1 Gumperz and Interactional Sociolinguistics Cynthia Gordon 1. Introduction and overview Interactional sociolinguistics is a qualitative, interpretative approach to the analysis of social interaction that developed at the intersection of linguistics, anthropology and sociology. It emerged primarily out of the work of anthropological linguist John J. Gumperz, who, in his field research in the tradition of the ethnography of communication in the 1960s and 1970s, observed immense linguistic and cultural diversity in everyday talk, and sought to devise a method for analyzing and understanding this diversity, and for testing hypotheses gained from doing ethnography through the collection and analysis of actual texts. Its development was also motivated by Gumperz‟s interest in investigating intercultural encounters characteristic of many modern urban areas, as well as by his concern for social justice. As an „approach to discourse‟ (Schiffrin 1994), interactional sociolinguistics (IS) offers theories and methods that enable researchers to explore not only how language works but also to gain insights into the social processes through which individuals build and maintain relationships, exercise power, project and negotiate identities, and create communities. IS methodology involves an ethnographic component (observations of speakers in naturally-occurring contexts and participant-observation), audio- and/or video-recording of interactions, detailed linguistic transcription of recorded conversations, careful micro-analysis of conversational features in the context of the
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
1
Gumperz and Interactional Sociolinguistics
Cynthia Gordon
1. Introduction and overview
Interactional sociolinguistics is a qualitative, interpretative approach to the
analysis of social interaction that developed at the intersection of linguistics,
anthropology and sociology. It emerged primarily out of the work of anthropological
linguist John J. Gumperz, who, in his field research in the tradition of the ethnography of
communication in the 1960s and 1970s, observed immense linguistic and cultural
diversity in everyday talk, and sought to devise a method for analyzing and understanding
this diversity, and for testing hypotheses gained from doing ethnography through the
collection and analysis of actual texts. Its development was also motivated by Gumperz‟s
interest in investigating intercultural encounters characteristic of many modern urban
areas, as well as by his concern for social justice.
As an „approach to discourse‟ (Schiffrin 1994), interactional sociolinguistics (IS)
offers theories and methods that enable researchers to explore not only how language
works but also to gain insights into the social processes through which individuals build
and maintain relationships, exercise power, project and negotiate identities, and create
communities. IS methodology involves an ethnographic component (observations of
speakers in naturally-occurring contexts and participant-observation), audio- and/or
video-recording of interactions, detailed linguistic transcription of recorded
conversations, careful micro-analysis of conversational features in the context of the
2
information gained through ethnography, and sometimes, post-recording interviews. The
key theoretical contributions of IS are to explain how speakers use signalling
mechanisms, or „contextualization cues‟ (Gumperz, 1978, 1982a, 1982b, 1992a, 1992b,
1999b, 2001), often prosodic (like intonation, stress, pitch register) or paralinguistic (like
tempo, pausing, hesitation) in nature, to indicate how they mean what they say, and how
listeners, through a nuanced, context-bound process Gumperz calls „conversational
inference‟, recognize and interpret contextualization cues through their own culturally-
shaped background knowledge. In a foundational book investigating linguistic diversity
in interaction, Discourse Strategies, Gumperz (1982a) suggests that communicative
experiences lead to expectations regarding how to use contextualization cues; this study
also demonstrates how members of diverse cultural groups often understand and employ
these cues differently. Importantly, when interactional participants have dissimilar
„contextualization conventions‟ (Gumperz, 1982a)—that is, different ways of
conventionally using and interpreting contextualization cues—misunderstandings and
conversational breakdown can occur. Such breakdowns, Gumperz suggests, ultimately
can contribute to larger social problems such as ethnic stereotyping and differential
access to information and opportunities.
Conversational inference and the related notion of contextualization cues
constitute an interactive theory of meaning-making that was designed to investigate
intercultural communication and conflict based on cultural differences; in fact it has been
suggested that the approach pioneered by Gumperz „provides the most systematic
investigations of such conflict‟ (Maynard, 1988:315). It also offers a means of
performing micro-analysis of interaction in light of macro-societal issues like institutional
3
discrimination, thus taking part in an ongoing quest in sociolinguistics to link the „micro‟
and the „macro‟ in meaningful ways (e.g., Erickson, 2004; Scollon and Scollon, 2004).
Further, IS offers a linguistic approach to the contemporary, constructionist
understanding of identity put forth by researchers from a range of disciplinary
perspectives (Goffman, 1959; Berger and Luckmann, 1966; Ochs, 1993; Holstein and
Gubrium, 2007; see also Chapter 11 this volume). It has also made important
contributions to the social scientific study of language in general, complementing other
approaches aimed at understanding language from both structural and functional
perspectives, such as Conversation Analysis and linguistic pragmatics. Additionally, IS
has reached beyond the „ivory tower‟ to offer non-academics a means of understanding
the role of language in social relationships, ways of identifying causes of
miscommunication, and strategies for improving communication. Gumperz, for instance,
served as a consultant for an educational B.B.C. television programme called Crosstalk
(Twitchin, 1979) which addressed the subtleties of intercultural communication in
multicultural workplaces in London; in addition, his work inspired other scholars to
share, with nonacademic audiences, sociolinguistic insights into everyday interactional
dynamics.
This chapter presents an historical overview of IS, focusing on the research of
Gumperz as well as of other scholars who have made significant contributions to the
development of the approach. It outlines IS‟s primary inspirations, goals, topical foci,
theoretical constructs, and methods. It also describes contemporary research in IS,
identifying it as topically diverse, theoretically rich, and poised to address increasingly
interdisciplinary research questions.
4
The main section of this paper traces the development of IS in detail, focusing
primarily on the work of its founder, John Gumperz, and highlighting how, in
formulating the key concepts and methodological frameworks of IS, he incorporated
insights from scholars who examine interaction and meaning from a range of disciplinary
perspectives (Section 2). I focus in particular on the methodological insights Gumperz
developed in collaboration with Dell Hymes and through exposure to Conversation
Analysis, the theoretical insights he gleaned from scholars such as Erving Goffman,
Harold Garfinkel, and H. P. Grice, and IS theory developments contributed by Gumperz‟s
student Deborah Tannen in the light of Robin Lakoff‟s work. I also situate Gumperz‟s
work in larger research trajectories in the field of linguistics. Next, I give a brief
overview of five major research trajectories to which Gumperz‟s research in IS has
contributed substantially: code-switching and language contact; intercultural
communication; language and gender; discursive identity construction; and language,
power and institutions (Section 3). Finally, I discuss possible future directions of IS, in
particular in the context of growing interests in interdisciplinary research (Section 4).
2. John J. Gumperz and the Development of Interactional Sociolinguistics
2.1 Academic Biography1
John J. Gumperz was born in 1922 in Germany; fleeing Germany pre-Holocaust,
he came to the United States in 1939. He served in the U.S. Army; it has been suggested
that his later academic interests in intercultural communication and social justice may
5
have taken root in part as a result of his emigration and military experiences. Gumperz
received his bachelor‟s degree in science from the University of Ohio, Cincinnati in
1947, but after attending Linguistic Institute lectures as a graduate student in chemistry at
the University of Michigan, he redirected his studies to linguistics. Gumperz received his
Ph.D. in Germanic Linguistics in 1954 from the University of Michigan, where he
studied with Kenneth Pike and Hans Kurath. His dissertation examined variables of a
German dialect spoken by third generation immigrants in southeastern Michigan and
linked these variables to social and religious groupings of individuals, setting the scene
for his later research.
Gumperz went to Cornell University to teach as an instructor before finishing his
degree. After receiving his Ph.D., Gumperz was invited to serve as the head of Cornell‟s
Hindi language training programme; he subsequently went to India to do post-doctoral
research in sociolinguistics as part of an interdisciplinary research team. In 1956, he
began collaborating with linguist Charles Ferguson at Deccan College (in India) on
language diversity issues when both were visiting faculty there. Ferguson and Gumperz
(1960) co-edited Linguistic Diversity in South Asia, a special issue of the International
Journal of American Linguistics, which, in William Labov‟s (2003: 5) words, provides
„the most important general statement‟ of the principles of the then young field of
sociolinguistics. Gumperz gained more fieldwork experience in Norway in the 1960s,
further fuelling his interests in linguistic diversity. The Norway study also resulted in a
publication on code-switching (Blom and Gumperz, 1972) in which forms and functions
of code-switching are investigated in a novel way—as tied to situation (situational
switching) and as tied to participants‟ relationships and their signaling of how the listener
6
should interpret what the speaker says (metaphorical switching). As Kathryn Woolard
(2004: 75), a student of Gumperz, remarks, his work „has had not only seminal but
enduring influence on the accepted anthropological view on codeswitching‟. Importantly,
the Norway study also proved foundational for Gumperz‟s development of the notion of
contextualization cues in the IS framework: code-switching, such as use of pitch,
intonation, pausing, gesture, and other contextualization cues, can be used to signal how
verbal messages should be interpreted.
After his research in India, Gumperz was invited to design a Hindi-Urdu
programme at the University of California, Berkeley. A number of his studies around that
time focused specifically on conversational Hindi-Urdu (Gumperz, 1958, 1960, 1963;
Gumperz and Naim, 1960; Gumperz and Rumery, 1963), but he increasingly grew
interested in sociolinguistic aspects of language use across different cultural groups. At
Berkeley, Gumperz served as chairperson for South and South-East Asian Studies (from
1968 to 1971); he also served as a faculty member in the Department of Anthropology,
becoming a full professor in Anthropology in 1965. While affiliated with Berkley,
Gumperz has taken opportunities to cultivate connections with scholars in Europe,
especially in Austria, Germany, and the U. K., as well as with scholars in the United
States. He is currently an emeritus professor at Berkeley, and is affiliated with the
University of California Santa-Barbara as a faculty member of an interdisciplinary
research group and a Ph.D. emphasis both called Language, Interaction and Social
Organization (LISO).
In establishing IS as an approach, Gumperz has explored topics as varied as
language diversity, language contact, bilingualism, language and educational issues, and
7
interethnic communication. With Dell Hymes, Gumperz co-edited two volumes key to
the ethnography of communication (Gumperz and Hymes, 1964, 1972). His book
Discourse Strategies (Gumperz, 1982a) and its companion edited volume, Language and
Social Identity (Gumperz, 1982b), are viewed as groundbreaking in the study of issues of
language and culture and as foundational IS texts. Discourse Strategies marks the
beginning of Gumperz‟s current, ongoing research looking at interethnic and intercultural
communication, communication and social background, and the social significance of
details of communication (Prevignano and di Luzio, 2003). Language and Social Identity
consists of essays by students and postdoctoral researchers working with Gumperz—
among them Monica Heller, Daniel Maltz, Ruth Borker, Celia Roberts, T.C. Jupp and
Deborah Tannen—and by his spouse, and frequent co-author, Jenny Cook-Gumperz.
In the 1990s, Gumperz continued to refine his approach, linking conversational
inference to Michael Silverstein‟s (1992, 1993) work on indexicality and conceptualizing
contextualization cues as a class of indexicals (Gumperz, 2003), while also applying it to
new institutional contexts in collaborative work (Cook-Gumperz and Gumperz, 1996,
1997, 2002) and furthering investigation of contextualization processes (as seen in
Gumperz‟s contributions to two key IS edited volumes: Auer and di Luzio‟s
Contextualization in Language, and Duranti and Goodwin‟s Rethinking Context, both
published in 1992). In conjunction with his former student Stephen Levinson, Gumperz
co-edited a volume reexamining the influential „Whorf hypothesis‟ (Gumperz and
Levinson, 1996). In recent years, Gumperz (1999b, 2001) has taken opportunities to write
reflective essays about IS. Additionally, he discusses his approach in Language and
Interaction: Discussions with John J. Gumperz (Eerdmans, Prevignano and Thibault,
8
2003). This book includes two interviews with Gumperz (Prevignano and di Luzio, 2003;
Prevignano and Thibault, 2003) in which he talks about the motivations of his work,
explains in detail his conceptualization of contextualization cues, and outlines
connections he sees between his approach and others, such as Conversation Analysis and
Silverstein‟s semiotics. It also includes commentaries on Gumperz‟s work by researchers
such as Levinson (2003). In a response essay, Gumperz (2003) addresses issues brought
up by these commentaries.
In total, Gumperz has more than 100 published books, chapters and articles over
the span of his career. He has also received many academic accolades, has served on the
editorial boards of numerous academic journals, and is founding editor of the influential
Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics book series (in which Discourse Strategies is the
first volume). Through his classes at Berkeley and visits to other universities in both the
United States and abroad, Gumperz has introduced IS and issues of language and
communication to students of interaction around the world. His approach is viewed as a
key part of sociolinguistic research programmes in various European countries, such as
Greece (Tsitsipis, 2006) and the U. K. (Rampton, 2007). Gumperz has been identified not
only as the founder of IS, but also as „one of the foundational spirits in the broader field
of sociolinguistics itself‟ (Levinson, 2003:43).
2.2 Social and Moral Motivations in the Development of IS
IS emerged as Gumperz was developing „replicable methods of qualitative
analysis that account for our ability to interpret what participants intend to convey in
9
everyday communicative practice‟ (Gumperz, 2001: 215). However, although as an
approach to discourse IS gives insight into conversation as an entity in general, and into
meaning-making processes in particular, it did not develop out of an interest in
„interaction in the abstract‟, but rather as a means of exploring linguistic and cultural
diversity in everyday talk (Gumperz, 2003: 105). As Duranti and Goodwin (1992a: 229-
230) note, „Gumperz‟[s] work is unique for his ability to merge intellectual, social, and
moral considerations within his analytical apparatus‟; that is, Gumperz developed IS as a
way of not only explicating the interpretive procedures underlying talk, but also to
address the consequences of real-life, everyday conversational misunderstandings
between members of different cultural groups.
The „social‟ considerations of IS emerge through Gumperz‟s interest in
understanding and explaining instances of miscommunication he observed in various
fieldwork studies he undertook in India, Europe and the United States, and in trying to
contribute to improving intercultural communication in increasingly diverse areas,
particularly urban areas. For instance, in a now classic case-study example, Gumperz was
invited to observe interactions between members of two groups suffering strained
interactions and feelings of ill-will at work: native British cargo handlers and the Indian
and Pakistani staff cafeteria workers who served their meals at a major British airport
(Gumperz, 1982a, chapter 8). Gumperz observed cultural differences in uses of—and
expectations regarding—intonation, a key contextualization cue. When the Indian and
Pakistani cafeteria workers offered a serving of gravy, for instance, they did not use
rising intonation as most native British English speakers would. Instead, they uttered
„gravy‟ with a flat intonation because, to them, this was a culturally polite way of
10
offering something. To native British English speakers, who had different expectations
regarding intonation, this sounded rude; they thus misinterpreted the cafeteria workers‟
intentions. Calling into attention this seemingly minor difference in intonation usage and
discussing it with members of both groups actually improved communication and inter-
group perceptions. In this way, IS research clearly has practical social implications; it
„may lead to an explanation for the endemic and increasingly serious communication
problems that affect private and public affairs in our society‟ (Gumperz, 1982a: 172).
This is particularly important as workplaces—and nations—become increasingly diverse.
The „moral‟ considerations Duranti and Goodwin (1992a) mention relate to social
injustices. Gumperz‟s work explores issues such as misattribution of intent, stereotyping,
and discrimination in the context of interaction, in particular against ethnic minorities.
Following the work of Frederick Erickson (1975), Gumperz investigates the role of
language in enacting discrimination in „gatekeeping encounters‟; these are encounters in
which „two persons meet, usually as strangers, with one of them having authority to make
decisions that affect the other‟s future‟ (Erickson and Schultz, 1982: xi). In such
encounters, the consequences of misunderstandings can be very serious, especially for the
person not in the authority position. In many of Gumperz‟s case studies, the participants
have different expectations about contextualization conventions and/or mismatches
regarding the nature of the institutional encounter in which they are involved. Thus,
miscommunication does occur, and the person seeking access, usually an individual from
an ethnic minority group, risks being denied material goods, a job prospect, or some other
resource. For example, in a tape-recorded interview-counselling session that Gumperz
(1982a, Chapter 8) analyzes, a Pakistani teacher who has been unable to secure
11
permanent employment in London has an unsuccessful exchange with the native British
staff counsellor whose job it is to help him, largely due to different expectations about
what needs to be said in the session and to different uses of prosodic and paralinguistic
features like rhythm and intonation. Careful turn-by-turn analysis of the recording reveals
that their interaction is rhythmically asynchronous and the speakers never achieve a joint
understanding of where the interaction is going at any given time. In other words, they
seem to be „on parallel tracks which don‟t meet‟ (Gumperz and Roberts, 1980; as cited in
Gumperz, 1982a:185). Thus, the teacher does not receive the support he needs and the
staff counsellor is not able to do her job effectively. One motivation of many IS studies,
including many by Gumperz, is the belief that by uncovering cultural differences and by
educating people about them, some such misunderstandings can be circumvented, thereby
decreasing the likelihood of unintentional discrimination or denial of resources based on
misinterpretation of culture-specific uses of contextualization cues.
In line with this belief, Gumperz has participated in public educational efforts. As
mentioned, he served as a consultant on an educational programme called Crosstalk,
which was broadcast on B.B.C. television in 1979. As part of a ten-part series called
Multi-Racial Britain, Crosstalk aimed to help develop awareness of possible causes of
intercultural miscommunication in workplaces, as well as to draw attention to the role of
language in stereotyping and discrimination. Written materials were also prepared by
Gumperz and his colleagues to accompany the programme (Gumperz et al., 1979, 1980).
Crosstalk, while serving as a useful tool for educating the general public at the time it
was aired, has applications for formal educational contexts too, such as for teaching
English as a foreign language and for teacher training (Baxter and Levine, 1982), as well
12
as for courses in intercultural communication (Kiesling and Paulston, 2005: 2). It also
inspired later work aimed at general audiences, such as an educational video focused on
communication between Native Alaskans and non-Natives called Interethnic
Communication (Scollon and Jones, 1979), and, more famously, general audience books
by Tannen (1986, 1990) that examine various kinds of cross-cultural and cross-sub-
cultural communication.
2.3 The Development of IS: Gumperz and his Major Intellectual Influences
The research programme of Gumperz and his development of IS grew not only
out of interest in the social issues facing diversifying societies, but also out of Gumperz‟s
training in structural linguistics, his contact with scholars from various fields interested in
interaction, qualitative methodologies, and meaning-making, and broader movements in
linguistics in the 1960s through to the 1980s. Gumperz‟s linguistics background, contacts
with anthropologists, sociologists, language philosophers, and other linguists, and
participation in larger language debates contributed substantially to the development of
IS.
2.3.1 A Starting Point: Bloomfield and Structural Linguistics
Gumperz‟s linguistic training was in the tradition of Saussure, Sapir and
Bloomfield (Prevignano and di Luzio, 2003: 8); Gumperz specifically recognizes
Leonard Bloomfield‟s (1933) book Language, a pioneering work in American structural
13
linguistics, as having influenced and motivated some of his early reflections. As linguistic
anthropologist (and Gumperz‟s student) Michael Agar (1994: 16) notes, structural
linguistics „puts a circle‟ around language, meaning that it separates grammar from its
cultural context. However, Gumperz observes that structuralists‟ „basic insights into
linguistic, that is, phonological and syntactic competence and their approach to speaking
as a partially subconscious process, continue to be useful‟ despite shortcomings of the
approach (Prevignano and di Luzio, 2003: 20). As we will see, Gumperz utilizes the
notion of „competence‟ in a similar sense to Hymes‟s „communicative competence‟. He
also draws on a view of speaking as a partially „subconscious‟ or „automatic‟
phenomenon in examining how interpretations are actually made in interaction (see, e.g.,
Gumperz, 1982a). Thus he extends basic ideas from structural linguistics into social and
cultural realms.
Structural linguistics also motivated Gumperz‟s research in a more specific way:
Gumperz cites as a starting point for him Bloomfield‟s thinking on regional linguistic
diversity as it is interconnected with patterning of interpersonal contacts. Bloomfield‟s
work offered „an initial outline of a theory of diversity that rests on human interaction as
an analytical prime, and does not rely on a priori assumptions about ethnic, class or
group identity‟ (Gumperz, 2003: 106). Gumperz (2003: 107) reports that a common
assumption in the 1950s and 1960s was that communication between members of
different social groups was problematic, yet, frustratingly, there was a lack of empirical
evidence supporting this assumption. Therefore, he „set out to explore the validity of the
interactional approach to diversity‟ that he saw seeds of in Bloomfield‟s work (Gumperz,
14
2003:107). Building on this, in research over the course of his career, Gumperz would
move to erase „the circle‟ that disconnects language from social life.
2.3.2 An Anthropological Perspective: Hymes and the Ethnography of Communication
In order to investigate diversity in interaction, in the 1960s Gumperz turned to
anthropological methods while collaborating with Dell Hymes, who was then developing
the ethnography of communication (see Gumperz and Hymes 1964, 1972; Chapter 3, this
volume). In fact, Gumperz‟s use of ethnographic methods goes further back, at least to
his time in India: Ferguson and Gumperz (1960), for example, undertook an exploration
of language contact „through qualitative methods involving work with informants,
informal observations, and (sometimes) questionnaires‟ (Duranti, 2001: 5). The
ethnography of communication, however, provided a systematic set of qualitative
methodologies offering a means of analyzing „patterns of communication as part of
cultural knowledge and behavior‟ (Schiffrin, 1994: 137). Importantly, ethnographic
methods differ greatly from those of structural linguistics. Rather than contrasting formal
units, such as sounds or sentence structures, across languages, ethnographers undertake
in-depth fieldwork, usually involving participant-observation and interviewing. From
relatively long-term observation and engagement with the community under study,
ethnographers learn things about people and the diverse ways in which they use language
that can only be discovered and understood over time. To use Pike‟s (1967) terms,
ethnographers of communication are interested in viewing data from both etic and emic
perspectives (see Carbaugh and Hastings, 1992). In other words, analysis needs to go
15
beyond a general perspective and occur „in terms of categories which account for native
perceptions of significance‟ (Gumperz, 1982a: 15). This is important because it extends
beyond describing grammatical structures to the more problematic—and, for Gumperz,
more consequential—task of identifying culturally meaningful categories, the
relationships between them, and how language plays into their creation and maintenance.
This kind of anthropological „thick description‟ (Geertz, 1973) can be said to
characterize Gumperz‟s research, even during the early formation of IS. In Rampton‟s
(2007: 597) words, „Gumperz‟s work stands out for its empirical reconciliation of
linguistics and ethnography‟. For example, Gumperz‟s fieldwork in a caste-stratified
North Indian village and a small, homogeneous town in northern Norway led to the
development of means of exploring language diversity as firmly embedded in specific
aspects of sociocultural life, giving an emic understanding of the data (see Gumperz,
1971). His findings indicated that social interaction—frequency and quality of interaction
among individuals, specifically—explained the linguistic distinctions he observed.
Category labels put on people like „touchable‟ and „untouchable‟ (terms of social
categorization then used in many Indian communities) were not sufficient to explain what
was going on. In addition, ideologies of interpersonal relations—who should interact with
whom, and in what way—further explicated patterns of language use in these two locales.
Gumperz thus discovered information about what Hymes (1972: 277) refers to as
speakers‟ „communicative competence‟, which includes information such as „when to
speak, when not‟ and „what to talk about with whom, when, where, in what manner‟,
going far beyond the grammatical knowledge described by structuralists.
16
2.3.3 Studying Interaction and Conceptualizing Knowledge: Goffman and Garfinkel
The notion of „communicative competence‟ suggests that in interacting, speakers
follow not only grammatical rules, but also social rules, such as regarding what kinds of
conversational topics are appropriate for what kinds of situations. In order to get at social
rules in a meaningful way, Gumperz reached beyond linguistics and anthropology to
build into IS elements of sociologist Erving Goffman‟s work on the „interaction order‟
and ethnomethodologist Harold Garfinkel‟s interest in the interpretive processes and
background knowledge needed to keep interaction going. In fact, Gumperz has
commented, „In my approach to interaction, I take a position somewhat between that of
Erving Goffman and Harold Garfinkel‟ (Prevignano and di Luzio, 2003: 8).
Although Goffman „does not analyze language per se‟ (Schiffrin, 1994: 102),
Gumperz views him as a „sociological predecessor‟ of his own work (Gumperz, 2001:
216). Goffman (1967, 1974, 1981) contemplates face-to-face interaction with a focus on
how it is that social encounters are constructed. In other words, he recognizes the
„interaction order‟—how people behave in one another‟s co-presence and co-construct
their social worlds in everyday encounters—as a legitimate area of study. Like Goffman,
Gumperz views everyday interaction as worthy of study; further, Goffman and Gumperz
were both on the faculty at Berkeley—Gumperz in Anthropology, and Goffman in
Sociology—for a number of overlapping years (1960-1968). Gumperz also finds
inspiration in Goffman‟s work in that the notion of „interaction order‟ provides „a distinct
level of discursive organization bridging the linguistic and the social‟ (Gumperz, 2001:
17
216). However, whereas Goffman does not focus on the details of language in his work,
Gumperz, with his concept of contextualization cues, does.
Moreover, Goffman‟s observations and theorizing uncover many interesting—and
often taken-for-granted—phenomena that occur in everyday encounters; IS is able to
investigate these phenomena from a perspective that highlights the role of linguistic
features and investigates conversation as a collaborative endeavour. For example, identity
presentation, considered in Goffman‟s (1959) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life,
is examined from an IS perspective in Language and Social Identity (Gumperz, 1982b).
Additionally, identity presentation and construction continues to be a topic of interest for
IS scholars. For example, Tannen (1999), Kotthoff (2000), Kendall (2007) and others
have drawn on IS to examine the linguistic creation of gendered identities. Framing, or
how people establish and negotiate „definitions of a situation‟ (Goffman, 1974: 11),
relates to a central part of IS: invoking Silverstein‟s (1992, 1993) discussions of
indexicality, Gumperz remarks that „Contextualization cues, along with other indexical
signs, serve to retrieve the frames (in Goffman‟s sense of the term) that channel the
interpretive process‟ (Prevignano and di Luzio, 2003: 10). In other words, using a
speaker‟s contextualization cues as guidelines, a listener imagines himself or herself to be
in a particular kind of situation; this enables a listener to assess what the speaker intends.
Thus, contextualization cues are a means of collaboratively accomplishing framing in
discourse. Numerous IS scholars have demonstrated how this occurs and continue to
develop a theory of framing in the context of sociolinguistics by integrating and
extending Goffman‟s and Gumperz‟s theorizing (e.g., Tannen, 1993a). Frames theory has
been used to investigate a host of contexts, ranging from everyday family interactions
18
(e.g., Gordon, 2002, 2008; Kendall, 2006), to medical encounters (e.g., Pinto, Ribeiro and
Dantas, 2005; Ribeiro 1994; Tannen and Wallat, 1993), to moments of conversational
humour (e.g., Davies, 2003; Kotthoff, 2000, 2002). Additionally, research has
incorporated Goffman‟s (1967) work on face-saving and Brown and Levinson‟s (1987)
work on face and linguistic politeness into IS analyses, such as by Kendall (2004),
Kotthoff (2000) and Tannen (1984/2005). Building on Goffman (1981), research in the IS
tradition has also considered how alignments or „footings‟ are linguistically created and