Health-related physical fitness in martial arts and combat sports practitioners

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Health-related physical fitness in martial arts and combat sportspractitioners

Juliano Schwartz1,2 • Monica Y. Takito3 • Fabrıcio B. Del Vecchio1,4 •

Leandro S. Antonietti2 • Emerson Franchini1

Received: 6 March 2015 / Accepted: 4 May 2015

! Springer-Verlag Italia 2015

Abstract

Purpose To evaluate health-related physical fitness in

martial arts and combat sports practitioners.

Methods 935 adult, male practitioners of Brazilian jiu-

jitsu, judo, karate, kung-fu, and taekwondo were evaluated

using the fitness assessment tests proposed by the Amer-

ican College of Sports Medicine. Data were analyzed using

descriptive statistics, correspondence analysis, and analysis

of variance, with a significance level of 5 % in all analyses.

Results Most subjects had a body mass index between

overweight (karate, Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo) and normal

(kung-fu and taekwondo). Waist–hip ratio and body fat

percentage indicated moderate risks for all groups. Re-

garding VO2max, the kung-fu group showed lower scores

compared to the Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo groups,

although all groups were above average in comparison with

the standard population. Furthermore, most practitioners

were classified as below average concerning muscle

strength in all styles, while the kung-fu group was rated as

poor. Concerning strength endurance all groups were

classified as above average, and the Brazilian jiu-jitsu

group showed higher scores when compared to taekwondo

and judo groups, the latter showing lower scores than the

kung-fu group. Flexibility was classified as average in all

groups, and the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group had lower scores

when compared to the karate, taekwondo, and kung-fu

groups, with this last one showing better results when

compared to the judo group.

Conclusion Instructors should create strategies to im-

prove muscle strength and body composition or practi-

tioners should engage in other physical activities to achieve

a better result in these components, the only ones not above

average.

Keywords Oxygen consumption ! Muscle strength !Flexibility ! Body composition

Abbreviations

BMI Body mass index

WHR Waist–hip ratio

VO2max Maximal oxygen uptake

VO2 Oxygen uptake

ACMS American College of Sports Medicine

SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

ANOVA Analysis of variance

g2 Eta squared

Introduction

Currently, the sedentary lifestyle stands out among the

main risk factors associated with a variety of non-com-

municable chronic diseases [1–3]. In addition, there is

strong evidence that the practice of regular physical

& Emerson Franchini

[email protected]

1 Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, School of

Physical Education and Sport, University of Sao Paulo, Av

Prof. Melo de Moraes, 65 Butanta, Sao Paulo 05508-030,

Brazil

2 Graduate Exercise Physiology Course, University of Sao

Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

3 School of Physical Education and Sport, University of Sao

Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil

4 Superior School of Physical Education, Federal University of

Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil

123

Sport Sci Health

DOI 10.1007/s11332-015-0220-6

activity and the improvement of physical fitness are related

to a better quality of life and reduced mortality in adults

[4–6]. However, despite the sound recognition of these

positive effects on human health, most people do not per-

form such activities on a regular basis [7, 8].

In contrast, Bu et al. [9] already demonstrated that a

large number of people do practice some kind of martial art

or combat sport around the world. The practice of such

modalities is booming [10, 11], and this has had a direct

impact on the increase in scientific publications on the

field, focusing mainly on sports performance [12–14].

Although such modalities are widely spread across the

competitive scenario, they are increasingly associated with

wellbeing and prescribed by health professionals to prevent

and treat certain medical conditions [11, 15]. It has also led

to the publication of articles addressing the benefits of

these modalities for the maintenance and improvement of

health, although in the form of reviews [9, 11, 16]. Physical

fitness is an important aspect for general health and phy-

sical activity is recommended for adults to improve body

composition, strength, strength endurance, cardiorespira-

tory fitness and flexibility [6]. In the last decades martial

arts and combat sports have attracted people also interested

in health-related physical fitness, but only a few studies

investigated the impact of martial arts practice on changes

in health-related fitness [17–20]. In the ‘‘martial fitness’’

study project, Tsang et al. [18–20] investigated the effects

of 6-month kung-fu training compared to a placebo con-

dition (tai-chi-chuan practice) in overweight/obese ado-

lescents and found that kung-fu training improved

submaximal cardiovascular fitness, lower-body muscle

endurance, and muscle velocity compared to the place-

bo/tai-chi-chuan practice condition [20], although at-

tenuation of expected gains due to growth and maturation

in whole body and abdominal adiposity was observed in

both groups over the training period [18] and no superior

effect of kung-fu practice was found over the placebo/tai-

chi-chuan group concerning metabolic outcomes (e.g.,

fasting insulin, insulin resistance, lipids, glucose, HbA1c

and C-reactive protein) [19]. In addition, Yoshimura and

Imamura [17] reported that 10 weeks of a basic 30-min

karate program conducted four times per week increased

maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) in females com-

pared to a control group. However, no studies were found

analyzing the effects of martial arts training on health-

related fitness in adult male practitioners. In addition, there

is no study describing the health-related physical fitness of

people engaging only in martial arts and combat sports

programs.

Based on this information and due to the lack of de-

scriptive investigations on the topic, the goal of the present

study was to assess health-related physical fitness in adult

martial arts and combat sports practitioners. Our main

hypothesis was that the practitioners studied would show

higher values than non-practitioners (those reported by the

American College of Sports Medicine—ACSM [21] clas-

sification) in all physical fitness variables.

Methods

Design

One first approach to verify the impact of martial arts and

combat sports on health-related physical fitness is to de-

scribe these parameters in practitioners taking part solely in

martial arts and combat sports programs for a period longer

than 6 months. Thus, this was a descriptive study con-

ducted to describe the health-related physical fitness profile

of martial arts and combat sports practitioners and to

compare them using a sample representative of these

practitioners in a city with over 15 million people.

Subjects

To represent the universe of practitioners in all modalities,

we obtained a stratified sample by modality, considering an

error margin of 5 %, after surveying the number of indi-

viduals, aged between 20 and 35 years old, practicing the

five most popular martial arts and combat sports for more

than 6 months, and officially registered in their respective

state federations.

Because there was more than one style in some mod-

alities, this study included only practitioners affiliated to

the Brazilian confederations.

The study included 935 men aged between 20 and

35 years, practitioners of karate (n = 229), Brazilian jiu-

jitsu (n = 136), judo (n = 180), kung-fu (n = 140) and

taekwondo (n = 250), in Sao Paulo, Brazil. All subjects

had been training for at least 6 months, with a minimum of

3 h per week and had no cardiovascular risk factors,

orthopedic injuries or other problems that would hinder the

proper conduction of the proposed tests. The study was

approved by the local Ethics Committee, and all subjects

signed a written informed consent form.

General procedures

A trained research team performed the battery of assess-

ments on health-related physical fitness according to the

ACSM [21] recommendations. The battery consisted of

determining body composition (body mass index—BMI,

waist–hip ratio—WHR), and body fat percentage, through

the three site skinfold measurement [22]; the maximal

oxygen uptake (VO2max) estimated by the Queens College

step test; muscle strength, measured by the handgrip

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123

strength test; muscle endurance, obtained using a one-

minute sit-up test; and flexibility, measured using the sit-

and-reach test.

Briefly, the following procedures were followed: (1)

Body mass index: To determine the body mass index, body

mass was measured in a calibrated scale (Filizola, Brazil),

with 0.1 kg accuracy and height was measured using a

portable stadiometer (Seca 222, USA), with 1 mm accu-

racy. The BMI = body mass (kg)/height (m)2 equation was

used; (2) Waist–hip ratio: To determine the waist–hip ratio

the circumferences of the waist and hip were verified using

specific tape (ISP, Brazil) for these procedures; (3) Body

fat percentage: The percentage of body fat was estimated

by the method of three skinfolds as proposed by Jackson

and Pollock [22]. Skinfold thicknesses were measured

three times using a Harpenden caliper (John Bull, British

Indicators, St Albans, United Kingdom) and the mean

value was used; (4) Cardiorespiratory fitness: Queen’s

college step test was used to predict maximal aerobic

power. This is a standard method to measure one’s max-

imal oxygen uptake using bench stepping submaximal

exercise. A wooden stepping bench of 41.25 cm was used

along with a metronome and a stopwatch. A metronome

was used to monitor the stepping cadence, which was set at

96 beats per minute (24 complete steps per minute). The

step test began after a brief demonstration and practice

period. The subjects were asked to perform each stepping

cycle to a four-step cadence, up–up–down–down, con-

tinuously, for 3 min. After completion of test, subjects

remained standing while heart rate was measured for 15 s,

from 5 to 20 s into recovery. Recovery heart rate was

converted to beats per minute (15 s HR 9 4) [21, 23].

The following equation was used for the estimation of

VO2max (mL kg-1 min-1) [21]:

Males: VO2max ¼ 111:33# 0:42$ step-test pulse rate½

beats per minuteð Þ(

(5) Muscle strength: The handgrip strength test was used.

Measurements were conducted three times on each side,

alternately, with one-minute interval between attempts,

and, in each one, the subject was instructed to generate the

greatest possible force, using Jamar dynamometer (USA).

The score was the sum of the greatest value of each side

[21]; (6) Muscle endurance: An abdominal test was per-

formed, in which the individual remained lying supine on a

mat—to avoid nuisance from direct contact with the

ground—with knees flexed 90" and feet flat on the floor.

The arms were kept by his sides, fingers touching on a

piece of tape. Another piece of tape was placed at a dis-

tance of 12 cm from the first one. The individual should

make the maximum possible correct repetitions, sliding a

fingertip from a tape to another, up to 75 repetitions limit in

1 min [21]; (7) Flexibility: This test involves sitting on the

floor with legs stretched out straight ahead. Shoes should

be removed. The soles of the feet are placed flat against the

box. Both knees should be locked and pressed flat to the

floor—the tester may assist by holding them down. With

the palms facing downwards, and the hands on top of each

other, the subject reaches forward along the measuring line

as far as possible. The subject reaches out and holds that

position for at least 2 s while the distance is recorded. The

score is the highest one among three attempts [21].

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed with Statistical Package for the Social

Sciences (SPSS) for Windows version 17.0 (SPSS, Inc.,

Chicago, IL, USA). Descriptive statistics consisted of cal-

culating the mean and standard deviation for all continuous

and semicontinuous data with normal distribution. Cate-

gorical variables were presented as absolute and relative

frequency, and associations with the study groups were

verified by Chi-square test for the homogeneity hypothesis.

Due to the assumption of expected frequencies greater than

five for the Pearson’s Chi-square test, an alternative sta-

tistical method was also applied, based on the likelihood

ratio, which is less sensitive to frequency issues. The ex-

ploitation of the differences between groups was supported

by maps generated by correspondence analysis [24]. This

technique graphically represents the associations and dif-

ferences and has a direct association with the Chi-square

test, since the distances between points, called Chi-square

distances, can be interpreted as the residues calculated

from the expected value minus the mean value. In this map,

the center (0.0) represents the expected average profile.

The further away from the center point, the greater is the

contribution of this point in rejecting the null hypothesis. If

two points are close together, this means that the categories

are associated by having a similar response profile (per-

centage of response), explaining the rejection of the null

hypothesis.

To check the difference between groups we used one-

way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The homogeneity of

variance was assessed by Levene’s test and, when neces-

sary, the Brown–Forsythe correction was used. A Bonfer-

roni post hoc test was used where applicable. The effect

size was calculated using eta squared (g2). The statistical

significance level of 5 % was adopted for all analysis.

Results

Groups differed (F4,886 = 5.79, p\ 0.001, g2= 0.02)

concerning age, with the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group

(28.0 ± 4.2 years old) showing higher values than karate

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123

(25.9 ± 4.8 years old, p\ 0.001), judo (25.7 ± 4.9 years

old, p\ 0.001) and taekwondo (26.3 ± 4.7 years old,

p = 0.008). Body mass also differed among groups

(F4,930 = 7.43, p\ 0.001; g2 = 0.03), with Brazilian jiu-

jitsu group (81.75 ± 13.06 kg) being heavier than karate

(77.42 ± 12.88 kg; p = 0.02), kung-fu (73.88 ± 12.46 kg;

p\ 0.001) and taekwondo (75.46 ± 13.13 kg; p\ 0.001),

and judo group (78.31 ± 15.09 kg) being heavier than

kung-fu (p = 0.03). The mean height was 1.74 ± 0.06 m,

with no difference among groups.

Health-related physical fitness variables and measure-

ments for the practitioners of each martial art and combat

sport are presented in Table 1.

BMI differed among groups (F4,930 = 10.59, p\ 0.001,

g2= 0.04) with the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group showing

higher values than karate (p = 0.003), kung-fu

(p\ 0.001), and taekwondo (p\ 0.001), and the judo

group showing greater values than kung-fu (p\ 0.001) and

taekwondo (p = 0.006). WHR also differed among groups

(F4,930 = 4.33, p = 0.002, g2 = 0.01), with the judo group

showing higher values than kung-fu (p = 0.001). Body fat

percentage and maximal handgrip strength did not differ

among groups. Aerobic power (VO2max) was different

among groups (F4,825 = 4.93, p\ 0.001, g2 = 0.02), with

kung-fu group showing smaller values than Brazilian jiu-

jitsu (p = 0.014) and judo (p = 0.003). Abdominal muscle

endurance differed among groups (F4,869 = 5.95,

p\ 0.001, g2 = 0.024), with the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group

showing higher values than judo (p = 0.001) and taek-

wondo (p = 0.032), and the judo group showing lower

values than kung-fu (p = 0.010). Flexibility was also dif-

ferent among groups (F4,929 = 4.74, p\ 0.001,

g2= 0.02), with the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group showing

smaller values than karate (p = 0.020), kung-fu

(p = 0.001), and taekwondo (p = 0.028).

Frequency and percentage of anthropometrical health-

related physical fitness classified according ACSM [17] by

combat sport and martial arts are presented in Table 2.

The comparisons between the groups, made by the

correspondence analysis are shown in Figs. 1 and 2.

BMI has very low frequency in category 1 (under-

weight), which compromised the Chi-square test (Table 2).

However, even the likelihood-ratio test rejected the null

hypothesis. Category 1 is well away from the center be-

cause it has few observations. The clearest association on

this map relates the Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo groups to

the BMI categories 3 (overweight) and 4 (obesity), being

the other groups near category 2 (normal weight), which

can be understood as the most prevalent category in the

sample (Fig. 1, panel a).

On the correspondence analysis of the WHR map

(Fig. 1, panel b), it is clear that the points are concentrated

close to the center, with the exception of the Brazilian jiu-

jitsu and judo groups. These groups are associated with

specific categories, i.e., the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group is as-

sociated with category 3 (high risk) and the judo group

with category 4 (very high risk), which is the category with

the lowest prevalence in the sample.

For body fat percentage there is no clear order of cate-

gories in the correspondence analysis map (Fig. 1, panel c),

but the associations are clearly shown by the circles, and it

is possible to note that the Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo

groups are on the opposite side in relation to the karate

group, indicating they have very distinct categories. The

central profile is an adequation in category 2 (below av-

erage), and the taekwondo group is the best representative

of such category.

Frequency and percentage of performance on health-

related physical fitness classified according ACSM [21] by

combat sport and martial arts are presented in Table 3.

Table 1 Physical fitness and health-related measurements in combat sports and martial arts practitioners (data are mean ± standard deviation)

Variable/modality Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu

(n = 136)

Judo

(n = 180)aKarate

(n = 229)aKung-Fu

(n = 140)aTaekwondo

(n = 250)aTotal

(n = 935)a

BMI (kg/m2)§ 26.44 ± 3.38 25.89 ± 3.97 24.98 ± 4.00 24.00 ± 3.34 24.64 ± 3.55 25.13 ± 3.77

WHR§ 0.85 ± 0.04 0.86 ± 0.08 0.84 ± 0.05 0.83 ± 0.04 0.85 ± 0.07 0.85 ± 0.06

Body fat (%)§ 16.2 ± 6.7 15.7 ± 7.6 17.0 ± 6.6 16.7 ± 7.0 17.2 ± 7.3 16.6 ± 7.0

VO2max (mL min-1 kg-1)b 52.23 ± 7.86 52.40 ± 8.29 50.41 ± 7.56 49.20 ± 6.59 53.79 ± 10.31 50.93 ± 7.57

Maximal handgrip strength (kgf)§,c 103 ± 17 101 ± 15 101 ± 14 95 ± 14 99 ± 18 100 ± 17

Abdominal test (rep)§ 62 ± 16 53 ± 20 57 ± 18 60 ± 17 55 ± 19 57 ± 18

Sit-and-reach test (cm) 27.3 ± 9.1 29.0 ± 8.4 30.3 ± 8.0 31.5 ± 8.6 30.2 ± 9.0 29.8 ± 8.7

§ Tests: Pearson or maximum likelihood when appropriate (p\ 0.05)a The variation of the sample occurred by loss of information in some physical fitness testsb Estimated by the Queens College step testc Sum of both hands

Sport Sci Health

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For VO2max, the test significance level (p = 0.054)

indicated a trend for associations to be interpreted in the

correspondence analysis map (Fig. 2, panel a). The

horizontal axis shows the opposition between judo and

kung-fu groups. The few individuals in category 1 (well

below average) were more frequent in the judo group,

which was also associated with category 5 (well above

average). Regarding the kung-fu group, it had a greater

association with category 4 (above average). Categories 2

(below average) and 3 (average) occurred independently

among all groups, and karate and Brazilian jiu-jitsu groups

had members in categories 1 and 4.

Regarding muscle endurance, there was no response in

category 1 (well below average), which was, therefore, not

shown. The horizontal axis of the map (Fig. 2, panel c) is

clearly the ordination of categories, from left to right, and

the groups are distributed as midpoints between these

categories. The judo group was associated with categories

2 (below average) and 3 (average), the taekwondo group

was similarly associated with categories 3 and 4 (above

average), the karate group was associated with category 4,

and similarly the kung-fu group was associated with

categories 4 and 5 (well above average), but with a weaker

association than the previous groups. The Brazilian jiu-jitsu

group was associated with category 5.

The hypothesis tests apparently diverge toward flex-

ibility, but because the hypothesis has expected frequencies

less than five and goes against an important assumption of

the Chi-square test, the likelihood-ratio test was used and

showed p = 0.055. Thus, the map should be analyzed with

caution (Fig. 2, panel b). Although it shows opposition of

the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group in relation to others and the

association of this group with category 1 (well below av-

erage), the karate, kung-fu, and taekwondo groups were

located on the opposite side of the axis along with cate-

gories 4 (above average) and 5 (well above average),

indicating a greater association of these groups with these

categories. The judo group formed a third group of asso-

ciations with categories 2 (below average) and 3 (average).

For maximal handgrip strength, the map (Fig. 2, panel d)

showed the association of the kung-fu group with category 1

(poor) and the karate group with category 2 (below average),

while the Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo groups, similarly, had

members in categories 3 (average) and 4 (above average).

Table 2 Absolute and relative (%) classification of body composition results of male karate, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo, kung-fu, and taekwondo

practitioners in Sao Paulo, Brazil, according to the American College of Sports Medicine (2005)

Variable/modality Brazilian

Jiu-Jitsu

(n = 136) N (%)

Judo

(n = 180)a

N (%)

Karate

(n = 229)a

N (%)

Kung-Fu

(n = 140)a

N (%)

Taekwondo

(n = 250)a

N (%)

Total

(n = 935)a

N (%)

Body mass index (kg/m2)§

Underweightb 0 (0) 0 (0) 4 (1.7) 2 (1.4) 5 (2.0) 11 (1.2)

Normal 45 (33.1) 80 (44.4) 124 (54.1) 90 (64.3) 148 (59.2) 487 (52.1)

Overweight 73 (53.7) 78 (43.3) 83 (36.2) 40 (28.6) 80 (32.0) 354 (37.9)

Obesity 18 (13.2) 22 (12.2) 18 (7.9) 8 (5.7) 17 (6.8) 83 (8.9)

Waist–hip ratio§

Lowc 39 (28.7) 50 (27.8) 89 (38.9) 62 (44.3) 95 (38.0) 335 (35.8)

Moderate 63 (46.3) 83 (46.1) 99 (43.2) 64 (45.7) 117 (46.8) 426 (45.6)

High 30 (22.1) 31 (17.2) 32 (14.0) 12 (8.6) 30 (12.0) 135 (14.4)

Very high 4 (2.9) 16 (8.9) 9 (3.9) 2 (1.4) 8 (3.2) 39 (4.2)

Body fat (%)§

Well below averaged 13 (9.6) 19 (10.6) 21 (9.2) 20 (14.3) 30 (12.0) 103 (11.0)

Below average 25 (18.4) 30 (16.7) 46 (20.1) 23 (16.4) 50 (20.0) 174 (18.6)

Average 41 (30.1) 51 (28.3) 95 (41.5) 51 (36.4) 85 (34.0) 323 (34.5)

Above average 36 (26.5) 50 (27.8) 53 (23.1) 26 (18.6) 61 (24.4) 226 (24.2)

Well above average 21 (15.4) 30 (16.7) 14 (6.1) 20 (14.3) 24 (9.6) 109 (11.7)

§ Tests: Pearson or maximum likelihood when appropriate (p\ 0.05)a The variation of the sample occurred by loss of information in some physical fitness testsb Underweight (\18.5 kg/m2), normal (18.5–24.9 kg/m2), overweight (25.0–29.9 kg/m2), obesity (C30.0 kg/m2)c 20–29 years—low risk (\0.83), moderate risk (0.83–0.88), high risk (0.89–0.94), very high risk ([0.94), 30–39 years—low risk (\0.84),

moderate risk (0.84–0.91), high risk (0.92–0.96), very high risk ([0.96)d 20–29 years—well below average (C25.9 %), below average (19.5–25.8 %), average (11.9–19.4 %), above average (7.2–11.8 %), well above

average (B7.1 %), 30–39 years—well below average (C27.3 %), below average (22.3–27.2 %), average (16–22.2 %), above average

(11.4–15.9 %), well above average (B11.3 %)

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Discussion

Given the stated objective of this study, we used the same

tests that are used to assess the population in general and

not tests specifically designed for martial arts and combat

sports practitioners. The main finding was that the subjects

had above-average health-related physical fitness in most

of the variables investigated, except for body composition

and strength, in which they showed average and below-

average classifications, respectively.

Although all volunteers confirmed not to have injuries

by the time of the tests, it is well known that these mod-

alities are related to some rate of injury, what could led to

smaller levels of physical fitness. For instance, Zetaruk

et al. [25] have shown a rate of participants with significant

injuries in taekwondo (59 %), kung-fu (38 %) and karate

(30 %). Thus, our results should be viewed with caution, as

the practitioners could have a limited adaptation to each

specific martial art/combat sport in the 6-month period of

continuous practice established as criteria for inclusion in

the present investigation.

Although BMI is questioned as an accurate indicator of

body composition, especially for physically active people

[26], it is possible that in our sample such variable may be

used for this purpose, considering that in this work the

groups were similar in terms of BMI and body fat per-

centage. When compared to each other, the groups showed

no differences in body fat percentage and maximal hand-

grip strength. BMI values in the Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo

groups were statistically higher than in the other groups,

probably because these modalities emphasize strength

training via sport-specific actions, promoting significant

muscle mass development [14].

The kung-fu group showed lower WHR than the judo

group. The difference in WHR was corroborated by the

correspondence analysis, with the kung-fu group associated

with category 1 and opposed to the judo group and

category 4. The kung-fu group had a statistically lower

Fig. 1 Correspondence analysis for anthropometrical variables in combat sports and martial arts practitioners

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VO2max compared to the Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo

groups. It is likely that this difference is due to the fact that,

in specific kung-fu activities, smaller VO2 values are

achieved than those in judo techniques [27] and combat

simulations [28], as well as in some Brazilian jiu-jitsu si-

tuations. Indeed, Jones and Unnithan [29], after investi-

gating nine experienced kung-fu practitioners, reported

VO2max of 53.6 ± 5.7 mL min-1 kg-1 in a maximal ex-

ercise test. When practitioners were subjected to the

practice of kati (kung-fu forms), VO2 reached values of

71.5 ± 5.3 % of VO2max, 37.5 ± 2.1 % of VO2max

during a sequence of punches and 63.8 ± 3.0 % of VO2-

max during a sequence of kicks, which corresponded, re-

spectively, to 38.3, 20.1 and 34.8 mL min-1 kg-1.

Sugiyama [30] observed in six judo practitioners a VO2 of

45.89 ± 2.92 mL min-1 kg-1 while performing specific

judo techniques, and Szmatlan-Gabrys et al. [31] measured

the VO2 of five judo practitioners at various times during a

judo combat and reported values of 52.8 ±

4.7 mL min-1 kg-1. When investigating the oxygen up-

take during the execution of specific techniques over time,

Franchini, Panissa, and Julio [27] observed values of

41.4 ± 4.2 and 42.9 ± 4.2 mL min-1 kg-1 in the second

and third minutes, respectively, which are similar to those

measured in simulated judo combat [28]. Thus, it is likely

that judo techniques and combats lead to greater aerobic

fitness compared with kung-fu techniques. Only one study

concerning VO2max in Brazilian jiu-jitsu athletes was

found [32], and the VO2max (49.4 ± 3.6 mL min-1 kg-1)

was estimated in 11 athletes during a maximal treadmill

test. This result is similar to other investigations with judo

practitioners [33], but lower than reported by others [34–

37]. Thus, it is possible that the VO2 in specific Brazilian

jiu-jitsu techniques is similar to or greater than in the judo

and, therefore, higher than those achieved during kung-fu

practice, corroborating the findings of this study.

One important result from our study was that all groups

had below average or poor muscle strength. This may have

happened because in the striking martial arts groups (karate,

kung-fu, and taekwondo) most practitioners focus on lower-

body muscle power training in detriment to upper-body

strength training, and the method used to evaluate maximal

strength involved the handgrip test, an action not common in

these modalities [38, 39]. However, with grappling martial

arts groups (Brazilian jiu-jitsu and judo), one would expect

greater attention to this variable given the fact that gripping

Fig. 2 Correspondence analysis for health-related physical fitness variables in combat sports and martial arts practitioners

Sport Sci Health

123

the opponent’s uniform is a basic action in almost all tech-

niques [32, 40]. In judo, Claessens et al. [41] indicated in

their discussions that international level athletes had sig-

nificantly higher handgrip isometric strength values, while in

Brazilian jiu-jitsu the constant grip on the opponent’s uni-

form would result in high muscle endurance development

and not necessarily in maximal isometric strength develop-

ment [42]. This is corroborated by Franchini et al. [14], who

claimed that judo athletes needmore strength endurance than

maximal strength during the grip, which was recently con-

firmed by Ache Dias et al. [43]. Confirming this proposition,

correspondence analysis showed no association between

these two groups and the largest categories of grip strength.

Regarding abdominal muscle endurance, the Brazilian

jiu-jitsu group showed statistically higher values than the

judo and taekwondo groups, possibly because this muscle

group is frequently activated during Brazilian jiu-jitsu

practice as the combat occurs mainly on the ground and the

fighter in the guard position puts more demand on these

muscles to adjust to the movements of the opponent, who

tries to pass the guard. As a result, much of the physical

work involves the action of these muscles [32]. Contrary to

our expectations, the kung-fu group showed greater ab-

dominal muscle endurance when compared to the judo

group. This result was surprising because judo resembles

Brazilian jiu-jitsu [32] and also requires high abdominal

Table 3 Absolute and relative (%) classification of performance on physical fitness tests of male karate, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, judo, kung-fu, and

taekwondo practitioners in Sao Paulo, Brazil, according to the American College of Sports Medicine (2005)

Variable/modality Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu

(n = 136)

N (%)

Judo

(n = 180)a

N (%)

Karate

(n = 229)a

N (%)

Kung-Fu

(n = 140)a

N (%)

Taekwondo

(n = 250)a

N (%)

Total

(n = 935)a

N (%)

Maximal oxygen uptake (mL min-1 kg-1)

Well below averageb 2 (1.5) 3 (1.7) 5 (2.2) 1 (0.7) 2 (0.8) 13 (1.4)

Below average 3 (2.2) 9 (5.1) 13 (5.7) 9 (6.5) 14 (5.6) 48 (5.2)

Average 23 (16.9) 34 (19.1) 44 (19.2) 36 (25.9) 51 (20.5) 188 (20.2)

Above average 39 (28.7) 32 (18) 62 (27.1) 46 (33.1) 67 (26.9) 246 (26.4)


Maximal handgrip strength (kgf)§

Poorc 50 (36.8) 72 (40.2) 84 (36.7) 76 (54.3) 114 (45.8) 396 (42.4)

Below average 23 (16.9) 33 (18.4) 56 (24.5) 27 (19.3) 47 (18.9) 186 (19.9)

Average 28 (20.6) 35 (19.6) 39 (17.0) 20 (14.3) 35 (14.1) 157 (16.8)

Above average 35 (25.7) 39 (21.8) 50 (21.8) 17 (12.1) 53 (21.3) 194 (20.8)

Abdominal test (rep)§

Below averaged 1 (0.7) 7 (3.9) 2 (0.9) 1 (0.7) 8 (3.2) 19 (2.0)

Average 25 (18.4) 62 (34.4) 56 (24.6) 25 (17.9) 68 (27.3) 236 (25.3)

Above average 33 (24.3) 40 (22.2) 72 (31.6) 45 (32.1) 75 (30.1) 265 (28.4)


Sit-and-reach test (cm)

Well below averagee 17 (12.5) 10 (5.6) 9 (3.9) 8 (5.7) 18 (7.2) 62 (6.6)

Below average 23 (16.9) 30 (16.7) 36 (15.7) 16 (11.4) 36 (14.4) 141 (15.1)

Average 52 (38.2) 80 (44.4) 80 (34.9) 54 (38.6) 86 (34.4) 352 (37.6)

Above average 28 (20.6) 36 (20.0) 69 (30.1) 34 (24.3) 60 (24.0) 227 (24.3)


§ Tests: Pearson or maximum likelihood when appropriate (p\ 0.05)a The variation of the sample occurred by loss of information in some physical fitness testsb 20–29 years—well below average (B34.5 mL min-1 kg-1), below average (34.6–39.5 mL min-1 kg-1), average (39.6–46.7 mL min-1 -

kg-1), above average (46.8–51.3 mL min-1 kg-1) and above average (C51.4 mL min-1 kg-1), 30–39 years—well below average

(B32.5 mL min-1 kg-1), below average (32.6–37.4 mL min-1 kg-1), average (mL min-1 kg-1), above average (44.6–50.3 mL min-1 kg-1)

and above average (C50.4 mL min-1 kg-1)c 20–29 years—poor (B96 kgf), below average (97–105 kgf), average (106–112 kgf), above average (C113 kgf), 30–39 years—poor (B96 kgf),

below average (97–104 kgf), average (105–112 kgf), above average (C113 kgf)d 20–29 years—well below average (B4 repetitions), below average (5–20), average (21–40), above average (41–74), well above the average

(75), 30–39 years—well below average (0 repetitions), below average (1–19), average (20–45), above average (46–74), well above the average

(75)e 20–29 years ago—well below average (B15 cm), below average (16–23 cm), average (24–32 cm), above average (33–38 cm), well above

average (C39 cm), 30–39 years—well below average (B14 cm), below average (15–21 cm), average (22–30 cm), above average (31–36 cm),

well above average (C37 cm)

Sport Sci Health

123

activation during many judo-specific actions, especially

maintaining balance [14]. Although we did not find any data

in the literature, one possible explanation may be the con-

stant abdominal isometric action performed by kung-fu

practitioners during the kati execution. In addition, it is

likely that non-competitive kung-fu practitioners focus more

on this skill compared to non-competitive judo practitioners.

Regarding flexibility, the Brazilian jiu-jitsu group had

statistically lower values than the karate, kung-fu, and

taekwondo groups. This difference can be explained by the

specificity of these three striking martial arts, in which

most of the classes emphasize training kicks in wide ranges

of motion, thus contributing to a significant development of

flexibility in the lower limbs [35, 38, 44].

The present study presents some limitations. The fact that

injured practitioners were excluded may mask the negative

effects of practice on health-related physical fitness. However,

these individuals were not included because they were not able

to perform the tests. Other possibility to explain our results is

that the practitioner can choose the martial art or combat sport

according to his physical fitness and body composition. Con-

sequently, those with more adherence to martial arts and

combat sports programs could have a specific physical fitness

profile before starting. In addition, because martial arts and

combat sports practitioners generally perform specific physical

training, classifying these subjects based on data obtained in

health-related physical fitness tests may not be ideal. However,

the intention was to start to change this scenario, providing

some data to allow more knowledge about health-related phy-

sical fitness of martial arts and combat sports practitioners.

Conclusions

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that, to have better

health-related physical fitness, practitioners of the studied

modalities need to add to their training routine sessions

directed to muscle strength development, especially those

practicing kung-fu. In addition, it is also important to pay

more attention to body composition, regarding WHR and

body fat percentage. An increase in the number of sessions

per week or in more intense workouts together with nu-

trition intervention may help these martial arts and combat

sports practitioners to improve their body composition.

As practical applications, the values presented by the

practitioners from our investigation can be used as reference

for health-related physical fitness programs using martial

arts and combat sports as exercise modality. As the different

styles investigated presented well-developed levels of car-

diorespiratory fitness, strength endurance and flexibility, it

seems that programs of martial arts and combat sports longer

than 6 months are good enough to promote or to maintain

good levels of health-related physical fitness in a

representative sample of male adults practicing such mod-

alities. However, the inadequate profiles of body composi-

tion and strength suggest that the martial arts and combat

sports styles investigated were not indicated to promote or

maintain these variables in standards suggested to avoid

health problems. Thus, it is necessary that people engaged in

such exercise modalities should complement their programs

with nutritional control, exercise directed to lose excessive

body fat and need to take part in strength training programs

to achieve health-related physical fitness standards. In ad-

dition, increasing the number of sessions and taking part in

other martial arts styles may help to improve these variables.

This knowledge should also be spread out amongmartial arts

and combat sports instructors, who could implement additional

training routines directed to control excessive body fat and to

promote strength development to help their students/clients to

achieve a better health-related physical fitness profile. Finally,

constant testingprocedures involving thehealth-relatedphysical

fitness variables are important to improve the program quality

and, consequently, practitioners’ health.

Acknowledgments We would like to thank Sandro Napoli for his

contribution in data collection.

Conflict of interest The authors report no financial or other conflict

of interest relevant to the research.

Ethical approval All procedures performed in studies involving

human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of

the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964

Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical

standards. The study was approved by the local Ethics Committee.

Informed consent All subjects signed a written informed consent

form.

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