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THE URBAN COURTYARD KOUSING FORM AS A RESPONSE TO
HUMAN NEEDS, CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of Graduate Studies
of
The University of Guelph
by
NANCY YU
In partial fiflment of requirements
for the degree of
Master of Landscape Architecture
April, 1999
O Nancy Yu, 1999
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ABSTRACT
THE URSAN COURTYARD HOUSING FORM AS A RESPONSE TO HUMAN NEEDS,
CULTURE AND ENVIRONMENT
Nancy Yu University of Guelph, 1999
Advisor: Professor Cecelia Paine
Courtyard housing is an important dwelling type in human
history; it exists widely in
various cultures and climatic zones. Understanding what factors
intluence the courtyard
housuig form is of importance to creating better living
environments. This study explores
the urban courtyard housing fomi as a response to basic human
needs, culture and
environment Based on a review of the historical ongins of urban
courtyard housing, four
traditional and contemporary hlpes were selected for analysis.
Drawings and a fiamework
that included territorial, social-psychological, cultural and
environmental factors were
used to understand and compare the selected examples. Through
time and across cuitirres,
territorial and environmentai factors were found to be highly
relevant to all courtyard
housing forms. Gender, as an indicator of culture, has played an
important role in those
courtyard foms influenced by religion and tradition. Kaowledge
gained nom this shidy
c m benefit architects and landscape architects underiaking
contemporary design.
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First and foremost, 1 wish to express my sincere thanks to my
advisor, Cecelia Paine, for
her encouragement and direction in keeping me on brack with my
research. Without her
support, 1 could not have completed this study.
1 also wish to express my gratitude to m y cornmittee member,
James Taylor, for his
insight and ideas in broadening my perspective towards my work
His patience in reading
my thesis is greaty appreciated.
1 wish to thank Amita Sinha, professor fiom University of
Illinois, for her giving me so
many good advises. 1 could not have written this thesis without
their support.
Special th& must go to my former classmate Kathe Gray, for
her reading my thesis and
indicating the grammar mistakes. 1 am indeed grateful to her
editonal comments.
Last but not least, 1 want to give my thanks to my husband
Michael, for giving me the
initial idea of this research, and also for his constant
encouragement and patience.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
..........................................................................................................
1 -1 B A R 1
.............................................................................................
1.2 PROBLEM STATEE~~ENT 2
1.3 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
..........................................................................................
3 1.4 SIGNIFICANCEOFTHESTUDY
.......................................................................
3 1.5 ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS ............................
.......................................... 4
2-0 LITERATURE REVIEW ~ m m . o m m o o ~ ~ ~ o m m o m o ~ o m
m o m m m m m o 5
..............................................................................................
2.1 BASIC HUMAN NEEDS 5
2.2 CONCEPTOFHOUSING
......................................................................................
7 2.3 MEAMNGS OF HOME
................................................................................................
8
.....................................................................
2.4 FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF HOME 10
...........................................................................................
2.4.1 Territorial mode1 11
................................................. 2.4.2
Social-Psychological mode1 .............. .... 12
..............................................................................................
2.4.3 Cultural mode1 13
2.5 THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG BASIC HUMAN NEEDS, CONCEPTS OF HOME
AND
.............................................................................
FUNDAMENTAL ELEMENTS OF HOME 14
2.6 COURTYARD HOUSING
...........................................................................................
15 2.6.1 Evolution of four types of urban courtyard housing
..................................... 16
................................................................
2.6.2 Courtyard house and environment 19
.......................................................... 2.7 PLIC
CATIONS OF THE LITERATURE REVIEW 20
3.0 METHODOLOGY
.................................................................................................
22
.........................................................................
3.1 I ~ I T R O D U ~ O N 22
............................................................................................
3.2 R E S E A R ~ METHOD 2 2
................................................................................
3 .2.1 Assessrnent Framework 22
3 .2.2 Data Collection ................................. ,.
............................................... 23 3 .2.3 Data
Organization and Analysis ..................... ..
........................................ 25
4.0 RESEARCH FINDINGS...
.....................................................................................
27
....................................................................
4.1 FAR EASTERN COURTYARD HOUSING 27
...
................................................
.................... 4.1.1 Beijing courtyard house .... 27 4.1.2
Indian courtyard house
................................................................................
34
...........................................................................
4.2 ISLAMC COURTYARD HOUSING 39
..............................................................................
4.2.1 Baghdad courtyard house 39
4.2.2 Cordoba courtyard house
....................................................................
4 4 4.3 TRADITIONAL WESTERN COURTYARD HOUSING ..
...................,............... . . . 48
4.3.1 Greek courtyard house
...............................................................................
48
................................................................................
4.3.2 Roman courtyard house 51
4.4 CONTEMPORARY COURTYARD HOUSING
........................................................... 54
4.4.1 Los Angeles courtyard house .......................... ..
........................................ 54
................ ............-.--......... 4.4.2 Northem
European courtyard house ....... 60 4.5 SUMMARIZATION OF FOUR TYPES
OF COURTYARD HOUSING ................................ 65
4.5.1 Far Eastern courtyard housing ....................... ..
......................... 6 5 4.5.2 Islamiccourtyardhousing
...................... ..
................................................. 68
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4.5.3 Traditional Western courtyard housing ....................
... ........................... 7 1
.................................................................
4.5.4 Contemporary courtyard housing 74
...........................................................................
5.0 ANALYSES AND DISCUSSION 78
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 : Relationships among human ne&. concepts of home
and fiindamental elements
..............................................................................................................
of home 15
Table 2: Framework for assessing courtyard housing
...................................................... 23 Table 3 :
Relationships between influencing elements and courtyard housing fo
rm ......... 86
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 : Maslow's hierarchy of needs
..............................................................................
7 Figure 2: Evolution of four types of d a n courtyard housing
......................................... 17 Figure 3 : Conceptuai
foms of courtyard houses
.............................................................. 19
Figure 4: Research area in this study
................................................................................
21 Figure 5: Research method flow ch art.
..............................................................................
24
................................................................
Figure 6: Building sections aEect urban space 25 Figure 7: Beijing
courtyard house section drawing
............................................ .. ........ 28
...........................................................
Figure 8 : Beijing courtyard house with three units 29 Figure 9:
Colored painting on the eaves of corridor
......................................................... 30 Figure
10: Outer and inner quarter of courtyard
...............................................................
30
...............................................................................
Figure 1 1 : The symbol of ba-gua 1 ...
...............................................................................................
Figure 12 : Beijmg hu-tung -33 Figure 13 : Typical residential
street of JaisaImer
............................................................. 34
Figure 14: The layout of typical courtyard houses in Jaisalmer
....................................... 35
..........................................................................
Figure 15: Courtyard house in Jaisalmer 35 Figure 16: The square of
Mandala ........................ .......
............................................ 36 Figure 17:
Jaisalmer street facade of an urban house
....................................................... 38
................................................................
Figure 18 : Section through the Baghdad house 39 Figure 19: Ground
floor plan of typical Baghdad courtyard house ...................
.. ......... 40 Figure 20: Baghdad: Northeast corner of courtyard
......................................................... 43 Figure
21 : Section drawing of Cordoba courtyard house
................................................. 44 Figure 22:
Main floor plan of Cordoba courtyard house ................... ....
......... ..... 4 5 Figure 23 : The layout of courtyard houses in
Cordoba .................................................... 45
Figure 24: View of courtyard nom arcade
..........................................
......................... 47 Figure 25: Section drawing of ancient
Greek courtyard ..................................................
.48 Figure 26: Plan of Greek peristyle house
.........................................................................
49 Figure 27: Section drawing of Roman atrium house
....................................................... 1 Figure
28: Plan of Roman atrium house ................... .......
............................................. 3 2 Figure 29: Los
Angeles: Section drawing of Villa Primavera house
............................... 55 Figure 30: Los Angeles:
Ground-floor plan of Villa Primavera house
............................ 56 Figure 3 1 : Doorway to the center
of courtyard ......................... ...
.................................... 57 Figure 32: Los Angeles:
View fiom street to courtyard
................................................... 59 Figure 33:
Section drawing of an L-shaped courtyard house in northem Europe
............ 60
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Figure 34: Complex courtyard housing in Bntain
............................................................ 61
Figure 35: Plan of an L-shaped houe in Germany
......................................................... 62
............................................................................
Figure 36: View of L-shaped courtyard 64 Figure 37: Site plan of
courtyard houses
..........................................................................
80 Figure 38 : Climate control in courtyard housing
..............................................................
82
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Set in the midst of the universe, people reqyre a space of peace
and seclusion.
This space, where people receive a share of day and night, sun
and moon, heat and cold
and r a i - is the "courtyard" (Blaser, 1985). Ranging fiom the
Far East to the Mediterranean, American and Islamic world,
courtyard housing is found in many parts of
the world, in widely varying cultures and different cclimctic
zones. It is tnily universal as
it satisfies basic human needs and gives people the feeling of
being at home. Courtyard
housing plays an important role in human's d w e h g history-
Understanding what factors
influence the courtyard housing fonn is of importance to a
better living environment. In
recent years, many factors have been found by researchers, such
as basic human needs,
cultural and environmental eiements.
Housing design must satis@ basic human needs. Maslow in bis book
motivation
and personality (1970) developed human needs into five steps,
fkom lower to higher levels. Higher needs cm not be met until needs
of the previous Ievel are satisfied. James
S. Duncan brought a common social-psychological perspective to
bear on the study of the
house and its relation to the self and the nature of the social
order (1982). Furthemiore,
Roderick J. Lawrence in his book Houring, hel l ings and Homes
(1987) identified those cultural, social and psychological
variables that can be used to examine houses and
domestic Me in ternis of an historical perspective. Although the
field of housing research
has been active with al l these discussions and debates, very
little research has been fomd
to relate both the house fonn and the above issues. In this
area, there is a need for more
in-depth research.
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The design and use of houses reflects certain cultural and
social values. Global
development of technology giva us a chance to look at different
culture in the world and
massive immigration has resulted in culturai exchange more
fiequently. Understanding
cdtuiitl factors and the design form and use of houses become
more important, but most
previous studies of housing have tended to focus on the
theoretical relationship of design
to social and psychological theory (Duncan, 1982; Lawrence,
1987). This study explores the relationships of human needs,
cultural and mviroammtal factors and the courtyard
house through a study of design form.
1.2 Broblem Statement
The courtyard house has a long history. Many researchers have
done shidies of
courtyard houses over the years. For instance, Werner Blaser
examned the roIe of
courtyard house form throughout the past five thousand years of
human history (Blaser,
1985). Duncan Macintosh gave us a sense of modem courtyard house
fonn in northem
Europe and North American (Macintosh, 1973). Such approaches,
iike many others, only
focused on discussions of history and architechual fonn. Little
research has been done
associating courtyard-housing fonn with design and social
theones. There are many
questions that need to be answered in thi-s area, such as how do
cultural traditions support
courtyard-housing form? How does environmental factors influence
the courtyard-
housing form? And how might an understanding of these cultural
and environmental
differences benefit architects and landscape architects in
contemporary design? We need
more in-depth research in this field.
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1.3 Goals and Objectives Based on the questions identified
above, the goal of this study is to understand the
urban courtyard housing form as a response to basic human needs,
culture and the
environment, In so doing, we can understand how human needs,
culture and environment
adapt courtyard form and how courtyard form responds to human
needs, culture and
environment. To reach this goal, the following objectives were
established: 1. To undexstand basic human ne& and social
concepts of 'riome";
2. To iden- the architectural fom and typical landscape elements
of traditional
and contemporary urban courtyard housing;
3. To compare traditional foms of urban courtyard housing;
and
4. To compare traditional and contemporary forms of urban
courtyard housing.
1.4 Signiiicance of the Study
The research in urban courtyard housing is not only about
architectural fom.
Elements, such as site planning and vegetation are also very
important in this research.
As this study consolidates a body of knowledge about how the
courtyard forxn is
influenced by human needs, culture and environment, it can
benefit both architects and
landscape architects.
Quite different with previous studies, this research links both
architectural
theories and forms. The cultures examined include Far Eastern,
Islamic and western. In
each culture, two examples in different countnes have been
chosen for this study. In
broader terms, the key elements of each type of h a n courtyard
housing have been
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identified. It makes the comparison more clear and helps form a
better understanding of
the relationships between culture* environment and courtyard
forms.
Housing design can not be isolated h m history. From the study
of history. we
can see that the culture meets basic human needs. This study
also makes a comparison
between traditional and contemporary urban courtyards so that it
can benefit architects
and landscape architects n contemporary design.
1.5 Organization of the Thesis
The initial phase of this thesis consists of a review of
literature that covers the
general context of the study which including basic human needs,
concepts of home and
fiindamental eIements of home. The second phase of the research
involves the
development of an analfical bmework that both identifies the
architechiral form and
landscape elements of traditional and contemporary urban
courtyard housing, and
analyzes the courtyard form as it responds to basic human needs,
cultural influences and
the physical environment. This is achieved through the
description of two examples in
four merent cultural contexts. Analysis and discussion are in
the next phase. A
summary of research findings, limitations of the study and
recommendations for future
research are presented in the finai phase of the study.
-
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter provides a summary of literature relaihg research
undertaken by
researchers in Merent fields. The review begins with a
discussion that puts human basic
needs into a contextual fkameworlc, then explores concepts of
home and culture. This is
followed by an introduction to the fhdamental elements of a
home. The evolution of
selected urban courtyard housing, including the defintion and
philosophy of courtyard
housing, summarizes the chapter.
2.1 Basic Human Needs
As humans, we need to eat and drink every day; we need a place
to stay safe and
warm. Fuahermore, we also need love, fkeedom, and the feeling of
achievement. These
are al l human basic needs.
Maslow in his book Motivation and Personality (1943) summarized
basic human
needs into five steps; fkm lowest to highest these steps are:
physiological needs, safety
needs, love needs, esteem needs and self-actualization
needs.
Physiological needs: Physiological needs are the most dominant
of all other
needs, which includes shelter and food needs. A person who is
Iacking food,
safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food
more strongly
than for anything else. In other words, if al l the needs are
unsatisfied, and the
organism is then dominated by the physiological needs, ai l
other needs may
become simply nonexistent or be pushed into the background.
Safety needs: If the physiological needs are relatively well
gratified, there
then emerges a new set of needs - safety needs. Safety needs
include security,
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stabilty, dependency, protection, and fieedom fiom fear, need
for order,
structure, law, Iimits and so on. AL1 that has been said to the
physiologicai
needs is equally true, although in less degree of these
desires.
Belongingness and love needs: lfboth the physiologicd and the
safety needs
are fairly weil gratXed, there will emerge the need for love,
affection and
belonging. Ln resent decades, mobility, urbanization and loss of
community
have been detrimetal in attainulg these needs,
Esteem needs: This is the desire that ali people in our society
have to have
self-respect or self-esteem. These ne& can be classified
into distinct two
sets. The h t set includes the desire for strength, for
achievement, for
adequacy, for mastery and cornpetence, for confidence in the
face of the
world, and for independence and fkeedom. The second set includes
the desire
for a good reptation, respect fiom other people, status, fame
and glory,
recognition, importance and dignity. Satisfaction of esteem
needs leads to
feelings of self-confidence, worth, capability, and adequacy, of
being useful
and necessary in the world.
Self-sictuakation needs: Even when al l the fkst four needs are
satisfied,
people c m often find that a new discontent and restiessness
will develop. To
ultirnately be at peace with oneself. one must do what one is
fitted for. Self-
actualization refers to huma. desire for self-Mllment, to reach
one's
potential.
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Accountlng to Maslow's theory, higher needs can not be met uti l
needs of the
previous level are satisfied- These needs change as comfoa in
each level is achieved.
Steps fkom lower to higher Ievel can be presented as figure
1.
I - - Esteem Level4 I I Belongngness and Love Level3 l
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Physiologcal Level 1
FIGURE 1. UQSLOW'S hierarchy of neeak
2.2 Concept of Housing
Shelter is a basic human need because people need safety fiom
the outside world
and protection fiom the elements, However, housing is not only
shelter, it is much more
than just a structure to keep people safe and warm. Setha M. Low
(1989) in her study of
housing conceptualized this in three ways. First and most
simply, housing refers to those
physical structures that shelter people in the pursuit of thek
private iives. The physical
structures give people the feeling of safety and privacy.
Second, housing can be
conceptuaiized as a system of settings within which certain
activities take place. Because
the dwelling and its parts are Liked to many other settings -
the neighborhood and the
city - houses represent many cdturally-related activities and
human relationships.
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Fhally, housing is denned as part of the built environment in
which particular activities
take place. The environmentai quality of housing cm be desmbed
as an environmental
quality profile-
Culture is an important element in housuig design. Culture is
defined by Low
(1989) as a complex term concephializes as " a way of Mie typicd
of a group. it is a social
structural patterns of human behavior, it is a system of
schemata transmitted
symbolically; it is a way of cophg with the ecological setting".
Overdl, Me-style is the
most usefid concept in considering the relation of housing to
culture- Across cultures
activities occur in many different settings with diffaent Mages
and separations between
them, and with different axnounts of enclosure or opemess
(Rapoport, 1982). Shce
culture can be reflected so strongly in housing design, we must
consider people and th&
activities as important influences on houshg design.
2.3 Meanings of Home
Housing cm be seen as a physical forxn of home. Since home is
not only a house,
it occurs on any Level of existentid space such as neighborhood,
town, city, country, etc
(Sixsrnith, 1986). When housing satisfies basic human needs, it
can be seen as a home.
Understanding the meaning of home is very important to this
study.
Home can be seen as a center of emotional significance, of
familiarity and
belonging (Sixsmith, 1986). Recently, home has also been
proposed as 'a crucial site of
cultural activity and cultural expression7' (Altman, 1975).
Carole Despres (1 99 1) identified the following behavioral
interpretations of home:
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Home as security and control refers to home as the sole area of
control for
the individual and its abiiity to provide a sense of physicai
security. Usually
people in dinerent age and gender categones have different needs
in this
regard. Adults prefer spatial control and social supervision, as
well as children
prefer fiedom of action, and physicai and emotional
security.
Home as renection of one's ideas and values indicates that
people tbink
about their home as a symbol of how they see themselves and want
to be seen
by others- People express their interests and character through
furniture,
decoration and objects in the dwelling.
Home as acng upon and modlfying one's dwelig emerges h m the
process of controihg and acting upon one's environment. h other
words,
people's physical, financial, and emotional involvement can be
seen in their
dwelluig unit. Home provides a place for self-expression and a
sense of
achievement and control.
Home as permanence and continuity is a temporal process that
cari be
experienced through a period of the . Home provides a sense of
belonging to
its occupants and indicates a connection with past experiences.
It is a place
that gives people special mernories.
Home as relationships with famiiy and friends refers to home as
a place
that strengthens and secures the relationship with the people
one cares for.
Home provides an atmosphere of social understanding, MfUing
people's
needs for share ideas and happiness with others.
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Home as center of activities focuses on the home as purposive
entity. A
home supports work and leisure activities.
Home as refuge fkom the outside world means that home is haven
or
sanctuary to humans. It is a place to release outside pressures
and to control
the level of its occupant's social interactions.
Home as incikator of personai statos means that a home can show
its
occirpants' social StatuS.
Home as materiai structure refers to the concrete physical
dimensions of the
home, including the physical characteristics of the
neighborhood, the size and
spatial organization of the d w e h g unif as well as the
senrices and facilities
available within the dwelling.
Home as a place to own is associated with positive experience of
home as
fieedorn of action, controlled space, and permanency.
2.4 Fundamental Elements of Home
Despres (1991) defined the concepts of home used by people to
talk about their
home without any indications on the forces that have shaped
those meanings. She
identified three human theoretical approaches commonly used to
interpret the function of
home: territorial model, social-psychological model and cultural
model. These
fiindamental elements of home are presented by diffrent
researchers and have been
adopted for use in this courtyard housing study.
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2.4.1 Territorid mdel
The concept of temtoriality is generally understood as a
sewother boundary
rnechanism that mvolves personalization or marking of a place or
object, and comrnlmication that it is "owned'' by a person or a
group (Altman, 1975). Withui the temtory of a home, occupants are
allowed to exert control over the space. In other words,
the territorial approach gives priority to the dennition of the
spatial bouudaries of the
dwelling. The essentid territorial components are s e c e t y ,
control, personalization, and
identity-
Security includes both psychologcal security and physical
security, or
protection. Both forms of s e c e are obtained in the home, and
also in its
individualized cores (Porteous, 1976). Such as a dwelhg with
high surromding wails gives people the feeling of security.
Control is secured by two major means. The personalization of
space is an assertion of identity and a means of e n d g
stimulation. The defense of
space is the means by which stimulation is achieved and security
assured
(Porteous, 1976). Control can involve asking permission to enter
the home of
another by knocking on the door or ringing the bell.
Personalization promotes both sec- and identity and may confer
psychic
security on the occupant of a home (Porteous, 1976).
Personalization could be reflected in color schemes, tree planting,
and even garden sculpture.
Identity means that people tend to identify themselves with
certain objects and attempt to preserve this sense of identity in
their everyday lives
(Bretherton, 1985). When the object to which one is attached is
a place, we
-
have "place-identity" (Proshansky, 1983), and when it is a place
which is central to the individual concemed, we have "home" (Tuan,
1980).
2.4.2 Social-PsychoIogicaI model
This model defines the home as a symbol of one's self @espres,
1991). Based on
Maslow's theory of human needs, the most elementary hc t ion of
the home is to provide
a roof over one's head A shelter answers the human need for
physical securty and
health. The home can then provide psychological cornfort in
temis of quietness, light,
cleanliness, etc (Appleyard, 1979). On the other hand, home
plays an important role in
people's self-defntion, acting as a dialogue between them and
the larger comrnunity
@espres, 1991). This model is founded on privacy and social
status-
Privacy is among the most powerfl theoretical concepts that have
been used
to explain the meaning of the home as refuge (Despres, 1991).
Privacy needs involve a desire for controllhg intrusions fiom
neighbors in terrn of
surveillance, noise, and property control; for fkeedom of
action; for solitude
within the home (Finighan, 1980). Sometimes, It also gives
people the feeling of isolation.
Social status is a human need that can be reflected by the home.
Usually, the
exterior of the home transmits infoxmation about the household's
social
position in terms of economic and professional status (Despres,
1991). It is
decoded through the characteristics of the house and its
location, such as the
material character of the home, housing and landscaping styles,
as weU as
decoration styles (Duncan, 1985).
-
2.4.3 Cultural model
Culture plays an important role in housing design. Because
Me-style is the most
usefl concept in considering the relation of housing to culture,
and human activty is
signifcantly related to built form, the design and use of houses
reflect certain cultural
characteristics. Needless to Say, homes are not merely physical
amfacts but cultural
products (Mazumdar, 1997). The culturai model considers
religion, tradition, dady routine and gender,
Reiigion is a factor that influences the environment people seek
(Rapopot,
1982). According to Errhgton (1979), home is "symbolically
represented the
cosmos and mirrored intergroup social relations". Religion
provides direction
to housing design, involving in the site planning, architectural
form, room
arrangement and its landscape.
Tradition provides direction of design for contemporary
circumstances by
providing contuiuity with the past (Rowe, 1989). In the
architecturai field,
traditional patterns reflect the means of iivelihood of their
occupants, the
relationships between one group and another, and the
relationships of people
within caste, occupational, and ethnic groups as weli as between
such groups
(Lang, 1989)-
Daily routine is related to things that regularly have to be
done in the home. It
refers to the reoccurring character of the everyday activities
(Despres, 199 1). Everyday activities contriiute to the
establishment of the home, and give
people the experience of being at home (Seamon, 1985).
-
Gender relates to physiological and perceived differences
between men and
women. Space can be arranged in different ways to accommodate
gender
dinerences, particuiarly as dictated by religion and
tradition.
2.5 The Relationships among Basic Haman Needs, Concepts of Home
and
Fundamental Elements of Home
We have discussed basic human needs, concepts of home and
firndamental
elements of home in this chapter. However, these are not
isolated. Home is a place to
satisQ human needs and human needs can be translated into
housing needs. Fundamental
elements of home respond to these needs.
Physiological needs are the most dominant of all other needs.
The need for
comfort and food help us to conceptualize home as a refge fkom
the outside word. The
fimdamental element of privacy also corresponds to these
needs.
Applied to the concept of home, the need for safety can be seen
in a home as
secunty and control and as a place to own. Secwityy control
personalization and identity
all respond to these needs.
Belongingness and love needs can be mderstood as permanence and
continuityy
as relationships with family and tnends, and as a center of
activities. Personalization,
daily routine, religion and tradition respond to these
needs.
Esteem needs relate home to a rdection of one's ideas and
values, as acting upon
and modifying one's dwelling, and as an indicator of personal
status. The fimdamental
elements of identity and social statu respond to these
needs.
-
The relatiomhips among basic human needs, concepts of home and
fundamental
elements of home can be understood as descrbed as table 1.
Human Basic Needs 1 Concepts of Home 1 Fundamentrl Elements
of
Safety needs
Belongingness and Love needs
Esteem needs
Table 1. Relationships among basic human needs, concepts of home
and fndarnental elements of home
-
Home as refbge fkom the outside world Home as security and
control Home as a place to own Home as refbge h m the outside world
Home as permanence and continuity Home as relationships with f d y
and &ends Home as center of activities Home as reflection of
one's ideas and values Home as acting upon and modifying one's
dwelling Home as indicator of erso on al status
2.6 Courtyard Housing
Home Food Shelter Security Control Personaiizatioa Identity
Privacy
Personalization Religion Daily routine Tradition
Identity Social status
The courtyard, with distinct boundaries, Lunited access to other
landscapes, and
manicured plants, is one of the most controlled forms of
landscape, and the landscape
most intimately related to buildings (Reynolds and Lowry, 1995).
It is defined by the Oxford English dictionary as "an open area
surrounded by walls or buildings within the
precincts of a large house, castle, homestead, etc."
The couriyard house is also cded the atrium house or the patio
house, AtRum
refers to the central hall or court of a Roman house. It is
commonly used as a covered
-
space located in the center of the building and Iighted by a
siryght or wide windows
kom the sides (AL-Hussayen, 1995). A patio is defined as an b e
r court in the Spanish or Spanish-Amaicm home, open to the sky
(Oxford English dictionary). 2.6.1 Evolution of four types of arbm
colirtgud housing
The evolution of urban courtyard housing introduced in this
section includes Far
Eastern, Islamic, Greek and Roman, and contemporary courtyard
houses. Figure 2
presents the histork evoIution of seIected urban courtyard h o d
g in this study.
The courtyard has been a major housing element for many
centuries. The eariiest courtyard Oouse was built in India and
China, aromd 3000 BC (Blaser, 1985). Beijing courtyard housing
dates back to 800 years ago, which is the typical courtyard
housing
Spe in China. The typical home of Beijing is an extremely well
guarded place. Every family forms a Little community in itself that
reflects the social structure of ancient China.
hdian courtyard housing impiies its cuihiral elements and the
housing form responds to
the climate. The philosophy of these courtyard houses influenced
the later urban
courtyard house in other countries of Asia Indian courtyard
housing has a significant
influence on south Asian dwellings, such as Singapore and
Indonesia courtyard housing.
Later Japanese courtyard gardens also reflect the philosophy of
early Chinese courtyard
gardens.
Basically, the courtyard house was a town house in the
civilizations of early
China, Greece and Rome. The f5st courtyard house in Greek was
built in the 4h or 5"
centuries BC. From the nfth centmy BC, the Greek hall-type house
was gradually
replaced in urban areas by the perktyle house, which is a Greek
adaptation of the oriental
-
urban courtyard house (Schoenauer, 1981). The penstyle house
reflects the internai
structure of the Greek family.
Chinese courtyard house 3000 BC
Japanese courtyard garden
South Asian courtyard
and Roman
t atrium house 400-500 BC 1 courtyard I house 300 BC
Baghdad courtyard
762 AD
& Cordoba c o u r ~ ~ d house 700 A D
L Spanish courtyard house 700 AD
Los Angeles patio house 1890-1930 AD
North European courtyard house 1928-1932 AD
Figure 2. Evolution offour types of urban courtyard housing
The Greek courtyard house had a rnarked influence on the Roman
atrium house.
The typical Roman urban house that emerged during the Late Roman
period had two
rectangular interior court gardens, the smaller called the
atrium and the Iarger named the
penstyle (Schoenauer, 1981). The foxm of the Roman atrium houe
irnplies its social structures.
-
The traditional Islamic courtyard house 'ketains a l l the
intriusic elements of the
Ur house. Reputedly the home of Abraham, Ur was located close to
the confluence of the
Euphrates and Tigris rivers, close to the low hills near the
edge of the Arabian Desert"
(Schoenauer, 1981). The concept of Ur courtyard house was
developed during 2400 to
2300 BC. Ur courtyard house codd be retained and developed by
the Moorish later
because of '"Be plan is a lasting solution to d a n We. The
house is insulated agahst the
bustle of the street, defended against marauders, and protected
against the fierce climate"
(Cantacuzino, 1969).
Although the religion is very diffrent, the philosophy of Islam
absorbed the
Greeks and Romans. At the time of the Moorkh conques remains of
a nch Roman
culture were stil l present, and the Moors introduced their
culture into Mediterranean
cities (Lehrman, 1980). As the Moors arrived in Spain in the 7"
century, Cordoba became
the religious and cultural center of Spain and northem Anica
(Lehrman, 1980). The
architecture in Cordoba became Moorish style, and the courtyard
house became a major type of urban house.
The patio house was first introduced into northem America by the
Spanish in the
period of 1890-1930 (Macintosh, 1973). Mer the United States had
taken possession of
California, the new settlers began to revive the Spanish
Colonial style of architecture, and
built many of their larger homes with patios (Macintosh, 1973).
Even today, some
architects are using certain elements of Spanish Colonial
architecture to develop modem
architecture, including the patio.
The new a b house in northem Europe relates to a historical
precedent.
However, most of contemporary courtyard houses were built
&er the World War 1 and
-
are quite diffierent fkom any of the old Mediterranean type
(Macintosh, 1973). Higher population densities and more interesthg
fomis have ken achieved by building L-shaped
and U-shaped courtyard housing*
The concept of each type of courtyard housing is presented in
the foIlowing
figure.
Beijing courtyard Indian courtyard Baghdad courtyard Cordoba
courtyard
Greekperktyle Roman ahium Los Angeles patio North- Ewopean
courtyard
Figure 3. Conceptua forms of courtyurd houses
2.6.2 Courtyard hoase and environment
Housing design responds to climate and respects physical
environment (Fisher, 1982). An understanding of environmental
elements can provide tools for creating
-
thermaily cornfortable habitats for people. Temperature and
humidity bot . strongly affect
the thermal cornfort of people and the energy use in buildings
(Brown and Gillespie,
1995). It is very naturai that in hot, humid climates, housing
design will try to avoid sun
exposure and facilitate coolhg by prevailing winds. In cold
climates, the design of
housing wili try to maximize solar heat and avoid winter
wnds.
-
Microclimate is an important element affecthg human thermal
cornfort and can
be modined through design @rom and Gillespie, 1995).
Microclimate components,
such as humidity, d a t i o n , wind, and precipitation are
ofien slrictly controiled or very
stable indoors, whereas outdoors these elements are highly
vari-able (Brown and
Gillespie, 1995). Control of these cm be achieved by the use of
mateds, the pattern of
housing, site location and landscape design. Housing
characteristh, such as the size of
windows and doors varies from place to place depending upon the
local climate. Also,
landscape elements can affect terrestrial radiation in a
microclimate as a fimction of their
ability to absorb and hold solar radiation, and their ability to
emit terrestn-al radiation
(Brown and Gillespie, 1995).
2.7 Implications of the Literature Revew
The literature review has revealed that a home satisfies and
responds to basic
human needs. Courtyard housing is in wide use around the world,
and the courtyard
housing forrn responds to local culture and environment.
There are some researches in courtyard housing that have been
done in the past
years. Werner Blaser in the book Atrium introduced the history
of c o m d housing by
showing pictures and drawings. John S. Reynolds and William P.
Lowry examuied the
Cordoba courtyard house nom different views, exploring the
relationships among
esthetic, social and technical elements in courtyard housing
form. Amita Sinha had done
similar study in Courtyard DweZZings in India- In this study,
Sinha examined Indian
courtyard housing by cultural roles. Furthemore, Duncan
Macintosh introduced the
modem courtyard house in North Aumica and northem Europe.
-
AIthough many research on courtyards have been done over the
years, there has
been a lack of attention intepting knowIedge about courtyard
housing form, culime, and
environment This study focuses on a c o m p ~ n of courtyard
housing forms in different
cultures and environments, bas& on the context of basic
human needs and concepts of
home. Figure 4 points out the research area in ths study.
Courtyard housing is found in many parts of the world, raaging h
m west to east,
north to south. In widely varying cultures and dinerent cIimatic
zones, the courtyard-
housing form reflects local culture and environment. This study
of courtyard housing
foim, culture and environment is to improve understanding of the
relationships between
them. This can benefit architects and landscape architects in
contemporary design.
/ Basic / . \-ch Of Home
Figure 4. Research area in this study
-
The purpose of this chapter is to detail the research
methodology of the courtyard
housing in different cultures. This chapter introduces the
background of the research, then
describes the research method, including assessrnent hewor lc ,
data collection, data
organization and analysis.
3.1 Introdactioa
This study has been undertaken in three phases: reviewing the
Literature,
developing a framework for assessing courtyard housing forms,
and analysis of findings.
Details of the research methodology are presented in this
section.
The Literature review is based on the data available, covering
four types of
cultures around the world. The second part is to compare the
findings. As outlined in the
research goals and the objectives, this cornparison focuses on
the cultural and environmentai influences,
The last part is data anaiysis. The research questions such as
how cultural
traditions and environment factors support courtyard fom and how
this understanding
benefit architects and landscape in contemporary design are
answered in this phase.
3.2 Research Method
3.2.1 Assessrnent Framework
The framework of this study is based on the literature review
presented in Chapter
2. Territorial, social-psychological, cultural and environmental
factors will be examined
as a fiamework for the cornparison of courtyard housing forms.
Each element of the
-
fiamework for assessing courtyard housing can be describeci in
Table 2. Through a
literature review of selected courtyard houses based on the
framework, we get the general
characters of these types of courtyard housing, then make a
cornparison among them.
Results and conclusions are fkom this analysis (Figure 5).
Temtorial factors
Social-psychological factors
security control personalization identity privacy social
status
cultural factors
Table 2- Framework for Assessing Courtyard Housing
3.2.2 Data Coliection
reiipioa tradition daily routine gertder
Environmental factors
The database of urban courtyard housing in Merent cultures has
been derived
fkom the literature review. Four types of urban courtyard
housng, Far Eastern, Islamic,
traditional Western, and contemporary courtyard houses, are
examined in this study as
they reflect different cultures, as well as they are the most
influentid types in the
evolution of courtyard housing. In selection specinc examples, d
courtyards were not
considered because they are inherently dinerent in inction and
context.
For each type of courtyard houshg, examples of two Werent
geographic areas
are described. Based on the data available, examples fkom
Beijing, Indian, Baghdad, Cordoba, Greek, Roman, Los Angeles, and
northem European courtyard housing have
been selected for this study. These examples represent four
types of cultures. Beijing and Indian courtyard houshg foms
represent Far Eastern culture, which is inauenced by
Buddhism; Baghdad and Cordoba courtyard housing f o m represent
Islamic culture;
Greek and Roman courtyard housing forms represent traditional
Western culture, and Los
climate
-
Angeles and northem
housing forms.
courtyard housing represent contemporary courtyard
Goals and objectives
1 Literature Review 1 Courtyard Housing Forms Fundamental
elements of Selection of examples History of courtyard housing
General characters of four types of courtyard house
Framework (Based on literature review)
Analysis Compare urban courtyard housing in different cultures
and envlronments Compare traditional and contemporq urban courtyard
housing
Conclusions Finding conclusion Limitation of study Fume
research
Territonal Social-Psychological Cultural Environmental
t
Figure 5. Research Method Flow Chart
Drawings in same scale L
-
The research goal of tbis study is to explore the relationships
between basic
human needs, culture, envitonment and the courtyard housing fom.
In order to meet this
goal, the description of courtyard housing focuses on
territorial, social-psychological,
cultural and environmentai factors. Oniy climate has been
examined as an indicator of
environment, because it is the most infiuential element in the
courtyard houshg form in
this section. Other environmental elements may also influence
the housing form, such as
drainage and soil type, but they are not examinexi in this study
due to the Iack of available
data..
Figure 6. Building sections ~ e c t urban space Qbier, 1979,
page 24)
3.23 Data Organization and Analysis
The cornparisons of courtyard forms in
different cultures are based on both drawings
and description. As drawings can clearly show
the architectural fomis of courtyards, for a
better understanding of the comparisons, the
drawing of the courtyard housing forms in the
same scale has been a m j o r research method. This technique
was used by Rob Krier
to analyze urban space. In the book Urban -
Space, Krier defined space as "geometrically
bounded by a variety of elevations". He
classified urban space into two basic fomis: the square and the
Street. They are a i i formed
by the surrounding buildings. In order to explain how building
sections affect urban
space, Krier showed a group of section drawings in the same
scale, but in different forms,
-
creating different urban spaces (Figure 6). He also dlustrated
elevation drawings displaying how building elevations influence
urban space. Then he showed a series of
basic forms of urban spaces. The relatiombip between urban
spaces and smrounding
buildings are clearly presented.
Perspective drawings are also fiequently used in Kner's book
that shows various
forms of urban space. These drawings are good examples of how to
present mass and
space. The same technique is used in this study to explore the
refationships among the
courtyard housing fomi, the culture and the environment. Same
scale plans, sections or
elevation drawings are presented to gve a better understanding
of the relatiomhips.
Perspective drawings are also used in this study to show the
mass and form of courtyard
housing.
-
This chapter presents the research findings deriveci h m the
research method-
Four types of urban courtyard housing, Far Eastern, Islamic,
traditional Western and
conternporary courtyard houses, were investigated based on a
hmework which included
temtorial, social-psychologicai, cultural and environmental
factors. Drawings and
descriptions are the analytical methods of this chapter.
4.1 Far Eastern Courtyard Housing
Courtyard housing in the Far East has long history, and it is st
i l l the traditional
house form in many Asian countries. There are several reasons
for the acceptance in the
Orient courtyard housing: it pemiits the greatest densiy; it is
suitable for the local
climate; and it embodies religious elements. In this section,
Beijing and Indian courtyard housing have been chosen for this
study as it is still a major form of residence in these two
locations,
4.1.1 Beijing courtyard bouse Since Beijing became the formal
capital of the Yuan Dynasty (13" century),
courtyard house began to appear alongside the palaces, offices,
and neighborhoods (Ma,
1997). The typicd courtyard house is an extremely weli guarded
place, and every famly
formed a little communty of its own. The construction of these
courtyard houses is
unique, and is representative of traditional Chinese residential
construction: greenish
bricks, gray tiles, post-and beam structure with masonry panels
(Ma, 1997) (Figure 7). The one-storey courtyard housing is also
called the Hu-tung house in Beijing. Hu-
tung is a residential street which is formed by the outside
waiis of courtyard houses and
-
links up with trafnc routes. The lots of the courtyard houses
extend back between 60 to
70 meters (Blaser, 1979)-
Figure 7. BezJing courtyard house section drmvUg (ased on
Schoenauerr 1981) 4 . 1 1 Territorial factors
The typical courtyard house in Beijing is a wded compound
consisting of several buildings surrounding one or more courtyard.
The courtyards are laid in sequence, dong
the north-south axis (Schoenauer, 198 1). Rwrns are arranged
independently on four sides and are inked by corridors. The only
iink to the outside world is a simple doorway. Such
a closed form is suitable for a single family to live in (Figure
8). According to Courtyard Home of Beijing (Ma, 1997), couriyards
with two or
more units are divided into two parts - the imer quarter and the
outer quarter. The outer
quarter serves for the reception of guests; the inner quarter is
intended to accommodate
the women and girls of the f d y .
The organization of the courtyard house resembles the
traditional Chinese f d y -
structure. The south building adjacent to the Street side and
facing north is the lest important, often used as seNice room or
kitchen. The side buildings, opening to east or
west direction are for the unrnamed children and married sons
with theu families- The
main building at the rear of the courtyard, with openings facing
south, is the most
important, and is occupied by the head of the f d y -
-
Personal character is reflected in plantings and decorations in
the courtyardS.
Decorations are often seen in carved waiis and roofs. Brick
carving is widely adopted; the
upper part of the main entrance is usually decorated The subject
involves plum flowers, orchids, bamboo, grass, pines, fortune and
happhess (Ma, 1997). Doors and windows are
1 W . 1 nu-~ung
rom
Figure 8. Beijing courtyard house with fhree units (based on Ma,
199 7)
also important parts for decorated.
Colored painting s another form of
decoratioa Paint is applied to protect
afl revealed wooded parts. Columns are
ofien painted in red, while doors and
wndows are dark green. The eaves of
corridors are often painted with trees,
flowers, and historic stories (Figure 9)- Plantings are
important
components in courtyards. Two trees
are often planted in fiont of the main
rooms. The trees can be Chinese
flowerhg crabapple, Mac, jujube, and
pomegranate (Ma, 1997). Flowers and -
gras cover the &round, and a large fish
bowl is ofien set in the center of
courtyard. In this courtyard, dweilers
can enjoy flowers in s p ~ g , f i t s in autumn.
-
4.1.13 Social-psychologica factors
Enclosure and opening is the bdamentai principle of Beijing
courtyard house. The courtyard is open to the
occupants of the house and
compietely closed agauist the outside
worId. Extended families live here in
isoIatlon fiom the outside, Only
firiends and relatives are aiiowed to Figiae 9. Colored painting
on the eaws of '- corridor (based on M, 1997, page 3 7) enter the
private inner quarter of the
home. A stranger is ailowed to corne into the entrance hall
only, and guests can be invited
into the outer quarter G u and Wang, 1996) Figure 10). A spirit
walI located on the main
-
HU-T~ng * J ~ ~ ~ i ~ - . - - - - - ~ - - -
Figure 10. m e r md inner quarter of courtyard (Blmter. 1979.
pagel2)
entrance prevents direct views nom outside, so
passengers can not see the courtyard fiom the
Street. This highghts the pnvacy of the
courtyards. The spirit wall is also an impomt
decorative part of the courtyard as it is the first
sight to people entering the home.
The Beijing courtyard house expresses -
the social statw of its occupants. AU the
components of the building reflect the owner's
economic status and social position. Wedthy families usually
have two or more
courtyards, and the main gate of courtyards directiy reflects
the person's rank. For this
reason, gates are classifed in severai ranges, fiom p h c e to
normal residence. The
-
differences are denoted by the gate size, decoration, and
constructior~ For example, for a
prince, the gate is much bigger than normal size and has more
decoration. There are also
more steps to the entrance than other gates.
4.1 -1.3 Cultural factors
Courtyard housing reflects traditional Chinese culture. From
choosing the sites,
fixing the locations and placing fimitute, evcrything is done
according to the theory of
Feng Shui. Feng Shui is a traditional Chmese technique which a-
to ensure that afl
things are in harmony with their surrounding. Translated
directly, it means 'k.ind" and
'kater" (Rossbach, 1983). The significant influence of Feng Shui
cm be seen in the site selection of a
courtyard house. According to Feng Shui, a rectangular or square
shape is the best. The
south side should be open, allowing the sun's rays to enter and
warm the house- A
t --- -- Figure I I . Ine symbol of ha-gua
compass is widely used to help selecting the
positions of the central axis of the house, the
main entrance and doors of different rooms.
The main entrance is often set at the southeast
or noahwest corner. People beleve that good
selections cm bring gwd fortune to the -
residence.
Feng Shui is often combined with the
Ba-gua principle Figure 11). Ba-gua is an a d e t with mystical
powers, used for deciding the location and size of roorns, for
example, placing the washroom at the
southwest corner, and the kitchen at the east or southeast
corner.
-
The courtyard is an outdoor living room. It is a place for daily
activities, such as
readingy eating playing or just relaxin& especiaily for
women. In ancient China, womai
did not have the fkeedom to go out into the outside world.
Wornen were confbed within
the courtyard, so it became almost the only place to connect
them to nature.
4.1 .l.4 Environmental factors
Beijing is at the northeast of China It is hot and rainy in
SuIzlIller and cold and d r y in winter. The design of courtyard
house fits its local cIimate. The courtyard space is big
enough to allow d g h t into rooms directly in winter. In
summer, big trees provide cool
shade for the residence. The comdor around the courtyard affords
protection agauist sun
and min. It is also a place to rest and enjoy the scenes of
courtyard. The site plan of courtyard house uses a north-south
am-S. This layout is suitable
for northern climate as it cm avoid winter winds h m West or
northwest. Rooms facing
the south are most favorable, as they are warm in witer. U d y ,
two trees are planted in
fiont of these rooms, so they can still keep cool in summer.
Rooms facing north are the
least important and often served as storage room or guest
rooms.
Beijing courtyard house is harmonized in design and reflects
Chinese philosophy of Buddhist (calmness, humanity and tolerance).
It has been a major type of residential dwelling in Beijing for
several hundreds of years and was a symbol of Beijing. It also
deeply influenced contemporary Chinese architecture.
-
Figwe 12. Beijing Hu-Tung (based on Schoenauer, 1981, page
190)
-
4.1-2 Indian courtyard house
The traditional Indian house is essentidy a courtyard dwelhg. A
. open enclosecl
area with the d w e b g is found in almost ail parts of the h .
y ama in the north of M a .
This can be traced back to the third millennium B. C. (Sinha,
1992). Ancient hdus civilization inclined toward geometric order in
its cities. AU main streets were oriented to
the points of the compass (Schoenauer, 1981). The size of
bddings ranged fmm two room dwellings to palaces. SmaU homes had
only one courtyard, whereas the larger ones
had several courtyards. The cluster itseif couid be amorphous,
nucleated, or hear
dependuig upon the region (Schoenauer, 1981). The oriental
concept of the courtyard housing still detennines today the
physical
fonn of Indian cities such as Jainalmerer Located at the north
of India, the typical urban
house of Jaisalmer is attached to other houses on its sides and
at the back leaving only a
narrow facade with screened openings exposed to the street
(Figure 13). Houses are arranged in a hear cluster. The streets are
nmow and the buildings are on a deep lot
(Schoenauer, 198 1) (Figure 14). The fom and construction
techniques allow changes to be made easily. This is a typical urban
dwehg form in the north of India
Figure 13. Typical residential street of hisolnier (Schoenauer,
1981. page 88)
-
4.1.2.1 Territorhi factors
. -
Courtyard houses in Jaisalmer are basicdy attached multistoried
townhouses
built of stone wth one or severd
courtyards. People usually
F W e 11 The lyout of fypicui courtyurd houses in Jaisdmer @ k h
~ e ~ t ( e ~ f 981, pcrge 88)
enclose the land with a boundary
before building a residence. Thus
a courtyard is fonned, usually in
rectangle shape (figure 15). The co~mection of the courtyard to
the
public outdoors is in many cases
through a narrow chamber. The chamber is a spacious s i h g room
which leading people
to the courtyard (Sinha. 1992). It is the only link to outside
world. Courtyards with two or more uaits are divded into two parts
- the inner quarter
and the outer quarter. The outer quarter is set in the fkont
section of the house and used
Figure I5. Courtyard house fn- ' Jaisalmer (Schoenauer, 1981,
Page 90)
for formal activities. Guests can only enter the outer
qurter. The inner quarter is an informal space
reserved for the family.
Most houses in Iaisalmer are built of local -
yeliow sandstone and adomed with beautifuly
carved oniaments that reflect the owner's
personalhtion. The stone wails are often
whitewashed, enhancing the shadow eEect of the
facades (Schoenauer, 198 1). Columns, brackets, and
-
balconies are similar throughout the city, resulting in a
pleasing balame-
The planthg species in the courtyard are very Iimited, Withh the
house, o d y the
sacred basil plant is fond in the courtyard (Sinha, 1992). Most
courtyards are empty because of space limitations.
4.1.2.2 SociabPsychological factors
Privacy is the key element in Indian courtyard house. The
Jaisalmer courtyard is
totally closed to the street at ground fioor levei. Only the
entry door opens to the Street, A
platform or porch is adjacent to the outside entrante. The door
is blocked by a privacy wall that prevents direct views h m the
street-
Economic status and social position influence the size and
location of the
courtyard house. The smallest typicd dwehg has a width of two
bays (one bay is the width of courtyard). With increased width and
depth the houses become more luxurious. 4.1.2.3 Cultural
factors
The courtyard housing form embodies the Indian cultural
traditions. A square
Eut Sun
Earth South Fut Death
Figure 26. The square of Mandala
mandala, a microcosmic version of the
universe, determines the building types. The
mandala is an enclosed sacred space with a
Buddha in the center. The square form with -
a network of lines of force running from
north to south and east to west, con- a
void in the center, symbolizing concentrated
energy (Sinha, 1992). This square has four elements including
fke, earth, wind, and water. Four forces of the cosmos - sun,
min,
-
life, and death - are represented dong the elements. The head of
Buddha faces the
noaheast, and his feet are in the southwest (Figure 16). The
square mandala recommends the location of the house, the
arrangement of each room, and the fiiniiture placement, for
example, it is preferred to locate the dwelljng entrance in the
east. The location of the household shrine is in the northeast and
the conjugal bed on the southwest (Sinha, 1992).
The various rooms of the Jaisalrner house are rarely designated
for a single
activity. The foilowiug descnis a traditional Jaisalmer
home:
Women's activities are centered in the chaupala, traditionaily,
a living room, where spinning and weaving too were done, and where
the f d y ate their meds or enjoyed th& midday rest Here too in
one of the fiont niches the family deities, usually a Devi (India
deity) or an impression of Sati's (a deity) palm were enshrined to
guard the material goods of the house or safeguard the destiny of
the members of the family. In some cases the plan of the ground
floor was repeated on the upper story which was connected by a
staircase by the side of the chaupala The arrangement of the upper
store varied slightly. There was an open terrace for sleeping in
summer and a chitrasali, with balcony and arched niches over the
ova, which served the purpose of a bed and drawing room, As the
name signifies, it was usually decorated with paintings of various
types and kept scented wth buming of perfumed oil lamps. The
adjoining room called medi was meant for keeping valuables,
money-chest and p h t e records or documents. If there was a third
story, it was an open terrace ail over the building. Only on one
side there was a s m d room for use as a bedroom in rainy season or
sumrner nights, furnished with paintings, beds and other toilet
equipment (Sharma, 1968, p.65).
Because of the arrangement of rooms around a central open space,
the courtyard
becomes the center of all circulation withui the house. It is an
important outdoor space,
especidy for women. Most daily household activities, including
washing and m g ,
take place in the courtyard. It is also a place for children to
play during the day and for
informal family meeting, to take place in the evening.
-
4.1.2.4 Environmentai factors
Most regions in India are hot and dry year roundd Houses are
built close together
sharing party walls. h order to reduce exposure to the sim,
courtyards are built namw
and deep, so the courtyard seldom receives sunsIiinee A
cornfortable microclimate is
created in the indoor spaces by the building structure-
The courtyard housing fonn in M a varies dependhg upon the
region, but
because for religious, cdtaral, m i a l and climatic reasons,
they afl keep the basic id-
the center as a void In conternporary W a d w e b g design, we
can still see this basic
character-
Figure 17. Juisalrner street facade of un urban house
(Schoenauer, 1981, page 92)
-
4.2 Islamic Courtyard Housing
Islamic courtyard housing has its mots in the ancient urban
dwehgs of
Mesopotamia (Schoenauer, 198L). The fom of Islamic courtyard
satisfis social and religious needs. From palaces to nomial urban
dwellings, it is a widely adopted residence
style. In this study, Baghdad and Cordoba courtyard housing have
been chosen as they
refiect typical Islamic courtyard hooses.
4.2.1 Baghdad courtyard house
Located in the heart of Iraq, the city of Baghdad s t - keeps
its Isiamic customs.
Urban houses retain the essential features of the medieval
Islamic house: an open center
created by arcades and galleries. It is an essentially courtyard
house, usually iu square or
rectanguiar shape.
-
-
Figure 18. Section through the Baghdad Rowe (Schoenauer, 1981,
page 48) The architectural features of this courtyard housing are
its regular geometrical
shape and smooth w d s devoid of omament (Blaser. 1985) (Figure
18). The building matenai of this type of house is m-dned brick,
and the surface of courtyard is usually
-
stone, marble, or mosaic (Lehrman, 1980). Vegetation and hard
building materiai are signincantly balanced by water. The courtyard
is viewed fiom the surrounding d e
where people can sit and relax.
4.2.1.1 Territorial factors
The typicaf courtyard house in Baghdad consists of severaI rooms
mund a
central court (Figure 19). High w d s sul~ound the home,
separating it fkm the outside world The house is divided into two
Quarters* the salamilk and the hinsmilk (Schoenauer, 1997). The
salamilk serves as the public part of the house for males and their
male guests, while the haramilk is a pnvate place for the famiy. In
larger homes these two parts are
separated and have their own courtyardS. In smder homes the
separation is vertical, with
the salamilk at the ground floor and the haramillc upstairs
surrounding the single
courtyard.
The decoration on the houses covers a large part of the
building's d a c e 9 both
Street
Frgure 19. Groundfloor plan of typical Baghdad courtyard house
(the salamilk) (Schoenauer, 1981, page 42)
interior and exterior. This decoration personalities the
homes. Islamic ornament is used to define and
emphasize the hctional components. to which it
dates in scale and'character (Lehrman, 1980). Waves? spirais and
loops are the most fiequent patterns. The
-
patterns are also derived fiom plant parts, such as
waves, flowers and branches, Water is a source of life
and symbolizes punty in the Islamic world. Fountains
or pools are often found in the center of bigger
courtyards, sumomding by potted plants.
-
4.2.1.2 Social-Psychological factors
The courtyard provides a pnvate, protected space for the inner
Me of the family.
Privacy is achieved though architecturaL elements like doors,
windows, and walls. W d s
are blank with few openings, partieulady on the side facing the
street (Mazumdar, 1997). Even ifwindows are included, they are
often very small and above eye level. To enhance
privacy, a screen wail is ofien located at the entrante,
preventing direct view fiom street-
The housing form in Baghdad reflects the social statw of
residents. Wedthy
families often have two or more courtyards, one for the public
use, and the others for the
family. The smaller homes feature only one courtyard.
4.2.1.3 Cultural factors
The Islamic housing form is strongly influenced by religion and
gender factors.
Orientation is particularly important to M u s b s . Those
praying are required to face the
direction of Mecca. Houses made to face south or southwest
towards Mecca are preferred
(Mazumder, 1 997). Social life in Iraq is still very
traditional. The male is the head of the family.
Women are generally required to remain separate nom men who are
not related to them
by blood or marriage (Al-Azzaw, 1969). Consequently women can
not be seen by male strangers. In a f d y , men and women have
separate entertainment areas and separate
entrances. Male visitors are not allowed to go any M e r in the
house than the salamilk.
Knockers have different sound for male and female visitors, and
women in the f d y are
not supposed to see the male guests (Al-Azzawi, 1969). The
courtyard is the focal point of the house and acts as a pnvate
social gathering
place for the family, especiaily for women. Daily activities and
famiy celebrations take
-
place here- It is also a safe area for children to play. Because
of its central position, the
courtyard becomes the center of all circulation within the
house. By all means, the
courtyard meets the need of privacy for ali farnily
activities-
4.2-1 -4 Environmental factors
Iraq is very hot and dry in sumxner and mild in winter. The
housing design creates
a favorable microclimatic condition in its interior. The houses
are grouped closely
together to prevent exposnre to the sim, and courtyards are kept
smaU to reduce the
exposed area In bigger courtyards, water fountains, bas&, as
well as planted or potted
trees, create a coolhg effect in the courtyard. Arcades provide
cool shade for adjacent rooms. In addition, the courtyard is
usually washed at least once a &y to raise the relative
humidity ( A l - m w i , 1969)- These help to keep the extemal
environment cool. Depending on the season of the year and the time
of the day, spaces in the house
have different fiinctions. For example, a room that is used as a
bedroom becomes a living
room in summer as roof terraces are cooler and more desirable
for sleeping- The multiple
use of spaces offers maximum cornfort at any given tirne.
The courtyard housing form in Iraq is strongly influenced by
local culture and its
climate. From site planning, the room layout and space use,
these requirements are best
met by the courtyard concept. Even today, when new courtyard
houses are built with
some Western characteristics, people still prefer traditional
Islamic houses.
-
Figure 20. Baghdad: Northeast corner of courtyurd (bared on
Schoenauer, 1981) e
-
4.2.2 Cordoba courtyard house
Like other Spanish cities, Cordoba urban houses carry Islamic
architecture
features. When the Muslims conquered Spain during the 7fi
century, Cordoba became the
capital of the Islamic worfd. From 755 to 1031, Cordoba, one of
the greatest Islamic
centers of culture, and was caled the ''Mecca o f the West"
Wewton, 1974). Cordoba houses represent Moorish culture: houses
with an endosad courtyard
that emphasizes f d y privacy. It is also a response to a
hot-dry climate and a denseIy
urban setting. The architectural detail is strongly Moorish with
Spanish modifications
(Figure 21).
Figure 21. Section drawing of Cordoba courtyurd house (Reynol'
and Lowry, 1996, page 13 7) 4.2.2.1 Territorial factors
The courtyards in Cordoba are enclosed by walls or buildings,
thus formed by,
and integral to, the surromding architecture (Figure 22).
Courtyards are usually square or rectangular. Individual homes are
connected by narrow streets and shared w d s (Figure
23). High walls and an iron gate separate the family fiom
others. A quiet, cool zaguan (a doorway fiom street to courtyard)
is the cornecion to the outside and creates a contrast with the
noisy street. Unlike the traditional Western courtyard housing,
most of the
courtyards in Cordoba are asymmetrical, and many lack arcades on
several sides
(Reynolds and Lowry, 1996).
-
5-, Sm- ,
The Cordoba courtyard is usuaiLy
surfaceci with stone or marble. The w d s of the
building were but of rough m a s o q finished
on the exterior with stucco (polyzoides, 1982). The wntrast of
the red tile roof and white
w d s creates a unique streetscape.
Plants and trees in the c0mfya.d soften
the hard d a c e and obstnict the view fiom the , Figure 22.
Main/Iiwrplan of street. Potted plants can be moved in the !
Cordoba cowtyard house (ReynoI&
d L o w r y , 1996. page 136) . -
courtyard dependhg on the seasons. As the
focus of the courtyard, water is suppiied fiom a fountain or
containeci in a pool.
4.2.2.2 Sociai-Psychologidfacton
The courtyard provides a pnvate space, but aliows a selected vew
from the Street
through the zaguan to the courtyard. A dense concentration of
vegetation often stops this
view near the center of the courtyard (Reynolds and Lowry,
1996), so the activities in the
arcades around the courtyard can go on
in privacy. An iron gate is placed inside
the zaguan, preventing pedestrian -
passage. However, it aiiows the sounds
of &g water and singing birds to
pass to the street. When more complete
Figure 23. The Iayout of cour@md houses - pnvacy is desired,
"solid wooden doors
in Cordoba (teynolcls and Lowry, 1996, page 136) shut off the
zaguan at the side walk.
-
This is typicdy done at night, and sometima during siesta. This
acts as an well-
understood signal: if the wooden door is closed, do not disturb"
(Reynolds and bwry,
1996).
The household's social status is hard to detemine fiom
characteristics of the
house. Poor and nch ltYe side by side. Sometimes, however,
wealthy families have more
valuables in the courtyards, Iike prized roses, rare trees,
fountains of costly maten*als
and intrcate design-
4.2.2.3 Cultural factors
The courtyards are used for mmy activities such as children's
play, cooking,
eating, sleeping and hanging clothes to dry. Because the
courtyard is at the center of the
dwelling, it permits circulation among the rooms. The arcades
around the courtyard ate
highly used during the daytime because of the good views into
the courtyard and because
they are better lit by daylight than the rooms behind them. It
is a favorite place for
people's reading, sewing, or just relaxing. For this reason,
arcades are designed wide enough for both circulation and for
placing chairs, s m d tables, or even sewing machines.
4.2.2.4 Environmental factors
Like other Mediterranean areas, Cordoba is hot in summeer and
mild in whter-
The courtyard supplies light and cool air to the surounding
rooms thanks to both ninning
water and potted plants. White walls reflect more than half of
the sun's radiation
(Reynolds and Lowry, 1996). Arcades separate the courtyard walIs
fiom other rooms, and
as a result these rooms are much cooler and much darker.
Courtyard floors also help to cool the air as they "utilize some
combination of
earth, dark porous brick, pebbles set in mortar, or unglazed
tile. Al1 these hold moisture
-
and thus increase the tirne ova which evaporative coolhg c m
occur" @eynolds and
Lowry, L996)-
Figure 24. View of courtyardfiom arcade (Bosed on Schoemer,
19881)
-
4.3 Traditional Western Courtyard Housing
Traditionai Western courtyard housing refers to d e n t Greek
and Roman
courtyard housing in this study. Cowtyard housing in Greece and
Rome were developed
in the 4& to 5& centunes BC. It has long history and has
influenced Iater Meditenanean
courtyard housing, as welI as contemporary courtyard housing in
northem America
4.3.1 Greek courtyard house
Ancient Greek courtyard houses are single-stoned structures.
Larger homes may
have two stories. The homes are built of mud, brick, or stone
with floors of hard-packed
earth or mosaic (Schoenauer, 1981). The construction of the
wails is brick, the roof
covering is tile and the co1ll~nns and roof-supporthg structure
is Iargely stone or wood
(Figure 25).
Figure 25. Section d d g of ancient Greek Courtyard
4.3.1.1 Territorial factors
The central space of the Greek
surrouuded on three or four sides by
courtyard house is the peristyle. A courtyard is -
colonnades, which give access to the adjacent rooms. Entrance to
the centrai courtyard is though a narrow chamber, which is the
only
link to the outside world. The house is divided into two parts.
The k t part of the house,
that closest to the main entrance, is calied the andronitis
while the second part is calleci
-
.
the gynaeconitis. The fornier is designatecl for r
men and guests, and the latter for women and
>: - children. Normdy, guests c m not go M e r k ! d
Figure 26. Plan of Greek Penstyie hose (Schoenauer, 1982, page
210)
than the andronitis.
The courtyard ground is either hard
paved or hard-packed earth with Lttle
vegetatioe Columns surround the empty
courtyard for daily activities. The completely
closed form gives residents a strong feeling of
control and security (Figure 26). 4.3.1.2 Sodai-Psychologieal
factors
Pnvacy is the key element in ancient
Greek courtyard housing. Buildings on four
sides enclose the courtyard, and the only link
to the outside is a narrow chamber. Extemal
walls have few openings and most of windows
open onto the courtyard. This results in street
elevations that are simple and modest A wall Iocated at the
entrance screens the -
courtyard' emphasizing the privacy of the house.
The courtyard form reflects the owner's social status. The
number of the rooms
and the size of the dwelling Vary according to the wealth of the
family. Normaliy wealthy
families have two or more courtyards and smaii homes feature
only one courtyard.
-
Because of the simple design of extemai walls, the social stanis
of the occupants is rarely
recognizable by the exterior, though the interior can be
lavish.
4.3.1.3 Cultural factors
The preferred Greek courtyard plan is a symmetrical form with
the main entrance
on the axis of symmetry- This fom reflects the intemal structure
of the Greek family,
especially the role and social position of the woman. In ancient
Greece, women seldom
went out, so most household activities such as washing, dqng,
and watchg children
playing took place in the courtyard. Guests can only stay in the
andronitis part of the
house.
4.3.1.4 Environmental factors
Like other Mediterranean countries, Greece is hot in summer and
mild in winter.
The courtyard is smali and deep, surromdeci by corridors. Houses
are grouped together to
prevent exposure to the m. Comdors around the courtyard a o r d
protection against sun
and rah, and also creating coohg effects for adjacent rooms.
-
4.3.2 Roman courtyard house
The typical Roman courtyard house was adapteci h m Greek
courtyard housing. It
is characterized by an axial plan with a central halI and open
skylight, which began as a
smoke hole and later evolved to a courtyard well and atrium. An
ancient Roman
courtyard housing has the foiiowing arrangement,
Facing the entrance way, or fuuces, and across the atrium, the
central courtyard, was the tabiinm, orginalIy perhaps the main
bed-room but later a record depository and reception mm. The
principal space of the house was, of course, the atrium. Its fa,
end was flanked by two alae, or alcoves. At the rear of the
tablinum and accessible through a corridor adjacent to this
reception room was an horl~lus, an enclosed garden, no doubt
afKording an admirable Vista dong the axial sequence starting h m
the entrance, then through the atrium space and the tablinum, and
ending in the smaU garden (Schoenauer, 1981, page 229). Most of the
Roman atrium houses are one-story buildings. Viewed h m
outside,
they are s m d and similar. The facades are rather simple with
few openings toward the
nmow Street and are interrupted only by necessary doors. In
contrast, courtyards are
lavishly adomed by fountains, statues and vases (figure 27). The
floors are patterned rnosaic or marble, the w d s are decorated
with frescos, and the ceiling thbers are ofkn
gilded (Schoenauer, 198 1).
Figure 2 7. Section drawing ofRoman atrium house (Schoenauer,
1981, page 232)
-
4.3.2.1 Territorial factors
The typical Roman a h house has two rectangular interior
courtyards. The
srnaller one is called the atrium and the Iarger one smounded by
columns is the persiyle.
The atrium with its surrounding area formed the public section
of the house for guests
and slaves, while the peristyle section is a private or f d y
quarter. The atrium is Iinked
to the peristyle area by namw passageways or a reception room
(Figure 28). Entrance to the house is o h though a narrow hallway.
A wooden h n t door is
usually decorated and carefblly lighted. The door led people to
the hallway which opens
into the atrium. The household god is placed in the hallway with
a lamp buming in his
honor and guarded by a slave (Schoenauer, 1981).
0 - p - % Figure 28. Plan of Roman atrium house (Schoenauer,
1981. page 230)
Fountains or statues are often found in the center of
the atrium or peristyIe. The peristyle sometimes serves as a
garden with climbing vines and potted plants. In this
courtyard house, bedrooms and ciining rooms are richly
decorated reflecting the occupant's personal taste.
4.3.2.2 Social-Psychological factors
In Roman atrium houses, courtyards are surounded
by high walls or buildings. External walls have few -
openings except the necessary doors. Most windows open
onto the courtyards or onto an enclosed garden in the rear.
This results in a simple and homogenous streetscape.
Social status is reflected in the size of the atrium
house. Wealthy fdl ies have bigger homes, including
-
atrium, pexistyle and a big rem garden. Smalier homes often lack
the rear garden, and the
peristyle serves as a court garden-
4.3.2.3 Cultural factors
In ancient Roman culture, women were encouraged to stay at home,
and male
guests normaily could not see female members of the f d y - The
house divides into two
sections, the atrium section and the perstyfe section, to
accomplish this separation. The
atrium is a public part of the home and guests can stay in this
section ody. The peristyie
section is for family activities. Bedrooms, dining room, living
room, and kitchen group
aromd the peristyle courtyard, which provides the source of
light and air for these rooms.
The courtyard serves as an outdoor Living room in the peristyle
section,
especidy for women. It is almost the only place for women to
engage in the outdoor
activities. The courtyard is also a f a d y gathering place and
a safe playground for
c hildren.
4