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International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, Vol. 5: 3 2 4 - 3 3 8
(1 995)
Activity-induced Muscu los keletal Stress Markers (MSM) and
Subsistence Strategy Changes among Ancient Hudson Bay Eskimos DIANE
E. HAWKEY7 AND CHARLES F. MERBS Department of Anthropology, Arizona
State University, Box 872402, Tempe, AZ 85287-2402, USA
ABSTRACT Although archaeological evidence may express the
results of several seasons of activity, the human skeleton, when
correlated with archaeological and ethnographic data, provides
information concerning daily activities performed throughout an
individuals lifetime. Studies in occupational and sports medicine,
along with electromyographic analysis of movement, have shown that
different activities place different amounts of stress on human
bone. In the present study, analysis of upper extremity
musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) has been used to clarify
habitual activity patterns of two ancient Thule Eskimo groups from
northwest Hudson Bay, Canada. Distinct pattern differences in
muscle use occurred between Thule adult males and females and
suggest possible gender-specific activity patterns that are not
always discernible from the archaeological record alone. Temporal
applications of the MSM data for Early and Late Period Thule
support McCartneys theory of a substantial change in subsistence
strategies through time, particularly among the adult males.
Keywords: activity-induced stress markers; Eskimo; northwest
Hudson Bay; subsistence strategies.
Introduction
The daily life of ancient populations continues to be of immense
interest to researchers. Although demographic data can supply
information on who the people were and what they looked like, and
palaeopathological analysis can indicate what went awry in a
population, skeletal markers of occupational stress (MOS) can
clarify daily activity patterns. More importantly, analysis of
activity-induced markers offers a unique way to use osteological
remains to independently test hypotheses generated from
archaeological data.
Although the term MOS includes a variety of activity-induced
changes produced by stress on human bone, we use the term
musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) to refer specifically to a
distinct skeletal mark that occurs where a muscle, tendon or
ligament inserts onto the periosteum and into the underlying bony
cortex. In general, the periosteum is well vascularized, and
the
ccc l047-482X/95/040324-15 0 1995 by John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd.
number of capillaries that supply the periosteum increases when
the muscle/tendon/ligament-bone junctions are regularly subjected
to minor stress. Osteon remodelling is stimulated by this increased
blood flow, and develops where there is greatest muscular activity.
Hypertrophy of bone, in the form of a robust muscle attachment, is
the direct result of this increased stress, and continual stress of
a muscle in daily, repetitive tasks creates a well-preserved
skeletal record of an individuals habitual activity patterns.
The use of MSM for habitual activity analysis operates under the
assumption that degree and type of marker are related directly to
the amount and duration of habitual stress placed on a specific
muscle. The assumption that the data are correlated with specific
activities is based on a wide variety of kinematic and
electromyographic studies performed in the past 50 years. Although
these studies have concentrated on the effect of stress on muscle,
more recent research in sports
Received $ 2 September 1994 Accepted $ 1 March $995
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Musculoskeletal Stress Markers 325
medicine has examined the resultant stress pattern left on the
skeleton.2-4
Studies of activity-induced markers have been well-documented in
the anthropological literature. Kennedy' has chronicled more than
80 research studies that have used skeletal and dental markers to
determine habitual activities in a variety of contexts, from fossil
hominids to modern forensic cases. Recent years have seen an
increase in the use of MSM analysis in historic population^,^-'^ in
which activities can be correlated with written records. Another
promising area of research is the correlation of the internal
architecture of bone with musculo- skeletal stress marker data;
Berget and ChurchillI6 examined the robusticity and internal
geometry of Aleut humeri and found the results to be consistent
with habitual behaviour patterns reflected in MSM data.17,'8
Application of MSM data to test specific archaeologically
derived hypotheses in pre- history has been a relatively recent
deve- 1 0 p m e n t . ' ~ - ~ ~ A degreee of caution should be
exercised when attempting to test hypotheses using small sample
size skeletal series, particularly because artefactual and modern
ethnographic information may not always correlate accurately with
the skeletal record.14 Ideal criteria for a study of
activity-induced changes in a population must include not only a
relatively large sample size with good skeletal preservation, but
also three other factors: ( i ) a relatively narrow time span, ( i
i ) cultural and genetic isolation, and (i i i ) a limited number
of specialized, but known, activities.22 The Thule culture/early
historic skeletal series from the sites of Silumiut and Kamarvik,
northwest Hudson Bay, meet these minimum criteria.
Analysis of the upper extremity MSM of these two Thule groups
can clarify possible subsistence strategy adjustments made as a
result of increased climatic deterioration in the Canadian Arctic
after AD 1200. Although Mathiassen28 identified whale-hunting
initially as the major subsistence strategy of the Classic Thule
culture (ca. AD 1000-historic contact), the degree of whaling
activities practised by specific populations appears strongly
correlated with local environmental ~ o n d i t i o n s . ~ ~ - ~ 2
A reduction of pack ice during a major climatic warming trend
during AD400-120033 originally led to an abundance of whales in
Hudson Bay, and it is believed 29,34-36 that the presence of
bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) first attracted Thule
populations into the region. But M ~ C a r t n e y ~ ~ has
suggested that the later climatic conditions of the 'Little Ice
Age' (beginning after AD 1200) initiated a major and abrupt change
in subsistence strategies among the later Thule people of the area.
Because Hudson Bay probably froze very early in the season, summer
pack ice would have taken longer to melt and whale migration into
the Bay region would have been limited. However, the ringed seal
(Pboca bispida), which breeds on ice, is thought to have increased
significantly with the abundance of sea ice in the area.37 A
noticeable shift away from the active hunting and utilization of
the bowhead whale may then have occurred because this strategy was
no longer economically advantageous.
Use of faunal data to interpret the earlier utilization of
bowhead whales may be somewhat unreliable at eastern Canadian
Arctic sites.3',38 Large mammalian fauna, such as whales, were
probably butchered at (or near) kill sites, with the meat, blubber
and skins transported back to camp. Unfortunately, it is unlikely
that these items would be preserved in the archaeological record.
The whalebone and baleen found in Early Period Thule sites were
often removed and reutilized by later Eskimo, also leading to an
underrepresentation of whale remains in earlier northwest Hudson
Bay sites.3'
McCartney, therefore, has based his view primarily on settlement
pattern evidence, particularly the absence (after AD 1200) of semi-
subterranean winter houses composed of whale bone, sod and stone.
The possible lack of bowhead whales, along with the abandonment of
the relatively large and stable winter base camps, led McCartney to
suggest that whale hunting was no longer a reliable subsistence
strategy. Instead, he proposed that an increased dependency on
smaiIer sea mammals as the primary subsistence source had
occurred.
Cold temperatures appear to have reached the extreme in the area
by the sixteenth century,37 along with an abundance of the sea-ice-
dependent ringed seal. Maintenance of domed snow houses on the ice
during the winter months
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326 D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs
Table 1. Site, sex, and temporal breakdown of 136 Thule adults
utilized for statistical analysis.
Silumiut Karnarvik Total
Male Female Male Female Male Female
Early Thule (Classic Period) 39 39 25 22 64 61
Total 44 39 31 22 75 61 Later Thule (TransitionallHistoric) 5 0
6 0 1 1 0
would have enabled a more efficient exploitation of the ringed
seal when they surfaced at their breathing hole ( a h ) locations.
During the summer, the Thule may have moved inland, relying on
migratory caribou, fish, birds and small game.
Materials and methods
Our study utilized human skeletal material recovered by the
Northwest Hudson Bay Thule Project ( 1967-1 969), and represents
the most extensive collection of human remains (n=3 18) from the
Thule culture currently available. The remains were obtained from
two large winter base camp sites, Silumiut (KkJg-t), a small island
attached to the mainland at low tide north of Chesterfield Inlet
(63'41'N, 9O0O5'W), and Kamarvik (LeHv-t) , a coastal site south of
Wager Bay on Roes Welcome Sound (64"45'N, 87" 1 O'W). Both sites
have an initial radiocarbon corrected date of ca. AD 1 205,29 and
show continued occupation into historic times.
A total of 318 skeletons from these two sites were examined
initially, but only 136 individuals (43 per cent) were chosen for
descriptive statistical comparison (Table 1). A variety of factors
led to the exclusion of many of the skeletal remains. The acidity
of the soil (pH 5.0- 6.3) at the two sites affected skeletal
preservation, and those skeletons that were incomplete or poorly
preserved were excluded from our study. Individuals with evidence
of healed fractures or severe degenerative joint disease were not
included, because these conditions could increase the amount of
stress placed on the non-pathological side. Also excluded were
adult skeletons that could not be aged or sexed reliably. Children
and subadults were not considered for analysis because the presence
of secondary
osteons at subadult insertion sites appears to be independent of
localized stress on the bone, and may actually indicate continuity
of muscle- bone attachment in a rapidly growing skeleton.39
All upper extremity bones (clavicles, scapulae, humeri, radii,
ulnae) from the remaining individuals were examined visually and
scored for MSM type and severity. The sample was then subdivided by
age, sex, and geographic location, with individuals assigned a
temporal category based on McCartney's analysis of burial
artefacts.40 Dental morphological features and craniometric
evidence suggest a close phenetic similarity between Kamarvik and S
i l ~ m i u t , ~ ' , ~ ~ and because preliminary analysis
indicated no statistically significant differences between MSM
scores from either site (p
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Musculoskeletal Stress Markers 327
Figure 1. Robusticity category at the pectoralis majorinsertion
site. Scores from left to right are: Absent 0, Rl=faint. The cortex
is only slightly rounded, and often not visible without viewing
under a strong light. The elevation is, however, apparent to the
touch, although no distinct crests or ridges have formed.
RS=rnoderate. The cortical surface is uneven, with a mound-shaped
elevation that is easily observable. No sharp ridges or crests have
formed. RS=strong. Distinct, sharp crests or ridges have formed.
Often there may be a slight depression between two crests
(especially noticeable between pecforalis major and feres major
insertions), but the depression does not extend into the
coltex.
Figure 2. Robusticity category (tendinous attachment type) at
the biceps brachii insertion site. Scores from left to right are:
R1 =faint. There is a slight indentation at the site of attachment,
but no well-defined sourrounding margin of bone. RP=moderate.
Roughening of the attachment site occurs, most often with
well-defined surrounding margin of bone. R3=strong. Deep
indentation occurs with a clearly defined margin of bone. Usually
the roughened area has developed crests of bone.
(DEH)ZO was used for our study. Standardization score, but also
eliminates total reliance on of the gross morphological expressions
provided a observer experience. Inter- and intra-observer simple,
consistent way to score MSM type and error have proven negligible
(p
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328 D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs
Figure 3. Stresss lesion category at the pectoralis
majorinsertion site. Scores from left to right are: Sl=faint. There
is a shallow 'furrow', a pitting into the cortex that has a
lytic-like appearance. It is less than 1 mm in depth. SP=moderate.
The pitting is deeper and covers more surface area. It is greater
than 1 mm, but less than 3 mm in depth. It may vary in length, but
not longer than 5 rnm. SS=strong. The pitting is marked, and
greater than 3 rnm in depth, or more than 5 mm in length.
Figure 4. Ossification category on the humerus (various
attachment sites). Scores from left to right are: OSl=faint. A
slight exostosis occurs, usually rounded in appearance, and extends
less than 2 mm from the cortical surface. OSP=moderate. There is a
distinct exostosis, varied in shape, that extends more than 2 rnm,
but less than 5 mm from the surface of the cortex. Two examples of
OSS=strong. The exostosis extends more than 5 mm from the surface
of the bone, or else covers an extensive amount of cortical
surface.
four specific grades (see Figures 1-4). Absence of expression is
noted as grade=O.
daily activities that produce rugged markings at the
musculoskeletal site of attachment. It is seen in its most extreme
expression as sharp ridges, or crests, of bone. A variation of the
robusticity
Robusticity marker (Figure 1 ) category is seen at sites of
tendinous attachment to bone. A mesenchymal cell barrier (layers
of
This category describes the normal reaction of calcified and
uncalcified hyaline cartilage) the skeleton to habitual muscle
usage and reflects between the tendon and bone prevents
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Musculoskeletal Stress Markers 329
resorption or formation of new bone at the attachment site.43
However, the areas imme- diately adjacent to the tendinous
attachment do reflect the stress of muscular pull, as seen at the
insertion of brucbialis on the radius (Figure 2). In part, the
difference in MSM appearance reflects the larger area needed for
muscle-to-bone attachment, because muscles have a lower tensile
strength than tendons, and require a more substantial attachment
area to prevent rupture.44
Stress lesion [Figure 3)
The stress lesion is defined here as a pitting, or 'furrow',
into the cortex to the degree that it superficially resembles a
lytic lesion. There is little in the literature to suggest the
aetiology of this poorly understood MSM. Microscopic examination of
the area affected reveals bone remodelling and is easily
differentiated from post- mortem erosion. Because the stress lesion
is also isolated and non-random in nature (occurring only at
insertion sites), it is unlikely to be disease- related, such as
seen in the inflammatory articular lesions of ankylosing
spondylitis.45 Instead, the stress lesion appears to be
activity-induced as a result of continual microtrauma at the
attachment site.
A continuum often occurs between the robusticity and stress
lesion markers. Some individuals exhibit a combination of the
strongest robusticity score (R3), and the faintest stress lesion
grade (S l ) at a single insertion site, suggesting a severe use
pattern. When a muscle is utilized beyond its intended capacity, it
begins to lose the ability to properly absorb stress.46
Histological evidence suggests further that prolonged and habitual
tension can cause small muscle fibres to tear and reattach to the
periosteum, disrupting the blood supply to the bone.39,47,48 If the
disruption is severe and continuous, bone necrosis may occur.49
Bone resorption also takes place at a much faster rate than bone
formation, and continual, daily microtrauma would prevent the
healing process from successfully concluding, resulting in a deep
pitting into the cortex.
Oss$cation exostosis (F$ure 4 )
This particular type of MSM is due usually to an abrupt r n a c
r ~ t r a u m a , ~ ~ such as a muscle rupture that could result
from a sudden fall on the ice. When a bone avulsion injury occurs,
new bone formation may be incorporated into the ligament or muscle
tissue, and result in a exostosis, or bony 'spur'.
Expression scores were assessed for statistical analysis with
the following numerical values: O=no expression, 1 =robusticity
grade 1 (faint), 2 =robusticity grade 2 (moderate), 3 =robusticity
grade 3 (strong), 4=stress lesion grade 1 (faint), 5=stress lesion
grade 2 (moderate), and 6=stress lesion grade 3 (strong). Because
ossification MSM are considered to be due to abrupt macrotrauma,
and not to continual muscle use, they were analysed separately.
Total weighted mean scores for both males and females were also
calculated in order to determine a statistical break-point between
stronger and more moderate use of muscles within the specific
samples. Those muscles that were higher than the weighted mean
breakpoint were considered to have been the most utilized; those
below the breakpoint were less utilized.
A total of 20 muscle insertion sites, three clavicular ligament
insertion sites, and two common muscle origin sites, were examined
for each individual. Insertion sites were chosen because
contraction of a muscle generalIy produces the maximum amount of
pull at its insertion.' Three ligaments (one sternoclavicular and
two acromioclavicular) were of particular interest in analysis of
rotational shoulder movements. Because a total of four flexor
muscles originate from the medial epicondyle of the humerus, and
four extensors from the lateral epicondyle, both sites were
considered to be adequate, if not definitive, indicators of maximum
muscular pull.
Results
Analyses of side use dominance within individuals who had more
than ten bilateral attachment sites present (n=25), indicate that
80 per cent of adults
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3 30 D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs
body size dimorphism and resultant biomechanical advantages
involved in lever arm movement. Although a paired t-test revealed
statistically significant differences (p
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Musculoskeletal Stress Markers 331
Table 4. Largest degrees of difference in rank order score
between Early Period adult Thule males and females.
Rank scorea Rank
Muscle/liaament Male Female difference
Biceps brachii Pronator teres Supraspinatus Conoid ligament
Anconeus Trapezius Supinator lnfraspinatus
15.5 8.0 11.0 4.5 9.5 15.0 8.0 13.0 7.0 11.5 5.0 9.0 6.0 3.0
13.0 10.0
7.5 6.5 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.0 3.0
"Bold face type indicates higher ranked and stronger usage.
activities consistent with these patterns of muscle usage are
repetitive tasks involved in the preparation of animal skins for
clothing, and habitual activities involving rowing a boat, possibly
an umiak, in which oars were usually attached to the g~nwales .5~
Unfortunately, relatively few individuals ( n = I 1 ) could be
identified conclusively as Later Period Thule, and all were
males.
Pectoralis major, teres major, the costoclavicular ligaments,
flexors, and deltoideus (Table 5) remained among the most utilized
muscles, in both Early and Later Period males. When mean
differences greater than 0.5 (the equivalent of an intermediate
grade on the severity scale of 1-6) were determined (Table 6 ) ,
the Later Thule scores increased for pectoralis major (adductor and
rotator of the arm, drawing the arm across the chest), and pronator
quadratus (pronation of the forearm), two muscles that would be
utilized heavily when harpooning at a downward angle. Decreases in
use were found to occur with brachialis (bending the elbow),
subclaoius (lowering the shoulder blade), supinator
Table 5. MSM scores for 19 specific muscles, ranked from most
utilized to least utilized, for all Later Period adult Thule males,
right side.
MSM Number of MuscleAigament score individuals utilized
Location
5.29 7 Pectoralis major Humerus 3.86 7 Teres major Humerus 3.50
4 Costoclavicular ligament Clavicle 2.17 6 Flexors, common origin
Humerus 2.13 8 Deltoideus Humerus 2.00 6 Trapezoid ligament
Clavicle 2.00 3 Pronator teres Radius
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
1.80 5 lnfraspinatus Humerus 1.57 7 Latissmus dorsi Humerus 1.50
6 Brachialis Utna 1.40 5 Conoid ligament Clavicle 1.25 4
Supraspinatus Humerus 1.20 5 Pronator quadratus Radius 1.10 5
Pectoralis minor Scapula 1.00 6 Subclavius Clavicle 1.00 4
Coracobrachialis Humerus 0.75 4 Supinator Radius 1.67 3 Trapezius
Scapula 0.00 4 Teres minor Humerus
_ _ _ - statistical break-point between stronger and more
moderate use of muscles.
(supination of the forearm), and teres minor (rotation of the
arm outward), muscles consistent with launching a harpoon. The use
of the costoclavicular ligament (associated with kayaking) was also
found to decrease through time.
Discussion
Early Period Thuk Eskimo Clothing Preparation
Artefactual finds at S i l ~ m i u t ~ ~ included ulus (women's
knives) and a variety of scrapers and scraper blades, confirming
that clothing
Table 6. Mean MSM differences (greater than 0.5 points) between
Early and Late Period Thule adult males
Early Thule males Later Thule males
Muscle/ligament Mean N Mean N Mean differences
Subclavius 2.00 24 1 .oo 6 1 .oo Costoclavicular ligament 4.24
17 3.50 4 0.74 Brachialis 2.07 29 1.50 6 0.57 Teres minor 0.57 14
0.00 4 0.57 Supinator 1.29 14 0.75 4 0.54 Pronator quadratus 0.69
16 1.20 5 0.51
Pectoralis major 3.17 36 5.29 7 2.12
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332 D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs
Figure 5. Stress lesion MSM at the pectoralis major and teres
major insertion site, right humerus. Both MSM are grade 53 (strong
expression).
preparation was an important habitual activity at the site.
Females would have utilized mainly the wrist flexor muscles when
cutting animal skins with an ulu, whereas repeated flexion and
extension of the elbow would have been the primary movements used
when scraping skins to remove hair. The supra spinatus muscle would
have played a role in the abduction of the arm, and would have
helped to fix the humeral head in the glenoid fossa, an action that
is instrumental in lifting relatively heavy objects. When seen in
conjunction with both pectoralis major and teres major muscles, the
pattern is suggestive of a habitual action in which the arm is
regularly held below a 90" horizontal angle with the humerus held
anteriorly adducted toward the chest, perhaps holding heavy animal
skins during the clothing preparation process.
Umiak utilization A less common female activity may have
involved the retroversion and lowering of both arms consistent
with rowing a boat. Although Lyon5' noted an absence of umiaks in
this region
at the time of European contact, this may be due to the
depletion of whales prior to the introduction of European and U.S.
whalers into the region,58 and it seems unlikely that the people of
Silumiut and Kamarvik had not made use of this craft. Although
termed a 'women's boat' the umiak undoubtedly was utilized by both
sexes for a variety of purposes, including transportation of
salvaged whale bones to winter camp sites for house construction.38
However, it is unknown if whale-hunting umiak crews included
women,30 because religious taboos may have forbidden females from
active participation in whale hunting.59
When modern Labrador lnuit females use wooden umiaks,60 the
boats are rowed with oars; male whale-hunting umiak crews, however,
use single-bladed paddles. Adult Thule females were found to have
used the muscles involved in rowing activities bilaterally
(pectoralis major, teres major, deltoideus, trapezius, latissimus
dorsi, triceps brachii, anconeus, coracobrachialis, biceps brachii,
flexors, bracbialis and brachioradialis). Also of interest is the
extremely strong use of both teres major (mean=3.40) and pectoralis
major (mean=2.65), which often scored into the stress lesion
category (Figure 5). This severe degree of muscle usage indicates
that a substantial amount of stress was placed bilaterally on both
humeri, a form of microtrauma that would have been caused by more
strenuous, continual activity than the actions involved in the
animal skin preparation process alone.
Evidence for kayak use Although no archaeological evidence of
kayaks
has been found at either Silumiut or Kamarvik, this is not
unusual given the fragile nature of these skin boats. However,
ethnographic evidence of kayak use among eastern Canadian Inuit,
the Sadlermiut of Southampton I ~ l a n d , ~ ~ , ~ ~ and Labrador
Eskimo,60 along with eastern and central Thule artefacts depicting
single-man kayaks,30 lends credence to the utilization of kayaks by
the Hudson Bay Thule. Furthermore, a common Thule open-sea
whale-hunting technique used several single-man kayaks to chase and
harpoon the whales, followed and assisted by crews in the slower
moving, but sturdier, ~ m i a k s . ~ ~ , 5 9
The highest MSM scores for the Early Period
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Musculoskeletal Stress Markers 333
adult males occurred at three sites, the costoclavicular
ligament, pectoralis major, and teres major, attachment sites
consistent with the distinct alternating, rotary movements
performed when kayaking with a double-bladed paddle. Pulling on the
paddle to propel the kayak forward would also involve the strenuous
contraction of both pectoralis major and teres major, with the
costoclavicular ligament preventing excessive displacement of the
clavicle during rapid and repetitive movement of both arms. Adult
males with both clavicles and humeri present (n= 1 1) displayed
signs of heavy stress placed bilaterally at these attachment sites.
Other muscles utilized in this action would include deltoideus
(lifting the paddle out of the water), extensors, flexors, biceps
bracbii, and triceps bracbii (straightening and bending the elbow),
all of which scored in the strong or moderate use categories.
A distinct ?'-shaped stress lesion at the costoclavicular
ligament site, termed 'kayaker's clavicIe',2 was observed to occur
bilateralIy among the northwest Hudson Bay males (Figure 6). The
ligament would be most stressed during the distinct rotary movement
associated with using a double-bladed paddle. A costoclavicular
sulcus was first noted by Houghton6' in New Zealand skeletons and
was attributed to the actions involved in canoe paddling. Since
that time, the occurrence of either a sulcus or robust attachment
at the costoclavicular site has been observed in other maritime
populations, including prehistoric and historic Hawaiians,62 M i c
r o n e ~ i a n s , ~ ~ ancient A l e ~ t s , ~ ~ , ~ ~ historic
Hudson Bay trappers,8 and mariners on the Mary R0se.1~ Although
these markers of stress occur predominately in males, and in most
cases are attributed to the actions involved in paddling movements,
none of the samples appear to exhibit the distinct bilateral
?'-shape stress lesion found in all the Early Period Thule
males.
Analysis of prehistoric adult male remains from the eastern
Aleutian Islands suggests another distinct kayak-use difference
between the Aleut and T h ~ l e . ' ~ , ~ ~ Lower extremity MSM
comparisons indicate that Aleut males sat with their legs laterally
rotated at the hip and in full extension, placing considerable
bilateral stress on the obturator extemus muscles. Thule males
lacked this pattern and may have kayaked while in a
kneeling position, similar to historic Koniag Eskimos.
Later Period Tbule Eskimo
Methods of hunting the ringed seal The change in muscle usage
from Early to Late
Thule males may be understood best in conjunction with the
Silumiut faunal record. Although the minimum number of individual
(MNI) counts for whales are unreliable, there was an abundance of
ringed seal remains (MNI=247) recovered from S i l ~ m i u t . ~ ~
Both the modern Grise Fiord Inuit65 and the North Alaska Eskimo66
hunt the ringed seal by a variety of methods, which are determined
by local ice conditions. During winter months, allu hunting through
the ice is a common method of sealing. Men in North Alaska who
still practice the traditional methods of allu sealing utilize the
toggle harpoon head,66 similar to the harpoon heads recovered from
both Silumiut and Kamarvik. The MSM data collected for the Later
Period Thule support evidence for increased allu hunting, because
actions involved in the forceful downward thrust of the harpoon
through the allu when the seal surfaced, would involve primarily
the strenuous use of pectoralis major. Moreover, the differences in
pectoralis major use between Early and Late Thule males were found
to be significant statistically (p
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3 34 D. E. Hawkey and C. F. Merbs
Figure 6. 'Kayaker's clavicle' (KA-15 XIV-C:545). Bilateral
stress lesion MSM occurring at the costoclavicular ligament
insertion site.
and latissimus dorsi). This distinctive pattern was not observed
in the eight males with complete upper extremities present.
Although remains of at least 1 18 caribou (Rangfer tarandus) were
recovered at S i l ~ m i u t , ~ ~ pointed out that summer
co-operative hunting with a bow and arrow would not be particularly
profitable, because caribou could be hunted more efficiently in the
inland lakes and rivers by hunters utilizing kayaks and lances.
Conclusions
The MSM data from this study suggest that discernible
differences in muscle use exist between Early Period Thule adult
males and females of northwest Hudson Bay. Although both sexes
continued to lead an active, strenuous life into old age, severe
macrotrauma to the upper extremity (in the form of ossification
MSM) apparently did not occur. However, daily, continuous
microtrauma at the attachment sites (in the form of robusticity
markers and stress lesions) helped clarify possible gender-specific
activity patterns that were not always apparent from the
archaeological record alone.
A very high prevalence of activity-induced stress lesions
occurred among the Early Thule
females at insertion sites that were consistent with the actions
involved in rowing an umiak. Although in the past the presence of
umiaks in Hudson Bay has been questioned, the skeletal evidence
suggests that the tasks of females in northwest Hudson Bay may have
been somewhat underestimated. While females were unlikely to have
actively participated in umiak hunting crews (due to religious
taboos), they may have been partially responsible for family
transportation by umiak, and quite possibly scavenged for whale
bones along the shoreline, bringing the remains back to camp via
this large, skin boat.
Similarly, although physical evidence for kayaks has been
lacking from the archaeological record, distinctive skeletal stress
markers (i.e, 'kayaker's clavicle', strong bilateral use of the
muscles utilized in paddling with a double-bladed paddle) indicate
that Early Period Thule males may have used the kayak extensively.
The question of its use in open- sea whale hunting may be
impossible to determine from the MSM data alone, although the
presence of whale remains at the Early Period winter camps strongly
supports this possibility. Also of interest is the absence of
statistically significant MSM diferences between the Early Kamarvik
and Silumiut skeletal series. Because both are large winter camp
sites, consisting of relatively large
-
Musculoskeletal Stress Markers 335
groups involved in similar activities, communal whale hunting is
certainly a possibility.
Temporal applications of the MSM data support McCartney's theory
of a substantial change in subsistence strategies among the
northwest Hudson Bay Thule males, suggesting that a variety of
hunting methods were utilized through time. An increase in caribou
hunting may have been practised by the Late Period Thule, probably
utilizing the kayak and spear thrust kill, because a variety of
lance heads were recovered at S i l ~ m i u t . ~ ~ Use of the
composite bow and arrow does not appear to have been a major form
of hunting among the Late Thule males, and may have been used
primarily for birds and small game. Differing temporal methods of
harpoon utilization, and a decrease in kayak use, as indicated by
the skeletal evidence, suggests that if open-sea hunting of whales
had once been practised, it was abandoned after the Early Period,
when a shift towards the exploitation of an increased ringed seal
population occurred.
Finally, the high prevalence of the activity- induced stress
lesion accounted for the high MSM scores for many of the muscle
attachment sites in both males and females. Although the
prehistoric Aleut exhibited strong bilateral robusticity scores at
the costoclavicular ligament attachment sites, they lacked the
stress lesion 'kayaker's clavicle' condition seen among the Thule
males. Two factors may explain the discrepancy in MSM type: ( i )
preconditioning to the rigours of kayaking at an early age, and ( i
i ) temperature/climatic change. Modern ethno- graphic evidence67
indicates that physical training of young Aleut boys is an
important part of conditioning for the rigours of adulthood, and
may have helped to prevent damage to muscle attachment sites. The
greater degree of microtraumatic stress lesions in the Thule sample
suggests that early preconditioning may not have been a common
practice among Thule males.
In addition, cold temperatures have been found to accelerate
musculoskeletal trauma68 owing to vasoconstriction of the
capillaries, an action that lessens the supply of blood to the
periosteum. The Thule lived in a region where the current
(1931-1960) temperature can drop as low as - 60 O F ( - 5 1 "C),
with an average January wind chill factor (KgCal/m2hr) of 1950,
well below
the 1400 point where exposed flesh freezes.29 Conditions during
the 'Little Ice Age' would have been considerably colder. The added
environ- mental stress, especially when viewed in conjunction with
the long, cold wait and rapid, sudden movements involved in
harpooning seals by the allu method, might well explain the
remarkably high MSM score for the pectoralis major muscle found
among the later Thule males. Apparently, local climatic
deterioration had a significant effect not only on temporal sub-
sistence strategies, but on the human skeleton as well.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, Mary W. Marzke, Christy
G. Turner 11, and the anonymous reviewers, for their comments and
suggestions. In addition, we wish to thank the Archaeological
Survey of Canada, Canadian Museum of Civilization, Ot tawd Hull,
for the opportunity to study the skeletal series.
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