He Pokeke Uenuku i Tu Ai The Evolution of Contemporary Maori Protest Poata-Smítb Evan S, Te Introduction Historically, the intensity and momentum of Maori political activism has never been consistent. Upturns in protest activity are followed by downturns in struggle and vice versa. The 1970s were witness to a dramatic upsurge in Maori activism which had a profound effect on New Zealand society. The politicalturbulence created in the wake of the 197 5 land march on Parliament, Bastion Point, Raglan and the regular protests at Waitangi once again revealed the exploitative and oppressive foundations on which capitalism had been established in Aotearoa. The decline of working-class movements internationally and the rise of the New Right coupled with the logic of identity politics lured many Maori away from political activity throughout the 1980s. However, the recent upsurge in flaxroots Maori activism in opposition to the fiscal envelope and the Sealord deal is the most significant since the series of land occupations and marches of the 1970s. Maori political activism has traditionally been an extremely hetero- geneous social force, encompassing a considerable variety of political strategies, campaigns and participants. Indeed, it is only a 'movement' in the most tenuous sense (Greenland, 1984: 87). Walker has claimed that both 'radical' and 'conservative' elements of the Maori nationalist movement pursued the same objectives although the methods they used differed 97
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96 Nga Patal
He Pokeke Uenuku i Tu AiAcknowledgements
My special thanks to the 1995 class ofMAOR 407, the University of Otago,in whose seminars some of these ideas first took root; to Jim Willams, JanWilson and the editors for their timely critical readings. None of them areresponsible for the final text.
The Evolution ofContemporary Maori Protest
Poata-Smítbt Vo l"L ~\.cT~ Evan S, Te
ot covLt"e"~ À , ~D'(-IV\, \¡ t e te.S-i
i 0 f': . i .1'. V\ \' ': t 0 o~!\ \"t J (
¡MQc D ~ 0 iA (' .t-cl c, ), _ J _V
SCh.A/+(.
Introduction
Historically, the intensity and momentum of Maori political activism hasnever been consistent. Upturns in protest activity are followed by downturnsin struggle and vice versa. The 1970s were witness to a dramatic upsurge inMaori activism which had a profound effect on New Zealand society. Thepoliticalturbulence created in the wake of the 197 5
land march on Parliament,
Bastion Point, Raglan and the regular protests at Waitangi once againrevealed the exploitative and oppressive foundations on which capitalismhad been established in Aotearoa. The decline of working-class movementsinternationally and the rise of the New Right coupled with the logic ofidentity politics lured many Maori away from political activity throughoutthe 1980s. However, the recent upsurge in flaxroots Maori activism inopposition to the fiscal envelope and the Sealord deal is the most significantsince the series of land occupations and marches of the 1970s.
Maori political activism has traditionally been an extremely hetero-geneous social force, encompassing a considerable variety of politicalstrategies, campaigns and participants. Indeed, it is only a 'movement' inthe most tenuous sense (Greenland, 1984: 87). Walker has claimed thatboth 'radical' and 'conservative' elements of the Maori nationalist movementpursued the same objectives although the methods they used differed
r (l b
97
98N
ga P
atal
The
Evol
utlo
n of
Con
tem
pora
ry M
aorl
Prot
est
99
(Wal
ker,
1990
: 243
). H
owev
er, a
gree
men
t on
wha
t con
stitu
tes t
ino
rang
atira
tang
a is
far f
rom
una
nim
ous.
It ca
n sim
ulta
neou
sly b
e id
entif
ied
with
Mao
ri ca
pita
lism
, Mao
ri el
ecto
ral p
ower
, cul
tura
l nat
iona
lism
or
revo
lutio
nary
act
ivity
. In
the
late
196
0s a
nd e
arly
197
0s, M
aori
activ
ists
com
mon
ly a
sser
ted,
in so
met
imes
il-c
once
ived
or c
onfu
sed
way
s, th
atre
form
ism w
as n
ot a
n ef
fect
ive
strat
egy
and
that
onl
y th
roug
h a
fund
amen
tal
trans
form
atio
n of
the
syste
m c
ould
Mao
ri ac
hiev
e lib
erat
ion.
Mor
e th
antw
o de
cade
s lat
er, t
he si
tuat
ion
is co
mpl
etel
y di
ffere
nt. W
hile
man
y sti
llo
ok to
con
stitu
tiona
l cha
nge
and
elec
tora
l pol
itics
to re
form
the
wor
stex
cess
es o
f the
syste
m, a
num
ber o
f pow
erfu
l trib
al e
xecu
tives
and
cor
pora
tew
ario
rs h
ave
argu
ed, l
ike
the
New
Rig
ht id
eolo
gues
in T
reas
ury
and
the
Business Roundtable, that
the
wel
fare
syste
m h
as h
eld
Mao
ri ba
ck a
nd th
atre
al se
lf-de
term
inat
ion
and
liber
atio
n fo
r Mao
ri ca
n on
ly b
e ac
hiev
edun
der u
nres
train
ed, f
reem
arke
t cap
italis
m (s
ee K
ukut
ai, 1
995)
. In
this
way
,th
e ob
ject
ive
of ti
no ra
ngat
irata
nga
as e
spou
sed
by v
ario
us g
roup
s is
uncl
ear a
nd a
t tim
es c
ontra
dict
ory.
Thi
s is
sym
ptom
atic
of t
he fa
ct th
atde
spite
the
occa
sion
al s
epar
atis
t rhe
toric
, Mao
ri m
ovem
ents
are
not
auto
nom
ous o
f the
und
erly
ing
soci
al st
ruct
ures
, pol
itica
l for
ces a
ndid
eolo
gies
of c
apita
list s
ocie
ty.
This
chap
ter p
rovi
des a
des
crip
tive
over
view
of t
he e
volu
tion
from
the
prog
ress
ive
polit
ical
act
ivis
m. o
f the
late
196
0s a
nd e
arly
197
0s to
the
cultu
ral n
atio
nalis
t fra
mew
ork
that
dom
inat
ed m
uch
Mao
ri po
litic
al st
rate
gyfro
m th
e 19
80s.
It th
en c
ritic
ally
exa
min
es th
e id
eolo
gica
l ass
umpt
ions
of
cultu
ral n
atio
nalis
m. T
he c
hapt
er fi
nally
exp
lore
s the
effe
ctiv
enes
s of c
ultu
ral
natio
nalis
m a
nd id
entit
y po
litic
s as a
stra
tegy
for M
aori
liber
atio
n.!
The
emer
genc
e of
the
New
Lef
t in
Aot
earo
a cl
osel
y pa
ralle
led
deve
lop-
ments internationally. The late 1960s saw the growth of student
activ
isman
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t of s
ocia
l mov
emen
ts su
ch a
s the
wom
en's
liber
atio
nm
ovem
ent,
the
anti-
raci
st m
ovem
ent,
the
envi
ronm
enta
l mov
emen
t, ga
y an
dle
sbia
n rig
hts
mov
emen
ts a
nd s
o fo
rth (s
ee D
ann,
198
5; R
oper
, 199
0). T
hepe
riod
was
also
cha
ract
erise
d by
a d
ram
atic
ùpt
urn
in c
lass
pol
itics
and
ase
a-ch
ange
in p
opul
ar c
ultu
re, w
hich
in p
art r
efle
cted
the
grow
ing
influ
ence
of ra
dica
l int
elle
ctua
l tra
ditio
ns, i
n pa
rticu
lar M
arxi
sm a
nd fe
min
ism. A
llth
is ha
d a
prof
ound
influ
ence
on
the
orga
nisa
tion
and
strat
egie
s of M
aori
prot
est g
roup
s tha
t em
erge
d du
ring
that
per
iod.
Initially, Maori protest groups formed part of the
prog
ress
ive
soci
alm
ovem
ents
of th
e tim
e an
d th
ey a
ctiv
ely
soug
ht to
bro
aden
, bot
hqu
antit
ativ
ely
and
qual
itativ
ely,
the
strug
gle
agai
nst r
acism
and
Mao
riin
equa
lity.
Inde
ed, a
lthou
gh so
me
wer
e ex
plic
itly
natio
nalis
t in
thei
ror
ient
atio
n, th
ese
mov
emen
ts w
ere
cons
ciou
sly p
art o
f the
Lef
t.
The
Ant
i-Rac
ist M
ovem
ent
The
Seed
s of C
onte
mpo
rary
Mao
ri A
ctiv
ism 1
967-
1975
A c
lose
wor
king
rela
tions
hip
was
forg
ed b
etw
een
Pake
ha a
nti-r
acist
gro
ups
and
wha
t eve
ntua
lly e
volv
ed in
to th
e M
aori
prot
est m
ovem
ents
of th
e la
te19
60s.
Initi
ally
, thi
s rel
atio
nshi
p cr
ysta
llsed
aro
und
the
oppo
sitio
n th
atem
erge
d to
the
New
Zea
land
Rug
by F
ootb
all U
nion
's de
cisio
n to
exc
lude
Mao
ri ru
gby
play
ers f
rom
the
1960
All
Blac
k to
ur o
f Sou
th A
frica
. Thi
sge
nera
ted
inte
nse
oppo
sitio
n, a
nd th
e 'N
o M
aori,
no
tour
' pro
tests
ext
ende
dth
e fo
cus f
rom
the
ques
tion
of th
e ex
clus
ion
of n
on-w
hite
s in
the
Sprin
gbok
team
itse
lf, to
the
mor
al ju
stific
atio
n of
con
tact
with
a n
atio
n w
hich
pra
c-tis
ed a
parth
eid.
Pake
ha-b
ased
org
anisa
tions
such
as C
ARE
(whi
ch in
clud
ed a
num
ber o
fyo
ung
Mao
ri po
litic
al a
ctiv
ists w
ithin
its r
anks
) mai
ntai
ned
a cl
ose
rela
tions
hip
with
var
ious
Mao
ri gr
oups
and
indi
vidu
als i
n va
rious
act
iviti
es(S
orre
nson
, New
nham
and
de
Bres
, 197
4: 4
). C
ARE,
for e
xam
ple,
ara
nged
num
erou
s pan
el d
iscus
sions
on
the
posit
ion
of th
e M
aori
in N
ew Z
eala
ndso
ciet
y an
d w
as p
ivot
al in
the
laun
chin
g an
d pr
omot
ion
of a
nat
iona
l cam
paig
nag
ains
t New
Zea
land
's in
volv
emen
t in
apar
eid
spor
t, us
ing
the
cont
rbut
ions
of M
aori
spea
kers
such
as S
yd Ja
ckso
n, M
atiu
Rat
a, K
oro
Dew
es, W
hetu
Tirik
atan
e an
d H
one
Tuw
hare
for t
heir
publ
icity
cam
paig
n ag
ains
t the
tour
(see
Jack
son,
196
9). T
his i
nter
actio
n be
twee
n M
aori
grou
ps a
nd th
e an
ti-ra
cist
mov
emen
t was
piv
otal
in th
e es
tabl
ishm
ent o
f the
um
brel
la o
rgan
isatio
nH
alt
AU
Rac
ist T
ours
(HA
RT) i
n 19
69. T
he n
ame
was
act
ually
sugg
este
d by
The collapse of
the
post-
war
boo
m sa
w a
n in
tern
atio
nal r
esur
genc
e in
cla
ssconflct and industrial miltancy on an unprecedented scale from 1968 to the
mid
-197
0s (R
oper
, 199
3: 2
; Har
an, 1
988)
.Th
e gl
obal
upt
urn
in c
lass
stru
ggle
from
the
late
196
0s w
as c
lose
lyre
late
d to
the
emer
genc
e of
the
New
Lef
t int
erna
tiona
lly. T
he d
ram
atic
grow
th in
stud
ent p
oliti
cal a
ctiv
ism, t
he a
nti-w
ar m
ovem
ent i
n th
e w
est,
Black liberation in the United States and the national
liber
atio
n st
rggl
eag
ains
t Uni
ted
Stat
es im
peria
lism
wer
e im
porta
nt fe
atur
es in
the
polit
ics o
fth
e pe
riod.
It w
as a
lso c
hara
cter
ised
by th
e gr
owth
in n
ew so
cial
mov
emen
ts,w
hich
incl
uded
the
wom
en's
liber
atio
n m
ovem
ent,
the
anti-
raci
st m
ovem
ent,
the
envi
ronm
enta
l mov
emen
t and
the
gay
and
lesb
ian
right
s mov
emen
ts.
100
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest i01
Tam
a Po
ata,
the
secr
etar
y of
the
Mao
ri O
rgan
isat
ion
on H
uman
Rig
hts
(MO
OH
R) (A
wat
ere,
198
2). T
he re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n M
aori
prot
est g
roup
san
d th
e m
ovem
ent a
gain
st a
parth
eid
was
an
endu
ring
one
(alth
ough
not
with
out c
onfli
ct) c
ulm
inat
ing
in th
e op
posit
ion
to th
e 19
81 S
prin
gbok
Tou
r.
The
Trad
e U
nion
Mov
emen
t
Wom
en s
Libe
ratio
n M
ovem
ent
The
dram
atic
incr
ease
in st
rike
activ
ity a
nd c
lass
stru
ggle
from
the
late
1960
s had
a p
rofo
und
influ
ence
in te
rms o
f the
pol
itica
l edu
catio
n of
man
yM
aori
wor
kers
invo
lved
in th
e str
uggl
e fo
r bet
ter w
ages
and
con
ditio
ns.
Inde
ed, t
he in
fluen
ce o
f the
trad
e un
ion
mov
emen
t in
prov
idin
g an
orga
nisa
tiona
l bas
e fo
r Mao
ri pr
otes
t gro
ups i
s mos
t cle
arly
dem
onstr
ated
in th
e em
erge
nce
of T
e H
okio
i and
the
Mao
ri O
rgan
isatio
n on
Hum
anRi
ghts
(MO
OH
R). B
oth
grou
ps w
ere
base
d in
Wel
lngt
on a
nd b
oth
had
strong trade union links. Tama Poata, the secretary of
MO
OH
R, w
as a
lso a
nac
tive
mem
ber o
f the
Wel
lngt
on D
river
s Uni
on a
nd th
e N
ew Z
eala
ndCo
mm
unist
Par
ty.
Both
org
anisa
tions
adv
ocat
ed a
n al
lianc
e be
twee
n M
aori
and
the
prog
ress
ive
elem
ents
of th
e w
orki
ng c
lass
. Ind
eed,
for T
e H
okio
i the
fund
amen
tal c
ontra
dict
ion
in so
ciet
y w
as b
etw
een
labo
ur a
nd c
apita
l, be
twee
nth
e w
orke
rs o
n th
e on
e ha
nd a
nd th
e bo
sses
and
land
ow
ners
on
the
othe
r.Ra
cism
was
seen
to b
e an
out
com
e of
cla
ss in
equa
lity.
In th
is re
gard
, the
maj
ority
of M
aori
wer
e se
en a
s an
oppr
esse
d se
ctio
n of
the
wor
king
cla
ss.
Both
gro
ups a
dvoc
ated
a p
an-ra
cial
stru
ggle
alo
ng c
lass
line
s as t
he m
ost
effe
ctiv
e str
ateg
y fo
r res
olvi
ng ra
cism
and
Mao
ri in
equa
lity.
Te H
okio
i and
MO
OH
R iss
ued
num
erou
s new
slette
rs a
nd p
amph
lets
topu
blic
ise th
eir c
ause
. Te
Hok
ioi i
tself
adop
ted
the
nam
e of
the
anti-
gove
rnm
ent n
ewsp
aper
of t
he M
aori
Kin
g M
ovem
ent a
nd p
rocl
aim
ed it
self
as a
'tai
aha
of tr
uth
for k
otah
itang
a w
ithin
the
Mao
ri N
atio
n'. F
rom
its
ince
ptio
n, M
OO
HR
pled
ged
to d
efen
d hu
man
righ
ts no
t onl
y of
Mao
ri bu
tof
all
'min
oriti
es' (
Wal
ker,
1980
). It
urge
d bo
th M
aori
and
Pake
ha to
figh
tag
ains
t rac
ism a
nd d
iscrim
inat
ion
and
upho
ld th
e U
nive
rsal
Dec
lara
tion
ofH
uman
Rig
hts.
Thus
MO
OH
R w
ere
at p
ains
to e
mph
asise
that
it w
as 'r
ich
Pake
ha' t
o bl
ame
for r
acism
, not
all
Pake
ha (M
OO
HR,
197
0).
MO
OH
R pl
ayed
a v
igor
ous r
ole
in p
ublic
ising
the
raci
sm a
nddi
scrim
inat
ion
in h
ousin
g, sp
ort,
empl
oym
ent a
nd th
e in
fring
emen
t of M
aori
polit
ical
righ
ts. T
oget
her w
ith T
e H
okio
i, M
OO
HR
embr
aced
Tre
aty
ofWaitangi issues, the alienation of
Mao
ri la
nd, '
race
-rela
tions
' and
reso
urce
depl
etio
n. M
OO
HR
put a
n em
phas
is on
the
Trea
ty o
fWai
tang
i as a
pos
sible
corn
ersto
ne o
f a h
aron
ious
, bic
ultu
ral c
ount
r pro
vide
d th
at p
ast i
njus
tices
wer
e re
deem
ed.
The
insp
iratio
n an
d m
omen
tum
that
und
erpi
nned
Te
Hok
ioi a
nd M
OO
HR
subs
ided
gra
dual
ly d
urin
g th
e ea
rly 1
970s
, with
MO
OH
R fin
ally
mer
ging
with
Mat
akite
in th
e la
nd ri
ghts
mov
emen
t in
1975
. The
dec
line
ofM
OO
HR
From
the
late
196
0s, i
nflu
entia
l ind
ivid
uals
such
as N
gahu
ia T
e A
wek
otuk
uan
d D
onna
Aw
ater
e ha
d co
nsist
ently
pub
licise
d th
e ba
rrier
s in
Mao
ri so
ciet
yth
at h
ad p
reve
nted
Mao
ri w
omen
from
par
ticip
atin
g in
, and
con
tribu
ting
to,
Mao
ri so
ciet
y as
they
saw
fit.
Thei
r crit
ique
s of t
he p
atria
rcha
l nat
ure
oftraditional Maori leadership and the issue of
Mao
ri w
omen
's m
arae
spea
king
rights reflected the influence of
the
wom
en's
liber
atio
n m
ovem
ent,
in w
hich
a nu
mbe
r of M
aori
wom
en a
ctiv
ely
parti
cipa
ted
(see
Dan
n, 1
985)
. By
the
mid
-197
0s th
ere
had
emer
ged
a la
rger
gro
up o
f Mao
ri w
omen
with
in N
ga
Tam
atoa
who
ado
pted
a 'f
emin
ist' t
heor
etic
al a
naly
sis o
f the
opp
ress
ion
ofM
aori
wom
en. F
or m
any
of th
e yo
ung
Mao
ri w
omen
invo
lved
in a
ctiv
istm
ovem
ents
such
as N
ga T
amat
oa, a
n in
crea
sing
cons
ciou
snes
s of t
heir
role
as 'b
lack
' wom
en e
mer
ged
grad
ually
from
the
mid
-197
0s a
nd c
ryst
alls
edar
ound
the
frustr
atio
n an
d an
ger e
xper
ienc
ed b
y M
aori
wom
en d
urin
g th
eM
aori
land
righ
ts m
ovem
ent.
For m
any
wom
en, t
here
was
an
unde
rlyin
g te
nsio
n be
twee
n th
e po
litic
s,cu
lture
and
lang
uage
of M
aori
soci
ety
that
they
wer
e str
uggl
ing
to p
rese
rve
and
thei
r ow
n lib
erat
ion
from
this
oppr
essio
n as
Mao
ri w
omen
. Nga
huia
Te
Aw
ekot
uku
note
d th
e sig
nific
ance
and
mom
entu
m o
f the
rena
issan
ce in
'Mao
ri' a
war
enes
s, bu
t exp
ress
ed c
once
rn th
at th
e ro
le o
f Mao
ri w
omen
inth
e str
uggl
e sh
ould
not
be
restr
icte
d: '(
w)e
, Mao
ri fe
mal
es, c
an o
nly
hope
that
they
reco
gnise
the
need
and
the
mer
it of
our
ene
rgy
in th
is fig
ht ..
. and
not d
eny
know
ledg
e an
d ac
cess
to h
alf o
ur p
eopl
e' (T
e Aw
ekot
uku,
199
1:47
). In
deed
, for
man
y M
aori
wom
en it
was
a b
attle
on
two
front
s. Fi
rst,
inth
e str
uggl
e ov
er la
nd a
nd se
cond
, in
the
strug
gle
for e
qual
ity w
ithin
the
mov
emen
t (Fa
r, 19
78).
A st
rong
net
wor
k of
Mao
ri w
omen
cry
stalls
ed a
roun
d th
e da
y-to
-day
strug
gles
aga
inst
raci
sm a
nd se
xual
disc
rimin
atio
n, a
nd in
this
proc
ess a
num
ber o
f lea
ding
Mao
ri w
omen
beg
an to
ope
nly
exam
ine
the
oppr
essio
nof
wom
en w
ithin
Mao
ri so
ciet
y an
d th
e ba
riers
that
lim
ited
thei
r inf
luen
cein
the
mov
emen
t. Th
eir d
evel
opin
g po
litic
al id
eolo
gy c
onsis
ted
of a
mix
ture
of 'B
lack
fem
inism
' and
Mao
ri na
tiona
lism
whi
ch w
as to
pro
ve e
xtre
mel
yin
fluen
tial a
s the
mov
emen
t unf
olde
d in
the
late
197
0s a
nd e
arly
198
0s.
102
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest 103
and
Te H
okio
i ref
lect
ed th
e gr
owin
g in
fluen
ce o
f Bla
ck P
ower
rhet
oric
.In
deed
, the
impe
tus o
f the
mov
emen
t shi
fted
to th
e 'B
row
n Po
wer
' of n
ewly
emer
ging
Auc
klan
d M
aori
prot
est g
roup
s.
esse
nce,
this
view
refle
cted
the
inte
rests
of m
iddl
e-cl
ass u
nive
rsity
-edu
cate
dM
aori
base
d on
a st
rate
gy o
f adv
ance
men
t with
in th
e sy
stem
. As a
resu
lt, th
eBr
own
Pow
er sl
ogan
was
unc
lear
. It c
ould
be
iden
tifie
d w
ith M
aori
capi
talis
mor
revo
lutio
nary
act
i vity
.Th
e A
uckl
and
gang
pro
blem
enc
oura
ged
co-o
pera
tion
betw
een
Nga
Tam
atoa
and
an
emer
ging
gro
up, t
he P
olyn
esia
n Pa
nthe
rs. T
he P
olyn
esia
nPa
nthe
r Mov
emen
t, fo
unde
d in
June
197
1, h
ad a
larg
ely
Paci
fic Is
land
sm
embe
rshi
p an
d w
as e
xplic
itly
base
d on
the
Blac
k Pa
nthe
r Par
ty in
the
U.S
.A. (
Poly
nesi
an P
anth
er P
arty
, 197
5: 2
25).
They
wer
e pa
rticu
larly
influ
ence
d by
Hue
y N
ewto
n's p
olic
y of
bla
ck u
nity
and
repe
ated
his
disti
nctio
n be
twee
n re
volu
tiona
ry a
nd c
ultu
ral n
atio
nalis
m in
thei
r arg
umen
tsw
ith th
e co
nser
vativ
e m
embe
rs o
fNga
Tam
atoa
.2 T
he P
anth
ers l
ocat
ed th
eca
uses
of M
aori
and
Paci
fic Is
land
ers'
oppr
essio
n w
ithin
the
expl
oita
tive
soci
al re
latio
ns o
f the
cap
italis
t sys
tem
of p
rodu
ctio
n. C
onse
quen
tly, t
hePo
lyne
sian
Pant
hers
pro
mot
ed a
stra
tegy
ofli
bera
tion
base
d on
the
com
plet
eov
erth
row
of t
he c
apita
list s
yste
m a
nd th
e so
cial
rela
tions
nec
essa
ry fo
r its
deve
lopm
ent.
Brow
n Po
wer
The
emer
genc
e of
Nga
Tam
atoa
in th
e ea
rly 1
970s
saw
the
artic
ulat
ion
ofth
e id
ea th
at ra
cism
was
the
basic
soci
al c
leav
age
in so
ciet
y. T
his w
as m
ost
clea
rly a
mpl
ified
in th
eir r
heto
ric o
f 'Br
own
Pow
er' w
hich
repr
esen
ted
afu
ndam
enta
l rej
ectio
n of
the
raci
st in
~titu
tions
and
val
ues o
f New
Zea
land
soci
ety.
Lik
e th
e Bl
ack
Pow
er p
hilo
soph
ies o
f Sto
kely
Car
mic
hael
and
Char
les V
. Ham
ilton
, Bro
wn
Pow
er w
as b
ased
on
the
fund
amen
tal p
rem
iseth
at'..
. gro
up so
lidar
ity is
nec
essa
ry b
efor
e a
grou
p ca
n op
erat
e ef
fect
ivel
yfro
m a
bar
gain
ing
posit
ion
of st
reng
th' (
Carm
icha
el a
nd H
amilt
on, 1
970:
146)
, Thu
s, ad
voca
tes o
f Bro
wn
Pow
er u
rged
Mao
ri to
uni
te, t
o re
cogn
iseth
eir c
omm
on h
isto
ry a
nd to
bui
ld a
sen
se o
f sol
idar
ity a
nd c
omm
unity
.Th
ey e
mph
asise
d th
e go
al o
f Mao
ri se
lf-de
term
inat
ion,
or t
he c
apac
ity fo
rMaori to define their own goals and to develop their own separate
orga
nisa
tions
and
insti
tutio
ns.
In it
s ear
ly st
ages
, mem
bers
of T
amat
oa w
ere
influ
ence
d by
the
revo
lutio
nary
win
g of
the
Blac
k Po
wer
mov
emen
t in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, b
utas
Nga
Tam
atoa
dev
elop
ed, d
iffer
ent i
nter
ests
and
obje
ctiv
es b
egan
to b
ear
ticul
ated
. Ind
eed,
ther
e w
as a
div
ision
in th
e m
ovem
ent b
etw
een
the
cons
erva
tive,
uni
vers
ity-e
duca
ted
stude
nts s
uch
as S
yd a
nd H
ana
Jack
son,
Pete
r Rik
ys a
nd D
onna
Aw
ater
e an
d th
e m
ore
mili
tant
exp
onen
ts of
Bla
ckPo
wer
such
as J
ohn
Ohi
a, P
aul K
otar
a an
d Te
d N
ia (W
alke
r, 19
90: 2
10).
At
first,
it w
as th
is m
ore
radi
cal f
actio
n w
ith th
eir t
alk
of B
row
n Po
wer
and
Mao
ri lib
erat
ion
that
attr
acte
d th
e se
nsat
iona
l med
ia h
eadl
ines
. How
ever
, it
was
the
mor
e co
nser
vativ
e el
emen
t of T
amat
oa th
at to
ok c
ontro
l of t
hem
ovem
ent.
Thei
r stra
tegi
es d
iffer
ed fr
om th
e m
iltan
ts in
that
they
tend
ed to
look
to 'l
iber
al' e
lem
ents
in th
e ru
ling
clas
s for
cha
nge.
The
y di
d th
isbe
caus
e th
eir p
oliti
cal o
utlo
ok w
as b
ased
on
a be
lief t
hat p
rovi
ded
the
appr
opria
te le
gal m
easu
res w
ere
put i
n pl
ace,
Mao
ri co
uld
pros
per.
Hen
ceth
eir e
mph
asis
on se
lf-he
lp p
rogr
amm
es fo
r Mao
ri de
velo
pmen
t. N
gaTa
mat
oa a
lso e
mpl
oyed
the
prot
est t
echn
ique
s and
tact
ics p
opul
arise
d du
ring
the
late
196
0s su
ch a
s the
use
of p
etiti
ons,
dem
onstr
atio
ns a
nd p
icke
ts. T
hey
initi
ated
the
tradi
tion
of th
e an
nual
pro
tests
at W
aita
ngi D
ay c
eleb
ratio
ns.
Ther
e w
as a
fund
amen
tal b
elie
f tha
t New
Zea
land
cap
italis
m c
oupl
edw
ith th
e pa
rliam
enta
ry p
oliti
cal s
yste
m c
ould
be
clea
nsed
of r
acism
. In
The
revo
lutio
n w
e op
enly
rap
abou
t is o
ne o
f tot
al c
hang
e. T
here
volu
tion
is on
e to
libe
rate
us f
rom
raci
sm, o
ppre
ssio
n an
dca
pita
lism
, We
see
that
man
y of
our
pro
blem
s of o
ppre
ssio
n an
dra
cism
are
tool
s of t
his s
ocie
ty's
outlo
ok b
ased
on
capi
talis
m; h
ence
for t
otal
cha
nge
one
mus
t cha
nge
soci
ety
alto
geth
er.
(Pol
ynes
ian
Pant
her P
arty
, 197
5: 2
26)
In p
ract
ice,
this
mea
nt th
at th
e Pa
nthe
rs st
ood
in so
lidar
ity w
ith o
ther
liber
atio
n str
uggl
es, o
ppre
ssed
gro
ups a
nd a
ctiv
ists,
wor
king
tow
ard
a gl
obal
revolution. They publici
sed
the
ever
yday
stru
ggle
s of M
aori
and
Paci
ficIs
land
ers,
from
land
cla
ims t
o th
e di
scrim
inat
ion
and
viol
ence
of t
he p
olic
e(P
olyn
esia
n Pa
nthe
r Par
ty, 1
976)
. In
parti
cula
r, th
e Pa
nthe
rs s
ough
t apa
n-et
hnic
gro
upin
g of
bot
h M
aori
and
Paci
fic Is
land
ers a
nd th
eir v
iew
s com
pete
dw
ith th
ose
of N
ga T
amat
oa w
ho fa
vour
ed M
aori
unity
firs
t (Po
lyne
sian
Pant
her P
arty
, 197
5: 2
25-2
26).
Mao
ri La
nd R
ight
s Mov
emen
t 197
5-19
84: '
Not
One
Mor
e A
cre!
'
As t
he st
rugg
le a
gain
st M
aori
oppr
essio
n an
d rà
cism
inte
nsifi
ed, t
he e
arly
mov
emen
t sta
rted
to p
olar
ise. A
t the
root
of t
his w
as w
heth
er th
e w
hole
syste
m h
ad to
be
over
thro
wn
and
a ne
w so
ciet
y bu
ilt in
its p
lace
, or w
heth
er
104
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest 105
real
cha
nge
for M
aori
coul
d co
me
thro
ugh
the
exist
ing
polit
ical
stru
ctur
es.
Supp
ort f
or th
e co
nser
vativ
e str
ateg
ies p
ursu
ed b
y gr
oups
such
as N
gaTa
mat
oa re
sted
on th
e ex
pect
atio
n th
at th
e sta
te w
ould
mak
e sig
nific
ant
conc
essio
ns. H
owev
er, a
s the
stru
ggle
inte
nsifi
ed, t
he fa
ilure
to st
em th
etid
e of
land
alie
natio
n th
roug
h of
fcia
l cha
nnel
s led
to a
wid
espr
ead
pess
imism
abou
t the
abi
lty o
f the
third
Lab
our g
over
nmen
t (19
72-1
975)
to se
cure
Mao
ri rig
hts.
This
led
man
y fru
strat
ed m
ilita
nts t
o lo
ok a
t mor
e di
rect
strat
egie
s.Fr
om 1
975
to 1
978,
the
Mao
ri la
nd ri
ghts
mov
emen
t bro
ught
toge
ther
aw
ide
rang
e of
act
ivist
s. In
deed
, suc
h di
vers
ity in
a c
omm
on c
ause
was
activ
ely
prom
oted
by
Te R
oopu
0 te
Mat
akite
, the
org
anisi
ng c
omm
ittee
of
the
1975
Lan
d M
arch
on
Parli
amen
t. In
par
icul
ar, M
atak
ite s
ough
t to
cons
olid
ate
links
with
wor
kers
, bot
h Pa
keha
and
Mao
ri, w
ho w
ere
perc
eive
das natural alles in the struggle:
(Te
Roop
u 0
te M
atak
ite, 1
975)
The Land Rights Movement of
the
1970
s had
a si
gnifi
cant
impa
ct u
pon
the evolution of
Mao
ri po
litic
al a
ctiv
ism in
the
1980
s. In
par
ticul
ar, t
he h
igh
leve
l of p
oliti
cal i
nten
sity
that
had
cha
ract
erise
d th
e str
uggl
e pr
ovid
ed th
eco
nditi
ons f
rom
whi
ch a
you
ng, m
ore
mili
tant
lead
ersh
ip e
mer
ged.
Mos
tno
tabl
y, th
e M
aori
land
righ
ts m
ovem
ent a
nd th
e str
uggl
e ag
ains
t rac
ismra
dica
lised
a g
roup
of M
aori
wom
en, t
he c
ore
of w
hom
had
bee
n in
volv
edin Nga Tamatoa. These women were to form the basis of
the
Blac
k W
omen
'sM
ovem
ent.
The
land
righ
ts m
ovem
ent a
nd th
e oc
cupa
tion
and
evic
tion
of m
embe
rsof
Nga
ti W
hatu
a fro
m B
astio
n Po
int a
nd th
e ar
ests
at R
agla
n al
so p
rom
pted
certa
in a
ctiv
ists,
base
d pr
imar
ily in
Auc
klan
d, to
ado
pt a
mor
e di
rect
stra
tegy
to u
nder
min
e ra
cism
. Thi
s was
exe
mpl
ified
in 1
979
whe
n H
e Ta
ua c
onfro
nted
and
assa
ulte
d m
embe
rs o
f an
engi
neer
ing
stude
nt g
roup
who
had
trad
ition
ally
cele
brat
ed th
e U
nive
rsity
of A
uckl
and'
s cap
ping
wt1
ek b
y m
akin
g, a
mon
got
her t
hing
s, ob
scen
e im
itatio
ns o
f Mao
ri ha
ka.
The
Wai
tang
i Act
ion
Com
mitt
ee (W
AC)
, Mao
ri Pe
ople
's Li
bera
tion
Mov
emen
t of A
otea
roa
and
Blac
k W
omen
wer
e at
the
fore
front
of M
aori
polit
ical
act
ivism
in th
e ea
rly 1
980s
. The
se g
roup
s wer
e pr
imar
ily b
ased
inAu
ckla
nd a
nd p
osse
ssed
a c
onsi
dera
ble
over
lap
in m
embe
rshi
p (W
alke
r,19
84).
From
197
9, W
AC c
ontin
ued
the
earli
er fo
cus
ofN
ga T
amat
oa w
ithan
nual
pro
tests
at t
he W
aita
ngi D
ay c
eleb
ratio
ns, a
rgui
ng th
at ra
tific
atio
n of
the
Trea
ty o
fWai
tang
i was
a fu
tile
obje
ctiv
e be
caus
e th
e co
st of
repa
ratio
nsw
ould
effe
ctiv
ely
bank
rupt
the
state
. WA
C ca
lled
for a
boy
cott
of th
eW
aita
ngi D
ay c
eleb
ratio
ns w
ith th
e ob
ject
ive
of e
scal
atin
g op
posi
tion
to th
ece
lebr
atio
ns u
ntil
they
wer
e sto
pped
. At t
his t
ime,
Mao
ri ac
tivist
s pro
clai
med
the
treat
y as
a 'f
raud
' and
den
ounc
ed it
as
the
'chea
ty o
f Wai
tang
i' . W
ACus
ed m
arch
es to
spre
ad th
eir m
essa
ge to
var
ious
mar
ae o
n ro
ute
to W
aita
ngi
and
wer
e m
ost s
ucce
ssfu
l in
brin
ging
toge
ther
the
King
itang
a an
d th
eK
otah
itang
a m
ovem
ents
for t
he p
urpo
se o
f a h
ikoi
, a p
eace
ful w
alk
toW
aita
ngi i
n Fe
brua
ry 1
984.
Initi
ally
act
ivist
s in
grou
ps li
ke W
AC
acte
d in
liai
son
with
cer
tain
Pak
eha
anti-
raci
st gr
oups
. How
ever
, fol
low
ing
the
rifts
betw
een
the
anti-
raci
stm
ovem
ent a
nd so
me
Mao
ri gr
oups
dur
ing
the
anti-
Sprin
gbok
Tou
r pro
tests
of 1
981,
the
asso
ciat
ion
betw
een
Mao
ri an
d Pa
keha
act
ivist
s wea
kene
d.Th
ere
was
a w
ides
prea
d pe
rcep
tion
amon
gst M
aori
that
too
man
y Pa
keha
igno
red
the
conn
ectio
n be
twee
n ap
arth
eid
in S
outh
Afri
ca a
nd c
olon
ialis
man
d ra
cism
in A
otea
roa
(see
Aw
ater
e, 1
981)
. Gro
ups s
uch
as P
eopl
e O
ppos
edto
Wai
tang
i (PO
W),
wer
e w
idel
y se
en a
s a w
ay o
f acc
omm
odat
ing
Pake
ha
We
see
no d
iffer
ence
bet
wee
n th
e as
pira
tions
of M
aori
peop
le a
ndth
e de
sire
of w
orke
rs in
thei
r stru
ggle
s. W
e se
ek th
e su
ppor
t of
wor
kers
and
org
anisa
tions
, as t
he o
nly
viab
le b
odie
s whi
ch h
ave
sym
path
y an
d un
ders
tand
ing
of th
e M
aori
peop
le a
nd th
eir d
esire
s.Th
e p~
ople
who
are
opp
ress
ing
the
wor
kers
are
the
sam
e w
ho a
reex
ploi
ting
the
Mao
ri to
day.
Des
pite
the
dive
rgen
t pol
itica
l and
stra
tegi
c ph
iloso
phie
s, th
ere
was
no
room
to m
istak
e th
e ob
ject
of p
rote
st an
d th
e en
emy
of M
aori
as a
nyth
ing
othe
r tha
n a
stiite
whi
ch w
as se
en a
s bei
ng b
oth
raci
st an
d ca
pita
list.
The occupation of
Basti
on P
oint
and
the
subs
eque
nt e
vict
ion
inte
nsifi
edth
e ex
perie
nce
of d
irect
con
flct w
ith th
e sta
te. T
he o
ccup
atio
n ag
ain
brou
ght
toge
ther
the
dive
rse
Pake
ha le
ft an
d m
obili
sed
wid
e pu
blic
supp
ort (
Wal
ker,
1990
: 218
). Th
e A
uckl
and
Trad
es C
ounc
il pl
aced
a 'g
reen
ban
' on
the
area
,de
clar
ing
that
no
wor
k w
ould
beg
in o
n th
e pl
anne
d su
b-di
visio
n. A
Nor
thSh
ore
cont
ract
or e
ven
dona
ted
six tr
ucks
, inc
ludi
ng tw
o bi
tum
en ta
nker
s, to
help
with
a p
lann
ed b
lock
ade
(Auc
klan
d St
ar, 1
977)
.Th
e oc
cupa
tion
at B
astio
n Po
int w
as fo
llow
ed b
y th
e ar
rest
of 1
7pr
otes
ters
in F
ebru
ary
1978
at t
he R
agla
n G
olf C
ours
e. T
he a
rest
s oc
curre
don
land
take
n fro
m T
ainu
i Aw
hiro
und
er th
e Em
erge
ncy
War
Act
for a
mili
tary
aer
odro
me
durin
g W
orld
War
II a
nd n
ever
retu
rned
. Am
ong
thos
ear
reste
d w
ere
repr
esen
tativ
es o
f Nga
Tam
atoa
, Te
Mat
akite
0 A
otea
roa,
Orakei Marae Committee and Tainui Awhiro. .
106
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest 107
supp
ort f
or M
aori
prot
est s
o th
at M
aori
coul
d m
aint
ain
auto
nom
y in
the
mov
emen
t (Je
sson
, 198
3).
syste
m. H
owev
er, t
he m
ovem
ent e
nded
up
far f
rom
thes
e tra
ditio
ns a
ndaspirations. The emphasis on the rediscovery of the role of
Mao
ri in
hist
ory,
not
just
as v
ictim
s but
as f
ight
ers,
was
som
ethi
ng to
be
wel
com
ed. H
owev
er,
for l
arge
sect
ions
of t
he m
ovem
ent,
the
emph
asis
on th
e re
disc
over
y of
cultu
re c
ame
to b
e th
e ob
ject
ive
of th
e m
ovem
ent i
tself
and
a su
bstit
ute
for
prac
tical
stru
ggle
. For
the
mos
t par
t, cu
ltura
l nat
iona
lism
pla
ced
little
or n
oim
porta
nce
on b
uild
ing
a po
litic
al m
ovem
ent,
or o
n str
ateg
ies f
or fa
r-re
achi
ng so
cial
cha
nge.
Parti
cula
rly in
inte
llect
ual c
ircle
s, M
aori
cultu
ral n
atio
nalis
m b
ecam
ele
ss a
crit
ique
of r
ight
-win
g ra
cist
polit
ics t
han
an a
ttack
on
left
soci
alm
ovem
ents.
Thi
s was
bes
t enc
apsu
late
d in
Don
na A
wat
ere's
pol
emic
, Mao
riSo
vere
ignt
y w
hich
was
exp
licitl
y di
rect
ed a
t Pak
eha
fem
inist
s, tra
de u
nion
ists,
soci
alist
s and
the
Pake
ha a
nti-r
acist
mov
emen
t. A
wat
ere
was
to a
rgue
that
Pake
ha a
ctiv
ists
wer
e co
mm
itted
to a
sta
tus
quo
char
acte
rised
by
whi
tesu
prem
acy
and
Mao
ri su
bord
inat
ion.
In sp
ite o
f the
alle
ged
diffe
renc
esbe
twee
n w
hite
wom
en a
nd w
hite
men
, hom
osex
ual a
nd h
eter
osex
ual,
the
wor
king
cla
ss a
nd th
e ca
pita
list c
lass
, Aw
ater
e w
as to
arg
ue a
ii cl
eava
ges
occu
rred
with
in a
com
mon
cul
tura
l fra
mew
ork.
All
whi
tes s
hare
d th
e be
nefit
sof
the
alie
natio
n of
Mao
ri la
nd a
nd c
ultu
re a
nd th
e im
posit
ion
of E
urop
ean
cultu
ral v
alue
s (A
wat
ere,
198
4).
Pake
ha s
ocie
ty w
as s
aid
to re
flect
inhe
rent
cha
ract
eris
tics:
it w
asco
mpe
titiv
e, e
xplo
itativ
e, v
alue
d m
ater
ial s
ucce
ss a
nd it
ero
ded
or d
omin
ated
tradi
tiona
l or r
adic
ally
ega
litar
ian
Mao
ri va
lues
. Mao
ri po
sses
sed
an in
here
ntin
tegr
ity th
at h
ad b
een
prog
ress
ivel
y er
oded
sinc
e co
ntac
t. H
owev
er, t
his
statu
s cou
ld b
e re
deem
ed b
y th
e im
mer
sion
in M
aori
iden
tity
or 'M
aorit
anga
'.Be
caus
e th
e in
here
nt tr
aits
of P
akeh
a w
ere
the
basiC
cau
ses o
f an
oppr
essiv
ean
d un
equa
l soc
iety
, the
virt
ues o
f Mao
ri w
ere
criti
cal f
or th
eir r
esol
utio
n(s
ee G
reen
land
, 198
4: 8
9).
This
beca
me
an e
xtre
mel
y pe
rsua
sive
ideo
logy
thro
ugho
ut th
e 19
80s,
but r
athe
r tha
n ch
anne
lling
Mao
ri in
to g
reat
er p
oliti
cal i
nvol
vem
ent,
the
intro
verte
d em
phas
is on
Mao
ri co
nsci
ousn
ess a
lone
tend
ed to
lead
Mao
riaw
ay fr
om p
oliti
cal a
ctiv
ism. T
his w
as b
ecau
se th
e im
plic
atio
n w
as th
at'M
aori
cultu
re' a
nd id
entit
y by
itse
lf w
ould
aut
omat
ical
ly b
ring
abou
tpo
litic
al a
nd e
cono
mic
free
dom
. With
its e
mph
asis
on li
festy
le c
hang
es,
cultu
ral r
edisc
over
y re
pres
ente
d al
mos
t no
thre
at a
t aii
to th
e sta
te w
hich
easil
y ac
com
mod
ated
the
rhet
oric
of c
ultu
ral n
atio
nalis
m in
to th
e la
ngua
geof
stat
e po
licy-
mak
ing
durin
g th
e 19
80s.
In th
is w
ay, i
t cou
ld a
ccom
mod
ate
the
idea
that
the
low
leve
l of p
artic
ipat
ion
and
achi
evem
ent o
f Mao
ri in
educ
atio
n an
d em
ploy
men
t stru
ctur
es o
f New
Zea
land
soci
ety
was
the
resu
lt
The
New
Rig
ht a
nd C
ultu
ral N
atio
nalis
m fr
om 1
984
The
prol
onge
d ec
onom
ic c
risis
in N
ew Z
eala
nd th
roug
hout
the
1970
s and
1980
s was
bro
ught
on
by th
e in
here
nt te
nden
cy in
cap
italis
t sys
tem
s for
the
gene
ral r
ate
of p
rofit
to fa
ll, in
hibi
ting
inve
stmen
t and
und
erm
inin
g ca
pita
lac
cum
ulat
ion
(see
Rop
er, 1
993:
11-
21; S
haik
h, 1
989;
199
1: 1
85-1
86).
For
the
state
, cap
italis
m's
chro
nic
tend
ency
to p
rodu
ce c
rises
reve
rber
ates
and
resu
lts in
a le
gitim
atio
n cr
isis f
or th
e w
hole
syste
m. T
hus g
over
nmen
ts fro
mth
e 19
70s h
ave
had
to re
spon
d to
a d
ual c
risis
of p
oliti
cal l
egiti
mat
ion
and
econ
omic
man
agem
ent,
the
prod
uct o
f ste
adily
wor
seni
ng c
ondi
tions
of
econ
omic
dec
line
and
fisca
l ins
tabi
lity
coup
led
with
a g
row
th in
.une
m-
ploy
men
t, th
e po
litic
isatio
n of
eth
nic
and
gend
er in
equa
litie
s and
oth
ersig
ns o
f soc
ial u
nres
t. In
par
ticul
ar, t
he p
oliti
cal t
urbu
lenc
e cr
eate
d by
the
even
ts of
the
early
i 98
0s e
ncou
rage
d th
e w
ides
prea
d pe
rcep
tion
that
New
Zeal
and
was
at t
he tu
rnin
g po
int w
ith re
gard
to h
arm
onio
us ra
ce re
latio
ns.
The
sens
e of
urg
ency
and
con
cern
abo
ut th
e sta
te o
f New
Zea
land
soci
ety
man
ifeste
d its
elf i
n th
e of
ficia
l rep
ort R
ace
Aga
inst
Tim
e fro
m th
e Ra
ceRe
latio
ns O
ffice
. It w
as w
idel
y pe
rcei
ved
that
New
Zea
land
was
on
the
edge
of a
pro
long
ed a
nd ir
rede
emab
le ra
cial
conf
lct (
Race
Rel
atio
ns C
onci
liato
r,19
82). Th
e up
surg
e in
Mao
ri pr
otes
t and
disc
onte
nt fo
rced
gov
ernm
ents
tore
spon
d to
the
evid
ence
whi
ch sh
owed
ove
rwhe
lmin
gly
that
the
maj
ority
of M
aori
occu
pied
a p
erip
hera
l pla
ce in
New
Zea
land
soci
ety.
Num
erou
sstu
dies
con
firm
ed th
at M
aori
disp
ropo
rtion
atel
y ex
perie
nced
poo
r edu
ca-
tiona
l out
com
es; h
igh
leve
ls of
une
mpl
oym
ent;
low
inco
me
leve
ls; il
-he
alth
and
hen
ce lo
wer
life
exp
ecta
ncy;
hig
her r
ates
of i
mpr
isonm
ent;
low
rate
s of h
ome
owne
rshi
p; a
nd h
igh
rate
s of s
tate
dep
ende
ncy.
Whi
le th
ose
Mao
ri ac
tivist
s inv
olve
d in
mov
emen
ts su
ch a
s MO
OH
R,Te
Hok
ioi,
the
Poly
nesia
n Pa
nthe
rs a
nd la
nd ri
ghts
at le
ast a
ttem
pted
to fi
ndstr
ateg
ies w
hich
cou
ld su
cces
sful
Iy c
halIe
nge
the
syste
m w
hich
pro
duce
dsu
ch d
ram
atic
ineq
ualit
ies,
oth
ers
ende
d up
pur
suin
g st
rugg
les
whi
chre
pres
ente
d lit
tle o
r no
thre
at a
t aii
to th
e sta
te. T
his h
elpe
d to
obs
cure
the
fact
that
cap
italis
m's
tend
ency
tow
ards
eco
nom
ic a
nd so
cial
cris
is w
as a
resu
lt of
its i
nter
nal c
ontra
dict
ions
.In
itial
ly, t
he p
oliti
cs o
f Mao
ri cu
ltura
l nat
iona
lism
foun
d ex
pres
sion
inth
e str
uggl
e to
win
Mao
ri stu
dies
and
lang
uage
pro
gram
mes
in th
e ed
ucat
ion
108
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest 109
of so
cial
alie
natio
n ca
used
by
the
loss
of c
ultu
ral i
dent
ity. S
uch
an e
xpla
natio
nfo
r Mao
ri di
sadv
anta
ge d
id n
ot re
pres
ent a
thre
at to
the
unde
rlyin
g so
cial
rela
tions
of c
apita
list s
ocie
ty.
Follo
win
g its
ele
ctio
n in
July
198
4, th
e fo
urth
Lab
our g
over
nmen
tattempted to appease the rising tide of
Mao
ri pr
otes
t by
enha
ncin
g th
e sta
tus
of M
aori
cultu
re, a
ttrac
ting
the
com
mitm
ent o
f Mao
ri to
stat
e in
stitu
tions
and
satis
fyin
g M
aori
dem
ands
for s
elf-d
eter
min
atio
n in
thei
r ow
n af
fairs
.La
bour
did
this
in tw
o m
ajor
way
s. Fi
rst,
it ex
tend
ed th
e ju
risdi
ctio
n of
the
Wai
tang
i Trib
unal
giv
ing
it th
e po
wer
to e
xam
ine
Mao
ri gr
ieva
nces
retro
spec
tive
to 1
840.
Sec
ond,
the
offic
ial p
olic
y of
'bic
ultu
ralis
m' a
dopt
edby
the
four
th L
abou
r gov
ernm
ent a
fter 1
984
invo
lved
the
inco
rpor
atio
n of
Mao
ri pe
rson
nel,
Mao
ri m
odel
s of o
rgan
isatio
n an
d M
aori
soci
al p
ract
ices
and
cultu
ral s
ymbo
lism
with
in th
e in
stitu
tions
of t
he st
ate
(see
Bar
ber,
1989
). Th
e pa
rtial
ado
ptio
n of
eth
nic
rhet
oric
by
the
state
and
the
co-o
ptio
nof
élit
es in
to st
ate
insti
tutio
ns g
ave
the
ilusio
n of
a 'p
artn
ersh
ip' a
s esp
ouse
dun
der t
he T
reat
y of
Wai
tang
i, w
hile
mar
gina
lisin
g th
e m
ore
radi
cal d
eman
ds(Kelsey, 1993: 234).
regressive tax reform; the disassembly of the state sector through
priv
atisa
tion,
com
mer
cial
isatio
n an
d co
rpor
atisa
tion;
and
the
dism
antli
ngof
the
wel
fare
stat
e (s
ee R
oper
, 199
1; 1
993;
Hol
land
and
Bos
ton
1990
;Bo
ston
, 199
1). H
owev
er, a
ser
ies
of c
laim
s be
fore
the
Wai
tang
i Trib
unal
beca
me
an o
bsta
cle
to th
e sa
le o
f man
y ke
y sta
te-o
wne
d en
terp
rises
, acr
ucia
l com
pone
nt in
Lab
our's
restr
uctu
ring
prog
ram
me.
At a
tim
e of
grow
ing
econ
omic
and
soci
al d
isloc
atio
n, th
e po
litic
al c
osts
for L
abou
rw
ere
exac
erba
ted
by th
e w
ides
prea
d pe
rcep
tion
that
Mao
ri w
ere
getti
ng'sp
ecia
l tre
atm
ent'.
Inde
ed, t
he p
ress
ures
wer
e so
gre
at b
y 19
89, t
hat t
heLa
bour
gov
ernm
ent a
ttem
pted
to p
lay
dow
n th
e sig
nific
ance
of i
ts Tr
eaty
polic
y.
Mao
ri Él
ite
Waitangi Tribunal
In a
dditi
on to
its T
reat
y po
licy,
Lab
our a
lso u
nder
took
a p
roce
ss o
f co-
optin
g ke
y in
divi
dual
s in
the
Mao
ri pr
otes
t mov
emen
t. Th
e in
volv
emen
t of
a M
aori
élite
with
in th
e str
uctu
res o
f the
stat
e fo
rced
man
y M
aori
lead
ers t
ostr
addl
e th
e un
easy
gul
f bet
wee
n pu
shin
g th
e M
aori
strug
gle
forw
ard
and
mai
ntai
ning
the
exist
ing
state
of a
ffairs
. The
pre
stige
and
wea
lth th
at w
ent
with
such
priv
ilege
d po
sitio
ns in
the
settl
emen
t pro
cess
mea
nt th
at M
aori
lead
ers b
ecam
e in
crea
singl
y re
mov
ed fr
om th
e co
ncer
ns a
nd v
italit
y of
the
flax
root
s Mao
ri str
uggl
e.Li
ke th
e fo
urth
Lab
our g
over
nmen
t, th
e su
bseq
uent
Nat
iona
l gov
ernm
ent
also
set o
ut to
resto
re le
vels
of p
rofit
able
inve
stmen
t in
the
New
Zea
land
econ
omy.
The
Nat
iona
l gov
ernm
ent w
as c
once
rned
that
the
back
log
ofTr
eaty
cla
ims c
reat
ed a
clim
ate
of u
ncer
tain
ty fo
r inv
esto
rs b
ecau
se th
eow
ners
hip
of a
num
ber o
f key
reso
urce
s was
in d
oubt
. Tre
asur
y of
ficia
lsw
ere
conc
erne
d ab
out t
he fi
scal
impl
icat
ions
of s
ome
of th
e m
ajor
Tre
aty
clai
ms d
ecla
ring
it an
'unq
uant
ifiab
le fi
scal
risk
' (So
uthl
and
Tim
es, 1
994:
14).
Nat
iona
l atte
mpt
ed to
end
this
unce
rtain
ty b
y ne
gotia
ting
a fu
ll an
dfin
al s
ettle
men
t of a
ll Tr
eaty
of W
aita
ngi c
laim
s at
min
imal
cos
t. Li
keLa
bour
, the
Nat
iona
l gov
ernm
ent e
mba
rked
on
a se
ries o
f sec
ret n
egot
iatio
nsw
ith a
sele
cted
num
ber o
f cor
pora
te w
arrio
rs a
nd tr
ibal
exe
cutiv
es w
hich
soug
ht a
full
and
final
settl
emen
t of f
isher
y cl
aim
s und
er th
e Tr
eaty
of
Waitangi in the form of the Sealord deaL.
The
lack
of a
ccou
ntab
ility
and
dem
ocra
cy in
such
neg
otia
tions
gen
erat
edin
tens
e an
ger a
nd re
sent
men
t whi
ch m
anife
sted
itsel
f in
the
bitte
r int
erna
ldi
visio
ns th
at h
ave
char
acte
rised
the
rece
nt u
psur
ge in
Mao
ri pr
otes
t ove
rth
e sig
ning
of t
he S
ealo
rd d
eaL.
The
se d
ivisi
ons w
ere
strai
ned
furth
er a
t the
The
Labo
ur g
over
nmen
t had
ass
umed
that
by
the
intro
duct
ion
of th
e Tr
eaty
ofW
aita
ngi A
men
dmen
t Act
in 1
985,
the
state
cou
ld so
meh
ow ta
ke c
ontro
lof
the
dire
ctio
n of
Tre
aty
issue
s and
shap
e th
e na
ture
of M
aori
dem
ands
.Fr
om 1
985,
iwi a
nd h
apu
dive
rted
time,
ene
rgy
and
mea
gre
reso
urce
s int
ore
sear
chin
g an
d pr
esen
ting
clai
ms t
o th
e W
aita
ngi T
ribun
al a
nd th
e ju
dici
alsy
stem
. How
ever
, it q
uick
ly b
ecam
e ap
pare
nt th
at th
e Tr
ibun
al w
as a
bod
yw
ithou
t 'te
eth'
, res
trict
ed to
mak
ing
reco
mm
enda
tions
on
parti
cula
r cla
ims
upon
whi
ch g
over
nmen
ts w
ere
unde
r no
oblig
atio
n to
act
.A
s Mao
ri de
man
ds fo
r pol
itica
l and
eco
nom
ic se
lf-de
term
inat
ion
beca
me
mor
e str
iden
t, a
cont
radi
ctio
n qu
ickl
y em
erge
d be
twee
n th
e ec
onom
icpr
ogra
mm
e of
mar
ket l
iber
alisa
tion
and
the
treat
y se
ttlem
ent p
olic
y (s
eeK
else
y, 1
990;
199
3). T
he fo
urth
Lab
our g
over
nmen
t's M
aori
polic
y w
asm
otiv
ated
by
an o
verri
ding
obj
ectiv
e of
redu
cing
gov
ernm
ent e
xpen
ditu
reat
a ti
me
of e
cono
mic
and
fisc
al c
risis.
Lab
our e
mba
rked
on
an e
cono
mic
restr
uctu
ring
prog
ram
me
desig
ned
to re
store
leve
ls of
pro
fitab
ilty
in th
eN
ew Z
eala
nd e
cono
my.
Thi
s w
as c
hara
cter
ised
by
a m
onet
aris
t,di
sinfla
tiona
ry st
rate
gy c
oupl
ed w
ith a
pro
gram
me
of m
arke
t lib
eral
isatio
n,w
hich
incl
uded
: the
der
egul
atio
n of
the
finan
cial
sect
or; l
iber
alisa
tion
offo
reig
n tra
de; t
he e
limin
atio
n of
so-c
alle
d 'ri
gidi
ties'
in th
e la
bour
mar
ket;
110
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest 111
time of the negotiations surrounding the government's $l bilion Fiscal
Enve
lope
, an
atte
mpt
at a
full
and
final
settl
emen
t of a
ll re
mai
ning
Tre
aty
ofW
aita
ngi c
laim
s.Th
e at
tem
pted
cha
insa
win
g of
the
pine
tree
on
One
Tre
e H
il on
28
Oct
ober
199
4 (th
e an
nive
rsar
y of
the
1835
Dec
lara
tion
of In
depe
nden
ce),
the
behe
adin
g of
the
statu
e of
John
Bal
lanc
e at
Mou
toa.
Gar
dens
and
the
explosion of anger at the 1995 Waitangi celebrations heralded the most
signi
fican
t ups
urge
in M
aori
prot
est s
ince
the
1970
s. Th
e oc
cupa
tion
ofW
anga
nui's
Mou
toa
Gar
dens
by
Wha
ngan
ui M
aori
has
been
a p
ower
ful
sym
bol o
f the
resu
rgen
ce in
the
strug
gle
for m
ana
whe
nua.
The
79-
day
occu
patio
n at
Pak
aito
re m
arae
has
invi
gora
ted
othe
r stru
ggle
s aro
und
the
coun
try, i
n pa
rticu
lar t
he o
ccup
atio
n by
Te
Roop
u aT
e Po
hutu
of R
otow
hio
mar
ae a
t Wha
kare
war
ewa
in R
otoi
:ua
and
the
occu
patio
n ,o
f the
form
erTa
mak
i Girl
s' Co
llege
in A
uckl
and.
The
ups
urge
in M
aori
strug
gle
has a
lsoex
pres
sed
itsel
f in
the
occu
patio
ns o
f the
Tak
ahue
scho
ol n
ear K
aita
ia a
ndof
the
cour
thou
se a
t Pat
ea, O
ther
stru
ggle
s inc
lude
the
Tuho
e em
bass
y in
Tane
atua
, the
occ
upat
ions
of t
he T
aum
aran
ui p
olic
e sta
tion
site
and
Kai
taia
airp
ort.
Thes
e oc
cupa
tions
hav
e be
en a
long
tim
e in
the
mak
ing
and
refle
ctth
e gr
owin
g an
ger,
frustr
atio
n an
d de
sper
atio
n at
the
lack
of r
eal o
ptio
nsav
aila
ble
to M
aori
for t
he re
solu
tions
of t
heir
grie
vanc
es.
Whi
le m
uch
of th
e re
cent
pro
test
has r
epre
sent
ed a
con
tinua
tion
of th
etra
ditio
ns o
f the
land
righ
ts m
ovem
ent o
f the
197
0s, s
ome
mor
e no
tabl
estr
uggl
es, s
uch
as th
e oc
cupa
tions
of C
oalc
orp
land
at H
untly
by
the
Wha
awha
akia
hap
u, o
f the
Wai
kato
Uni
vers
ity m
arae
by
Te T
oitu
tang
a an
dth
e ot
her p
rote
sts in
opp
ositi
on to
the
$170
mili
on R
aupa
tu se
ttlem
ent
betw
een
the
gove
rnm
ent a
nd th
e Ta
inui
Tru
st Bo
ard,
repr
esen
t a c
halle
nge
to th
e m
anda
te o
f dec
ision
-mak
ing
bodi
es w
ithin
iwi t
o m
ake
such
settl
emen
tag
reem
ents.
For the majority of
Mao
ri, c
ultu
ral n
atio
nalis
m h
as fa
iled
so d
ram
atic
ally
in th
is re
spec
t bec
ause
as a
stra
tegy
, it h
as e
vade
d th
e sig
nific
ance
of t
here
lativ
e lo
catio
n of
the
maj
ority
of M
aori
in th
e w
orki
ng c
lass
with
in N
ewZe
alan
d's
clas
s st
ruct
ure
and
also
the
exis
tenc
e of
cla
ss d
iffer
entia
tion
with
in b
oth
Mao
ri an
d Pa
keha
pop
ulat
ions
. Sec
ond,
such
an
appr
oach
has
prev
ente
d, th
roug
h its
rhet
oric
and
pos
turin
g, th
e po
ssib
ility
of b
uild
ing
astr
onge
r mov
emen
t by
com
bini
ng w
ith o
ther
pro
gres
sive
soci
al m
ovem
ents
in o
rder
to a
chie
ve sp
ecifi
c po
litic
al o
bjec
tives
. Thi
rd, c
ultu
ral n
atio
nalis
mha
s in
effe
ct p
rovi
ded
a w
ay o
ut o
f eng
agin
g in
stru
ggle
by
enco
urag
ing
indi
vidu
al li
festy
le c
hang
es ra
ther
than
a st
rate
gy fo
r fun
dam
enta
l soc
ial
chan
ge o
r the
tran
sfor
mat
ion
of so
ciet
y. F
inal
ly, t
he in
tern
al lo
gic
of th
eun
derly
ing
philo
soph
ies o
f cul
tura
l nat
iona
lism
hav
e be
en c
ount
erpr
oduc
tive,
fost
erin
g co
nfus
ion,
dem
oral
isat
ion
and
inte
rnal
figh
ts o
ver a
uthe
ntic
ity.
Frag
men
tatio
n
Mao
ri Li
bera
tion
and
the
Polit
ics o
f Ide
ntity
This
em
phas
is o
n cu
ltura
l ide
ntity
as
the
dete
rmin
ing
fact
or in
Mao
riop
pres
sion
enco
urag
ed th
e pe
rcep
tion
that
the
strug
gle
agai
nst M
aori
ineq
ualit
y an
d ra
cism
cou
ld b
e re
duce
d to
a c
lash
of c
ultu
res;
a co
nflc
tbe
twee
n 'ra
ces'.
Inde
ed, N
ew Z
eala
nd h
istor
y ha
d be
en c
hara
cter
ised
by a
nirr
edee
mab
le c
lash
of c
ultu
ral v
alue
s. A
gain
st th
e in
here
nt h
ostil
ity o
fPa
keha
, Mao
ri so
vere
ignt
y w
as th
e on
ly h
ope
for j
ustic
e.O
ne te
nden
cy o
f mov
emen
ts w
hich
em
phas
ise th
e id
entit
y of
thei
rm
embe
rs a
s th
e de
term
inin
g fa
ctor
in th
eir o
ppre
ssio
n is
to 'p
erso
nalis
e'th
e co
nflc
t for
libe
ratio
n. If
you
per
sona
lise
pow
er, y
ou te
nd to
per
sona
lise
the
enem
y. H
ence
the
strug
gle
for e
qual
ity b
ecom
es re
duce
d to
a fi
ght
against prejudice, a fight against the institutions and practices against
individuals and attitudes, not against the system that perpetuates that
oppr
essio
n. In
this
way
, one
of t
he m
ost n
otab
le fe
atur
es o
f Mao
ri pr
otes
tfro
m th
e la
te 1
970s
is th
e in
crea
sing
pers
onal
isatio
n of
the
Mao
ri str
uggl
efo
r lib
erat
ion,
whe
reby
the
obje
ct o
f Mao
ri op
pres
sion
is Pa
keha
and
Pake
ha c
ultu
re. T
his l
eave
s the
stru
ggle
aga
inst
Mao
ri op
pres
sion
to b
efo
ught
out
at t
he le
vel o
f ind
ivid
ual r
elat
ions
hips
bet
wee
n M
aori
and
Pake
ha w
hile
the
syste
m in
whi
ch th
is re
latio
nshi
p oc
curs
rem
ains
unto
uche
d.Th
e co
nclu
sion
that
Pak
eha
are
the
enem
y of
Mao
ri gi
ves c
ause
for
pess
imism
, to
say
the
leas
t. M
oreo
ver,
since
cul
tura
l nat
iona
lists
expl
ain
the
divi
sion
betw
een
Mao
ri an
d Pa
keha
as b
iolo
gica
lly ro
oted
, the
rupt
ure
mus
tbe
per
man
ent.
From
this
it fo
llow
s tha
t any
stra
tegy
aim
ed a
t the
libe
ratio
n
While the offcial policy of
bicu
ltura
lism
has
resu
lted
in a
dra
mat
ic e
xpan
sion
of o
ppor
tuni
ties f
or m
iddl
e-cl
ass p
rofe
ssio
nal M
aori
in th
e sta
te a
ppar
atus
,ed
ucat
ion
syste
m, h
ealth
and
the
med
ia, t
he e
mph
asis
on id
entit
y al
one
asth
e cr
ucia
l det
erm
inin
g fa
ctor
in M
aori
oppr
essio
n ha
s bee
n an
unm
itiga
ted
disa
ster f
or th
e va
st m
ajor
ity o
f wor
king
-cla
ss M
aori
wha
nau
who
hav
eborne the brunt of the fourth Labour government and the National
gove
rnm
ent's
'eco
nom
ic re
struc
turin
g' (M
inist
ry o
f Mao
ri D
evel
opm
ent,
1992
).
112
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest 113
of M
aori
nece
ssita
tes a
n ap
ocal
yptic
stru
ggle
bec
ause
the
very
exi
stenc
e of
Pake
ha is
the
basis
of M
aori
oppr
essio
n.G
iven
that
iden
titie
s are
blu
rred,
mul
tiple
and
hist
oric
ally
con
tinge
nt,
the
idea
that
the
mai
n di
visio
n in
soci
ety
is be
twee
n M
aori
and
Pake
ha a
lsoris
ks fr
agm
enta
tion
of th
e m
ovem
ent i
tself
beca
use
it in
evita
bly
lead
s to
conf
usio
n an
d fig
hts o
ver a
uthe
ntic
ity (d
i Leo
nard
o, 1
994:
168
). If
the
reas
onin
g of
iden
tity
polit
ics i
s tak
en to
its l
ogic
al c
oncl
usio
n, th
en P
akeh
aar
e no
t the
onl
y op
pres
sors
: men
are
opp
ress
ors,
hete
rose
xual
s are
opp
ress
ors
and so forth. The fragmentation and demoralisation of
the
wom
en's
liber
atio
nm
ovem
ent a
ccor
ding
to se
xual
ity, c
lass
and
'rac
e' de
mon
strat
es th
is pr
ecise
ly(Smith, 1994: 4-5).
Clas
s Div
ision
s
capi
talis
t soc
ial r
elat
ions
bet
wee
n ca
pita
l and
labo
ur. I
t is a
lso im
porta
nt to
recognise the inequalities that exist between men
and
wom
en.
Cultu
ral n
atio
nalis
t app
roac
hes a
lso ig
nore
the
fact
that
Pak
eha
are
not a
hom
ogen
eous
gro
up th
at c
onfro
nt M
aori
in a
uni
fied
and
hosti
le m
anne
r.Th
e fa
ct is
that
like
Mao
ri, P
akeh
a in
cap
italis
t soc
iety
are
also
stra
tifie
dac
cord
ing
to c
lass
and
gen
der,
Thus
refe
renc
es to
'Pak
eha
soci
ety'
, 'm
ajor
itycu
lture
' and
so fo
rth, m
ay b
e us
eful
rhet
oric
al d
evic
es to
focu
s bla
me
and
mot
ivat
e ac
tion
but t
hey
are
not u
sefu
l con
cept
s for
exp
lain
ing
soci
al re
ality
nor a
re th
ey u
sefu
l as t
he b
asis
of a
stra
tegy
for M
aori
liber
atio
n (L
oom
is,19
90: 4
).Th
e id
ea th
at P
akeh
a ar
e in
nate
ly m
ater
ialis
tic, e
xplo
itativ
e an
d ag
gres
sive
is fu
ndam
enta
lly p
robl
emat
ic. I
t ass
umes
that
the
unde
rlyin
g va
lues
and
beha
viou
r of P
akeh
a as
exh
ibite
d in
cap
italis
t soc
iety
are
prim
ordi
al a
ndsta
tic. T
his i
gnor
es th
e fa
ct th
at th
e co
nstru
ctio
n of
iden
tity
at a
ny p
oint
intim
e is
soci
ally
con
struc
ted
and
histo
rical
ly c
ontin
gent
. Thu
s, w
hat i
t mea
nsto
iden
tify
as M
aori
or a
s Pak
eha
chan
ges r
adic
ally
thro
ugho
ut h
istor
y,re
flect
ing
the
dyna
mic
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
chan
ging
mat
eria
l con
ditio
nsan
d th
e w
ay in
whi
ch th
ose
soci
etie
s are
org
anise
d.
Whi
le it
is c
erta
inly
true
that
for s
ome
left-
win
g gr
oups
the
belie
f in
the
cent
ralit
y of
wor
king
-cla
ss st
rugg
le d
isgui
sed
a fu
ndam
enta
l res
istan
ce o
r,in
som
e ca
ses,
hosti
lity
to th
e str
uggl
es o
f Mao
ri ac
tivist
s, it
is al
so a
noto
rious
fact
that
Mao
ri m
ovem
ents
since
the
1980
s hav
e te
nded
to fi
ght
for t
he p
oliti
cal c
hang
es o
f gre
ates
t ben
efit
to th
ose
Mao
ri w
ho a
re a
lread
ym
iddl
e cl
ass o
r wea
lthy.
In th
is re
gard
, cul
tura
l nat
iona
lism
and
the
polit
ics
of M
aori
iden
tity
have
bee
n th
e pe
rfect
soci
al th
eory
for t
he u
pwar
dly
mob
ile M
aori
mid
dle
clas
s bec
ause
it p
rese
nts t
he in
tere
sts o
f Mao
ri in
cont
empo
rary
cap
italis
t soc
iety
as e
ssen
tially
uni
tary
. Thu
s affu
ent r
ight
-w
ing
indi
vidu
als s
uch
as D
onna
Aw
ater
e (M
aori
affa
irs sp
okes
pers
on fo
rth
e A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Con
sum
ers a
nd T
axpa
yers
(ACT
)) rig
ht th
roug
h to
thos
eof the Maori unemployed, homeless and hungry of South Auckland's
'ghe
ttoes
' can
be
pres
ente
d as
phi
loso
phic
ally
and
cul
tura
lly th
e sa
me.
Thi
sig
nore
s the
crit
ical
impo
rtanc
e of
diff
eren
tial a
cces
s to
econ
omic
and
pol
itica
lpo
wer
with
in a
nd a
cros
s Mao
ri so
ciet
y.In
deed
, Mao
ri ar
e al
l too
freq
uent
ly d
iscus
sed
by c
ultu
ral n
atio
nalis
ts as
if fo
rmin
g on
e ho
mog
eneo
us e
ntity
, its
mem
bers
pos
sess
ing
exac
tly th
esa
me
expe
rienc
es o
f opp
ress
ion
and
exac
tly th
e sa
me
polit
ical
asp
iratio
ns.
How
ever
, thi
s ign
ores
the
fact
that
ther
e ex
ists a
dyn
amic
rang
e of
asp
iratio
nsan
d po
litic
al s
trate
gies
with
in s
o-ca
lled
'Mao
ridom
'. M
oreo
ver,
thes
eas
pira
tions
ofte
n co
nflc
t with
one
ano
ther
and
are
not
div
orce
d fro
m th
ein
fluen
ce o
f the
wid
er so
cial
and
eco
nom
ic e
nviro
nmen
t.Th
e em
phas
is on
Mao
ri so
lidar
ity c
once
als t
he h
istor
ical
real
ity o
fso
cial
cla
ss st
ratif
icat
ion
with
in b
oth
'trad
ition
al' a
nd c
onte
mpo
rary
Mao
riso
ciet
y. It
is im
pera
tive
that
we
reco
gnise
the
fund
amen
tal a
ntag
onism
in
Life
style
Cha
nges
The
idea
that
'Mao
ri cu
lture
' and
iden
tity
by it
self
wil
auto
mat
ical
ly b
ring
abou
t pol
itica
l and
eco
nom
ic fr
eedo
m p
rovi
des a
way
out
of e
ngag
ing
instr
uggl
e. W
hat i
s con
spic
uous
ly a
bsen
t in
cultu
ral n
atio
nalis
t acc
ount
s is
talk
of t
rans
form
atio
n an
d ch
ange
. Ind
eed,
thes
e ap
proa
ches
hav
e te
nded
toencourage strategies based primarily on changes in individual
lifes
tyle
and
whi
ch a
re d
etac
hed
from
any
em
phas
is on
a c
olle
ctiv
e M
aori
strug
gle
toco
nstru
ct a
nd c
hang
e as
pect
s of t
he w
orld
we
inha
bit.
In re
cent
dec
ades
,th
ere
has b
een
a pr
ogre
ssiv
e de
clin
e of
the
activ
e ba
se o
f the
mov
emen
t and
the
rise
of st
rate
gies
bas
ed u
pon
'dire
ct a
ctio
n' ta
ctic
s: '..
. atte
ntio
n-gr
abbi
ngac
tions
car
ied
out b
y th
e en
light
ened
few
, the
aim
bei
ng to
sho
ck a
nddi
stur
b th
e ig
nora
nt m
asse
s' (S
mith
, 199
4: 2
0).
The
emph
asis
on th
e re
disc
over
y of
trad
ition
al c
ultu
re a
s the
solu
tion
toth
e ba
sic c
ause
s of M
aori
oppr
essio
n ha
s inv
olve
d a
cele
brat
ion
of th
esuperior virtues of
Mao
ri sp
iritu
ality
and
a M
aori
atta
chm
ent t
o na
ture
. The
frequ
ent r
efer
ence
s to
the
spec
ial n
atur
e of
Mao
ri so
ciet
y an
d th
e se
para
tean
d en
hanc
ing
'wor
ld o
f the
Mao
ri' a
re te
stam
ent t
o th
is. H
owev
er, i
t is
impo
rtant
to n
ote
that
such
app
eals
to a
spec
ial '
natu
re' a
s a g
uide
to h
uman
actio
n pr
ovid
e fe
w se
cure
refe
renc
e po
ints
(Seg
~l, 1
987:
7).
114
Nga
Pat
alThe Evolutlon of Contemporary Maorl Protest 115
Auto
nom
y in
Stru
ggle
show
s tha
t pol
itica
l mov
emen
ts ba
sed
sole
ly o
n th
e 'id
entit
y' o
f the
parti
cipa
nt te
nd to
lurc
h fro
m th
e le
ft to
the
right
of t
he p
oliti
cal s
pect
rum
precisely because they have no real
mea
ns to
ach
ieve
thei
r pol
itica
l aim
s.It
is al
so im
porta
nt to
rem
embe
r tha
t it i
s not
nec
essa
rily
true
that
auto
nom
ous m
ovem
ents,
in a
nd o
f the
mse
lves
, are
succ
essf
ul in
iden
tifyi
ngan
d ad
dres
sing
the
issue
s of t
he o
ppre
ssed
bec
ause
eve
n th
ese
mov
emen
tsar
e no
t aut
onom
ous o
f the
und
erly
ing
soci
al st
ruct
ures
, pol
itica
l for
ces a
ndid
eolo
gies
of c
apita
list s
ocie
ty. T
here
is n
o gu
aran
tee
that
self-
orga
nisa
tion
of th
e op
pres
sed
wil
prod
uce
the
best
polit
ical
stra
tegi
es fo
r lib
erat
ion.
All
too
ofte
n, fo
r exa
mpl
e, th
e in
tere
sts o
f mid
dle-
clas
s ele
men
ts ha
ve b
ecom
edo
min
ant w
ithin
the's
e so
-cal
led
'auto
nom
ous'
mov
emen
ts, a
s the
hist
ory
ofth
e w
omen
's m
ovem
ent a
nd B
lack
nat
iona
lism
hav
e de
mon
strat
ed (s
eeSh
awki
, 199
0: 9
2-99
; Seg
al, 1
987)
.
The
assu
mpt
ion
that
onl
y th
ose
who
act
ually
exp
erie
nce
a pa
rticu
lar f
orm
of
oppr
essio
n ca
n ei
ther
def
ine
it or
figh
t aga
inst
it ha
s gai
ned
a fo
llow
ing
onth
e le
ft co
mm
ensu
rate
with
the
decl
ine
of th
e le
vel o
f cla
ss st
rugg
le in
the
mai
n ad
vanc
ed c
apita
list s
ocie
ties
from
the
mid
-197
0s (S
mith
, 199
4: 5
).Fo
r mov
emen
ts or
gani
sed
on th
e ba
sis o
f the
iden
tity
of th
eir p
artic
ipan
ts,th
e en
emy
tend
s to
incl
ude
'ever
yone
else
' per
ceiv
ed a
s an
amor
phou
s,ba
ckw
ard
blob
whi
ch m
akes
up
the
rest
of s
ocie
ty (S
mith
, 199
4). I
t is
assu
med
that
soci
ety
at la
rge
bene
fits f
rom
a p
artic
ular
form
of o
ppre
ssio
nan
d ha
s an
inte
rest
in m
aint
aini
ng it
. Fro
m th
is co
nclu
sion,
it fo
llow
s tha
tea
ch o
ppre
ssed
gro
up sh
ould
hav
e its
ow
n di
stinc
t and
sepa
rate
mov
emen
t.H
ence
, the
so-
calle
d 'n
ew s
ocia
l mov
emen
ts' t
hat h
ave
aris
en d
urin
g th
e19
70s
and
1980
s te
nd to
be
orga
nise
d on
the
basi
s of
'aut
onom
y' or
inde
pend
ence
from
eac
h ot
her.
Whi
le n
o M
aori
orga
nisa
tions
hav
e be
en b
uilt
spec
ifica
lly o
n th
e ba
sisof
iden
tity
polit
ics,
man
y of
the
key
assu
mpt
ions
hav
e ga
ined
wid
espr
ead
acce
ptan
ce a
mon
gst a
nti-r
acist
s, bo
th M
aori
and
Pake
ha a
like.
In th
is re
gard
,one of the most significant developments in the evolution of
Mao
ri po
litic
alac
tivism
sinc
e th
e ea
rly 1
980s
has
bee
n th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
Mao
ri m
ovem
ents
have
ado
pted
the
lang
uage
of t
hese
iden
tity
polit
ics.
One
of t
he c
entra
l ten
ets o
f cul
tura
l nat
iona
lism
has
bee
n th
e id
ea th
atPa
keha
hav
e a
fund
amen
tal i
nter
est i
n m
aint
aini
ng ra
cism
in A
otea
roa
and
that
thei
r con
tribu
tion
to th
e m
ovem
ent f
or M
aori
liber
atio
n is
mor
e lik
ely
to b
e di
visiv
e th
an c
onstr
uctiv
e. It
has
follo
wed
from
this
that
the
mos
tef
fect
ive
way
of f
ight
ing
raci
sm a
nd d
iscrim
inat
ion
was
for M
aori
to o
rgan
isean
d str
uggl
e se
para
tely
. Thi
s em
phas
is on
aut
onom
ous s
trugg
le h
as re
sulte
dth
eore
tical
ly a
t lea
st, in
the
excl
usio
n of
Pak
eha,
wha
teve
r the
ir so
cial
cla
ssan
d ge
nder
, fro
m p
layi
ng a
key
role
in fi
ghtin
g fo
r Mao
ri lib
èrat
ion.
How
ever
,th
is sta
nce
is fu
ndam
enta
lly p
robl
emat
ic in
two
maj
or re
spec
ts: fi
rst,
beca
use
ther
e is
no n
eces
sary
or i
mm
edia
te u
nity
bet
wee
n op
pres
sed
grou
ps in
Aot
earo
a. M
ost l
ack
the
requ
ired
reso
urce
s to
fight
bac
k w
hen
they
are
isolated from each other. Unfortunately, the perception that the strggle for
tino
rang
atira
tang
a is
prim
arily
a M
aori
vers
us P
akeh
a str
ggle
forc
esM
aori
to st
rggl
e ag
ains
t the
ent
ire P
akeh
a po
pula
tion.
In e
ssen
ce, t
his
isola
tes t
he M
aori
strug
gle,
forc
ing
it to
rely
ent
irely
on
its o
wn
reso
urce
s.G
iven
the
fact
that
thes
e re
sour
ces a
re m
eagr
e, th
e str
uggl
e is
very
un~
qual
to sa
y th
e le
ast.
Seco
nd, m
ovem
ents
cons
istin
g of
Mao
ri al
one
have
no
real
soci
al p
ower
to fu
ndam
enta
lly tr
ansf
orm
thei
r opp
ress
ion.
Hist
oric
al e
vide
nce
Conc
lusio
n
It is
only
thro
ugh
a cr
itica
l ass
essm
ent o
f the
stre
ngth
s, w
eakn
esse
s and
effe
ctiv
enes
s of t
he v
ario
us st
rate
gies
for M
aori
liber
atio
n an
d th
e gr
oups
that
wag
e th
em, c
an w
e ho
pe to
bui
ld th
e str
onge
st po
ssib
le m
ovem
ent.
One
of th
e m
ost s
igni
fican
t dev
elop
men
ts in
the
evol
utio
n of
Mao
ri po
litic
alac
tivism
sinc
e th
e la
te 1
960s
has
bee
n th
e in
crea
sing
use
of c
ultu
re a
ndid
entit
y as
a st
rate
gy fo
r dea
ling
with
Mao
ri di
sadv
anta
ge a
nd p
ower
less
ness
.Th
is h
as b
een
the
dom
inan
t ide
olog
y in
the
Mao
ri na
tiona
list m
ovem
ent
sinc
e th
e ea
rly 1
980s
. How
ever
, cul
tura
l nat
iona
lism
is n
ot a
prim
ordi
alph
enom
enon
that
con
stitu
tes t
he o
nly
auth
entic
stra
tegy
for d
ealin
g w
ithM
aori
disa
dvan
tage
. Rat
her,
Mao
ri cu
ltura
l nat
iona
lism
is a
rela
tivel
y re
cent
phas
e in
Mao
ri po
litic
al d
evel
opm
ent,
whi
ch h
as e
mbr
aced
a c
onsid
erab
leva
riety
of p
oliti
cal s
trate
gies
, cam
paig
ns a
nd p
aric
ipan
ts.Th
e re
cent
ups
urge
in M
aori
polit
ical
act
ivism
follo
win
g th
e Se
alor
dde
al a
nd th
e fis
cal e
nvel
ope
prop
osal
has
exp
osed
the
failu
re o
f cul
tura
lna
tiona
list s
trate
gies
to p
rovi
de a
real
sol
utio
n to
Tre
aty
of W
aita
ngi
grie
vanc
es a
nd M
aori
disa
dvan
tage
in w
ider
soci
ety.
Inde
ed, w
hile
the
cultu
ral n
atio
nalis
t em
phas
is on
the
redi
scov
ery
of M
aori
iden
tity
was
som
ethi
ng to
be
wel
com
ed, t
he re
disc
over
y of
cul
ture
as a
n en
d in
itse
lf an
da
subs
titut
e fo
r far
-reac
hing
soci
al c
hang
e ha
s bee
n a
disa
ster.
Cultu
ral n
atio
nalis
t stra
tegi
es h
ave
done
not
hing
to c
hang
e th
e m
ater
ial
real
ity fo
r the
vas
t maj
ority
of M
aori.
Whi
le a
few
cor
pora
te w
arrio
rs, t
ribal
exec
utiv
es a
nd m
iddl
e-cl
ass M
aori
prof
essio
nals
have
bèn
efite
d fro
m th
ena
row
eco
nom
ic a
gend
a of
the
New
Rig
ht, t
he E
mpl
oym
ent C
ontra
cts A
ct,
116 Nga Patal
the benefit cuts, user-pays education and health have all impacted severelyon working-class Maori whanau. By failng to challenge the underlyingpower structures in Aotearoa, cultural nationalism cannot provide a solutionto the problems that face most Maori.
While culture and identity remain absolutely essential to Maori socialwellbeing, it does not automatically follow that cultural identity aloneshould provide the organisational basis for the fight against racism andMaori disadvantage. Because identities are blurred and multiple, any fightagainst Maori oppression must be based upon building the strongest possibleliberation movement by uniting different oppressed groups into a commonstruggle. This is essential because true liberation for Maori wil not occurwithout a fundamental transformation of capitalist society and the creationof a society in which there is effective women's liberation, gay and lesbianliberation and freedom from racism. It is not necessary to actually experiencea particular form of oppression in order to fight against it, any more than itis necessary to be destitute in order to fight poverty (Smith, 1994: 4). Allthose struggling for a better society can learn to recognise and identify withthose facing particular oppressions and can be enlisted as common alles inthe struggle.
Iwi Development andthe Waikato-Tainui Experience
Robert Te Ifb"S~hí Mahutav
Background
I, Limitations of space mean that this discussion is necessarily synoptic, This paper
is a considerably condensed version of the research that forms the basis of mydoctoral dissertation. Thanks to Brian Roper and Laurel Hepburn for commentsand suggestions on the first draft.
2, During the Black Nationalist movement of the I 960s, only a small numberargued that 'Black' culture should be the centrepiece of political activity. Huey P.Newton was to strongly criticise cultural nationalists as being reactionary (seeAllen, 1970: 167).
In August 1994, the Hui Whakapuumau provided an opportunity to reviewMaori development since the 1984 Hui Taumata and to focus on planningpriorities for the future. The hui was timely and necessary because of themassive structural changes the nation has undergone, the traumatic effectson Maori people and the emerging opportunities that were becomingapparent.
More specifically, iwi development and the implications this approachhas for the future should be considered. Most wil agree that the dominantpolitical theme over the past 10 years has been the reassertion of Maoriidentity and the recognition of the Treaty ofWaitangi. From the Hui Taumata,the then Minister of Maori Affairs and his Secretary advocated a policy ofiwi development that became the basis for departmental policy and in 1988,eventually became government policy.
This same period saw a massive increase and then a decrease in voteMaori Affairs. In the latter part of that decade, there was a steady shrinkageof vote monies leading up to the present situation where the. Ministry is nowundergoing review and its future is less than certain. The decline in fundingfor Maori development in the areas of housing, employment creation, training,
Notes
117
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