,IamtogototheLawCollegetostudyformyLL.B.

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SainDas.–Law!Thatneverhadanyattractionsforme.Whydoyouwanttobealawyer?

JaiDyal.–Well,itisaveryrespectableprofession.Onecanbeagentlemanandholdagoodposition,anyway.

SainDas.–Socanadoctor.Themedicalprofessionisjustasrespectableasthelegal.

JaiDyal.–Oh!yes,ofcourse.ButI thinka lawyercanmakemoremoneythanadoctor.

SainDas.–Iamnotsosureofthat.Afewlawyerswhogettobeleadersofthebar,ofcourse,domakefortunes.Butwhataboutthecrowdofpleadersandeven barristers who can scarcely make a living ? The law is terriblyovercrowded.

JaiDyal.–Oh!well,thereisalwaysplentyofroomatthetop,youknow.SainDas.–WhatIlikeaboutthemedicalprofession,apartfromitsscientific

interest,isthattheworkissohumanitarian.Adoctorisalwaysdoinggoodtohisfellows–relievingsuffering,curingdiseases,restoringhealth,andsomakingfolkhappy.Thismakesadoctor’slifeasortofsocialservice.

JaiDyal.–Well,alawyerisdoinggoodworktoo.Heishelpingtodetectandpreventcrime,defendingtheinnocentfromfalsecharges,andhelpingpeopleindistress.

SainDas.–Yes;but a lawyer’s life is full of temptations.He is tempted todefendcriminalsforbigfees,andtogetthemofffromjustpunishment.Idon’tseehowalawyercanhelpbeingaliar,too!

JaiDyal.–Nowyouarejoking.Itisaspossibleforalawyertobeanhonestmanasitisforadoctortobearogue.

EXERCISE155

Composeimaginaryconversationsonthefollowingsubjects:–1.Betweenafatherandhissononthrift.(Hints.–Thesonhasbeenwastinghisallowanceextravagantlyandgot into

debt ; his father rebukes him, and warns him of the danger of extravagance,tellinghimhowtospendeconomically,andsaveforhisoldage.)

2. Between a temperance advocate and a young man on the evils ofintemperance.

(Hints–Theyoungmanseesnoharmindrinking;arguesitisajollysocialcustom,makeshimlivelyandhappy,drownscare,reviveshimwhentired,isa

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manlyhabit,etc.Thetemperancemanwarnshimagainstdangerofbecomingadrunkard ; the terriblepowerof thedrinkcraving ; arguesalcoholicdrink is aslowpoison,anddamageshealth;appealstohimtosetanexampletoothersbysigningthepledge,etc.)

3. Between a soldier and a shopkeeper on the merits of their respectiveoccupations.

(Hints.–Thesoldierarguesthathisisanobleprofession;superiortocivilianinrank;callsforcourageandmanlyqualities;heisthedefenderofhiscountry;whereasa tradesman’s job ismeananddespised ;no jobforaman,etc.Theshopkeeperarguesthatthesoldierproducesnothing;hesimplydestroys;itisabutcher’sjob;foodforpowder,etc.;whereasthetradesmanisausefulmemberofsociety,whoisdoingapublicservice;canbecomerich,whileasoldiermustalwaysbepoor,etc.Thedignityoflabour.)

4.Betweenahuntsmanandagardenerontheirrespectivepursuits.(Hints.–The huntsman defends his sport as manly, exciting, and needing

courage;triestoshowthebenefitsothersbykillingpestsliketigersandbears;saysgardeningisatameandeffeminatehobby.Thegardenerargueshuntingisacruel sport ; itmeanskillingand torturingmanyofGod’s innocent creatures ;purelydestructive.Whereasheisproductive;makingtwobladesofgrassgrowwhere only one grew before ; making the world more beautiful. (Hints.–Therefiningeffectofgardening.)

EXERCISE156

Writeashortimaginaryconversation:–

1. Betweenahorseandanass.2. Betweenacage-birdandacrow.3. Betweenapenandapencil.4. Betweenapet-dogandapariah-dog.5. Betweenafilmactorandyourself.6. Betweenanaeroplaneandatrain.7. Betweenagasstoveandamicrowaveoven.8. BetweenThePresidentoftheBCC/andyou.9. Betweenaspiderandafly.10. BetweenCinderellaandhertwosistersjustbeforetheball.

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EXERCISE157

Writeintheformofadialogue:–

1. Thetableof‘‘TheHakeandtheTortorise’’.2. Thefableof“TheLionandtheMouse.”3. Thefableof“TheCountryMouseandtheTownMouse.”4. Thefableof“TheBlindManandtheLameMan.”5. Thefableof“TheDogintheManger.”6. Thefableof“TheAntandtheGrasshopper.”7. Thefableof“TheWolfandtheLamb.”8. Thestoryofthe‘‘TheSunandtheWind’’

EXERCISE158

Writeashortdialogue.–

1. Betweentwofriendsaboutdreams.2. Betweenamiserandaspendthrift.3. Betweenarailway-guardandanengine-driver.4. Betweentwoclass-fellowsaboutthevisitoftheInspector..5. Betweentwoboysdiscussingtheirhobbies.6. Betweenacredulousmanandanimpostor.7. Betweentwofriendsonatopicofcommoninterest.8. Between two friends–theone a believer, andother a disbeliever, in ghost

stories.9. Betweentwoboysabouttheapproachingexamination.10. Betweentwoclass-fellowsonapoemtheyhavereadintheclass.11. Betweenahypochondriacandhisfriend.12. BetweentwoboyswhohavejustcomeoutoftheExaminationHall.13. Betweentwofriendswhohavelosttheirwayinajungle.14. Betweentwofriendsdiscussingholidayplans.15. Betweentwofriendsabouttheirneighbours.16. Betweentwoboyscaughtinashowerontheirwayfromschool.Onelooks

onthebrightsideofmatters,andtheotheronthedarkside.17. Betweentwofriendsonlifeinflats.18. Between two friendsdiscussing the“theatre-manners”of latecomers,who

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marthepleasureoftheaudience.19. Fanandanairconditioner.20. Anearthquakeandacyclone.

EXERCISE159

Writeshortdialoguesonthefollowing:–

1. Theuseandabuseofathletics.2. Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofsolitude.3. Theusesandabusesofadvertisement.4. Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofcheapliterature.5. Thepleasuresandperilsofspeed.6. Thepleasuresanddisadvantagesoflifeinaschoolhostel.7. Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesoflifeinagreatcity.8. TheinfluenceoftheCinema.9. ThenecessitytosaveReligiousInstitutions.10. Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesoflifeinagreatcity.11. TheinfluenceofTelevisionChannels.12. TerrorismandFanaticism.

EXERCISE160

Discuss in the form of a dialogue the pros and cons of thefollowingsubjects:–

1. Prohibition.2. Alms-giving.3. Corporalpunishment.4. Thecastesystem.5. Luck.6. TheUnitedNations.7. Lotteries.8. Hand-industries.9. Asceticism.10. Geographyasaclass-subject.11. EntranceExaminations.

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12. MakingGlobalFriendshipthroughtheInternet.13. AwardsandRecognitions.

EXERCISE161

Discusseachofthefollowingsubjectsintheformofadialogue–

1. Isluxuryanevil?2. Ispovertyahandicap?3. Which should be the medium of education in our school–English or the

vernaculars?4. OughteveryboytobecomeaScout?5. Whichisworse–floodorfire?6. Whichshouldweuseinabigtown–wellwaterortap-water?7. Whichisbetter–hockeyorcricket?8. War–isitnecessary?9. Whichisbetter–towearoutortorustout?10. ShouldHygienebemadeacompulsoryschool-subject?

EXERCISE162

Finishthefollowingconversations:–Krishna.–Hurrah!onlytendaystotheholidays!Rama.–I know. I have been counting the days. I am just sick of school.Krishna.–SoamI.Whatareyougoingtodowithyourselfintheholidays?Patient.–Goodmorning,doctor!Canyousparemeafewminutes?Doctor.–Certainly ! Come in and sit down.Now,what is thematter withyou?Abdul.–Whatisthatroaringnoise?Itsoundslikeatrain.Kabali.–Morelikelyanaeroplane.Yes!Upthere!Sixofthem.Bepin.–Oh,yes!Theyseemtobeagreatheightup.FerozDin–Well,AbdulLatif, only threeweeksmore to theMatriculationexamination!AbdulLatif–Yes,itiscomingverynearnow.Iwishitwereallover.F.D.–SodoI!Andthen,nomoreschool.A.L.–Hurrah!Whatareyougoingtodowhenyouleaveschool,FerozDin?

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Father–Iamsorrytohearyouhavefailedtheexamination,Hari.Hari–So am I, father ; it was just my bad luck. Look at Govind–luckyfellow!Hepassedintheseconddivision.Father–Soyouthinkitisallamatterofgoodluckandbadluck?Rashid–Hereisapuzzleforyou,Ghulam;whichwouldyouratherbe–asickmillionaireorahealthybeggar?Ghulam–Well,thatwantssomethinkingover.Isupposeyoumean,whichismoreimportantforourhappiness–healthorwealth?Bepin–Soyouobjecttocorporalpunishmentinschools?Ramesh–Yes,Ido.Ithinkitoughttobeabolished.Bepin–Butwhy?

CHAPTER43

THEAPPRECIATIONOFPOETRYWhatispoetry?:Thoughmanyhavetriedtodefinepoetry,no

one has succeeded in giving a satisfactory definition of it. Poetryseems to elude all attempts to describe it. Yet we should knowsomething about poetry, and learn to cultivate our feeling for it, sothat we may gradually come to recognize it, and know when it ispresent. The best we can do is to point out some essentialcharacteristicsoftruepoetry.

Before we discuss these essential characteristics, let us try andunderstand the connection between poetry and verse. Verse is theformofpoetry.Poetsgenerally(butnotalways)writetheirpoetryinverse-form.Butthereisalotofversewrittenwhichisnopoetryatall.Verseisthebody,andthepoetryisthesoul;andbodywithoutasoulisadeadbody.Weshallundestandthisbetteraswegoon.

Verseisusuallyprintedinaparticularway,sothatyoucantellitfromproseataglance.Butitistheear,nottheeye,whichisthetruetest of verse ; forwhenverse is read aloud itsounds quitedifferentfromprose.Just listen to thedifferentsoundsof these twopassages,oneinproseandtheotherinverse:–

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(i) “TheuntroddensnowlayallbloodlessonLinden,whenthesunwaslow;andtheflowofIser,rollingrapidly,wasdarkaswinter.”

(ii) “OnLinden,whenthesunwaslow,Allbloodlesslaytheuntroddensnow;AnddarkaswinterwastheflowOfIser,rollingrapidly.’’

The twopassagesareexactly thesame inmeaning. In fact, theverywordsarethesame.No.(ii)containsthefirstfourlinesofCampbell’spoemcalled“Hohenlinden”.No.(i)contains thesamelineswith thesame words differently arranged. Yet how differently they soundwhen read aloud ! Ifwe canhear this difference,we shall soon beabletotellthedifferencebetweenproseandverse.

The first twopoints about theverse-form of the passage thatwenoticeareits–

(1)RegularRhythm–Asyoureadit,canyounotheartheregularbeat of sound, like the regular tramp of soldiers marching ; or theregularbeatofthefeetofpeopledancing?Thereisnothinglikethisregularswing inprosepassage. It iscausedby the fact that thepoetarrangeshiswordsinsuchawaythattheaccentedsyllables,onwhichwenaturallylaystressinspeaking,comeatequalintervals.Ifalltheaccentedsyllablesinthefirstlineareitalicisedyouwillseethateverysecondsyllablemustbepronouncedmoreloudlyoremphaticallythantheothers.

“OnLindenwhenthesunwaslow.”Theregularrisingandfallingintheflowofsoundsinpoetry,these

recurringintervalsofstrongandlightsounds,likethebeatofadrumregulating dance movements, is called rhythm ; and rhythm is thechief, and an essential characteristic of verse, as distinguished fromprose.Thiswillbemadeclearlateron.

(2)Rhyme–Thenextpointwenoticeisthatthewordsattheendofthefirstthreelinesallhavethesamesound–low,snow,flow.Whenwordshave thesamevowelsoundandendwith thesameconsonantsound,theyaresaidtorhyme,e.g.,keep,peep;jump,lump;hate,late;crew,few;glide,slide.Rhymeisnotnecessarytoverse(i.e.,youcan

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have verse without rhyme) ; but generally verse is rhymed. Rhymeserves two purposes; it makes verse more musical, by giving itpleasingsounds,likethechimesofbell;anditservestopreservetheverse-forminwhichthepoemisarrangedbymarkingtheendsofthelines.

Stanzas:Ifyoulookatthewholeofthepoem,“TheDaffodils”,given on page 399, you will notice another characteristic of verse.Youwill see that the poem is divided up into units and that all theunitsareexactlyalikeinform.Eachunitisofsixlines,thefirstlinerhymingwith the third, thesecondwith thefourthandthefifthwiththesixth.Suchunitsordivisions inapoemarecalledstanzas.Mostpoems, thoughnot all, arewritten in stanzas all ofwhich areof thesamepattern.

Verse, then, is characterized by regular rhythm, rhyme andstanzas.Ofthesecharacteristics,rhythmisessential.Youcannothaveverse or poetrywithout rhythm.Butwhilemost poems have rhymeandstanza-forms,thesearenotessentialcharacteristicsofpoetry,forwehavepoemswritten inblankverse, i.e.,verse inwhicheach linehastensyllablesbuttherearenorhymesattheend.

Having discussed the connection between verse and poetry, weshallnowconsidersomeessentialcharacteristicsoftruepoetry.

(1)Music–The first characteristic of poetry isverbalmusic.Thepoetchooses instinctivelywordsofbeautiful sound,andsoarrangesthemthatthewordsneareachotherwillharmoniseinsound,soastoproducewhatmaybecalled“wordmusic.”Andhevariesthismusictosuit thesubject, so that thesoundof the lineshelps tomake theirmeaningclearer.

But verbalmusic depends not only on themusical sound of thewords, but also on rhythm. It is the combination of lovely rhythmswithsweet-soundingwordsthatgivesusthemusicofpoetry.Herearetwo verses from Dryden’s “Song for St. Cecilia’s Day”. The rapidrhythmofthefirstversewellexpressestheexcitementcausedbythewaralarmgivenbytrumpetanddrum;theslowandquietrhythmof

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“Theicewashere,theicewasthere,Theicewasallaround;Itcrackedandgrowled,androaredandhowled.Likenoisesinaswound!’’ (Coleridge)

the secondverse suits the soft and tendermusicof the fluteand thelute.

“Thetrumpet’sloudclangourExcitesustoarms,

Withshrillnotesofanger,Andmortalalarms.

ThedoubledoubledoublebeatOfthethunderingdrum

Cries,Hark!thefoescome;Charge,charge,’tistoolatetoretreatThesoftcomplainingflute,Indyingnotes,discoversThewoesofhopelesslovers,Whosedirgeiswhisper’dbythewarblinglute.’’

Nowletusexamineindetailhowpoetsobtainsomeofthemusicaleffects.

(a) Rhyme–Words rhyming together give a musical chime ofsound,and this isonereasonwhyrhymeissomuchused inpoetry.Listentothechimeoftherhymesinthisverse:–

“Strewonherroses,roses,Andneverasprayofyew,

Inquietshereposes:Ah!wouldthatIdidtoo!’’

(M.Arnold)Internalrhymes(i.e.,rhymeswrittenwithinalineandnotmerely

attheendsoflines)alsoaddmusic(andaslightapparentaccelerationoftherhythm)toaverse;e.g.,

(b)VowelandConsonantSounds–Wordswithlongopenvowels

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“Seasonofmistsandmellowfruitfulness.” (Keats)“Theninawailfulchoirthesmallgnatsmourn.”

(Keats)

“Todreamanddream,likeyonderamberlight.”

(Tennyson)

“Themurmuroushauntoffliesonsummereves.”

(Keats)

“ThemoanofdovesinimmemorialelmsAndmurmuringofinnumerablebees.’’ (Tennyson)

“Thefairbreezebelow,thewhitefoamflewThefurrowfollowedfree.’’ (Coleridge)

“Ihearlakewaterlappingwithlowsoundsbytheshore.”

(Yeats)

Areelingroad,arollingroad,thatramblesroundtheshire.’’

(Chesterton)

and soft consonants (like l,m, n, v,w, z, etc.) produce sweet, soft,soothingmusicintheselines:–

(c)Onomatopoeia–Thisisthenamegiventothefigureofspeechbywhichthesoundofthewordsismadetosuggestorechothesense.There are many onomatopoeic words in English ; e.g., roar, bang,crash, clap, bump, bubble, screen, pop, moan, hum, murmur, etc.When they are talking of sounds, poetswill usewords to representthosesoundsiftheycan.Forinstance:–

Canyounothearthecooingofthedovesandthehummingofthebees ?How is it done ?Someof thewords are onomatopoeic,e.g.,moan,murmuring;inothersthesoftvowels,andaboveallthemandnsounds,giveahummingmurmur,e.g.,immemorial,innumerable.

(d)Alliteration–Thisisanotherfigureofspeechusedinpoetry.Itbrings together words which begin with the same consonant (orvowel)sound.Forexample:–

Herethefsoundsgivetheimpressionofwindblowing.

Here the lsoundsrepresent the liquidsoundsof littlewaves,andthesandshsoundshelp.

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“Thewoodsdecay,thewoodsdecayandfall.” (Tennyson)“Whathopeofanswer,orredress?Behindtheveil,behindtheveil..’’ (Tennyson)“Awearytime!Awearytime!Howglazedeachwearyeye!’’ (Coleridge)“Ineverclimbingupaclimbingwave.” (Tennyson)“Thewesterntidecreptupalongthesand.Ando’erando’erthesand.’’ (Kingsley)Androundandroundthesand.’’

Thersoundshelpthedescriptionofawanderingroad.(e)Repetition–Repetitionofwordsandphrasesnotonlyservesto

emphasisethemeaning,butoftenalsotoincreasethemusicaleffectofapoem.

(f)Refrains–Arefrainisaformofrepetition.Insomepoemsthesame line,orpart of it, is repeatedat the endof eachverse.Sucharepeatedlineorphraseiscalledaburdenorrefrain.

(2)Vision.Thesecondcharacteristicofpoetry isvision.Agreatpoetisa“seer”,i.e.,a“see-er”;onewhohasspiritualinsightandcanseetruthsthatothersdonot.Theordinaryunimaginativemanisawareonly ofwhat he perceives by his senses, and sees only the outwardaspectofwhathesees.But thepoetsseemuchmore.Theyhave, inmomentsofvision,thepowerofunderstanding,byakindofinstinct,things,theirqualitiesandtherelationsbetweenthem,whichordinarypeople cannot see. All true poetry is the product of vision orimaginationforitistheexpressionofit.

Wordsworthwrote a poem about amatter-of-fact, unimaginativeman,calledPeterBell.PeterBellsawnothingbutwhathesawwithhisphysicaleyes.Hehadno“vision.”

“Aprimrosebyariver’sbrimAyellowprimrosewastohim,Anditwasnothingmore.’’

Nowseewhataprimrose,oranycommonwildflower,istoarealpoet.Wordsworthhimselfsays:–

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poet.Wordsworthhimselfsays:–

“TomethemeanestflowerthatblowscangiveThoughtsthatdooftenlietoodeepfortears.

The poet idealises the real. He helps us to see natural objects“Apparelledincelestiallight,thegloryandthefreshnessofadream.”

There is suggestiveness in great poetry. It suggests or impliesmuch more than it says. It has a depth of meaning that cannot befathomedbyoneortworeadings.

(3)Imagery.Thesuggestionofvividmentalpictures,or images,bytheskillfuluseofwords,iscalled“imagery.”Apoetcancreateorsuggest beautiful sight-effects, aswell as beautiful sound-effects, bymeans ofwords.This capacity is, of course, part of a poet’s gift ofimagination. Poetry, much more than prose, produces much of itseffectbyimages.Itoftentalksinpictures.Thepoet’spicturesmaybedrawnfromtherealworld,ortheidealworldofimaginationinwhichhedwells.

Poetshavethreewaysofmakingusseementalpictures.(a)ByDescription– Hemay, as a prose-writer does, describe a

scene, real or ideal, in words. Here is Gray’s description of theeveningofasummerday:–

“Thecurfewtollstheknellofpartingday,Thelowingherdwindslowlyo’erthelea,

Theploughmanhomewardplodshiswearyway,Andleavestheworldtodarknessandtome.

Nowfadestheglimmeringlandscapeonthesight,

Andalltheairasolemnstillnessholds.Savewherethebeetlewheelshisdroningflight,Anddrowsytinklingslullthedistantfolds.’’

[Forexamplesofverbaldescriptionssee,“TheSandsofDee”(2ndverse);“Hohenlinden”,“RaininSummer.”]

(b)BycertainFiguresofSpeechsuchassimile,metaphor,and

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“AndthestatelyshipsgoonTotheirhavenunderthehill;

ButOforthetouchofavanish’dhand,Andthesoundofavoicethatisstill!’’ (Tennyson)

“Allinahotandcoppersky,Thebloodysun,atnoon.’’ (Coleridge)

personificationaboutwhichyouhave learnt inChapter29.Readcarefullytheexamplesofsimile,metaphorandpersonificationgivenin that chapter. A poet compares one thing with another, and sosuggestssomeimportantpointaboutitbyanimage.

(c) By Picturesque Epithets.–A poet can also call up a picturewithasingleilluminatingwordorphrase.Justexaminetheepithetsofadjectivesintheselines–

–Whatapictureofcolourthesetwoepithetscallup!(4) Emotion.–The third essential of poetry is emotion.Ordinary

prose writing (other than fiction) appeals more to the head than toheart;butthefunctionofpoetryistotouchtheheart;thatis,toarouseemotion.Whocanreadsuchlinesasthesewithoutemotion?

But it is only emotion that can rouse emotion. If the poet feelsnothingwhen hewrites a poem, his readerswill feel nothingwhentheyhearit.Heartmustspeaktoheart.

To sum up, therefore, the essentials of poetry are music, vision(includingimagery),andemotion.Sowemaysaythatpoetryspringsfrom imagination rousedby emotion,and is expressed inmusicandimagery. This is not a definition for, as we have seen, we cannotdefinepoetry,butadescriptionofitsessentialcharacteristics.

Let us now take the well-known poem “Daffodils” by WilliamWordsworth to try and find out what essentials of good poetry arecontainedinit.

IwanderedlonelyasacloudThatfloatsonhigho’ervalesandhills,

WhenallatonceIsawacrowd,Ahostofgoldendaffodils,

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Besidethelake,beneaththetrees,Flutteringanddancinginthebreeze.

ContinuousasthestarsthatshineAndtwinkleonthemilkyway,

Theystretchedinnever-endinglineAlongthemarginofabay:

TenthousandsawIataglanceTossingtheirheadsinsprightlydance.

Thewavesbesidethemdanced,buttheyOutdidthesparklingwavesinglee:

ApoetcouldnotbutbegayInsuchajocundcompany!

Igazed–andgazed–butlittlethoughtWhatwealththeshowtomehadbrought.

ForoftwhenonmycouchIlieInvacantorinpensivemood,

TheyflashuponthatinwardeyeWhichistheblissofsolitude;

Andthenmyheartwithpleasurefills,Anddanceswiththedaffodils.

APPRECIATIONOFTHEPOEM(1) Substance.–The first thing we must do is to read the poem

through,carefully.Thenwemustaskourselves:Whatisitallabout?Whatisthesubject?Andwhatdoesthepoetsayaboutthesubject?

ThepoettellsusthatashewastakingasolitarywalkbesidealakeonebrightandbreezySpringmorning,hesuddenlycameuponasightthatfilledhimwithdelightedwonderatitsbeauty,andwithgaietyofheart. There stretched before his wondering gaze thousands andthousands of yellow daffodils under the trees beside the sparklingwatersof the lake,“Flutteringanddancing in thebreeze.”Thesightfilledhimwithpleasure;buthedidnotknowatthetimeallthattheexperiencehadaddedtohislife.Formanytimesafterwards,memory

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broughtbackthatbeautifulsceneasamentalpicture,whichgavehimoverandoveragainthesamesenseofgladness.

(2)Language.–Thepoemisinverysimplelanguageandtherearereallynodifficultwords.(Daffodilisabulbousplantofthelilyfamilybearing a yellow trumpet-shaped flower that grows wild in EnglishwoodsandflowersinSpring).

(3)Imagery.–(a)Thefirstthreeversesareadescriptionofahostofdaffodilsunderthetreesbythesideofalake,litupbythesunanddancinginthewind.

(b)Therearetwosimiles:Thecomparisonbetweenthesolitarypoet and a lonely cloud in the first stanza, and the comparisonbetween the endless line of daffodils and innumerable stars in themilkywaygiveninthesecondstanza.

(c) There is also an example of personification in the secondstanza and again in the third stanza. The daffodils are described asdancingingleeandtossingtheirheadslikehumanbeingsandaresaidtobe“suchajocundcompany.”

The statement, “Ten thousand saw I at a glance”, is a figure ofspeechknownashyperbole;itisapoeticexaggerationnotintendedtobetakenliterally.

(4)Soundeffects.–(a)Thequickenedmovementof line6of thefirststanza,incomparisonwiththestatelymovementoftheprecedinglines,wellechoesandreinforcesthesense.

(b) There is an example of alliteration in line 6 of the fourthstanza. “And danceswith the daffodils”.Note also the repetition inline 5 of the third stanza, “I gazed–and gazed”; it emphasises thelength of time the poet stood looking in delighted wonder at thebeautifulscene.

(5)Strikinglines.Themoststrikinglinesarelines3and4ofthelast stanza.The“inwardeye” is the facultyofvisualising,orcallingup mental pictures from memory or the imagination. Such mind-picturesgiveusjoywhenwearealoneandatleisure.

Wehavegivenhereasomewhatdetailedappreciationofthepoem,

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(a) ShedweltamongtheuntroddenwaysBesidethespringsofDove;

AmaidwhomtherewerenonetopraiseAndveryfewtolove.

AvioletbyamossystoneHalf-hiddenfromtheeye!

–Fairasastar,whenonlyoneIsshininginthesky.

Shelivedunknown,andfewcouldknowWhenLucyceasedtobe;

Butsheinhergrave,and,oh,Thedifferencetome

“The Daffodils”. The points amplified above in connection withWordsworth’s beautiful poem will make you understand what youshouldlookforingoodpoetryinorderthatyoumayenjoyinabetterway.Butatthehighschoolstage,acontinuousdescriptionofalltheessential qualities of a good poem is not required. A student’sappreciationofaparticularpieceofpoetrymaybejudgedbyaskingspecificquestionslikethefollowing:Whatisthecentralideaofthepoem?Whatisthepoet’sattitudetolife,ortonature,ortowhateveristhesubjectofthepoem?Whatisthesignificanceofcertaingivenlines or expressions in the poem ?What picture is sketched in thelinesspecified?Howarecertainsoundeffectsproducedbythepoet?Whatfiguresofspeecharetobefoundinthepoemandhowcantheybe explained ? What title (or alternative title) can be given to thepoem?

SPECIMENSHere are two short poemswith certainquestionson appreciation

givenbeloweachofthemandtheanswersworkedout.

–W.Wordsworth

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1. Giveasuitabletitletothepoem.2. Nameandexplainthefigureofspeechusedinthesecondstanza.3. Whichlinesinthepoemshowintensefeeling?Whatfeelinghasthe

poetexpressedintheselines?4. Whatdoyouthinkofthelanguageusedinthepoem?

1. “TheLostLove”or“SheDweltAmongtheUntroddenWays.”2. Thefigureofspeechissimile.Thegirliscomparedtothehalfhidden

violetandthelonelystartoemphsise(a)hersolitudeandobscurity,and(b)herbeautyofsoulaswellasbody.

3. Thelasttwolines.Theyexpressthefeelingofloveandbereavement.4. Themoststrikingfeatureofthelanguageisitssimplicity.Thepoethas

usedsimple,everydaywords,mostlyofonesyllable;yettheyproduceapoemthathasamagiccharm.

(b) Laughandbemerry,bettertheworldwithasong.Bettertheworldwithablowintheteethofawrong.Laugh,forthetimeisbrief,athreadthelengthofaspan.Laughandbeproudtobelongtotheoldproudpageantofman.Laughandbemerry:remember,inoldentime,GodmadeHeavenandEarthforjoy.Hetookinarhyme,Madethem,andfilledthemwiththestrongredwineofHismirth.Thesplendidjoyofthestars;thejoyoftheearth.Sowemustlaughanddrinkfromthedeepbluecupofthesky.Jointhejubilantsongofthegreatstarssweepingby,Laugh,andbattle,andwork,anddrinkofthewineoutpouredInthedeargreenearth,thesignofthejoyoftheLord.Laughandbemerrytogether,likebrothersakin,Guestingawhileintheroomsofabeautifulinn,Gladtillthedancingstops,andtheliltofthemusicends.Laughtillthegameisplayed:andbeyoumerry,myfriends.

QUESTIONS

ANSWERS

–JohnMasefield

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1. Whatisthecentralideaofthepoem?2. Whatisthe“blow”withwhichthepoetwantsustobettertheworld

?3. Quotethreestrikingexamplesofmetaphorsusedinthepoem.4. Explain:

(a)“theoldproudpageantofman.”(b)“Guestingawhileintheroomsofabeautifulinn.”

1. Lifeisshortandwemustthereforelaughandbecheerful,andenjoyallthebeautyandhappinessthatcanbefoundonthisearth.

2. Itisourlaughterandmerrimentthatwillserveasablowandhitoutboldlyagainstwrongandinjusticeintheworld.

3. (i)“Laugh,forthetimeisbrief,athreadthelengthofaspan.”(ii)“MadethemandfilledthemwiththestrongredwineofHismirth.”(iii)“Laughtillthegameisplayed.”

4. (a)Wearepartofthespectacularprogressofmankindwhichismarkedwithmanygloriousachievements.(b)Weshouldbehappyandcheerfultogetherduringtheshorttimeweareinthisbeautifulworldinthesamewayasbrotherswhoarestayingforashortwhileinabeautifulinnwherethereisdancingandmusic.

1. Whatisthislifeif,fullofcare,Wehavenotimetostandandstare?

NotimetostandbeneaththeboughsAndstareaslongassheeporcows?

Notimetosee,whenwoodswepass,Wheresquirrelshidetheirnutsingrass?

Notimetosee,inbroaddaylight,

QUESTIONS

ANSWERS

EXERCISE163

Read each of the following poems and answer the questions setbelowit:

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Notimetosee,inbroaddaylight,Streamsfullofstars,likeskiesatnight?

NotimetoturnatBeauty’sglance,Andwatchherfeet,howtheycandance?

NotimetowaittillhermouthcanEnrichthatsmilehereyesbegan?

Apoorlifethisif,fullofcare,Wehavenotimetostandandstare.

(a)Whatkindoflifedoesthepoetcondemn?(b)Whatarethe“stars”ofwhichthestreamsarefull?(c)Nameandexplainthefiguresofspeechinlines9-10.(d)Explain:

“NotimetowaittillhermouthcanEnrichthatsmilehereyesbegan’’.

2. MydaysamongtheDeadarepast;AroundmeIbehold,Whereverthesecasualeyesarecast,Themightymindsofold;Mynever-failingfriendsarethey,WithwhomIconversedaybyday;WiththemItakedelightinwealAndseekreliefinwoe;AndwhileIunderstandandfeelHowmuchtothemIowe,Mycheekshaveoftenbeenbedew’dWithtearsofthoughtfulgratitude.

(a)Whatisthecentralideaofthepoem?(b)Whoarethe“mightyminds”?(c)Whoarethepoet’sfriendsandhowaretheynever-failing?(d)Explain:

Mycheekshaveoftenbeenbedew’dWithtearsofthoughtfulgratitude.’’

–WilliamHenryDavies

–RobertSouthey

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3. WescatterseedswithcarelesshandAnddreamwene’ershallseethemmore:ButforathousandyearsTheirfruitappearsInweedsthatmartheland,Orhealthfulstore.Thedeedswedo–thewordswesayIntostillairtheyseemtofloat;Wecountthemeverpast–Buttheyshalllast,Inthedreadjudgement,theyAndweshallmeet!(a)Whatisthecentralideaofthepoem?(b)Explaintheimageryofthefirststanza.(c)Showhowwrongweareabouttheconsequencesofourwordsandourdeeds.(d)Explain:

“Inthedreadjudgement,theyAndweshallmeet.’’

4. Oh,sweetcontent,thatturnsthelabourer’ssweatTotearsofjoy,andshinestheroughestface;HowoftenhaveIsoughtyouhighandlow

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Andfoundyoustillinsomequietplace;Hereinmyroom,whenfullofhappydreams

WithnolifeheardbeyondthatmerrysoundOfmothsthatonmylightedceilingkissTheirshadowsastheydanceanddancearound;Orinagarden,onasummer’snightWhenIhaveseenthedarkandsolemnairBlinkwiththeblindbat’swings,andheaven’sbrightfaceTwitchwiththestarsthatshineinthousandsthere.

(a)Wheredoesthepoetseeksweetcontent?Wheredoeshefindit?(b)Whatstrikingword-picturesarecontainedinthepoem?(c)Nameandexplainthefiguresofspeechinthelasttwolines.(d)Giveasuitabletitletothepoem.

5. MuchhaveItravell’dintherealmsofgoldAndmanygoodlystatesandkingdomsseen;RoundmanywesternislandshaveIbeen

WhichbardsinfealtytoApollohold.OftofonewideexpansehadIbeentold.

Thatdeep-brow’dHomerruledashisdemesne;YetdidIneverbreatheitspureserene

TillIheardChapmanspeakoutloudandbold;ThenfeltIlikesomewatcheroftheskies

Whenanewplanetswimsintohisken;OrlikestoutCortez,whenwitheagleeyes

HestaredatthePacific–andallhismenLook’dateachotherwithawildsurmise–Silent,uponapeakinDarien.

(a)Whatideaisexpressedinthefirstfourlinesofthesonnet?(b)Explainthesignificanceofthephrase“deep-browedHomer”.(c)Whatstrikingpicturesarepresentedinthelastsixlinesofthepoem?(d)Quotethelinewhichyouthinkproducesthegreatestmusicaleffect.(e)Explain:“pureserene”;“eagleeyes”;“wildsurmise”.

6. Strewonherroses,roses,Andneverasprayofyew!

Inquietshereposes;Ah,wouldthatIdidtoo;

–JohnKeats

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Ah,wouldthatIdidtoo;Hermirththeworldrequired;Shebatheditinsmilesofglee

Andnowtheyletherbe.

Inmazesofheatandsound.

Andnowpeacelapsherround,

Itflutter’dandfail’dforbreath.

Thevastyhallofdeath.

(b)Quoteexamplesofrepetitionfromthepoem.

(d)Explain:(i)“Hercabin’d,simplespirit,

Itflutter’dandfail’dforbreath.’’(ii)“To-nightitdothinherit

Thevastyhallofdeath.’’7. Books!’tisadullandendlessstrife:

Come,hearthewoodlandlinnet,Howsweethismusic!onmylifeThere’smoreofwisdominit.Andhark!howblithethethrostlesings,Hetooisnomeanpreacher:Comeforthintothelightofthings,LetNaturebeyourteacher...EnoughofScienceandofArt;Comeforth,andbringwithyouaheartThatwatchesandreceives.

Butherheartwastired,tired,

Herlifewasturning,turning,

Butforpeacehersoulwasyearning,

Hercabin’d,amplespirit,

To-nightitdothinherit

–MatthewArnold(a)Doesthepoetshowanygriefattheperson’sdeath?

Whatexactlyarehisfeelingsontheoccasion?

(c)Whatdoyougatheraboutthelifeofthedeadpersonfromthepoem?

(a)Nameandexplainthefigureofspeechinthesixthline.(b)Whatfeelingsdoesthepoetseektoawakeninyoubythefollowing

exclamations?

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8. TheytellusofanIndiantreeWhich,howsoe’erthesunandtheskyMaytemptitsboughstowanderfreeAndshootandblossomwideandhighFarbetterlovestobenditsarmsDownwardsagaintothatdearearth,FromwhichthelifethatfillsandwarmsItsgratefulbeingfirsthadbirth.’Tisthus,thoughwooedbyflatteringfriendsAndfedwithfame(iffameitbe),Thisheart,myowndearmother,bendsWithlove’strueinstinctbacktothee.

(a) Namethefiguresofspeechinthesecondandthirdlines.(b) Whyisthetreeconsidered“grateful”?(c) Inwhatrespectisthepoetlikethetree?(d) Explain:“Wooedbyflatteringfriends”;“Shootandblossomwideand

high.”

“Books!”“hark!”(c)WhatkindofteachingdoesNaturegive?(d)Explain:“thelightofthings”;“aheartthatwatchesandreceives”.

–S.S.C.Examination

–S.S.C.Examination

CHAPTER44

PARAPHRASINGThe word “parapharse” (from the Greek, meaning literally

“equivalent sentence”) is defined as “restatement of the sense of apassageinotherwords.”It is“thereproductioninone’sownnaturalidiomorstyleofthefullsenseofapassagewritteninanotheridiomorstyle.’’

I.USESOFPARAPHRASING

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Someonehassaid,withasneer,thatparaphrase“usuallytakestheformofconvertinggoodEnglish intobad.”But thisneednotbeso;and if in any case it is so, then the paraphrase in question is a badparaphrase.ItshouldbetheaimofthepupiltoimprovehisEnglishbythepracticeofparaphrasing,andoftheteachertoseethattheEnglishinwhichhispupil’sparaphrasesarewrittenisgoodEnglish.

Paraphrasinghastwoimportantuses:–(a)AsanExerciseinComposition.(i)It is,first,agoodtestofa

pupil’s ability to understand what he reads; and is, therefore, anexcellent method of training the mind to concentrate on what onereads and so to read intelligently. For it is impossible to paraphraseanypassagewithoutafirmgraspofitsmeaning.

(ii)Itis,secondly,afinetrainingintheartofexpressing,whatonewants to say, simply, clearly and directly. Incidentally, it givesvaluablepracticeingrammaticalandidiomaticcomposition.

Amanwhohasonceacquiredtheartofintelligentreadingandoflucidexpression,hasreceivednomeanmeasureofeducation.

(b)Aseconduseofparaphraseisthatitformsavaluablemethodof explanation. Indeed, it is often the best way of explaining aninvolvedorornatepassageofproseorofanobscurepieceofpoetry.So annotators of poemsoftenmakeuseof it. For example, take thenote in Palgrave’s “Golden Treasury” (OxfordUniversity Press) onthisversefromBrowning’s“RabbiBenEzra”:–

Enoughnow,iftheRightAndGoodandInfinite

Benamedhere,asthoucallestthyhandthineown.Withknowledgeabsolute,Subjecttonodispute.

Fromfoolsthatcrowdedyouth,norletthesefeelalone.

Note.–“ItisenoughifinagewecangetasabsoluteaknowledgeofRightandWrong,GoodandEvil, theChangingandtheEternal,aswehaveofourownhands.”

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II.CHARACTERISTICSOFAGOODPARAPHRASE

1. Translation.–Paraphrasing is really a species of translation ;for though a paraphrase is not a translation from one tongue intoanother(asfromUrduorTamilintoEnglish),itisatranslationofoneman’swordsintothewordsofanotherinthesamelanguage.Andasatranslationmustbeaccurateandexplanatorytobeofanyvalue,soaparaphrasemust faithfullyreproduceand interpret the thoughtof theoriginalpassage.

A passagewritten in a very terse or compressed style has to beexpanded in translation. For instance, this saying from Bacon’s“Essays.”:–

Prosperitydothbestdiscovervice,butAdversitydothbestdiscovervirtue.Paraphrase.–When a man is prosperous, there is more chance of his bad

qualities coming to light ; but when he is unfortunate or in trouble, his goodqualitiesaremorelikelytoshowthemselves.

A verbose passage needs compression in translation. Here is ahumorousillustrationgivenbyRuskininalectureatOxford.Hesaidthat, whereas in his youth he might have informed a man that hishousewasonfireinthefollowingway–“Sir,theabodeinwhichyouprobably passed the delightful days of your youth is in danger ofinflammation,” then, being older and wiser, he would say simply,“Sir,yourhouseisonfire.”

In the following passage by Sydney Smith, the long words andhumorouslyornatesytleneedtranslatingintosimplelanguage:–

Whoever had the good fortune to seeDr. Parr’swig,must have observedthat, while it trespasses a little on the orthodox magnitude of perukes in theanterior parts, it scorns even episcopal limits behind, and swells out into aboundlessconvexityoffrizz.

Paraphrase.–AllwhohaveseenDr.Parr’swigmusthavebeenstruckwithits enormous size. Even in front it is larger than the usual style of wig; butbehind it is fuller even than thewigsworn by bishops, and swells out into agiganticroundofcurls.

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2. Fullness.–Paraphrasing differs from summarising or precis-writing, inasmuch as a paraphrase must reproduce, not only thesubstance or general meaning, but also the details, of a passage.Nothingintheoriginalmaybeleftunrepresentedintheparaphrase.Itis, therefore,a fullreproduction.Thedifferencebetweenasummaryand a paraphrasemaybe illustratedbygivingbothof the followingverse:–

ThegloriesofourbloodandstateAreshadows,notsubstantialthings:Thereisnoarmouragainstfate;Deathlayshisicyhandonkings;

SceptreandCrownMusttumbledown.

AndinthedustbeequalmadeWiththepoorcrookedscytheandspade.

Summary.–Highbirthandrankarenothing;forindeath,whichclaimsall,peasantsareequalwithkings.

Paraphrase.–Nobility of birth and exalted rank, ofwhichmen so proudlyboast,aremereillusionsandquicklypassaway.Theycannotprotecttheirproudpossessors from the common fate of all mankind–death. Even kings, like themeanestof theirsubjects,mustdie;andinthegravethepoorpeasant isequalwiththehaughtymonarch.

While nothing in the original is to be unrepresented in theparaphrase,nothingistobeaddedtoit.Toinsertideasorillustrationsof your own is not allowed. The paraphrasemust be “the truth, thewholetruth,andnothingbutthetruth.”

There isno rule for the lengthofaparaphraseascomparedwiththe length of the original passage ; but, as in paraphrasingwe havefrequentlytoexpandconcisesentencestomaketheirmeaningclear,aparaphraseisusuallyaslongas,andisoftenlongerthan,theoriginal.In the above example, for instance, the verse has 45 words, thesummary17buttheparaphrasehas56.

3. Wholeness.–In paraphrasing, the passage to be paraphrasedmustbetreatedasawhole.Thepracticeoftakingtheoriginallineby

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line,orsentencebysentence,andsimply turningthese intodifferentwords is not paraphrasing at all. Until the passage is grasped as awhole,noattemptshouldbemadetoparaphraseit.Whatwehavetotry todo is togetbehind thewords to the idea in theauthor’smindwhichbegotthem.Thisisnotaneasytask,andcallsforimaginationandconcentrationofthought;butunlesswecandoit,weshallneverproduceagoodparaphrase.

Suppose,forexample,youareaskedtoparaphrasethissonnet:

MuchhaveItravelledintherealmsofgold,Andmanygoodlystatesandkingdomsseen;RoundmanywesternislandshaveIbeen

WhichbardsinfealtytoApollohold.OftofonewideexpansehadIbeentoldThatdeep-browedHomerruledashisdemesne;YetdidIneverbreatheitspureserene

TillIheardChapmanspeakoutloudandbold;–ThenfeltIlikesomewatcheroftheskiesWhenanewplanetswimsintohisken;

OrlikestoutCortez,whenwitheagleeyesHestaredatthePacific–andallhismenLookedateachotherwithawildsurmise–

Silent,uponapeakinDarien.

–J.Keats

Themechanical lineby linemethodofparaphrasing isofnousehere.Beforeanysatisfactoryparaphrasecanbeproduced thecentralmeaningof thewholemustbegrasped.What is it?Well, itmaybeexpressedthus:

Keatshadreadwidely inEnglish literature,especiallypoetry,butheknewnothing of the poetic literature of ancient Greece until he read Chapman’stranslationofHomer’sIlliad.Thiswasarevelationtohim;andasheread,hefeltallthewonderandjoyfeltbyanastronomerwhenhediscoversanewstar,oranexplorerwhenhediscoversanunknownocean.

4.AComplete Piece of Prose.–Lastly, a good paraphrase is sowell constructed andwritten that itwill read as an independent and

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complete composition in idiomatic English. It should in itself beperfectly clear and intelligible,without any reference to the originalpassage.A paraphrase should be a piece of good prose that anyonewouldunderstandand readwithpleasure, even ifhehadnever seentheoriginaluponwhichitisbased.

Note.–Explanatory notes, either attached to, or inserted in thebodyof,theparaphrase,mustneverberesortedto.Alltheexplanationrequiredmustbeintheparaphraseitself.Theinsertionofexplanatorynotesisaconfessionoffailureinparaphrasing.

Tobesuccessfulinparaphrasing,itisnecesarytokeepthesefourpointsalwaysinmind;for,iftheyareforgotten,themerechangingofthe words and constructions of a passage will never make a realparaphrase. If your paraphrase is not a faithful translation of theoriginalpassageintoyourownwords;ifitdoesnotreproduceallthedetails, omitting nothing if it does not reproduce the passage as awhole; and if it is not a self-contained composition, intelligiblewithoutreferencetotheoriginal–then,yourparaphraseisafailure.

III.THEPARAPHRASEOFPOETRYThese are some special points in the paraphrasing of poetry that

maybeexplainedseparately.One thing must be made clear to start with and that is that, as

poetry in one language can never be translated into anotherwithoutlosingmuch,ifnotall,ofitscharm,sopoetrycanneverbetranslatedintoprose.Itisimpossibletogiveinprosethesameimpressionasisconveyed by a poem. The reason for this is that thematter and theform,thespiritandtheletter,thesoulandthebody,ofapoemaresoinextricably intermingled that you cannot change the form withoutlosing the spirit–that is, thepoetry itself.The rhythmand theverbalmusicinwhichliesmuchofthemagicofpoetry,mustbelost.Eventhe finest prose paraphrase of a poem is not, and can never be, apoem.All that a paraphrase can convey is themeaning of a poem.

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Nevertheless, the paraphrasing of poetry is a useful exercise incomposition, and may often be a valuable help in interpreting themeaningofpoems.

Thepeculiardifficultyofparaphrasingpoetryliesinthedifferencebetweenthelanguageofverseandprose.

(a)Differenceinwords–Poetsoftenusearchaicorunusualwordsthat are no longer in use in colloquial speech, and which are notgenerally found in prose writing. Examples :– brand, for sword ;carol,forsong;acot,foracottage;argosy,formerchantship;ere,forbefore;o’er,forover;ofyore,forinthepast;Iween,forIthink;oft-times,foroften;Itrow,forIamofopinion;aught,foranything;anent, forabout ;chide, for scold ;save, forexcept; forefathers, forancestors ; perchance, belike and haply, for perhaps ; albeit, foralthough;damsel, forgirl ;dame, for lady ;sire, for father ;quoth,forsaid;withal,inaddition;toboot,aswell;well-nigh,almost–andmanymore.Modernpoets generally avoid suchwords, but they arefrequent inolderpoetry. Inparaphrasing,modernequivalentsshouldalwaysbesubstitutedforsuchwords.

(b)Differenceintheorderofwords–Inversion,i.e.,anychangeinthe normal grammatical order ofwords in a sentence–subject, verb,object–ismuchmorecommoninpoetrythaninprose.

Forexample:–

“Minebeacotbesideahill;”insteadof,–Mayacotbesideahillbemine.“Abarkingsoundtheshepherdhears;”

insteadof,–Theshepherdhearsabarkingsound.“Not,Celia,thatIjusteramOrbetterthantherest;’’

insteadof,–NotthatIamjuster,etc.

[Note–Thisgettingridofinversionisthechiefthingwehavetodo ingiving theproseorder of averse. In “proseorder” exerciseswe retain all thewordsof theoriginal, simply rearranging them intheusualgrammaticalsequence.Wordsmaybeaddedhereandthere

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to complete the grammatical construction where necessary. Theseshould be put in brackets. Of course this is not paraphrasing. Forexample,takethisverse:–

“OnLinden,whenthesunwaslow,AllbloodlesslaytheuntroddensnowAnddarkaswinterwastheflow

OfIser,rollingrapidly.’’

There is an inversion in each sentence. Change these, and theproseorderwillbe:–

TheuntroddensnowlayallbloodlessonLindenwhenthesunwaslow,andtheflowof(the)

rapidlyrollingIserwas(as)darkaswinter.(c)Floweryandornamentallanguage.Suchlanguage,frequentin

verse,shouldbesimplifiedinprose.Forexample:–

“NowthegoldenmornaloftWavesherdew-bespangledwing,

WithvermilecheekandwhispersoftShewoosthetardySpring.’’

(d)RhythmandRhyme,socharacteristicofverse,havenoplaceinprose,andmustbeavoidedinparaphrasing.

IV.SPECIALHINTS(a)Direct and Indirect Speech–A paraphrasemay bewritten in

either;but(unlessindirectspeechisdefinitelyrequired),itisbettertouse direct speech, for indirect speech (especially for Indian studentswritinginEnglish)isfulloftrapsfortheunwary.

(b)Metaphors–Thebestwaytodealwithmetaphors,istoresolvethemintosimiles.Forexample–

“Silently,onebyone,intheinfinitemeadowsofHeaven,Blossomedthelovelystars,theforget-me-notsoftheangels.’’

Thismightbeparaphrasedthus–Thestarscameoutonebyonesilentlyinthevastsky,likeforget-me-

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notsfloweringinthefields.In some cases themetaphormay be dropped altogether, and the

literal meaning given instead. For instance, the first line of Keats’sonnet(seeabove,p.407-408),“MuchhaveItravelledintherealmsofgold”mayberendered,–Ihavereadwidelyinclassicalliterature.

(c)Abstractused forconcrete–When theabstract isused for theconcrete, the concrete should be restored. For example, “Let notambition mock their useful toil,” should become,– Ambitious menshouldnotdespisetheusefullabourofpoorpeasants.

(d) Rhetorical questions–These should be changed into directaffirmationsornegations.Forexample,“Arewenotbetterarmedthanour foes ?” should become,–We are better armed than our enemies;and, “Is thy servant a dog that he should do this thing ?” may beparaphrased,–Iamnotsocontemptibleacreatureastocommitsuchacrime.

(e)Exclamations–Theseshouldbeturnedintosimplestatements.For example, “O for a lodge in some vast wilderness !” can beparaphrased,–I wish I had a secluded refuge remote from humansociety.

(f) Apostrophe–In paraphrasing poems addressed in the secondperson,itisbettertousethepluralyouthanthesingularthou,partlybecause thou is not used in ordinary prose, and partly because theconstruction of verbs in the second person plural is simpler. Butwhicheverisadopted,mustbekepttoconsistentlythroughout.Itisavery bad form to begin with thou and later drop into you. Suchpassagesmay be rendered in the third person also; for instance, thefirstlineofMatthewArnold’ssonnetShakespeare,“Othersabideourquestion–Thouart free !”maybe rendered,–Wecan freely criticiseotherauthors,butShakespeareisbeyondourcriticism.

V.METHODOFPROCEDURE1.Becausenoone canparaphraseapassagewhichhedoesnot

undestand, firstread thepassage slowlyandcarefullyuntilyoufeel

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youhavefirmlygraspeditsgeneralmeaning.Ifonereadingdoesnotmake this clear, read it again and yet again, and study it until youthoroughlyunderstandit.Thisfirststepisallimportant.(Itisagoodthing to write down at this stage a brief summary, conciselyexpressingthegistormainthemeofthepassage.)

2.Next,readthepassageagainwithaviewtoitsdetails.Notealluncommonordifficultwords,andallidiomsandunusualgrammaticalconstructions,metaphorsandfiguresofspeech,rememberingthatyouare to express, not only the substance, but also the details, of thepassageinyourownway.

3.Now,keepingclearlyinmindthemainpurportofthepassage,prepare to reproduce the passage in your ownwords, in simple anddirectEnglish, not leaving anything in the original unrepresented inyourparaphrase.

4.Treat the passageasawhole.Donotworkwordbyword, orlinebyline;butfromthebeginningkeeptheendinview.

5. You may rearrange the order of sentences, and even of thewholepassage,ifthiscanmakethemeaningclear.

6. Break up a long sentence into several short ones, or combineseveralshortsentencesintoonelong,ifbysodoingyoucanmakethewholemoreeasilyunderstood.

7.Donotchangewordssimply for thesakeofchange.Nowordcaneverpreciselytaketheplaceofanother;andwhenawordintheoriginalisperfectlysimpleinmeaningandthebestwordinthatplace,it is a mistake to alter it. But all words and phrases that are at allarchaic, obscure, technical, or uncommon should be changed intosuitablesynonyms.N.B.–Neversubstituteadifficultorunusualwordfor a simple and familiarword ; e.g., do not put “ratiocination” for“argument.”

8. Explanatory notes are altogether out of place in a paraphrase,and their presence is a confession of failure in paraphrasing. Allexplanations of difficultiesmust be intrinsic parts of the paraphraseitself. Ifanysentence in theparaphrase requiresanote toexplain it,

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youmustrewritethesentenceuntilitexplainsitself.9. A common fault in using indirect speech is the constant

repetitionofthe“sayingverb”–e.g.,“Thepoetsaysthat’–‘‘Thepoetfurthersays’–’’Thepoetagainremarksthat’,andsoon.The“verbofsaying’, if used at all, should come once, at the beginning and notagain.

10. Write out a rough draft of your paraphrase first. (You mayhave to write several drafts before you get the paraphrase to yoursatisfaction.)Revise this carefully, comparing itwith the original tosee that you have omitted nothing, over- (or under-) emphasisednothing,norimitatedtheoriginaltooclosely.Correctanymistakesinspelling, punctuation, grammar or idiom. Read italoud (for the earsometimescandetectablemishwhichtheeyeoverlooks)tohearifitreadswellasapieceofgoodEnglish.

11.If,aftertakingpains,youfeeltheparaphraseisasgoodasyoucanmakeit,finallywriteoutthefaircopyneatlyandlegibly.

SPECIMENS

–1–Breathestheretheman,withsoulsodead,Whonevertohimselfhathsaid,Thisismyown,mynativeland?Whosehearthathne’erwithinhimburn’d.Ashomehisfootstepshehathturn’d.Fromwanderingonaforeignstrand?Ifsuchtherebreathe,go,markhimwell;ForhimnoMinstrelrapturesswell;Highthoughhistitles,proudhisname,Boundlesshiswealthaswishcanclaim;Despitethosetitles,power,andpelf,Thewretch,concentredallinself,Living,shallforfeitfairrenown,

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And,doublydying,shallgodownTotheviledust,fromwhencehesprung.

Unwept,unhonour’d,andunsung.

–Scott

PARAPHRASEItisdifficulttobelievethatanymancanbesospirituallydeadas

tohavenoloveforhisnativecountryaftertravellinginforeignlands.But if suchanunpatrioticpersondoesexist, takecarefulnoteofhiscareer;andyouwillfindthathewillneverinspirepoetstocelebratehimindeathlesssong.Hemaybeamanofhighrank,ofnoblefamilyandofrichesbeyondthedreamsofavarice;butthesegreatadvantageswillnotsavehimfromoblivion.Inspiteof themall,hewillwinnofame during his lifetime; andwhen he dies hewill die in a doublesense.Hisbodywillreturntothedustwhenceitcame,andhisnamewillbeforgotten.Nonewillweepforhim,nonewillhonourhim,andnopoetwillkeephisnamealiveinimmortalpoetry.

–2–Heavenfromallcreatureshidesthebookoffate,Allbutthepageprescribed,theirpresentstate:Frombruteswhatmen,frommenwhatspiritsknow;Orwhocouldsufferbeingherebelow?Thelambthyriotdoomstobleedto-day,Hadhethyreason,wouldheskipandplay?Pleas’dtothelast,hecropstheflow’ryfood,Andlicksthehandjustrais’dtoshedhisblood.Oh,blindnesstothefuture!kindlygiv’n,Thateachmayfillthecirclemark’dbyHeav’n,Whoseeswithequaleyes,asGodofall,

Aheroperish,orasparrowfall.

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–Pope

PARAPHRASEItwould be impossible for us to continue living in thisworld if

eachofusknewexactlywhatfatehadinstoreforhim.SoGodinHismercyconcealsthefuturefromallHiscreatures,andrevealsonlythepresent. He hides from the animals what men know, and He hidesfrommenwhat theangelsknow.Forexample, ifa lambhad reasonlikeaman,itcouldnotgambolhappily,knowingitwasdestinedtobekilledforhumanfood.But,beingquiteignorantofitsfate,itishappyto the lastminuteof itsshort lifecontentedlygrazing in the flowerymeadow,andeveninitsinnocencelicksthehandofthebutcherwhoisabouttoslaughterit.Whatablessingitisthatweareignorantofthefuture!God,toWhomthedeathofasparrowisofequalimportancewiththedeathofahero,hasinHismercythuslimitedourknowledge,so that we might fulfil our duty in the sphere to which He hasappointedus.

–3–Perseveranceistheveryhingeofallvirtues.Onlookingoverthe

world,thecauseofnine-tenthsofthelamentablefailureswhichoccurin men’s undertakings, and darken and degrade so much of theirhistory,liesnotinthewantoftalents,orthewilltousethem,butinthe vacillating and desultory mode of using them, in flying fromobject to object, in staring away at each little disgust, and thusapplyingtheforcewhichmightconqueranyonedifficultytoaseriesof difficulties, so large that no human force can conquer them.Thesmallest brook on earth, by continuing to run, has hollowed out foritselfaconsiderablevalleytoflowin.Commendmethereforetothevirtueofperseverance.Withoutitalltherestarelittlebetterthanfairygold,whichglittersinyourpurse,butwhentakentomarketprovestobeslateorcinders.

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1. Somemurmur,whentheirskyisclearAndwhollybrighttoview,

IfonesmallspeckofdarkappearIntheirgreatheavenofblue:

Andsomewiththankfullovearefilled,Ifbutonestreakoflight,

OnerayofGod’sgoodmercy,gildThedarknessoftheirnight.

2. LivesofgreatmenallremindusWecanmakeourlivessublime,

And,departing,leavebehindus,Footprintsonthesandsoftime;

Footprints,thatperhaps,another,Sailingo’erlife’ssolemnmain;

Aforlornandshipwreck’dbrother

–Carlyle

PARAPHRASEAllthevirtuesdependontheonevirtueofperseverance.Itislack

ofperseverance,notlackofability,thatisthecauseofmostofthesadfailures that stain the history ofmankind. It is becausemen do notpersevereinovercomingonedifficultyatatime,thattheyfail.Insteadof sticking to one aim in life until it is realized, they hesitate, getdiscouraged at every small rebuff, change from one aim to another,andsocreateforthemselvessuchaseriesofdifficultiesascanneverbe overcome by human power. Hence they fail to accomplishanything.Evenasmallstreamwillcarveoutforitselfadeepandwidechannel simplyby constantly flowing.Without perseverance, all theothervirtuesarelikethedeceitfulfairygoldofthefairy-tales,whichturnstoworthlessstoneswhenyoutrytouseitasmoneyintheshops.

EXERCISE164

Paraphrasethefollowing:–

–Trench

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Aforlornandshipwreck’dbrotherSeeing,shalltakeheartagain.

3. MorethingsarewroughtbyprayerThanthisworlddreamsof.Wherefore,letthyvoiceRiselikeafountainformenightandday.ForwhataremenbetterthansheeporgoatsThatnourishablindlifewithinthebrain,If,knowingGod,theyliftnothandsofprayer.Bothforthemselvesandthosewhocallthemfriends!

4. Insuchaworld;sothorny,andwherenoneFindshappinessunblighted;or,iffound,Withoutsomethistlysorrowatitsside;Itseemsthepartofwisdom,andnosin

Againstthelawoflove,tomeasurelotsWithlessdistinguish’dthanourselves,thatthusWemaywithpatiencebearourmoderateills,Andsympathizewithotherssufferingmore.

5. ChildrenweareallOfonegreatfather,inwhateverclimeNatureorchancehathcasttheseedsoflife–Alltongues,allcolours;neitherafterdeathShallwebesortedintolanguagesAndtints,white,black,andtawny,GreekandGoth,Northmen,andoffspringofhotAfrica;TheAll-father,HeinWhomweliveandmove;He,theindifferentJudgeofall,regardsNations,andhues,anddialectsalike:AccordingtotheirworksshalltheybejudgedWheneven-handedJusticeinthescaleTheirgoodandevilweighs.

6. Besideyonstragglingfencethatskirtstheway,Withblossom’dfurzeunprofitablygay,

–Longfellow

–Tennyson

–Cowper

–Southey

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Withblossom’dfurzeunprofitablygay,There,inhisnoisymansion,skill’dtorule,Thevillagemastertaughthislittleschool;Amanseverehewas,andsterntoview,–Iknewhimwell,andeverytruantknew,Wellhadthebodingtremblerslearn’dtotraceTheday’sdisastersinhismorningface;Fullwelltheylaugh’dwithcounterfeitedglee,Atallhisjokes,–formanyajokehadhe;Fullwellthebusywhisper,circlinground,Convey’dthedismaltidingswhenhefrown’d;Yethewaskind;orifsevereinaught,Theloveheboretolearningwasinfault.

7. Hark!’tisthetwanginghorn.O’eryonderbridge,ThatwithitswearisomebutneedfullengthBestridesthewintryflood,inwhichthemoonSeesherunwrinkledfacereflectedbright,Hecomes,theheraldofanoisyworld,Withspatteredboots,trapppedwaistandfrozenlocks.Newsfromallnationslumberingathisback,Truetohischarge,theclose-packedloadbehind,Yetcarelesswhathebrings,hisoneconcernIstoconductittothedestinedinn,And,havingdroppedtheexpectedbag,passonHewhistlesashegoes,light-heartedwretch,Coldandyetcheerful:messengerofgriefPerhapstothousandsandofjoytosome,Tohimindifferentwhethergrieforjoy.

8. Beitaweakness,itdeservessomepraise,Welovetheplay-placeofourearlydays,ThesceneistouchingandtheheartisstoneThatfeelsnotatthesight,andfeelsatnone;Thewallonwhichwetriedourgravingskill,Theverynamewecarvedsubsistingstill,Thebenchonwhichwesatwhiledeep-employed.Thoughmangled,hacked,andhewed,notyetdestroyed;

–Goldsmith

–Cowper

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Thoughmangled,hacked,andhewed,notyetdestroyed;Thelittleones,unbuttoned,glowinghot,Playingourgamesandontheveryspot;ThepleasingspectacleatonceexcitesSuchrecollectionofourowndelights,Thatviewingit,weseemalmosttoobtainOurinnocentsweetsimpleyearsagain.

9. Sincetriflesmakethesumofhumanthings,Andhalfourmiseryfromourfoiblessprings;Sincelife’sbestjoysconsistinpeaceandease,Andfewcansaveorserve,butallmayplease;Oh!letth’ungentlespiritlearnfromhence,Asmallunkindnessisagreatoffence.Largebountiestorestore,wewishinvain,Butallmayshuntheguiltofgivingpain.Toblessmankindwithtidesofflowingwealth,Withpowertogracethem,ortocrownwithhealth,Ourlittlelotdenies,butheavendecreesToallthegiftofminist’ringease;Themildforbearanceatanother’sfault;Thetauntingword,suppress’dassoonasthought;OntheseHeavenbadetheblissoflifedepend,Andcrush’dillfortunewhenitmadeafriend.

10. NowcamestillEveningon,andTwilightgreyHadinhersoberliveryallthingsclad.Silenceaccompanied–forbeastandbird,Theytotheirgrassycouch,thosetotheirnests,Wereslunk–allbutthewakefulnightingale;Sheallnightlongheramorousdescantsung.Silencewaspleased.Nowglow’dthefirmamentWithlivingsapphires.Hesperus,thatledThestarryhost,rodebrightest,tillthemoon,Risingincloudedmajestyatlength.Apparentqueen,unveil’dherpeerlesslight,Ando’erthedarkhersilvermantlethrew.

–Cowper

–HanmahMore

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Ando’erthedarkhersilvermantlethrew.

11. ThesefewpreceptsinthymemorySeethoucharacter.Givethythoughtsnotongue,Noranyunproportionedthoughthisact:Bethoufamiliar,butbynomeansvulgar.Thosefriendsthouhast,andtheiradoptiontried,Grapplethemtothysoulwithhoopsofsteel;ButdonotdullthypalmwithentertainmentOfeachnew-hatched,unfledgedcomrade.BewareOfentrancetoaquarrel,butbeingin,Bear’tthattheopposedmaybewareofthee.Giveeverymanthyear,butfewthyvoice,Takeeachman’scensure,butreservethyjudgement.Costlythyhabitasthypursecanbuy,Butnotexpressedinfancy;rich,notgaudy;Fortheappareloftenproclaimstheman.Neitheraborrowernoralenderbe;Forloanoftlosesbothitselfandfriend,Andborrowingdullstheedgeofhusbandry.

–Milton

12.Ifmiserybetheeffectofvirtue,itoughttobereverenced;ifofill-fortune,tobepitied;andifofvice,nottobeinsulted;becauseitis,perhaps, itself a punishment adequate to the crime bywhich it wasproduced; and the humanity of that man can deserve no panegyricwho is capable of reproaching a criminal in the hands of theexecutioner.

–Johnson13.Weareallshort-sighted,andveryoftenseebutonesideofa

matter;ourviewsarenotextendedtoallthathasaconnectionwithit.From thisdefect I thinknoman is free.Weseebut inpart, andweknowbutinpart,andthereforeitisnowonderweconcludenotrightfromourpartial views.Thismight instruct theproudest esteemerofhis own parts how useful it is to talk and consultwith others, evensuchascomeshortofhimincapacity,quickness,andpenetration;for

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sincenooneseesall,andwegenerallyhavedifferentprospectsofthesamething,accordingtoourdifferent,asImaysay,positionstoit,itis not incongruous to think, nor beneath any man to try, whetheranothermanmaynothavenotionsofthingswhichhaveescapedhim,andwhichhisreasonwouldmakeuseofiftheycameintohismind.

–Locke14. All the performances of human art, at which we look with

praiseorwonder,areinstancesoftheresistlessforceofperseverance;it is by this that the quarry becomes a pyramid, and that distantcountriesareunitedbycanals.Ifamanwastocomparetheeffectofasinglestrokeofapickaxe,orofoneimpressionofthespade,withthegeneraldesignandlastresult,hewouldbeoverwhelmedbythesenseof their disproportion; yet those petty operations, incessantlycontinued, in time surmount thegreatestdifficutlties, andmountainsarelevelled,andoceansbounded,theslenderforceofhumanbeings.

–Johnson15. The proverbial oracles of our parsimonious ancestors have

informedusthatthefatalwasteoffortuneisbysmallexpenses,bytheprofusionofsumstoolittlesinglytoalarmourcaution,andwhichwenever suffer ourselves to consider together. Of the same kind isprodigality of life; he that hopes to look back hereafter withsatisfactionuponpastyearsmust learn toknow thepresentvalueofsingleminutes,andendeavourtoletnoparticleoftimefalluselesstothe ground.An Italian philosopher expressed in hismotto that timewas his estate; an estate indeed, that will produce nothing withoutcultivation,butwillalwaysabundantlyrepaythelaboursofindustry,andsatisfythemostextensivedesires,ifnopartofitbesufferedtoliewastebynegligence,tobeoverrunbynoxiousplants,orlaidoutforshowratherthanforuse.

–Johnson16.Mr.Hampdenwasagentlemanofagoodextractionandafair

fortune,whofromalifeofgreatpleasureandlicensehadonasudden

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retired to extraordinary sobriety and strictness, and yet retained hisusualcheerfulnessandaffability;which,togetherwiththeopinionofhiswisdomandjusticeandthecouragehehadshewedinopposingtheship-money, raisedhis reputation to a verygreat height, not only inBuckinghamshire where he lived, but generally throughout thekingdom.Hewas not aman ofmanywords, and rarely began thandiscourse, or made the first entrance upon any business that wasassumed; but a veryweighty speaker, and after he had heard a fulldebate,andobservedhowtheHousewasliketobeinclined,tookuptheargument,andshortlyandclearlyandcraftilysostatedit thathecommonlyconductedittotheconclusionhedesired;andifhefoundhecouldnotdothat,hewasneverwithoutthedexteritytodivertthedebatetoanothertimeandtoprevent thedeterminingofanythinginthenegativewhichmightproveinconvenientinthefuture.

–Clarendon

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HIGH SCHOOL ENGLISH GRAMMER and COMPOSITION

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