Han China

Han China

Status of Peasants and Merchants

Consisted of most of Han China’s populationOccupied the lower stratum in the social structurePoor economic conditions

Survived on sparse food and coarse clothingHad to sell land at low prices or secure loans at high

interest during emergenciesOften reduced to povertyBecame tenants of wealthy landownersExploited through high rents that were usually more than 50% of their harvest

Looked down upon, yet their work was considered productive and fundamental to society

Status of Peasants

Were banished to the frontier during the Qin Dynasty Merchants’ status in Han China was a contradiction

As internal and external trade flourished, wealthy merchants commanded respect and influence The state, deeply suspicious of the merchants’ wealth,

sought to control and repress themTwo categories of Han merchants:

Small-scale urban shopkeepers who sold goods at shops in urban marketsWere enrolled on an official register and had to pay heavy

commercial taxesHad a very low social status and were often subject to

additional restrictionsNot allowed to own land

Status of Merchants

The larger-scale itinerant traders who traveled between cities and to foreign countriesDid not have to register and often participated in large-scale trade

with powerful families and officialsOwned large tracts of landHad to compete economically with the emperor’s government-

managed shops, which sold goods collected from the merchants as property taxes

Various edicts issued by the Han emperors prohibited them from many activitiesWearing silks and brocadesRiding in chariotsCarrying weaponsOwning land as propertyServing as officials

Forced to pay heavier poll and property taxes than others

Status of Merchants

Accumulated so much economic power that they could easily transgress regulationsPowerful merchants owned a large amount of

land and associated with the nobility and high officials

Were part of a privileged group comparable in wealth to the ruling class

Some obtained political power and social position through the purchase of positions or bribery

Status of Merchants

As a result, authorities closely regulated urban market activitiesUrban trading took place in government-controlled,

walled marketsOfficials decided which traders to let into the market and

watched them from an observation tower located in the middle of the marketplace

Traders who sold the same goods had to be in the same location

Goods had to have price tagsContracts had to be drawn for large purchases

Viewed as “parasites who produced nothing and earned their profits deceptively” by philosophers of all schools in the Warring States period

Status of Merchants

Gender Status

Boys were valued more than girlsHowever, they were typically both loved equally by parents

Women were expected to be loyal to their male superiors (all men, fathers, brothers, husbands, and adult sons) In reality, some Han women were given more leeway with

their husbands, and sons still listened to their mothers after their fathers passed away

Women’s work was deemed less important to the family’s prosperity and statusWomen took care of household chores

Rear childrenWeave clothes for the familyCook and cleanSpinning and weavingSinging and dancing

Gender Status

Peasant women worked in the fields and helped produce their family’s income and food

Some women took up sorcery as a profession to further support their family

More fortunate women became renowned medical physicians who provided services to the families of high officials and nobilityFemale merchants dressed in silk clothes that

rivaled even female nobles’ attireWomen were exempt from corvée labor (forced,

unpaid labor)

Gender Status

Women were viewed as the moral foundation of society

Chastity was thought to be the root virtue for women from Han Dynasty onwardRespect and compliance were also important virtues for women

Marriages were usually arranged by parents and other family members In elite households, marriages served to reinforce

business and political alliances between families Romantic or passionate love was not the ideal Husbands and wives often behaved quite formally in

other's presence

Gender Status

Patriarchal Family

Oldest male (usually the father) was the head of the family

Families wanted a son Female babies were sometimes murdered or let to die

Men were of higher importance because they could do better, more efficient workWomen usually received very little to no educationWomen could not choose their own marriages Women must have had consent on selling and

purchasing household related things, including landWomen must have listened to their male superiors, no

matter what they were told, or they could possibly be beaten or killed

Patriarchal Family

Mandate of Heaven

Traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers, which dictates that a just ruler has divine approvalAccording to the political vision of Confucianism, only

the virtuous are fit to receive the Mandate of HeavenAround 1027 B.C., the Zhou overthrew the last

Shang king and established their own dynastyTo justify their conquest, the Zhou leaders declared

that the final Shang king had been such a poor ruler that the gods had taken away the Shang’s rule and given it to the Zhou

This justification developed over time into a broader view that royal authority came from heaven

Mandate of Heaven

Mandate of HeavenA divine commission given to a nobleman worthy enough to

serve as the Son of HeavenThe Son of Heaven rules China (the entire civilized world as

far as the Chinese were concerned) as the emperorHe serves to unite Heaven and Earth by fulfilling the will of Heaven in this world through benevolent leadership and the performance of the proper rituals and sacrifices

His success was based on the opinion of the gods

If the gods became unhappy with an emperor’s rule, they would send signs to the Chinese peopleThe emperor would lose the Heavenly Mandate and was usually overthrown

Mandate of Heaven

Confucianism and the Examination System

Considered a philosophy Based mainly on the teachings and beliefs of Chinese sage Confucius

Teaching and ideas of Confucius that are known today are actually just the recollections of his students and disciples

Qin Dynasty suppressed Confucianism by burning Confucius’ books

Emperor Wu of Han organized China as a Confucian stateUsed Confucianism mixed with LegalismAll other ideologies were bannedEveryone was forced to learn the teachings of ConfucianismAs a result, the Han Dynasty established and improved the

system of ruling the land by morals and ethics

Confucianism

An attempt to recruit men on the basis of merit rather than on the basis of family or political connection Was an outgrowth of Confucianism

Before Confucianism, people were not given positions based on whether or not they were competent enough to do the job, but due to other, often social, reasons. Emperor Wu of Han started an early form of the imperial

examinations Local officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the Confucian classics New officials were selected through these examinations However, connections and recommendations remained much more influential than the exams in terms of promoting people during the Han Dynasty

Imperial exams later became the main system through which new officials were chosen.

Examination System

Development/Fall of Han Dynasty

The Han Restore Unity to China Two powerful leaders: Xiang Yu (aristocratic general) and Liu

Bang (Xiang Yu’s general) Fought battle and Liu Bang won

Liu Bang became 1st emperor of the Han Dynasty Han Dynasty- ruled China for more than 400 years; divided into 2

periods Former (Western) Han: ruled for about 2 centuries Later (Eastern) Han: ruled for almost another 2 centuries

One of the greatest periods in entire history of China - Chinese people still call themselves the “People of Han” Han Dynasty was named after the principality, which was itself named after Hanzhong - modern southern Shaanxi


Liu Bang established centralized government (central authority controls the running of a state), and he lowered taxes and softened harsh punishments

Local provinces = commanderies Liu Bang died in 195 B.C. – son became emperor (in name) Real emperor = Empress Lu (Liu’s wife)

Died in 180 B.C. and people who remained loyal to Liu Bang’s family executed Lu’s family

Wudi- “Martial Emperor” – reigned from 141 to 87 B.C. and he expanded the empire through war

Xiongnu (first enemies) – nomads known for deadly archery

Empire tried bribing them to get them to leave, but they just accepted the bribes and grew stronger Wudi sent more than 100,000 soldiers to fight and they made allies of their enemies

Colonized Manchuria and Korea; at the end of his reign, empire expanded to nearly the bounds of present-day China


A Highly Structured SocietyEmperor = link between heaven and earth;

people believed if he did his job well the empire would have peace and prosperity, and if he didn’t do his job well there would be earthquakes, floods and famines

Han bureaucracy – imperial army paid for with taxesPeasants owed govt. a month worth of labor (corvee’) or

military service every year – paid for roads, canals, irrigation ditches, and Great Wall

Civil service: govt. jobs that civilians obtained by taking examinations

Confucianism: teachings of Confucius, who lived 400 years before – practice -“reverence, generosity, truthfulness, diligence, and kindness”


Han Technology, Commerce, and Culture Paper was invented in 105 A.D. – cheaper than silk spread education

and helped advance govt. (more convenient for record keeping) Collar harness for horses horses could pull much heavier loads Plow with two blades, improved iron tools, wheelbarrow, and used

water mills to grind grains Agriculture became most important and most honored occupation (so

many people to feed) Monopoly: when a group has exclusive control over the production and

distribution of certain goods Government monopolies on mining of salt, forging of iron, minting of coins,

and brewing of alcohol were established during Han SILK was a valuable item of trade – had massive silk mills to make luxurious cloth and Chinese culture expanded among silk roads because of worldwide demand for silk


The Han Unifies Chinese Culture Assimilation: process of making conquered people part of the

Chinese culture Sent Chinese farmers to settle newly colonized areas, people

intermarried, and local schools taught people Confucianism Recording China’s history

Sima Qian – Grand Historian for compiling a history of China from ancient dynasties to Wudi in the book Records of the Grand Historian

Ban Biao – wrote History of Han Dynasty with help from son Ban Gu and daughter Ban Zhao Ban Zhao also wrote Lessons for Women, teaching women to be humble

and obedient but also industrious Confucian teachings said that women had to devote themselves

to their families – duties in home and work on fields of family farm Upper-class women sometimes became empresses and some gained

education and lead lives apart from families


The decline of the former Han Economic imbalance caused by customs that allowed

the rich to gain more wealth at the expense of the poorGenerations of farmers inherited small plots – made it

hard to raise enough food to sell/feed family debt to landowners with high interest ratesLandowners took possession of land that farmers couldn’t

pay offLandowners didn’t pay taxes, so land left for govt. tax

decreasedLess money coming in govt. pressed harder to collect

money from small farmersResulted in gap between rich and poor

B.C. 32 – 9 A.D. – one inexperienced emperor replaced another; deceiving plots, revolts, and unrest CHAOS


Wang Mang – took imperial title in 9 A.D. and overthrew Han (ending Former Han)Minted new money, set up public granaries to feed the poor, & took large landholdings from rich angered powerful landholders & caused inflation

11 A.D. – great flood – left 1,000s dead & millions homelessPeasants & wealthy revolted & killed Wang Mang in 23 A.D. – new member of old imperial family took power and began Later Han

In the first decades, Later Han was prosperous, but eventually fell in 220 into 3 rival kingdoms

Development/Fall of the Han Dynasty

Development of the Silk Road

Acted as a land bridge between the east and west At the time of the Han Dynasty, trade along the Silk Road enlarged contact between China, South Asia and the Mediterranean world

Han Empire expanded westward as far as the Tarim Basin, making possible relatively secure caravan traffic across Central Asia

As Han armies pushed into the Takla Makan Desert, roads became more secure and the traffic exploded This was the real beginning of the Silk Road These roads developed greatly because they were easier

access to other parts of the world that did not involve climbing through mountains


Bandits soon learned of the precious goods travelling up the Gansu Corridor and skirting the Takla Makan, and took advantage of the terrain to plunder these caravansCaravans of goods needed their own defense forces

Was an added cost for the merchants making the trip

Han Dynasty set up the local government at Wulei in order to protect the states in this areaNot far from Kuga on the northern border of the Takla Makan About 50 states at the timeDeveloped into center of Hui He kingdom


Most significant commodity carried along this route was not silk, but religion Buddhism came to China from India this way, along the northern

branch of the route This restored China to the state it had been in during the Han

Dynasty, with full control of the western regions, but also including the territories, Tibet and Mongolia

Led to the exchange of knowledge, culture, religion, and technology between the East and West (cultural diffusion) Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, Manichaeism, and Zoroastrianism

were among the faiths that spread along the route Algebra, astronomy, Arabic numerals, medical techniques,

architectural styles, and a host of primarily Chinese techniques and inventions, e.g., printing and papermaking, spread from East to West

Various construction techniques, seafaring methods, medicinal plants and poisons, cotton cultivation, and horse-related items such as saddles and stirrups spread from West to East


Policing the route, which took caravans to the farthest extent of the Han Empire, became a big problem

After the Western Han Dynasty, successive dynasties brought more states under Chinese controlExperienced influences from the Indian sub-continent

Included Buddhist art work, examples of which have been found in several early second century tombs in present-day Sichuan province

The Astana tombs have turned up examples of silk cloth from China, as well as objects from as far afield as Persia and India

Where the nobles of Gaochang had been buried


Diffusion of Chinese Culture to SE Asia, Japan and Korea Sinicization - a process whereby non-Han Chinese societies come under the influence of dominant Han Chinese state and society

During the Taika, Nara, and Heian periods, Japanese borrowing from China peaked, although Shinto views on the natural and supernatural world remained central From the seventh to the ninth centuries

The Taika reforms of 646 revamped the administration along Chinese lines. Intellectuals and aristocrats absorbed Chinese influences. The common people looked to Buddhist monks for spiritual

and secular assistance and meshed Buddhist beliefs with traditional religion

The Taika reforms failed due to resistance from aristocratic families and Buddhist monks

The aristocracy returned to Japanese traditions; the peasantry reworked Buddhism into a Japanese creed; and the emperor lost power to aristocrats and provincial lords

Diffusion of Chinese Culture to SE Asia, Japan and Korea

Despite following Chinese patterns, the Japanese determined aristocratic rank by birth, thus blocking social mobility The aristocrats dominated the central government and

restored their position as landholders The emperor gave up plans for creating a peasant conscript

army and ordered local leaders to form rural militiasCourt culture flourished at Heian

The basis of life was the pursuit of aesthetic enjoyment and the avoidance of common, distasteful elements of life

Poetry was a valued art form, and the Japanese simplified the script taken from the Chinese to facilitate expression

An outpouring of distinctively Japanese poetic and literary works followed


Koreans descended from hunting and gathering peoples of Siberia and Manchuria By the fourth century B.C.E., they were acquiring sedentary

farming and metalworking techniques from China In 109 B.C.E., the earliest Korean kingdom, Choson, was

conquered by the Han, and parts of the peninsula were colonized by Chinese Korean resistance to the Chinese led to the founding in the north of

an independent state by the Koguryo people It soon battled the southern states of Silla and Paekche

Sericulture spread to Korea through the Silk RoadAfter the fall of the Han, an extensive adoption of Chinese

culture—Sinification—occurred Buddhism was a key element in the transfer Chinese writing was adopted, but the Koguryo ruler failed to

form a Chinese-style state


Tang Alliances and the Conquest of Korea Continuing political disunity in Korea allowed the Tang, through alliance with Silla, to defeat Paekche and Koguryo The Chinese received tribute from Silla and left to govern Korea

Sinification: The Tributary Link Under the Silla and Koryo (918-1392) dynasties, Chinese influences peaked and Korean culture achieved its first full flowering The Silla copied Tang ways, and through frequent missions, brought

Chinese learning, art, and manufactured items to Korea The Chinese were content with receiving tribute and allowed Koreans to

run their own affairs


The Sinification of Korean Elite Culture The Silla constructed their capital, Kumsong,

on the model of Tang citiesThe aristocracy built residences around the

imperial palaceSome of them studied in Chinese schools and sat for

Confucian exams introduced by the rulersMost government positions were determined by birth

and family connections. The elite favored Buddhism, in Chinese forms, over

Confucianism Koreans refined techniques of porcelain manufacture, first

learned from the Chinese, to produce masterworks


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2005. 433-440. Gale Student Resources In Context. Web. 31 Oct. 2012. Elman, Benjamin A. "Examination Systems, China." New Dictionary of the

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Bibliography

"Han Dynasty." NewWorldEncyclopedia.com. New World Encyclopedia, 3 Apr. 2008. Web. 31 Oct. 2012. <http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Han_Dynasty>.

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Bibliography

Han China

Documents

land status of merchants

bribery status of merchants

wealthy merchants

merchants wealth

regulationspowerful

qin dynasty merchants

status of merchantsaccumulated

low social status