Page 1
Guar -Galactomannans Depolymerization Assessment in
Yoghurt Prepared from Cow milk
By
Muhammad Umair Ijaz
2006-ag-1808
B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE (HONOURS)
IN
FOOD TECHNOLOGY
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE
FAISALABAD
PAKISTAN
2012
Page 2
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the contents of the thesis “Guar -Galactomannans Depolymerization Assessment
in Yoghurt Prepared from Cow milk” are creation of my own research and no part has been copied from
any published source (except the references, standard mathematical or geometrical
models/equations/formulae/protocols etc.). I further declare that this work has not been submitted for
award of any other diploma/degree. The University may take action if information provided us found
inaccurate at any stage. (In case of default the scholar will be proceeded against as per HEC plagiarism
policy).
Muhammad Umair Ijaz
2006-ag-1808
Page 3
DEDICATIONS
Dedicated To:
MY HOLY PROPHET (PBUH)
My Loving Parents
My Brother
&
My Worthy Supervisor
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Knowledge is limited and time is short to express the dignity of Almighty ALLAH, the Propitious,
the Benevolent and Sovereignty, the entire source of all the knowledge and wisdom endowed to the
mankind. Lips are trembling and eyes are wet to pray for the Holy Prophet HAZRAT MUHAMMAD
(PBUH); the bacon of enlightment, the fountain of knowledge and the messenger of peace and forever
torch of guidance for humanity.
Page 4
This thesis arose in part out of a period of research. By that time, I have worked with a number
of people whose contribution in assorted ways to the research and the making of the thesis deserved
special mention. It is a pleasure to convey my gratitude to them all in my humble acknowledgment.
I deem it utmost pleasure to avail the opportunity to express the heartiest gratitude and deep
sense of devotion to my esteemed supervisor, Prof. Dr. Tahir Zahoor for his kind guidance, assistance
and endorsement from the very early stage of this research as well as giving me extraordinary
experiences throughout the research work. This thesis would not have been possible unless his untiring
support and sponsorship. His truly scientist intuition exceptionally inspires and enriches my growth as a
student, a researcher and a scientist want to be. Above all and the most needed, he provided me
unflinching encouragement and support in various ways.
I wish to record my sincere appreciation to the members of my supervisory committee; Dr.
Aysha Sameen and Dr. Sajjad-ur-Rehman for their keen interest, incentive teaching, dynamic
supervision, and valuable comments, scholastic and constructive suggestions throughout my research
work.
Words are lacking to express my obligations to my very special friends and fellows. It gives me
great pleasure to pay thanks to my friends Tayyab Waqas , Sabahat Yaqoob , Nabeel Ahmed and Mian
Imran Sharif who helped me in all possible ways to accomplish this work. I pay ineffable gratitude and
deepest thanks to my all research fellows for their cooperation, well wishes and moral support from
time to time during the course of study.
No acknowledgments could ever adequately express my obligations to my affectionate father,
my dearly loved Mother and all family members who always raise their hands in prayers for me and I
can only say what I am today is just due to their prayers.
Muhammad Umair Ijaz
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page 5
Ch. No. TITLE Page No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE 6
3 MATERIAL AND METHODS 26
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36
5 SUMMARY 64
LITERATURE CITED 67
Page 6
LIST OF TABLES
Table # TITLE Page No.
3.1 Treatment Combinations for Product development 32
4.1 Compositional Analysis of Milk 36
4.2 Chemical analysis of Partially Depolymerized Guar Gum 37
4.3a Analysis of variance table for pH of yoghurt 39
4.3b Mean values of effect of PDGG and storage time on pH of yogurt 39
4.4a Analysis of variance table for acidity of yoghurt 41
4.4b Mean Values of Effect of Partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on acidity (%) of yogurt
41
4.5a Analysis of variance table for total solids of yogurt 43
4.5b Mean Values of Effect of Partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on total solids of yogurt
43
4.6a Analysis of variance table for viscosity of yoghurt 45
4.6b Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage period on viscosity (cps) of yoghurt
45
4.7a Analysis of variance table for hardness of yoghurt 48
4.7b Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on hardness of yoghurt
48
4.8a Analysis of variance table for synersis of yoghurt 50
4.8b Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on synersis (%) of yogurt
50
Page 7
4.9a Analysis of Variance Table for water holding capacity of yoghurt 52
4.9b Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on water holding capacity (%) of yogurt
52
4.10a Analysis of variance table for color of yoghurt 53
4.10b Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on color of yogurt
53
4.11a Analysis of variance table for appearance of yoghurt 56
4.11b Mean values of effect of guar galactomannans and storage time on
appearance of yogurt
56
4.12a Analysis of variance table for flavor of yoghurt 58
4.12b Mean values of effect of guar galactomannans and storage time on flavor of
yogurt
58
4.13a Analysis of variance table for mouth feel of yoghurt 62
4.13b Mean values of effect of guar galactomannans and storage time on mouth feel
of yogurt
62
4.14a Analysis of variance table for body and texture of yoghurt 64
4.14b Mean values of effect of guar galactomannans and storage time on body and
texture of yoghurt
64
4.15a Analysis of Variance Table for overall acceptability of yoghurt 66
4.15b Mean values of effect of guar galactomannans and storage time on overall
acceptability of yogurt
66
Page 8
Abstract
Functional Foods are gaining popularity in the world as the consumers are becoming concerned about
impacts of the diets on their health and choose to include foods in their diets, which not only meet their
nutritional requirements but also provide health benefits. Food products containing dietary fiber are
getting a promising trend worldwide because of their role as functional ingredient to enhance the
efficiency of gut microflora and increase the digestibility of food. Stabilizers and thickeners are used in
the commercial and domestic level to improve the shelf life, texture and over all look of the dairy
products. In the present study, yoghurt was developed with starter cultures containing four different
fractions of depolymerized guar galactomannans those are depolymerized at different time intervals
(i.e1, 2, 3, and 4 hours respectively). All the milk samples and depolymerized guar gum samples were
analyzed for their composition (fat, crude fiber, ash and total solids) and physiochemical (pH and acidity)
analysis. Yogurt was processed with the addition of depolymerized guar gum and subjected for its
various physico-chemical and sensory attributes to evaluate the effect of PDGG ON these attributes.Best
results were observed for the T1 and T2 containing PDGG fractions depolymerized for 1 and 2 hours
respectively in same concentration, with respect to the viscosity showing the highest mean as compared
to the lowest mean of control. On the other hand, for firmness highest mean was observed in the PDDG
samples with respect to the lowest for T0 containing no PDGG. The forced syneresis control were
observed most effective for the T2 containing PDGG having lowest means compared to the highest
means of controls, there was a significant effect of the treatments on the spontaneous syneresis of the
yogurt. T0 without PDGG has the highest syneresis while the lowest mean sample was observed for T1
and T2. The same trend was shown the results ofsensory evaluation. Best results with respect to the
textural and sensory evaluation were observed in T1 and T2 Containing Partially depolymerized guar gum
treated for 1 and 2 hours. All the analyses were performed in triplicates and subjected to the statistical
analysis.
Page 9
CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan is primarily an agricultural based country and Livestock plays a pivotal role in
its economy by providing essential items of human diet in the form of milk and meat. The annual
production of milk in Pakistan during 2006 was 38.37 billion liters and putting it 4th in the list of
the largest milk producing countries (Chaudhry, 2007). Milk is a lacteal secretion, practically
free from colostrums, obtained by complete milking of one or more healthy milk animals which
contain not less than 8.25 % of milk solids not fat and not less than 3.25% of milk fat. Milk has a
high energy density per unit of nutrients which provide us opportunity for many kinds of food
products in which milk is an ingredient which not only increases the nutritional value of foods,
but also enhances the availability of minerals. The role of milk products is vital in the human
diet. The nations in which the consumption of the milk is higher are considered healthy.
(Sukumer, 1983).
The growing consumption pattern of fermented milk products is driving force for making
different functional dairy products. Fermented dairy products provide healthy foods for
consumers, having good vitamin and mineral content and small amount of fat. (Hernández and
Harte, 2008). The new varieties of fermented milk products are regularly entering in the
consumer market and Yoghurt is probably the most popular product among all fermented milk
products because of its pleasant flavor and thick creamy consistency (Huma et al., 2003).
The word Yoghurt is associated with the Turkish "Jaukort" which means dense milk.
Different microbial culture pertaining to their respective functions like flavor production and
texture modification are used for the its production along with variety of ingredients such as
fruits, sugar and gelling agents. The culture which are normally used for the production of yogurt
are Lactobacillus Bulgaricus and Sterptococcus thermophillus and almost equal numbers of both
species should be present to develop a satisfactory flavour. (Walstra et al., 1985).The addition of
lactic acid bacteria in dairy products, causes the production of lactic acid from lactose, the milk
sugar, it works on the proteins of milk (Cogan, 2007).
Page 10
Yoghurt is an important food ingredient in most of societies. It is believed that
consumption of yoghurt and other dairy products is very beneficial for health. The nutrient value
of curd or yoghurt depends on the milk composition and substances added to it during
manufacturing. Yoghurt can be manufactured from skimmed or whole milk and it can be
sweetened, plain or flavoured with fruit juices, cane sugar etc (Srividya and Rao 2003).
In Africa, Asia, Europe and United States yogurt is a dominant fermented milk product
which is marketed under different names around the globe and its processing is carried out
throughout the world. Various types of yoghurts varying in different processing conditions and
added ingredients are available. Some of them are sold like frozen yogurt, simple, stirred type
and set type. The difference lies between the different flow lines of production (Domagala et al.,
2005).
In Indo-Pak Dahi is a similar product to yogurt. Dahi is a domestic milk product usually
developed at home by inoculation of “Jaag” and it is a common name of yoghurt in Pakistan.
Improper storage and incorrect processing conditions are the most important problems by which
traditional yoghurt is being suffered. High syneresis, undesirable texture, variations in taste,
flavor and low sustainability are the major issues during the production of dahi. Traditional
yoghurt is subject to contamination. Large scale production is done in processing plants for
commercial yoghurt with selected bacterial strains (Mahmood et al., 2008).
Yoghurt is a popular milk product with significant health beneficial effects and higher
nutritional value (Wood, 1992). In recent years a lot of interest had been raised by
immunological potentials of Lactobacillus acidophilus due to their properties of immune
stimulating. In vitro, on cells of the immune system stimulatory properties had displayed by
several strains of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), including macrophages. (Weid et al., 2001).
Yoghurt is a food commodity that is more famous as a food standard for the carriage of
beneficial probiotic microorganisms (Adolfsson, et al., 2004). Probiotics are the beneficial
live bacterium leads to benefits the host organism. According to FAO/WHO (2009)“probiotics
are live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amounts confer a health benefit
on the host". The species of lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) and the species of Bifidobacteria are the
most common categories of microbes that are used as probiotics in most of the foods but some
Page 11
varieties of yeasts and Bacilli also helpful in maintaining the live of organisms. Yoghurt contains
approximately at least 106 live cells of Lactobacillus and/or Bifidobacterium 10
9. For the
successful addition of probiotics in the foods articles, they must survive the food processing and
storage process practices (e.g., fermented food products). Lactic acid bacteria help in aroma
development, microbiological safety and to improve texture of fermented dairy products
(Grattepanche et al., 2007)
Dietary fiber is “the remnant of the edible part of plants and analogous carbohydrates that
are resistant to digestion and absorption in the human small intestine with complete or partial
fermentation in the human large intestine” (AACC, 2001). Despite of the health benefits of
dietary fiber in the diet, the average consumer consumes less than 50% of the recommended
level of dietary fiber. Therefore, there is a gap between the dietary fiber consumption and
recommendation that needs to be narrowed. Changing consumers‟ eating habit is a difficult and
time taking process but producing popular foods like yogurt fortified with dietary fiber could be
one way to increase dietary fiber consumption without changing their habits (USDA, 2008).
Soluble fiber is becoming more important in the western diet because of a trend toward
consumption of food with lower calories and higher amounts of dietary fiber (Regmi,
Takeshima, & Unnevehr, 2008). Inulin or partially hydrolyzed guar gum and cannot be digested
by human digestive enzymes and hence behave as dietary fibers. They have also been found to
mimic properties of fat in food products (Kip, Meyer, & Jellema, 2006). Addition of these
ingredients to food products like low fat yogurt not only makes them rich in dietary fiber, but
also improves their physicochemical and sensory properties by imparting fat like textures. While
some manufacturers have already produced yogurt with inulin and PHGG, inulin used in most
commercial yogurts is native inulin (with an av erage chain length of 10 units) from chicory root
(Coussement, 1999).
Now days, the importance of dairy products has increased manifold due to the awareness
among the people about the nutritional value of yoghurt. It has been established that fermented
milk products, of which yoghurt is one increase nutritive value of food as compared to original
milk. Different ingredients like cereals, gums, fibers and starches, legumes mixes, fruit pulp and
juices of many medicinal plants added in yoghurt to enhance the therapeutic and quality value of
it (Frank, 2002).
Page 12
The major problem which reduces the shelf life of yoghurt is synersis; this problem may
be reduced by decreasing the temperature of incubation and acidification rate and increasing the
casein content of the milk (Fiszman et al., 1999), or by addition of stabilizers. The compounds
used as stabilizers in yoghurt are starches, gelatin, alginate, carrageenan, pectin, derivatives of
methylcellulose, tragacanth, gum arabic, locust bean gum (LBG), karaya, guar and xanthan gums
(Tamime and Robinson, 1985). The primary stabilizers such as LBG, alginate, carboxymethyl
cellulose (CMC), or guar gum can be used as a thickener in combination with a secondary
stabilizer such as carrageenan to reduce synersis (Hansen, 1993). Use of soluble fibers as
stabilizer has some advantages (Labell, 1990). By consuming fiber in the diet hypertension,
gastrointestinal disorders, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes and coronary disease may decrease and
put off (Dello Staffolo et al., 2004).
Stabilizers such as starch imparts stability and provides texture to the finished products
through one or more properties like viscosity, elasticity, foaming, emulsification, gelation , and
water binding. These properties make it multifunctional ingredient not only for food products
but also for pharmaceutical and photographic industries. Among the manufacturing of food
products, starch has solid and important role in countless products like jellies, milk and milk
products as yoghurt, puddings, ice cream, sweets like marshmallows and gummy bears, jellied
meat, and aspics (Fernandez et al., 2003).
Different thickeners and stabilizers are widely used in yoghurt including oat, inulin, date
fiber and guar gum to enhance the physic-chemical properties of yogurt. PDGG is also used as a
prebiotics in the products like yoghurt etc. Guar gum is obtained from the beans of guar, where it
acts as a food and has ability to store water. The guar bean is normally grown in countries like
India and Pakistan. Chemically, guar gum is a carbohydrate source made up of the sugars
galactose and mannose. The guar gum is made up of a linear chain of β 1, 4-linked mannose
deposits to which galactose deposits are 1, 6-linked at every mannose, forming short chains side-
branches (Courts, 2010).
Guar gum is soluble non digestible polysaccharides and is main ingredient in the
formation of functional foods having efficiency to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease and
plasma cholesterol level. The composition of guar gum includes soluble fiber 75%, moisture
contents 9.55%, insoluble fibers 7.6%, crude protein 2.16%, ash 0.54% and fat 0.78%. In guar
Page 13
gum, total dietary fiber is present in soluble form (80-85%) that may aid to reduce the glucose
and cholesterol levels (Frias and Sgarbieri, 1999).
Guar gum is largely used in Organic yogurt as a stabilizing agent. Carbohydrate based
guar gum is better soluble in cold water and comprised of galactose and mannose units. This is
an edible, viscous fiber and its possible effects on lowering cholesterol and blood sugar. Guar
gum is used in food industry (EU food additive code E412) as a thickener to increase the
viscosity and to bind available free water in ice cream, sauces and dressings, meat and sausage,
pet foods, instant noodles, bread improvers and beverages (Butt et al., 2007).
Guar gum can be used in a partially depolymerized (PDGG) form and then added in the
yoghurt as a dietary fiber and prebiotic. The guar gum which is depolymerized partially is a
water soluble dietetic fiber that acts as a prebiotic and enhances the efficiency of probiotics in the
gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Even though guar gum has optimistic physiologic health benefits, its
high viscosity marks it problematic to add into food products and eternal solutions (Ellis et al.,
2001). PDGG provides a dietary fiber source that could be easily added to the food products and
would be acceptable to consumers. PDGG is developed by controlled partial enzymatic
hydrolysis of guar gum. PDGG has a very low molecular weight and low viscosity than original
guar gum powder. PDGG is very stable, higher water retention capability and imparts only a
mild flavor to the product (Greenberg and Sellman, 1998).
Keeping in view the significance of guar galactomannans the current study was designed
with the following objectives
OBJECTIVES:
• To characterize depolymerized Guar-Galactomannans.
• To elucidate the effects of Guar-Galactomannans on physic-chemical and sensory
features of yogurt
Page 14
CHAPTER-2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The civilization of the Middle East used fermentation for the preservation of milk. The
term yogurt came from Turkey for fermented milk products. The yogurt has been playing its role
for health benefits in the diet and life of peoples since old days. Today customers are more aware
about dietary attributes of the foods they are consuming. Fermented dairy products, including
different yogurts whether they are low fat or full fat, increase the overall nutritional value of that
product produced from the milk. To improve the quality and health benefits of the yogurts,
different fat substitute from many sources like inulin, carrageenan, pectin, guar gum and starches
are used in various formulations.
By reviewing the previous works, new researchers make different strategies to carry out
research work. Review of literature illuminates the conclusions of the previous studies and
abolishes any chances of unwanted repetition in the design of new work.
To support the study, literature has been cited under the following headings:
2.1. Yogurt and its processing techniques
2.2. Types of yogurt
2.3. Nutritional and Therapeutic Properties
2.4. Rheological Properties of Yogurt
2.5. Physico-chemical and Sensory Analysis of Yogurt
2.6. Effect of Stabilizers on Quality of yogurt
2.7. Partially Depolymerized Guar Galactomannans as a Stabilizer
2.8. Guar Galactomannans and Health benefits
2.9. Yogurt Storage
2.10 Effect of storage on Rheological Properties
Page 15
2.1. Yogurt and its processing techniques
According to FAO/WHO standards, yogurt is „the viscous milk product achieved by the
fermentation of milk by the action of lactic acid bacteria i.e, Lactobacillus delbrueckii ssp.
bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus (Krasaekoopt et al., 2005).
2.1.1. Methods of production
2.1.1.1. Traditional Methods
There is a great certainty that Middle East was the origin of yogurt, in old days the
fermentation process of milk was uncontrolled and unpredictable but with the passage of time
variations in the practices of different people brought tremendous changes in the production
methodologies of fermented products. Goats, sheep, camels and buffaloes are the domestic
animals that are farmed in most part of the world for milk. Progressively, people adopted a
fermentation process for souring the milk in a controlled way (Tamime and Robinson, 2007).
Domestically yogurt is produced in a process that includes following steps:
• Heating the milk in a vessel on flame to thicken the milk. It attains a specific viscosity and
desired properties by the action of modified casein, a change in protein profile which has the
potential to improve the quality of the final product.
• Inoculate the heat treated and cooled milk with sour milk (as a starter) from previous batch, or
with starter culture (bacteria).
• Incubation (stay time) for 8-10 hours.
• For regular continuation of the process, apply the same vessels in which fermentation was
done, based mainly on the natural micro flora of sour milk or add fresh milk in that vessel.
(Tamime and Robinson, 2007)
2.1.1.2. Industrialized/Commercial methods
Methods for the yogurt development in milk processing industries have been changed
over the years particularly, the selection techniques for the lactic acid bacteria that bring about
fermentation in milk. The whole industrial fermentation process require some refinements and
rest of the process is as follow.
• Increasing total solids content of the processed milk up to the level of 14 - 16 g / 100 g.
• For milk, high temperature for 5-30 minutes is an ideal heating method. The exact time
depends on the selected temperature.
Page 16
• Inoculation of the milk with a specific bacterial culture in which Lactobacillus bulgaricus and
Streptococcus thermophilus are the dominant organisms.
• Cooling and, if desired, additional processing, such as fruit and other ingredients, pasteurization
or the concentration of the mixture.
• Packaging in cold containers for distribution and end consumers.
(Tamime and Robinson, 2007)
2.2. Types of Yogurt
Different mammalian species have been used for milking and yogurt production.
Variations in yogurt quality depend on the type and quality of milk. For yogurt starter culture
milk lactose is the source of energy and food. Protein in yogurt forms the coagulum and
maintains the consistency. Viscosity of the yogurt directly depends on the levels of protein.
Flavor of the yogurt owes to the biochemical reactions commenced by the microbial activity.
The flavor of the yogurt varies from species to species.
Commercially available yogurts can be categorized on the basis of their chemical nature,
processing technique, flavor and the different types of processes after incubation (Shah, 2003).
Based on different fat percentage these are classified as:
(1) Full-fat yogurt
(2) Low-fat yogurt
(3) Non-fat yogurt
On the basis of the production methods, yogurt can be classified as set-type and stirred
type yogurt. If milk is fermented to form yogurt in a retail vessel, it is known as set type yogurt.
In stirred type yogurt, different containers are used for fermentation and viscous gel matrix is
broken down by stirring before cooling and packaging. Similarly, flavored yogurt can be divided
into subgroups. Fruit yogurts have fruit particles which are added for improvement in taste,
sweetness and color (Shah, 2003). Apart from typical plain yogurts, fruit yogurts are capturing
huge market volume.
Currently, there is huge variety of yogurts available around the globe depending upon the
market demand. Tamime and Deeth (1985) presented their yogurt classification scheme which
has four physical characteristics to distinguish the product. Different grouping based on
following guidelines covers the product range of yogurts in markets.
Page 17
• Legal standards of the product i.e., chemical or fat content covering semi skimmed/low fat to
middle or so.
• Physical features of the product i.e., nature, set type, or stirred or drink fluids. Others are low
viscosity stirred yogurt.
• Flavoring nature either plain/natural, fruit flavors or artificial. The latter two types are usually
sweet.
• Supplementation and fortification standards (Tamime and Robinson, 2007).
2.3. Nutritional and Therapeutic Properties of Yogurt
With respect to nutritional essay, both milk and yogurt have many similarities except in
those stirred type yogurts in which the yogurt is fortified with fruits, grains or other components.
The nutrition equality of both milk and yogurt means that yogurt has protein, thiamin, riboflavin,
calcium, phosphorus and vitamin B12 and an excellent source of folate, niacin, magnesium and
zinc. Its mineral bioavailability is of great importance having good biological value. Also, low-
fat yogurts provide energy with low fat content and making it dense nutritional foods creating a
significant amount of important nutritional matrix (McKinley, 2005).
The major minerals which are inevitable for growth and development of human body are
calcium and phosphorous. Yogurt can fulfill 40% calcium and 35% of phosphorous requirements
of the body. Calcium brings improvement in the immunity of the body, lowers the blood
cholesterol levels and helps in bone formation and deposition of calcium in bones. Moreover,
yogurt helps in the magnesium absorption due to the presence of lactic acid bacteria that make
possible the efficient mineral absorption (Adolfsson et al., 2004).
Various studies have confirmed that per unit value of solids-not-fat (SNF) or dry matter
without fat weight is higher in yogurt than milk, which clearly indicates the presence of
substantial amount of inorganic ions. For lactose intolerance people, yogurt is the best available
source of calcium in diet as it is readily available. Yogurt has good digestibility and no
symptoms of lactose intolerance were observed after consuming yogurt by the persons suffering
from this disorder. Calcium has very crucial role to play in bone metabolism and curing action
against osteoporosis. The availability of calcium in yogurt is the best than any other dairy
products (Rasic and Kurmann, 1987).
Like yogurt, cultured milk products are in used since ancient times for so many reasons.
Most importantly, the proven health benefits related to LAB bacteria in the yogurt that inhibits
Page 18
the growth of other harmful microorganisms. Over the years, the food industry is working on
carbohydrate based prebiotics which account for major development in selected strains of
probiotic bacteria. These probiotic bacteria and microorganisms are being used for significant
improvement in health (Shah, 2007).
Different fruit and fruit preparations are added in yogurts for giving it more healthy
image along with its antioxidant potential (O‟Rell and Chandan, 2006). Recently, soymilk yogurt
(Donkor et al., 2007c; Champagne et al., 2009), yogurt from corn milk and peanut milk yogurt
(Isanga and Zhang, 2009) have been developed as an alternatives for vegetarian consumers that
avoid to have bovine milk yogurt. This approach can also reduce the allergic reactions associated
with milk proteins and lactose intolerance. Use of tea catechins in dairy products as an
antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of plant origins have been studied by using plant extract
in yogurt (Jaziri et al., 2009). The low-fat yogurts offer range of vital nutrients in substantial
amounts with respect to their energy and fat content, consequently rendering them a nutritious
and wholesome food (Shah, 2003; McKinley, 2005)
2.4. Rheological Properties of Yogurt
Ozer et al. (1998) conducted a study on microstructure and rheology of Labneh
(Concentrated Yogurt). They prepared labneh by increasing solid contents of milk to almost 23%
(wt/vol) by the traditional cloth bag method (control), reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration and direct
reconstitution. Their studies revealed that physical behavior of labneh are affected by rheological
properties which was highly reliant on concentration of protein and during membrane treatment
the rigorousness of mechanical agitation. It is shown by Scanning electron microscopy that
samples with higher protein content had firmer structure and small cells as compare to samples
with lower protein contents.
Skriver et al. (1999) investigated relation between rheological properties and sensory
texture analysis of stirred yogurt. It was found that the rheological and sensory characteristics of
stir style yogurts varied with dry matter content, heat treatment of milk, composition of bacterial
cultures and fermentation temperature. Two self-determining sensory properties, oral viscosity
and non-oral viscosity were also assessed. Oral and non-oral viscosities were modeled
successfully by partial least squares regression, from rheological variables that result in a model
with three component that explained 83.8% of the non-oral viscosity variation and a model with
Page 19
two component explaining 82.0% of the oral viscosity variation. The viscosity was measured
from a Brookfield viscometer operated at 5 rev/min (r = 0.862).
Jumah et al. (2001) examined influence of milk source on rheological attributes of
yoghurt in course of the gelation process. It was elaborated by them that highest viscosity value
was shown by the ovine milk then comes caprine, bovine and camel milks. No major variation in
viscosity was observed in camel milk during gelation. Mainly the rheological properties of
yogurt are affected by the chemical composition of milk specially protein content and total
solids.
Lee and Lucey (2004) observed an increase in hydrophobic interactions with the rise in
incubation temperature which results in shrinkage of casein particles and a more compact
conformation during the study of physical properties and structure of yogurt gel: effect of
incubation temperature and inoculation rate. It is revealed by this study that incubation
temperature and inoculation rate are important processing factors that influence physical and
microstructural traits of yogurt gels.
Becker and Puhan (1989) describe that firmness significantly increases with high protein
content. Skimmed yogurt has higher firmness values than whole yogurts under all storage
conditions.
Pandya et al. (2004) reported that with increasing fat content sensory properties and
rheology of buffalo yogurt significantly improved (P<0.05). by increasing the fat content from
1.5 to 4.5%, viscosity was increased by22.5%, curd tension improved by 10% and wheying off
decreased by 31%
Amatayakul et al. (2006) investigated the effect of levels of solids and
exopolysaccharide. starter culture on the syneresis in set style yogurt and determined the by
centrifugation method, siphon and drainage influenced by(EPS). The product which was made
by using EPS as a starter culture showed whey separation at a higher level as compared to non-
EPS as a starter culture and the whey separation was 9%, determined by centrifugation.
Lee and Lucey et al. (2003) investigated the rheological properties e.g. heating and
incubation temperature and microstructure in set- style yogurt storage and it was reported that
storage module was increased in heating temperature as compared to incubation temperature.
Page 20
With the rise of heating temperature give good results and diminution in temperature for
incubation otherwise spontaneous whey separation and maximum permeability will occur.
Ares et al. (2006) measured the firmness in stirred yogurt results showed that yield stress
was with-in range of 250 Pa from manufacturing plants. During fermentation when final acidity
was varied then it gives the more pronounced results and it shows the value of a standardized
production for obtaining uniform texture. The yogurts made from processing unit showed
expressively more yield stress as compared with samples from the different retail stores. During
handling and distribution, syneresis was also occurred due to mechanical damage.
2.5. Physico-Chemical and Sensory Analysis of Yogurt
Yogurt is a kind of gel, soft solids so it is sensitive to structural changes. Various
procedures are outlined to investigate structural and physical features of yoghurt. Different
processing of the variables was influence the structural properties of the yogurt, such as the total
content of solids, incubation temperatures and heat treatment. By better understanding of those
factors that lead to structural and physical properties, could improve the yogurt quality. (Lee and
Lucey, 2010).
Yogurt is made from different heat treated milk samples and viscosity was measured
through viscometer (Brookfield DV-E Model) with spindle No. 3 at speed of 20 rpm. Average
viscosity of all types of yoghurt was decreased by increasing in the heat treatment to milk
samples. The entire yogurt from milk samples formed at 90°C/10 min is less noticeable to
decline in viscosity occurring throughout storage (Djurdjević et al., 2002).
Skimmed probiotic yogurt was stored at 7°C. A group of qualified judges analyzed the
cooled dahi‟s quality. pH decreased apparently, with storage time, showing that much acidity
was not developed by dahi samples under the storage environment. After giving 8 days for
storage, jury concluded that slight bitterness in samples is common. Based on the consequences
of this study, it was concluded that dahi was accepted by consumer up to 8 days during storage.
(Yadav et al., 2007)
Texture analysis of yogurt was performed by texture analyzer. It had been found that the
use of various quantities and types of polysaccharides used in the formulation did not affect the
pH, salt, ash, protein, water, fat and cholesterol, and acid strength values of samples (Seckin et
al., 2009).
Page 21
As a result, consumers access to samples of yogurt in a structured hedonic scale of 9
points. Consumers were able to express a preference decisions, because the research was
conducted with the researcher. Possibility was there to determine the part of customers that gave
similar hedonic response for yogurt but still had some preferences for one or the other of the
stimuli (Villegas-Ruiz et al., 2008).
Tarakci and Kucukoner (2003) studied different properties like sensory, physico-
chemical and microbiological properties of fruit-flavored yogurt and reported that there were
significantly differences in the fat, ash, protein, total solids (TS) content and titratable acidity
(TA) for samples amounts 1day of storage. There were marked differences in the protein and
dry matter due to different flavor additives. Syneresis and titratable acidity (TA) increased over
the storage period.
Ahmed (1999) prepared the fortified yogurt by incorporating the sugar and mango fruit
pieces noted its shelf life when kept at 6 degree centigrade for 40 days. He observed that there
was a slight decrease in the acidity of the yogurt samples. The addition of sugar caused syneresis
whereas substantial increase in total solids. The incorporation of mango fruit pieces in the yogurt
also increased the rate of syneresis. It was observed during storage of the yogurt samples at 6
degree centigrade that there was substantial increase in the amount of acidity, total solids and the
rate of syneresis. The pH of yogurt samples decreased significantly.
Hardi and Slacanac (2000) investigated that rheological properties are important factors
in the quality of yogurt. Texture depends upon a number of factors including starter culture, milk
composition, milk viscosity, heat treatments, fermentation kinetics and homogenization. The
effects of three factors (milk fat content, starter culture and addition of inulin) on coagulation and
rheological properties were examined in yogurt, the result showed that starter culture had
greatest effect; inulin addition caused an increase in consistency of probiotic product compared
with yogurt.
Harper et al. (1991) investigated the sensory ratings in marketable plain yogurts by
consumer and descriptive panels and it was found that samples rated highest in overall liking
had sourness ratings closest to just right on the “just right” scale. Ratings for all descriptors by
the descriptive panel were significantly different. Sourness, with high intensity ratings, was most
important in describing plain yogurt. Samples rated most favorably by consumers had lower
intensity ratings for overall intensity, sourness, acetaldehyde, saltiness, and astringency and
Page 22
higher intensity ratings for sweetness, milkiness, and cooked milk. Titratable acidity and pH
were correlated with many trained panel descriptors important to consumer acceptability. Better
control of pH by yogurt processors would result in more favorable sourness levels, which should
increase consumer acceptability.
Chee et al. (2005) studied sensory and chemical properties in strawberry flavored yogurt
emulsified with algae oil, by hydro-peroxide measurements the oxidative deterioration was
reported after sensory evaluation by skilled panel consumer. In this supplemented yogurts the
hydro-peroxide content was increase over the storage treatment and was unchanged by the stage
of addition. After completion of 22 days storage sensory evaluation was done by trained and
qualified panel and they could distinguish a stronger fishy flavor and consumer voted as
„moderately liked‟ for both.
Damin and Oliveira (2003) studied sucrose and total solid content on firmness, acidity,
feasibility and viability of pro biotic bacteria in fermented milk and reported that milk samples
containing higher levels of total solids showed higher acidity and increasing the amounts of
sucrose and total solids in milk resulted in higher firmness. Anema et al. (2004) examined
viscosity of heated reconstituted skim milk as influence by pH when it was being set between 6.5
to 6.7 and temperature for heating at 90ºC for 30 min. He reported that variation in viscosity was
dependent on pH of the milk and heating. At initial steps of heating, viscosity increased
remarkably at pH 6.5 and platitude on extended heating. But as pH value of milk amplified,
minute variations in viscosity examined at 6.7 pH value. There was a linear correlation between
change in viscosity and change in particle volume.
2.6. Effect of Stabilizers on Yogurt Quality
Stabilizers have been used for several purposes in food products. These may impart
stability, thickening and better mouth feel to the food products. Stabilizers are categorized with
respect to the manufacturing process.
According to Glicksman, (1982) stabilizers may be of natural, customized or synthetic
origin. There were many variables that effect the selection of stabilizer or stabilizer combination
to be employed. A few concerns about the selection of a stabilizer were considered, like legal
aspects, their reactions with other ingredients, their functional properties, their intended use and
outcome. In yoghurt the stabilizers are added due to the following two reasons. As gelling and
Page 23
thickening agents and to stabilize the gel matrix. Stabilizers played an important role in yoghurt
manufacturing. In this way the hydrocolloids which were added in the milk before the
fermentation process can develop the viscosity, sustain the yoghurt structure, change the mouth
feel, decrease synersis and help in keeping fruit in suspension in the yoghurts.
Kalab et al. (1975) examined the effect of thickeners on the microstructure of yoghurt by
using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). They
demonstrated that there was a formation of long, thin fibers joined with large bunches of casein
micelles in yoghurt by the addition of carrageenan at 0.4% concentration, giving rise to a fibrillar
microstructure of yoghurt. They also showed that no change was occur in structure of yoghurt by
the addition of gelatin studied by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM). The yoghurts contained gelatin i.e. 2% and 10% when studied by TEM,
showed no microscopic difference in the gels.
McGregor et al. (1987) discussed the effect of two sweeteners on the flavour of plain and
stirred yoghurt. Blue berry or strawberry fruit flavouring added plain and stirred yoghurt were
examined before and during storage at 40C or 10
0C for 24 days. They concluded that there was
no significant difference between sweeteners in the time required for yoghurt to reach pH 4.4.
Yoghurt had the highest Lactobacillus bulgaricus count made with 90% fructose and sucrose
syrup whereas sucrose increased viscosity significantly. On storage at 40C than 10
0C flavour and
sweetness scores were better and acetaldehyde and acetone contents were higher.
Teggatz and Morris (1990) described that the use of thickeners, which increase firmness
and prevent synersis was an additional way of improving the consistency of some milk products,
besides the addition of milk solids. On the other hand some people think that taste, aroma and
mouth feel of true yoghurt are badly affected by addition these additives.
Ramaswamy and Basak (1992) demonstrated that stability of the product may be reduced
by the addition of flavourings or fruit concentrates, which therefore commonly requires some
stabilizers like starch or pectin with products. For fermented milk beverages, optimum stability,
no serum separation and uniform consistency for good mouth feel are most wanted
characteristics.
Hansen (1993) described that locust bean gum, guar gum, carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC) or alginate are the primary stabilizers may use as a thickener in combination with a
Page 24
secondary stabilizer like carrageenan to reduce syneresis. Casein network was made stronger by
interaction between the positive charges on the surface of casein micelles and the anionic
hydrocolloids (e.g. CMC, pectin, and carrageenan) while synersis was reduced and categorized
as adsorbing polysaccharides. Xanthan, guar and locust bean gum are neutral hydrocolloids do so
through a another mechanism by increasing the thickness of the continuous phase and are
categorized as non-adsorbing polysaccharides.
Jawalekar et al. (1993) examined the use of gelatin and many other stabilizers associated
to yoghurt sensory quality and rheology, in addition to whey separation. It was examined that
due to the use of gelatin there was development in texture, body, viscosity and curd tension in
yoghurt whether that was prepared from buffalo or cow milk. As the free water was bound with
stabilizer, there was less synersis in the yoghurt. Besides to gelatin, pectin and CMC, several
other stabilizers like starches, locust bean gum, agar, guar gum and algenates have been analyzed
for their use in yoghurt. The characteristics, functionality and amount of these ingredients may
all influence the mouth feel and approval of a yoghurt product.
Guinee et al. (1995) examined that the firm gel was formed on the peanut milk based
yoghurt with no whey at the top even when no stabilizer is added to it but addition of stabilizer
like gelatin improved its sensory attributes. It means that stabilizer in yoghurt based peanut milk
was mostly helped in improvement of sensory attributes but not for reaction of whey separation
or firmness of gel. A firm gel without whey at the summit was formed by the gelatin and had the
higher sensory scores for all the features (texture, acceptability and appearance) as evaluated to
other stabilizers (PGA, CMC, HM pectin, xanthan gum, guar gum and κ carrageenan).
Shukla et al. (1998) studied the effects of gelatin, pectin, CMC and some other stabilizers
on the rheological and amount of whey separation properties of yoghurt, made from the buffalo
milk. It was found that gelatin with the percentages of 0.1% to 0.3% improves the appearance,
texture, body and flavor of the yoghurt. In the manner, pectin with percentages of 0.2 to 0.3%
was found positively correlated with the quality attributes and negatively correlated with whey
separation. On the other hand CMC affected yoghurt qualities negatively and the samples in
which it was used were found unacceptable for sensory analysis. And it was recommended that
the amount of CMC should not be used more than 0.1%.
Page 25
Celik and Bakirci (2003) investigated some features of yogurt manufactured by
incorporating concentrated juice and check the properties like pH, titratable acidity, whey
separation and viscosity for 28 days with the intervals of a week. As compared to control during
its storage, the viscosity, whey separations and titratable acidity was higher than those of
controls.
Farooq and Haque (1992) studied the rheological traits of low fat yogurt. For sweetness
of yogurt aspartame was used (200 ppm) to a skim milk based yogurt and to stabilize it 5%
starch was added. The total solids content was 12.68% by weight. The overall quality of the
yogurt was improved by adding esters of sugar in the form of Aspartame. Yogurts had better
body, texture, and mouth-feel with sugar esters, mainly the stearates as compared with yogurts
without sugar esters, which were rated as grainy, coarse and rough mouth-feel. So, perception
rate was increased by adding sugar.
Salwa et al. (2004) studied the yoghurt‟s sensory, chemical, microbiological properties
after adding carrot juice and rate of consumer acceptance to consume this yogurt and reported
that the sensory scores increased particularly for yoghurt samples in which 15% carrot juice was
used. Chemical analysis showed that if quantity of carrot juice is increased then acidity was
increased, soluble nitrogen or total nitrogen ratio was decrease and also the tension of curd. If it‟s
shelf life is concerned then carrot juice showed significant results. The other discussion was on
consumer perception as well as on economy of adding carrot juice.
Tayar et al. (1995) observed influence of addition of stabilizers on yogurt‟s quality. They
discussed the properties like serum separation, titratable acidity, water activity (aw), and
organoleptic value of the yogurt by adding gelatin, agar or sodium caseinate at levels of 1, 1.5,
2.0% over 14 days storage at 4±1ºC. All stabilizers decreased the serum separation and increased
the quality.
Tamime and Robinson (1999) studied the effect of stabilizers on yoghurt quality. They
concluded that under different conditions and their interaction with milk casein, the negative
effects of some stabilizers were showed on yoghurt quality. The production of different types of
yoghurt was depended on the action of selected stabilizers but in most application trial and error
method was the thumb rule.
Fiszman et al. (1999) made a study of the effect of gelatin addition on acidic milk gels
microstructure and yoghurt on their rheological properties. The objective of this study was to
Page 26
observe the effect of the gelatin addition on the yoghurt and microstructure of acid-heat-induced
milk gels while yoghurt made with or without addition of milk solids at concentrations of 5%.
The results of this study exposed significant microstructural differences among yoghurt
formulated with and without addition of gelatin at two levels of total milk solids. The results
explained that the yoghurts made without addition of gelatin showed less solid-like behaviour
than the yoghurts prepared with addition it. According to firmness tests it was seen that in all
cases the gelatin addition at the concentration of 1.5% developed deformable and fairly firm
systems. It was also seen that the gelatin interacted with milk proteins network in yoghurt and in
the acid-heat-induced gels. At the end results obtained that quality of milk products can be
improved by the use of gelatin.
According to Drake et al. (2000) selection of stabilizer used may also a contributing
factor of chalkiness in the yoghurt products. Choice of stabilizer used has been categorized as the
crucial ingredient by The National Starch and Chemical Company. As the choice of a particular
stabilizer may reduce or impart chalkiness, depending upon its properties. There were also many
conditions which affect the mouth feel. High temperatures during processing, unstable casein and
a rapid development of acid have all been found in yoghurt as means for a grainy mouth feel,
which had similarity with the chalkiness
Schmidt et al. (2000) used stabilizers i.e. modified wheat starches in set-style yoghurt.
They formed yoghurt with the addition of modified wheat starches (MWS) (hydroxypropylated
cross-linked, hydroxypropylated or acetylated cross-linked), gelatin and native wheat starch
(NWS). During 2 months of storage, chemical (titratable acidity, fat, pH and total solids),
physical (rheological, textural, color, synersis) and microbiological (yeasts/molds and lactic acid
bacteria) characteristics of yoghurt samples were evaluated. It was significantly showed that the
greater storage modulus and firmness of the yoghurt formed with NWS as compared to yoghurt
prepared with MWS. In all yoghurt samples minimum synersis was measured. They observed
that during storage pH of yoghurt samples decreased and the titratable acidity increased. By the
day 60 in all yoghurt samples ~ 1 log CFU/g lactic acid counts were decreased while
yeasts/molds did not detect. They concluded that positive effects were produced to varying
degrees by the use of wheat starches as stabilizers in the yoghurts. Yoghurt made with NWS and
gelatin having alike characteristics, therefore NWS might be used as a substitute of stabilizer.
Page 27
El-Sayed et al. (2002) investigated the effect of xanthan gum which is produced in
laboratory and its combinations at different concentrations with other gums on the sensory,
rheological, micro-structural chemical and microbiological properties of yoghurt and soy
yoghurt. Fresh or during storage of yoghurt and soy yoghurt samples pH-values, changes of
lactic acid bacterial counts or contents of total solids were not affected by the addition of xanthan
gum or its mixtures. Additionally, they did not detect yeasts and mould as well as colliform
groups with any treatments, either in fresh or storage period. The type and concentration of
stabilizer used affected the values of viscosity of both type yoghurts. The curd tension of milk
yoghurt was increased by the use of xanthan gum or its combinations at tested concentrations. At
the concentration of 0.01% of xanthan gum in yoghurt samples showed higher the curd tension
values whereas there were variable effects seen on curd tension when the addition of xanthan
gum or its combinations in soy milk yoghurt. Addition of xanthan gum or its mixtures in yoghurt
decreased the synersis of it although no synersis was noticed in any fresh soy yoghurt samples.
Highest sensory scores were obtained as compared with other treatments when xanthan gum at
the concentration of 0.01 and 0.005% was used in yoghurt and soy yoghurt respectively.
Koksoy and Kilic (2004) examined that the different concentrations of guar gum, locust
bean gum and high methoxy pectin in conventionally prepared Ayran to prevent separation of
serum. The highest apparent consistency and viscosity index were provided by guar gum and
prevented the separation of serum in Ayran. But the mouth feels that was not acceptable for
Ayran. At 0.50% concentration of high methoxyl pectin prevented separation of serum in Ayran
which affected the odor and the taste of Aryan. At 0.10% level of locust bean gum prevented
separation of serum and apparent viscosity was increased without affecting the odor and the taste
in Ayran.
David et al. (2005) suggested by the study that the mechanism of casein aggregate
stabilization remained consistent when the level of l-carrageenan and anionic low methoxy
pectin was increased. On the aggregate surface an adsorbed satiric repulsion layer was also seen.
The charge attraction of electrostatic lowered the aggregates and increased the propensity
towards reduction flocculation by the unabsorbed fraction of the stabilizer. The rheological data
by low methoxy pectin at low concentrations is constant with bridging flocculation of
aggregates. Increasing level of anionic stabilizer resulted in higher water holding capacity as the
ability of the amount of casein aggregation to trap serum phase was less within the protein
Page 28
matrix. It was indicated that a satiric stabilization method played an important role to counteract
the aggregation process.
According to Avena et al. (2006) as gelatin was found deficient in tryptophan and
methionine so it is not considered as the proper source of protein, yet by containing 4% lysine
the digestibility is superb and it had been utilized frequently in feeding invalids. Its consumption
of 7 to 10 grams per day indicated that it improved nail strength and growth significantly
according to a controversial study. Gelatin had also been found beneficial in diseases like
arthritis and related diseases in many cases.
Singh and Byars (2007) replaced milk solids with starch-lipid composites (SLC) in
yoghurt mixes. The studied the effects of the SLC on the yoghurt rheology and fermentations.
During the fermentation of yoghurt they evaluated the fermentation rate by the change in pH.
During three weeks of storage they observed the synersis of yoghurt. By using a vane geometry
method the loss tangent, small amplitude oscillatory shear flow and the loss modulus
measurements of the storage modulus were obtained. They concluded that higher the level of
SLC of yoghurt mixes when initial viscosity was higher. Gel structure was not affected by the
higher initial viscosity. SLC addition above 3% level strengthened the gel. The result of this
study that there was no synersis for yoghurt samples during storage at 40C for 21 days.
Nalinanon et al. (2008) described that use of gelatin in yoghurt as a stabilizing agent. It
had been used with percentages ranging from 0.3% to 0.5% to control the synersis in stirred
fruited yoghurt or in general yoghurt recipes. Gelatin in this way reacts with milk casein to
minimize its affinity to separate from water and provide stability to curd.
Fatemeh and Soleiman (2009) observed the effect of gum tragacanth on prevention of
serum separation. They also studied the influence of insoluble and soluble fractions of gum
tragacanth (GT) on it. They used zeta potential, microscopic and rheological measurements for
the investigation of stabilization mechanisms. According to their findings, the concentration of
0.100 % of the soluble tragacanthin (T) and 0.200 % of gum tragacanth (GT) prevented serum
separation. Moreover, Newtonian was the suitable rheological model for control while Power
law was for the others. Dough‟s containing GT and T showed prominent elastic and viscose
behaviours respectively on the basis of viscoelastic experiments. In addition, the zeta potential
values were changed from positive to negative in the presence of T and GT. It was made cleared
Page 29
that tragacanth adsorbs onto casein and induces stabilization via satiric and electrostatic
repulsions. Furthermore, by increasing the viscosity the insoluble bassorin (B) may assist
stabilized.
2.7. Partially Depolymerized Guar Galactomannans as a Stabilizer
The study examined the effect of gum arabic and guar gum on the physico-chemical
behavior and sensory traits. Viscosity is greatly affected by the gums treatment. Highest
viscosity of yogurt was obtained by incorporation guar gum at 0.3% level. Guar gum and gum
arabic at level of 0.2% and 0.5% respectively showed the better acceptance (Rezaei et al., 2011).
Guar gum and locust bean gums are extensively used in the food industries as thickening
and stabilizing agents, usually in amounts of <1% of the foodweight. For example, they have
been used to improve shelf-life and prevent creaming or settling in salad dressings, soft drinks,
and fruit juices. Locustbean gum is also used to improve freeze-thaw behavior of frozen products
including ice cream and frozen desserts. Guar gum, used in baked productsand pastry, reduces
degree of starch retrogradation and improves texture and shelf-life. Low grades guar and locust
bean gums and their derivatives also found applications in other industries including mining,
paper, textile, andoil drilling (Phillips and Williams, 2000).
The effect of the addition of guar gum at level of (0, 0.1%, 0.2% and 0.3%) was analysed
for sensory and textural attributes of yoghurt. The increase of guar gum concentration increases
the viscosity of the mixture acids. Guar gum increases the hardness of the product. Yogurt
produced in control condition showed less sticky and rubbery appearance. (Milani and Koocheki,
2011).
Syneresis and quality of yogurt was affected with the addition of various stabilizers.
Yogurt was prepared using seven different stabilizers. Guar gum was used at concentration of
0.4%. pH, syneresis level and acidity was assessed during different storage intervals. Significant
decline in value of pH and rise in value of acidity was experienced in all the samples during 15
days at 10°C. Due to production of lactic acid, lactose contents in all yogurt samples were
decreased during storage. (Athar et al, 2000).
Yogurt prepared with various stabilizers such as guar gum at various levels (0.1, 0.2, 0.3,
0.4 and 0.5%) and examined the quality parameters for 21 days during storage. 0.1%
concentration of guar gum approved to give excellent results for production of low acidity and
Page 30
low pH, where as the cornstorch had better results for the free fatty acids, acetaldehyde contents.
(Mehmood et al., 2008).
2.8. Guar Galactomannans and Health benefits
Guar gum is a gel producing galactomannans acquired from the endosperm part of
leguminous plant Cyamoposis tetragonolobus L. grown in the countries of Pakistan and India. It
is used by the human beings and as well as for the animal food. (Goldstein et al., 1973)
In 1949, guar gum was used in the food products in USA for the first time. Guar gum is
produced from the seeds of the guar plant by grinding the endosperm portion and largely used in
the food industry as emulsifying and thickening agent to stabilize the food products. Guar gum is
mainly comprised of galactose and mannose units linked together through β-D-(1-4)-glycosidic
linkage and they are present in ratio of 1:2 respectively (Stephen, 1983).
Many natural sources are being utilized as galactomannan such as soy beans, pine apple,
coffee, locust beans and sugar beets and having potential benefits when included in the diet of
human beings and also on the rheological and textural properties of food products (Yoon et al.,
2007)
In a study by Giaccari et al., 2001, 134 patients with IBS were divided on the basis of
body-mass index into obese and normal categories, and were given 5 grams per day of PHGG in
their diet for 24 weeks. Both obese and normal patients showed an increase in the frequency of
bowel movements and decreases in the frequency of such IBS symptoms as flatulence,
abdominal tension, and abdominal spasm. While no change in plasma electrolytes was observed,
there was a higher incidence of normal levels of blood cholesterol, lipids, triacylglycerides, and
glucose than prior to treatment.
The partially depolymerized guar gum has been shown to flatten the blood glucose
tolerance tests. They also decrease the rate of gastric emptying. It binds with bile acids that
surround fat molecules in order to carry them out of the body. This results in decreased
absorption of cholesterol and lipids as well as an increase in fat excretion (Asp. and Johansson,
1984)
Yamatoya et al., 1993 has declared the effects of Partially hydrolyzed guar gum(PHGG)
on postprandial plasma glucose and lipid levels in human. Moreover, as PHGG passes through
the stomach, it slows the rate of emptying, therefore providing a feeling of fullness.
Page 31
Guar gum has been shown to lower blood cholesterol levels in numerous animal and
human studies. Hypothetical mechanisms of actions include impaired absorption of dietary
cholesterol or bile acids due to the viscous nature of the polysaccharide and impaired absorption
of bile acids through direct binding to the fiber. On the other hand, viscosity is not the whole
answer to the question of plausible mechanisms of action in reducing blood cholesterol. It has
also been suggested that gums such as guar gum are readily available for colonic fermentation,
with the production of short-chain fatty acids, particularly propionate, which has been shown in
animal and human studies to lower blood cholesterol through a suppression of hepatic
cholesterol synthesis. (Evans et al, 1992)
In another randomized double-blind crossover study of 20 individuals with moderately
elevated plasma cholesterol performed by 36 participants received either control wheat bread or
wheat bread supplemented with PHGG .Study participants received each diet for three weeks
with a four week washout period. The PHGG-supplemented diet resulted in a Physiological and
Metabolic Functions for three weeks with a four week wash out period. The PHGG
supplemented diet resulted in a significant reduction of plasma levels of total cholesterol,
particularly LDL. There were no palatability issues and no serious side effects (Blake et al)
2.9. Yogurt Storage
Storage studies of yogurt have been done to study the time effect on sensory properties
bacterial feasibility as well as yogurt quality.
Salvador and Fiszman (2004) declared that value for firmness and textural analysis
showed constant trend but syneresis value was increased when yoghurt stored for 91 days at
10°C, 20°C for 21 days and 30 °C for 3 days. Rise in value of WHC and syneresis were due to
reorganizations in casein protein network.
As time goes on casein molecules reshuffle themselves into a more compact form that‟s
why its bonding strength is increased and its structure becomes thermodynamically more stable
because total free energy of the system is decreased. When rearrangements occur in casein
structure then gel network was also distorted and casein start to form new intersections as it is
proofed by variation in syneresis (Serra et al. 2009).
Page 32
2.10. Effect on Rheological Properties during Storage
Gassem and Frank (1991) investigated on the yogurt prepared from milk treated with
enzymes (proteolytic) and reported rheological features of yoghurt prepared from it and
concluded that treated milk was immediately made into yogurt, which was stored at 7ºC and
analyzed after 1, 8 , and 15 days. Yogurt made from milk pretreated with microbial protease had
higher firmness, syneresis, and apparent viscosity than the untreated product. Yogurt made from
treated milk like with plasmin had clearly lower viscosity as well as lower firmness and syneresis
after storage of 8 days. Similarly yogurt made from treated milk like with protease had less water
holding capacity.
Salvador and Fiszman (2004) conducted a study of whole and skimmed flavored set-type
yogurt on textural and sensory properties during long term storage and reported that after long
term storage there was no significant change in acidity of yogurt. If compared whole and
skimmed milk under all storage conditions then firmness of whole milk was less than skimmed
milk yogurt. Flow properties of concentrated yogurt were affected by storage period at 8°C. High
viscosity value of concentrated yogurt showed that gel structure was well developed (Abu-Jdayil
and Mohameed, 2002).
Beal et al. (1999) investigated on both influence of culture conditions and storage time on
viscosity and acidification of stirred yogurt and accomplished by saying that viscosity
development prejudiced by many factors like incubation temperature, final fermentation pH, the
ratio of two Streptococcus thermophilus strains, acidification activity, post acidification and
texture and storage time on bacterial concentration and acidification development was affected
by strain association and temperature. There was a correlation between greater viscosity to lower
acidification activity which is showing that fermentation time affects the texture development.
By using the texturing strain of S. thermophilus, which required the longest fermentation time by
using low temperature and low final pH the most viscous yogurt was obtain.
Lee and Lucey (2004) studied the impression of structural breakdown and gelation
conditions on sensory and physical characteristics of stirred yoghurt and concluded that during
the shearing of intact gels, in low shear rate region there was an initial increase in apparent
viscosity because from intact network the resistance derived. Decreasing incubation temperature
and increasing milk preheating temperature lead to increase apparent and oral viscosity and
sensory mouth coating characteristics in stirred yogurt.
Page 33
Akin and Konar (1999) studied the physical, chemical and sensory properties of flavored
yoghurt prepared from goat's and cow's milk and kept for 15 days of storage. They concluded
that titrateable acidity, pH, viscosity, protein, fat and total sugars values are significantly affected
by kind of milk used for yogurt preparation. Storage time too had great influence on these quality
features. Sensory characters including aroma, texture, appearance and color were influenced by
kind of milk but not affected with passage of time throughout storage. It was obvious from the
quality parameters that yogurt made with cow‟s milk was better than the goat‟s milk yogurt.
Previous studies showed that the addition of guar galactomannan in the preparation of
yoghurt is a positive influence on the rheological and textural properties. It also has a significant
effect on the growth of probiotic bacteria present in various fermented foods and finally have
immunological effects in humans. So, most of guar gum in fermented foods like yogurt, improve
the beneficial properties and nutritional profile.
Quality and Shelf Life of yoghurt
Shelf life of yoghurt is based on the, physical chemical, microbiological or sensory
characteristics. During storage changes in these qualities would be helpful in estimating the shelf
life of the product. Comparison of yoghurts that were stored at 10, 20 and 30°C was observed,
and tested for physical properties, sensory and microbiological analysis and found that syneresis,
appearance defects, atypical texture / mouth feel increased with storage time. The results also
indicated that combination of time and temperature is involved to bring out these changes
(Salvador and Fiszman, 2004).
Page 34
CHAPTER-3
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The present Research work was carried out at Food Microbiology and Biotechnology Lab, National
Institute of Food Science and Technology (NIFSAT), University of Agriculture, Faisalabad
3.1 Procurement of Raw Material
Cow Milk was obtained from the commercial markets and guar gum was procured
from Ashraf Laboratories Limited, Faisalabad. Chemical, Reagents and Lab equipments used in
the research were made available from the Food Microbiology and Biotechnology Lab and Dairy
Lab of NIFSAT.
3.2 Compositional Analysis of Milk
The milk was analyzed for different parameters given below:
3.2.1. Fat content
The fat content of milk was determined by Gerber method as explained by Kirk and
Sawyer (1991).
a. Sulphuric Acid: A commercial grade sulphuric acid was used with the density of 1.815
± 0.002 g/mL at 20ºC.
b. Amyl Alcohol: Amyl alcohol of standard grade was used.
Eleven grams of milk sample was taken in a butyrometer also containing 10 mL H2SO4of
specific gravity 1.835 and 1mL amyl alcohol. It was then centrifuged for six minutes at 1100 rpm
and then the readings were noted.
3.2.2. Total solids
The percent residues called the total solids will be determined by drying the sample in hot
air oven according to method described in AOAC (2000).
A milk sample of (5g) was taken in a clean dried weighed crucibile and heated in water
bath for 15 minutes. Then it was kept in a hot air oven for 3 hours at 100 º C and cooled in a
dessicator for half an hour and weighed.
Page 35
The percent residues will be calculated as under
Total Solids % = Residue after drying (g) x 100
Wt. of sample (mL)
3.2.3. Acidity
Acidity was determined by direct titration method No. 947.05 (AOAC 2000).
a. Phenolphthalein indicator
Phenolphthalein indicator was made by dissolving 1 g phenolphthalein in ethyl alcohol
(95% v/v) to a final volume of 100 mL.
b. N/10 NaOH
N/10 NaOH was made by dissolving 4 g of Sodium-hydroxide in distilled water and
makes the volume upto 1000 mL.
The phenolphthalein indicator is colorless in an acid solution but gives red color in an
alkaline solution. 10mL of well mixed and homogenous sample was taken in 100 mL flask. And
then 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein were added and titrated against 0.1 N NaOH till light pink
color was appeared. The volume of 0.1 N NaOH used was measured and then acidity was
calculated by following formula
Acidity % = 0.009 × N/10 NaOH used (mL) × 100
Wt. of sample (g)
3.2.4. pH
Negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration is called pH. The pH provides
significant measurement as compared to titratable acidity..
The pH was directly measured by using the pH meter (WTW series pH-720). Adequate
quantity of sample of yoghurt ware taken in a beaker and adjusted to room temperature. The
electrodes of pH meter were calibrated in buffer solutions of pH 4 and pH 7 and then they were
immersed in the sample. Reading was noted after stabilization of pH meter
Page 36
3.3. Partial Depolymerization of Guar Gum
The partial Depolymerization of Guar gum was done according to the method as described by
(Chauhan and Chauhan, 2009). Guar gum was depolymerized by treating it with a strong acid i.e
Hydrochloric Acid (Hcl).
Four Treatments of guar gum (GG) were depolymerised by treating them with a strong
acid (Hcl) for 1 to 4 hours respectively. 10 g of GG was taken in each 80 % aqueous methanol
solution also containing 5 % w/v Hcl in a conical flask and then the samples was stirred and
heated at 650 C for 1, 2, 3 and 4 hours respectively, resulting into four different fractions of
partially depolymerized guar gum based on time used for their depolymerization. The partially
Depolymerized guar gum was then washed methanol and then filtered with the help of a filter
paper(whatman grade 3). The samples were then freeze dried in lypholyzer to make them
incorporable in yogurt
3.4 Chemical analysis of Depolymerized Guar Gum
The depolymerized guar gum was analyzed for proximate composition i.e., moisture, fat,
crude fiber and ash content according to their respective methods as given below:
3.4.1 Moisture content
Hot air oven was used for the determination of moisture content of PDGG according to
the method no 44-15A, described in AACC (2000). 2 g sample was taken into pre weighed china
dish and was dried in an air forced draft oven at temperature of 105±5°C until constant weight of
matter was obtained. The moisture of the sample was determined as given below:
3.4.2 Fat content
The fat content of PDGG sample was determined by Soxhelt apparatus according to
AACC (2000) method No. 30-25. For this, petroleum ether extraction of 5g sample was done at a
Wt. of original sample – Wt. of dried sample x 100
Moisture (%) =
Wt. of original sample
Page 37
condensation rate of 2-3 drops/sec for 8 hours. After distilling excess ether the residue of
extraction flask was dried at 100ºC for 30 min. Fat content was calculated by the formula as
below:
Crude Fat (%) = Wt. of fats x 100
Wt. of sample
3.4.3 Ash content
Ash is an inorganic residue left after the material is entirely burnt at a temperature of
550°C in a muffle furnace. It is an aggregate of all non-volatile mineral elements present in a
material as its oxides. The ash content of the PDGG was determined according to AACC (2000),
method No. 08-01. 5 g sample was taken in a pre-weighed crucible. The sample was Charred
over a flame burner until no smoke was set off and then moved it to a muffle furnace and ignited
at a temperature of 550°C until it changed into a grayish material. The residual contents of
sample was then cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The difference in weight between the blank
crucible and crucible with ash residue stated as amount of the original sample weight and
recorded as ash content.
Ash % = Weight of residue× 100
Sample weight
3.4.4 Crude fiber
The fiber content of guar samples was determined by following the procedure stated in AACC
(2000) Method No.32-10. 5g fat free and moisture free sample was boiled for 30 minutes in the presence
of 1.25 % H2SO4, and then filtered with muslin cloth. They were boiled again in 1.25 % NaOH for 30
minutes, and then filtered. The resultant residue was dried at 130 ºC for 2 hours and weighed. The dried
residual sample was ignited at 600ºC + 15ºC, cooled and reweighed. The crude fiber was calculated by
the formula given below.
Crude Fiber (%) = Loss in weight on ignition – blank x 100
Weight of sample
Page 38
3.5 Yogurt Processing Steps
Yoghurt was processed in the Food Microbiology and Biotechnology Lab of National
Institute of Food Science & Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad according to the
process as explained by Stelio and Emmanuel (2004).
3.5.1. Filtration
Milk was filtered through a muslin cloth.
3.5.2. Standardization and Addition of PDGG
Milk was standardized and the all four acid treated treatments of PDGG were added in
the four different treatment of milk.
3.5.3. Pasteurization
After mixing, milk was pasteurized at 90 ºC temperature for a period of 15 minutes.
3.5.4. Homogenization
Milk was homogenized in a homogenizer to improve texture
3.5.5. Cooling
Milk was cooled to a temperature of 40-45 ºC.
3.5.6. Inoculation and Mixing
Inoculation and mixing was done with 2.5% of starter culture for the manufacturing of
yoghurt. A miscellaneous culture of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus
was utilized.
3.5.7. Packaging
Then the inoculated milk was poured in cups of 300 mL volume and labeled.
3.5.8. Incubation
The inoculated milk was incubated at 37°C for about 3 hours resulting in 0.8-0.9% lactic
acid.
3.5.9. Storage
The yoghurt was then cooled to a temperature of 4-6°C to check further fermentation and
was subjected to sensory, physicochemical and physical evaluation.
Page 39
Flow Diagram of Yoghurt Raw milk
Filtration
Standardization and addition of Guar Gum(1%)
(PHGG 1hr, 2hrs, 3 hrs, 4hrs)
Mixing
Pasteurization (700C for 30min)
Homogenization
Cooling (40-450C)
Inoculation
(Lactobacillus delbriieckii subsp. Bulgaricus and Streptococcus subsp. salivarius thermophillus
@ 2.5%)
Packaging
Incubation (370C-39
0C)
Cooling (150C-20
0C)
Storage (4-60C)
Fig. 3.1. Flow diagram of Yogurt
Page 40
Table 3.1. Treatment combination for Analysis of yoghurt
Treatments Groups 0day 7th
day 14th
Day 21at
Day 28th
day
T0 Controlled - - -
T1 PDGG(1hr) - - -
T2 PDGG(2hrs) - - -
T3 PDGG(3hrs) - - -
T4 PDGG(4hrs)
*PDGG=Partially Depolymerized Guar Gum
3.6 Physicochemical Analysis of Yoghurt
The prepared yoghurt was analyzed for following parameters.
3.6.1. Total solids
The percent residues called the total solids were determined by drying the sample in hot
air oven according to method described in AOAC (2000).
A sample (5g) was taken in a clean dried weighed china dish and heated in a water bath
for 15 minutes. It was kept in a hot air oven for 3 hours at 100 º C and cooled in a desiccator for
half an hour and weighed.
Total Solids % = Residue after drying (g) x 100
Wt. of sample (mL)
3.6.2. Acidity
Acidity was determined by direct titration method No. 947.05 (AOAC 2000).
A well mixed sample homogenized yoghurt sample (10g) was taken in a china dish and
then it was diluted with 10 mL distilled water, 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein solution was added
as an indicator. After that it was titrated against N/10 NaOH until a slight pink color appeared as
an end point. The percent acidity (as lactic acid) was calculated as under,
Acidity % = 0.009 × N/10 NaOH used (mL) × 100
Wt. of sample (g)
3.6.3. pH
Negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration is called pH. The pH provides
significant measurement as compared to titratable acidity..
Page 41
The pH was directly measured by using the pH meter (WTW series pH-720). Adequate
quantity of sample of yoghurt ware taken in a beaker and adjusted to room temperature. The
electrodes of pH meter were calibrated in buffer solutions of pH 4 and pH 7 and then they were
immersed in the sample. Reading was noted after stabilization of pH meter
3.6.4. Water-holding capacity (WHC)
Water-holding capacity (WHC) of yogurt was determined by the procedure described by
Kalab et al. (1975). In this method yoghurt was centrifuged at 13500 rpm for 30 minutes at 10
ºC, drained of supernatant for 10 minutes, and the pellet weight determined. The water holding
capacity expressed as percent pellet weight relative to original weight of yoghurt.
3.6.5. Hardness
Hardness of yogurt gel was measured in the fermenting container by texture profile
analysis according to protocol specified by (Breene, 1975) with a rheometer. Hardness of yogurt
gel was measured inside in the fermenting container by texture profile analysis with a rheometer
using a cylinder plunger (16 mm), a compression rate of 5 mm/sec and 75% (22 mm)
deformation at 10ºC.
3.6.6. Viscosity
Viscosity of the yogurt was obtained by means of a Brookfield DV-I viscometer
(LVDVE 230) as described by (Gassem and Frank, 1991). Apparent viscosity was determined
on yogurt at 4-60C temperature. Spindle number 4 was used for this measurement with a rotation
of 60 rpm. Viscometer reading was noted in centipoise (CPS) unit.
3.6.7. Synersis
Synersis was measured by the method described by Peri et al (1985). The liberation of
watery-whey like liquid on the surface of the gel is termed as synersis. A set yoghurt sample of
450 g was placed at room temperature and left for two hours. The watery-whey like liquid was
siphoned off which then was taken in a graduated cylinder and measured.
3.7 Sensory Evaluation
All the frozen yoghurt samples was organoleptically rated for appearance, color, taste,
body/texture, flavor and overall acceptability by a panel of 5 judges(Trained penalisht from
NIFSAT) using a 9 point hedonic scale (Larmond, 1997). The questionnaire used for the purpose
is as under after statistical analysis.
Page 42
3.8 Statistical analysis
The data obtained were subjected to statistical analysis using two factor factorial completely
randomized designs (CRD) according to the method described by Steel et al., (1997). Least
significant difference test (LSDts) was used to conclude statistically different groups.
Page 43
Sensory Evaluation Performa
Hedonics Score System
9 points hedonic scale was follow for rating the sample.
Dislike extremely 1
Dislike very much 2
Dislike moderately 3
Dislike slightly 4
Neither dislike or like 5
Like Slightly 6
Like moderately 7
Like very much 8
Like extremely 9
Score Sheet:
Name of judge: ------------------
Signature: ------------------
Date: ------------------
Treatments Flavour Texture Taste Appearance Colour Overall
acceptability
T0
T1
T2
T3
T4
Page 44
CHAPTER-4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The current research work was designed to evaluate the effects of partially depolymerized
guar galactomannans on quality parameters of yogurt during storage. The cow milk for yogurt
preparation was taken from dairy farm and mixed with the four different treatments of partially
depolymerised guar galactomannas which were depolymerized at different time intervals (i.e. 1
hrs, 2 hrs, 3 hrs, 4 hrs) and were added with the concentration of 1% and inoculated with culture.
Milk was then pasteurized and cooled(40 0c) milk and filled in the plastic cups of 300ml and
placed in an incubator for incubation for 3-4hrs. After incubation yogurt was stored at 4-60C.
Physicochemical and sensory attributes of the product were studied at 0, 7, 21 and 28 days
during storage.
4.1 Compositional Analysis of Milk:
Raw milk was analysed for different parameters such as pH, acidity, fat, SNF and total
solids according to the methods of AOAC, 2000.
Table 4.1: Compositional analysis of milk
pH Acidity Fat % SNF % Total Solids %
6.8±0.04 0.10±0.07 4.6±0.08 8.30±0.12 12.90±0.14
4.2. Chemical compositions of Partially Depolymerized Guar Gum
The PDGG is a partially water soluble and a linear polysaccharide comprising of
Galactose and mannose units. The results regarding PDGG indicated that PDGG possessed 5.04
%, 4.87%, 4.53% and 4.61%, of moisture, 2.2%, 2.4%, 2.7 % and 2.1% crude fat, 2.6%, 1.9%,
1.7%, 2.1% ash and 2.2 %, 1.93 2.10%,and 1.85% crude fiber as given in the Table , respectively
for treatments T1, T2, T3 and T4. The present results regarding chemical composition of PDGG
are also in close agreement with the findings of Bhatty (1996) who demonstrated 2.3% ash
content of Guar Gum. The ash content (Table 5) found in the present study is also in close
conformity with the previous work of Burkus and Temelli (2005).
Page 45
The fat content in the PDGG was found high as compared to reported by Faraj et al.
(2006) who found 0.05% lipids in high purity PDGG concentrate which might be due to less
impurity of PDGG in the present study. The Crude dietary fiber recorded during the present study is
also in consistent with the earlier findings of (Faraj et al, 2006).
Table 4.2: Chemical analysis of Partially Depolymerized Guar Gum
Treatment Moisture Crude Fat Ash Crude fiber
T1 5.04±0.08 2.2±0.18 2.6±0.14 2.22±0.15
T2 4.87±0.04 2.4±0.12 1.9 ±0.06 1.93±0.21
T3 4.53±0.14 2.7±0.17 1.7±0.27 2.10±0.10
T4 4.61±0.19 2.1±0.05 2.1±0.14 1.85±0.13 T1 = PDGG (1hr) T2 =PDGG (2hr)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4= PDGG (4hrs)
4.3. Yoghurt Analysis:
Yogurt was analyzed for physicochemical parameters such as pH, acidity, fat, synersis,
hardness, viscosity and water holding capacity and organoleptic features including color,
appearance, flavor, mouthfeel, texture and overall acceptability of the product. The evaluations
were performed at 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days during storage. Prepared yogurt was stored at 4-6oC
in plastic cups.
4.4. Physicochemical Analysis of Yoghurt:
4.4.1. pH:
Yogurt is a perishable dairy food commodity and susceptible to the environmental
conditions. The pH of the perishable commodities is decreased as the storage time increases and
the reduction in pH is due to the production of the acidity. The data on the changes of pH with
reference to storage time of yogurt prepared is presented in Table 4.3b while its statistical
evaluation is presented in Anova Table 4.3a showing that treatments and storage have a highly
significant effect on the pH of yogurt.
According to the mean comparisons table the pH of the yoghurt samples were decreased
as the storage time increased, the reason for this is the conversion of lactose into the production
of lactic acid. Increase in the value of pH from 0 to 28 day was 4.55 to 3.97, 4.55 to 4.10, 4.50 to
4.18, 4.56 to 4.28 and 4.46 to 4.28, for treatments To, T1, T2, T3 and T4 correspondingly.. The
treatment T1 showed high decreased in pH value during storage.
The statistical data showed that there were highly significant effects of storage period, treatments
Page 46
and interactions of days with treatments. The decreases in the pH of present study is also in
conformity with the previous findings of Chandar et al. (1989) and Wofschoon et al. (1983)
declared that pH of yoghurt was decreased during storage.
Page 47
Table 4.3a: Analysis of variance table for pH of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.3b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on pH of yogurt
Treatments
Days of Storage
Mean
0 7 14 21 28
To 4.55 4.43 4.22 4.17 3.97 4.26 d
T1 4.55 4.49 4.46 4.17 4. l0 4.33 c
T2
4.50 4.44 4.31 4.29 4.18 4.34 bc
T3 4.56 4.41 4.36 4.32 4.28 4.38 a
T4 4.46 4.46 4.38 4.33 4.28 4.38 ab
Mean 4.52 a 4.44 b 4.35 c 4.25 d 4.14 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 0.14 0.03 12.47**
Treatment 4 1.36 0.34 120.86**
Days×treatment 16 0.34 0.021 7.61
Error 50 0.14 0.002
Total 74 1.98
Page 48
4.4.3. Acidity:
Acidity values are the values that express the total percentage of the production of lactic
acid. In all milk and milk products, the total titrateable acidity is produced by the conversion of
milk lactose into the form of lactic acid. As the storage time of the yoghurt increases the
production of lactic acid also increases with the help of bacteria that result into increase in the
value of acidity. The yoghurt that was stored for 28 days had apparently high value for acidity
than the yoghurt stored at beginning on 0th day. So with the addition of of partially
depolymerized guar galactomannans the acidity also increased with the passage of time but the
trend in increase was observed less than in controlled yogurt. Data regarding the acidity
variation with storage time was presented in Table 4.4b and its statistical analysis is shown in
Anove Table 4.4a for replication which showed that treatments and storage have a highly singnificant
effect of the acidity of yogurt
The mean values of acidity in the Table 4.4b represented that the acidity of all the
treatments increased during storage irrespective to different concentration of guar
galactomannans. Increase in the value of acidity from 0 to 28 day was 0.47 to 1.48, 0.42 to 1.03,
0.44 to 1.03, 0.43 to 1.13 and 0.42 to 1.13, for treatments To, T1, T2, T3 and T4 correspondingly.
Due to the production of lactic acid from milk lactose, acidity value of yoghurt
increased progressively. So maximum value for acidity of yoghurt was 1.48 for T0 and minimum
was 0.42 for T1. Soon the basis of this observation it was concluded that treatment with most
decreased acidity has more resistance against any changes, its mean the efficiency of
microorganisms remained controlled and the separation of the whey is also less. The reason for
this act is the addition of guar gum which has the power to stabilize the product during storage.
These findings agree with assumptions of Jogdand et al., (1991) and E.A. Khalifa, (2011)
in which the acidity increases with prolonged storage time. Chougrani et al., (2008), Gueimonde
et al. (2003) and Salvador and Fiszman (2004) also conclude that the acidity of yoghurt
increases with the increased storage period due to microbial activity and lactose change into
lactic acid.
Page 49
Table 4.4a : Analysis of variance table for acidity of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05) * Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.4b: Mean Values of Effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on acidity (%) of yogurt
Treatments
Days of Storage
Mean
0 7 14 21 28
To 0.47 0.76 0.84 1.02 1.48 0.91 a
T1 0.42 0.61 0.75 0.91 1.03 0.74 b
T2 0.44 0.58 0.67 0.83 1.03 0.71 b
T3 0.43 0.55 0.68 0.87 1.13 0.73 b
T4 0.42 0.53 0.74 0.90 1.13 0.74 b
Mean 0.43 e 0.60 d 0.73 c 0.91 b 1.16 a
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 0.40 0.10 24.20**
Treatment 4 4.66 1.16 276.09**
Days × treatment 16 0.22 0.01 3.35*
Error 50 0.211 0.002
Total 74
Page 50
4.4.4 Total solids
The percent residues after drying are called the total solids. The results pertaining to the
analysis of variance for the totals solids yogurt prepared with partially depolymerized guar
galactomannans is presented in table 4.5a and means values for total solids are presented in table
4.5b. Anova Table 4.5a for replication on total solids of yogurt suggested that treatments and
storage have a highly significant effect on total solids of yogurt.
The change in the total solids content of yoghurt is presented in the mean table 4.5b. The
changes in the total solids of yoghurt were 16.63 to 20, 13.90 to 16.33, 14.13 to 16.93, 15.47 to
18.23 and 15.53 to 17.33 for treatments T0 to T4 respectively during 28 days of storage. Total
solids of yoghurt ware increased within in treatments due to the addition of stabilizer. The lowest
value of total solids was observed in T1. Increase in total solids with storage days was due to
syneresis in yoghurt due to which water losses and solid content ratio increase. The results of the
current study are in accordance with Gassem and Frank, (1991) who reported that total solids were not
affected with the storage time of yoghurt. Similar results were also reported by Sodini et al., (2005) for
plain yoghurt when studying microstructure and physicochemical properties.
Page 51
Table 4.5a : Analysis of Variance Table for Total Solids
Source DF SS MS F
Days 4 67.5288 16.8822 587.04**
Treatment 4 79.4636 19.8659 690.79**
Days*Treatment 16 4.0461 0.2529 8.79
Error 50 1.4667 0.0288
Total 74
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.5b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on Total solids of yogurt
Treatments
Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
To 16.63 16.83 17.46 18.63 20 a 17.913 a
T1 13.90 14.30 14.96 15.30 16.33 14.96 e
T2 14.13 14.83 15.16 16.10 16.93 15.43 d
T3 15.46 15.86 16.60 17.26 18.23 16.68 b
T4 15.53 15.83 16.30 16.80 17.30 16.35 c
Means 15.13 e 15.53 d 16.1 c 16.82 b 17.76 a
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Page 52
4.4.5. Viscosity:
It is the resistance to flow measured in centipoise (cP). The factors which can affect the
viscosity include temperature, type, concentration and state of casein micells and fat globule size.
The most important is casein micelle which affects the viscosity in yogurt. Protein hydration can
also increase the viscosity. Viscosity is a factor used to determination the casein micelle
aggregation, texture and particle size distribution in yogurt (Ye, 2008)
Anova Table 4.6a for replication on viscosity of yogurt showed highly significant effect
of treatments and storage on the viscosity of yogurt containing partially depolymerized guar gum
with respect to control.
The viscosity of yoghurt increased during storage period of 28 days. The mean values for
viscosity were 1231 to 1581.7, 1676.7 to1866.7, 1890 to 2297.3, 1986.7 to 2387.3, 2204to
2624.7cps, for treatments of To, T1, T2, T3, T4, at 0, to and 28 days storage period correspondingly.
Control treatment (To) had lowest viscosity ranged from 1231to 1581.7cps. There was no
addition of any stabilizer in this treatment therefore it showed the lowest value of viscosity. In T1,
T2, T3 and T4 treatments, depolymerized guar galactomannans were used at the concentration of
1%.. With the addition of depolyermerized guar galactomannans, the viscosity of yogurt samples
was apparently increased from its initial values.. The statistical analysis showed that the results
were highly significant for the treatments and as well as for the storage days.
The outcomes of current work are in accordance with (Gassem and Frank (1991)
declared that yogurt viscosity was decreased as the storage time was prolonged. Farooq (1997)
showed the same results for decrease in viscosity over storage time for plain yoghurt. Olivera et
al. (1996) evaluated the various kinds of bacterial starter culture for the change in yogurt
viscosities during storage period.
Page 53
Table 4.6a: Analysis of variance table for viscosity of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.6b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage period on viscosity (cps)of yoghurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means
0 7 14 21 28
To 1231 1369 1412 1516 1581.7 l 1421.9 d
T1 1676 1713.3 1800 1826.7 1866.7 1776.7 c
T2 1890 1946.7 2267.7 2264.3 2297.3 2133.2 b
T3 1986.7 1985.7 2127 2135.3 2387.3 2124.4 b
T4 2204 2360.3 2086.7 2336.7 2624.7 2322.5 a
Means 1797.7 d 1875 cd 1938.7 bc 2015.8 b 2151.5 a
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 7671653 1917913 161.74**
Treatment 4 1106098 276524 23.32**
Days × treatment 16 469223 29326 2.47**
Error 50 592901 11858
Total 74 9839875
Page 54
4.4.6. Textural Analysis (Hardness)
The textural differences between the yogurts are attributed to the kind of milk used and
their compositional differences. Yogurt produced from bovine milk had a greater firmness than
caprine yogurt because it had the highest content of protein and total solids (Stelios and
Emmanuel, 2004).
. Anova Table 4.7a for Replication on hardness of yogurt clearly stated that treatments
and storage have highly significant effects over the firmness of the yogurt containing different
fractions of PDGG as compared to the control.
The data for the hardness of yoghurt under various treatments under storage is given in
Table 4.7b. Yogurt hardness was influenced significantly throughout storage time. Hardness value
for the control yoghurt (To) which was without galactomannans was 9.66 to 11.52 and 12.89 to
14.11, 13.17 to 14.41, 12.22 to 13.3 and 12.69 to 13.04 for T1, T2, T3, and T4, at 0, 7, 14, 21 and
28 days of storage respectively.
Control treatment (To) had lowest hardness ranged from 9.6 to 11.52. There was no
addition of stabilizer in this treatment therefore it showed the lowest value for hardness.. The
results declared significant variation in hardness value during storage but a little bit increase in it.
With addition of stabilizer, the hardness of yogurt samples was increased from its initial values.
And highly significant variation was examined among treatments and also in days for storage. The
statistical analysis showed that the results were highly significant for the treatments and as well
as for the days of storage.
The study of Fiszman and Salvador 2004; Fiszman et al. 1999; Gassem and Frank (1991)
support the current results who concluded that the increase in the total solids by the use of
functional dairy ingredients have a positive effect on the firmness of the set yogurt.
Page 55
Table 4.7a: Analysis of variance table for hardness of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05) * Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.7b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on hardness of yogurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means
0 7 14 21 28
To 9.66 10.6 11.35 11.48 11.52 10.92 c
T1 12.89 13.43 14.06 14.02 14.11 13.70 a
T2 13.17 12.97 13.25 13.70 14.41 13.50 a
T3 12.2 12.43 12.66 12.9 13.3 12.69 b
T4 12.69 12.91 12.85 12.86 13.04 12.87 b
Means 12.12 d 12.47 c 12.83 b 12.99 b 13.27 a
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 72.36 18.09 164.08**
Treatment 4 12.20 3.05 27.67**
Days × treatment 16 5.12 0.32 2.90*
Error 50 5.51 0.11
Total 74 95.20
Page 56
4.4.7. Syneresis:
. Syneresis is the situation in which the gel will be shrinked and the whey water and
released serum was separated from the yoghurt. Syneresis was stated as volume per ml of whey
water separated from yoghurt. Syneresis is a main problem during the storage period of yoghurt.
Results related to the syneresis of yoghurt are presented in Table 4.8b.
The statistical results that were presented in the Anova Table 4.8a for replications
indicated that the Syneresis of control yoghurt had maximum value as compared to the other
treatments containing PDGG during days of storage. Regardless of the treatments, the highest
syneresis was found to be at day 28th and less syneresis was found at day 0, 7, 21 and 21st days of
storage. So it was found that there is a steady increase in syneresis in all the treatments with
increase in the storage period. There was an increase in syneresis for the controlled and the treated
samples were 1.83 to 3.86, 1.65 to 2.83, 1.7 to 3.23, 1.68 to 3.43, and 1.93 to 3.7, for treatments of
To, T1, T2, T3, and T4 at 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days of storage period correspondingly.
After 28 days storage period, highest values for syneresis observed in the control
treatment (To) in which guar gum was not incorporated. And the lowest value observed in the
treatment (T1) in which partially depolymerized guar galactomannans were added. Thus
statistical data that were represented in Table 4.6a showed that there was higly significant
influence of time of storage and all treatments on syneresis of yoghurt. These results were agreed
with the findings of Guven et al. (2005). Aryana and McGrew (2007) when studied the quality
characteristics of yoghurt with probiotics and Lactobacilli also found the steady increase in
syneresis with the storage time in all treatments. In another study Salvador and Fiszman (2004)
also reported increased synersis during storage when studied the textural characteristics of the
yoghurt.
Page 57
Table 4.8a: Analysis of variance table for synersis of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.8b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on synersis (%) of yogurt
Treatments
Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
To 1.83 2.3 2.8 3.2 3.86 2.8 b
T1 1.65 1.86 1.96 2.22 2.83 2.10 d
T2 1.7 2 .1 2.63 3.03 3.23 2.52 c
T3 1.68 2.76 3.06 3.23 3.43 2.83 b
T4 1.93 2.4 3.3 3.53 3.7 2.97 a
Means 1.75 e 2.26 d 2.75 c 3.04 b 3.41 a
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 7.11 1.77 72.85**
Treatment 4 25.33 6.33 259.36**
Days × treatment 16 2.58 0.16 6.61
Error 50 1.22 0.02
Total 74 36.25
Page 58
4.4.8. Water Holding Capacity:
The data concerning water holding capacity of yoghurt under various treatments during
storage is shown in Table 4.9b. The mean value for water holding capacity of yogurt after 28
days of storage decreased from 54.94 to 42.96.
The mean values indicated that the water holding capacity of control yoghurt had
minimum value as compared to the other treatments during 28 days of storage. Highest water
holding capacity was found to be at 0 day and less water holding capacity was found at day 28th
days of storage. So it was found that there is a steady decrease in water holding capacity in all the
treatments with increase in the storage period.
The statistical analysis presented in Anova Table 4.9a for replications showed that the
decrease in water holding capacity highly significant for treatments as well as for storage time
and their interaction is significant. According to interaction the storage days and the product
found to be significant in case of water holding capacity. Water holding capacity value was
decreased from 39.93 to 27.9and 58.6 to 47.87, 63.56 to 50.63, 57.54 to 44.13, 54.53 to 42.53, for
the treatments of T1, T2, T3, and T4, 0, to 28 days storage correspondingly.
Results are in line with findings of Schorsch and Norton (2005) who declared decrease in
water holding capacity of yogurt during storage. Gassem and Frank, (1991) also found similar
results and reported decline in yogurt‟s water holding capacity during storage period.
Page 59
Table 4.9a: Analysis of Variance Table for water holding capacity of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
* Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.9b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on water holding capacity (%) of yogurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
To 39.96 37.36 34.73 31.66 29.7 34.68 d
T1 58.6 58.16 54.13 52.06 47.83 54.16 b
T2 63.66 58.53 56.26 52.81 50.63 56.38 a
T3 57.96 52.44 48.16 46.83 44.13 49.90 c
T4 54.53 52.56 50.13 47.2 42.53 49.39 c
Means 54.94 a 51.81 b 48.68 c 46.11 d 42.96 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 4304.04 1076.01 610.35**
Treatment 4 1320.93 330.23 187.32**
Days × treatment 16 55.54 3.47 1.97*
Error 50 88.15 1.76
Total 74 5768.66
Page 60
4.5. Sensory Evaluation
Sensory Evaluation of all samples of prepared yoghurt was done during the storage
intervals of 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days. Five judges were provided with printed Performa. The data
corrected of sensory evaluation for example color, appearance, flavor, mouth feel, body and
texture and overall acceptability were then processed for statistical analysis. These six
fundamental parameters associated with the quality and acceptability of dairy product and
yoghurt as affected by storage is discussed below.
4.5.1. Color:
The color of the product is also very important factor in relation to yoghurt. It is an
important quality attribute of a product. The data relevant to the mean scores for color of yoghurt
under various treatments during storage is shown in Table 4.10b.
The change in the sensory score of color during storage was 6.96 to 5.93 , 7.46 to 5.5.93,
7.16 to 5.36 , 7.03 to 5.30 , 6.90 to 3.30, for To, T1, T2, T3 and T4, correspondingly. In color
parameter there was significant differences among treatments and storage days as the main factor
that may influence the color of the product is the ingredients that were used in the
manufacturing of the product..T3 treatment obtained the highest score for the color character. In
this treatment PDGG was used which was treated for 3 hours. Many of the dissolved impurities
and matters removed after purification process. So therefore, guar galactomannans is a whitish
like product that does not impart its own color to the product to a greater extent as the days of
storage passed.
After storage color of yoghurt was found to be less effected and was acceptable which
ultimately improves the quality of yoghurt. With respect to statistical analysis of variance it was
concluded that the treatments and storage time are highly significant whereas the other
interactions was non-significant. Aryana and Paula McGrew, (2007) and Tarakci and Kucukoner,
(2003) reported similar results and found that there was no change in the color of the product
during storage.
Page 61
Table 4.10a: Analysis of variance table for color of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.10b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on color of yogurt
Treatments
Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
T0 6.96 7.13 6.53 6.23 5.93 6.56 a
T1 7.46 6.93 6.33 6.2 5.93 6.57 a
T2 7.16 6.86 6.16 5.83 5.36 6.28 b
T3 7.03 6.63 6.2 5.86 5.30 6.20 b
T4 6.90 5.86 5.36 4.63 3.33 5.22 c
Means 7.10 a 6.68 b 6.12 c 5.75 d 5.17 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 18.46 4.61 63.39**
Treatment 4 34.70 8.67 119.18**
Days × treatment 16 6.31 0.39 5.42
Error 50 3.64 0.072
Total 74 63.12
Page 62
4.5.2. Appearance:
The appearance is one of the main characteristics in yoghurt that attract the consumers
and enhance the perceiving value of the food products. The data relevant to the mean scores for
appearance of yoghurt under various treatments during storage was shown in Table 4.11b.
The mean scores for appearance decreased during storage. The mean scores of
appearance in yoghurts after 28 days of storage were decreased from 6.9 to 4.16, 7.06 to 6.06,
7.13 to 5.06, 7.13 to 4.10, for To, T1, T2, T3 and.T3 got the lowest scores ranged from 4.1 at 28th
day.
After storage appearance of yoghurt was found to be effected and was not acceptable
which ultimately deteriorate the quality of yoghurt. With respect to statistical analysis of
variance it was concluded that the treatments and storage time are highly significant whereas the
other interactions was non-significant. Farooq and Haque, 1992 and Tarakci and Kucukoner,
(2003) reported similar results and found decrease in scores of appearance of yoghurt
throughout storage period. The consequences are in line with conclusion of Salwa et al. (2004)
who reported a reduction in appearance score of yoghurts during storage period.
Page 63
Table 4.11a: Analysis of variance table for appearance of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
* Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.11b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on appearance of yogurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
To 6.96 6.43 5.93 5.13 4.16 5.72 c
T1 7.06 7.26 6.93 6.43 6.06 6.75 a
T2 7.60 7.13 6.83 6.40 6.06 6.80 a
T3 7.13 6.86 6.36 5.73 5.06 6.23 b
T4 7.13 6.43 5.60 4.96 4.10 5.64 c
Means 7.18 a 6.82 b 6.33 c 5.73 d 5.09 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 18.0 4.50 65.79**
Treatment 4 42.11 10.52 153.94**
Days × treatment 16 5.30 0.33 4.85*
Error 50 3.42 0.064
Total 74 68.84
Page 64
4.5.3. Flavor
In sensory evaluation flavor of the product is the most important factor for determine
consumer's response. The flavor of yoghurt is due to the production of volatile compounds
through thermal breakdown of some constituents of milk in which one important aroma
producing compound is acetaldehyde.
The data on flavor of yoghurt under various treatments as effected by storage was shown
in Table 4.12b. The mean flavors scores after 28 days of storage were decreased from 7.53 to
4.7 for control yoghurt (To) and for treatments T1, T2 T3, and T4 scores decreased from 6.93 to
6.06, 6.90 to 5.11, 7.40 to 6.06 and 6.36 to 3.13 correspondingly... According to statistical
analysis findings of present study were highly significant for the treatments and storage period
but non-significant for the interaction between treatment and storage.
The decrease in flavor scores is related with the proteolytic activity of bacteria and the
production of higher activity (Abrahamsen, 1978) loss of flavor is attributed to fat and protein
degradation and minor development of sharp flavor produced by coliform bacteria, clostridiums
spp. and other organisms. The consequences were in line with results of Farooq and Haque,
1992: Tarakci and Kucukoner, 2001.They found a decrease in flavor of yoghurt during storage.
The results are also in line with Salwa et al., 2004 who reported a decrease in score of flavor of
yoghurts over storage time.
Page 65
Table 4.12a: Analysis of variance table for flavor of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.12b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on flavor of yogurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means
0 7 14 21 28
To 7.53 6.73 6.03 5.46 4.7 6.09 b
T1 6.93 7.06 6.70 6.2 6.06 6.59 a
T2 6.90 6.46 5.96 5.63 5.1 l 6.01 b
T3 7.40 6.93 6.56 6.20 6.06 6.63 a
T4 6.36 5.66 5.00 4.53 3.13 4.94 c
Means 7.02 a 6.57 b 6.05 c 5.60 d 5.01 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 39.58 9.89 90.63**
Treatment 4 52.28 13.07 119.71**
Days × treatment 16 10.11 0.63 5.79
Error 50 5.46 0.10
Total 74 107.44
Page 66
4.5.4. Mouth Feel:
The data related to means of scores for mouth feel of yoghurt under various treatments
during storage was shown in Table 4.13b.
The mean taste scores of various yoghurts under preparatory treatments decreased during
storage. The mean taste scores after 0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days for storage were decreased from
7.40 to 6.45, 6.60 to 3.66, 6.1 to 3.63, 6.66 to 4.66, 6.06 to 4.06, for To, T1, T2, T3 and T4,
correspondingly.
Minimum scores for mouth feel parameter in sensory evaluation was observed in the
treatment of T2. And highest were observed in the T0 treatment in which PDGG wasn‟t used. T3
and T4 treatments had better acceptability in its mouth feel parameter.
The statistical data revealed that the results were highly significant for treatments and
storage period and non-significant for their interaction shown in Table 4.11a. These results were
in favor of (Abrahamsen, 1978) who found that acidity development continued in yoghurt during
storage even at 6oC.
Page 67
Table 4.13a: Analysis of variance table for mouth feel of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.13b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on mouth feel of yogurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
To 7.4 6.9 6.63 6.52 6.45 6.78 b
T1 6.60 6.10 5.56 4.56 3.66 5.30 c
T2 6.1 5.6 5.26 4.8 3.63 5.08 c
T3 6.66 6.1 5.73 5.6 4.66 5.75 a
T4 6.06 6.3 5.86 5.33 4.66 5.62 a
Means 6.54 a 6.2 b 5.81 c 5.37 d 4.61 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 39.58 9.89 90.63**
Treatment 4 52.28 3.07 119.71**
Days × treatment 16 10.11 0.63 5.79
Error 50 5.46 0.10
Total 74 107.44
Page 68
4.5.5. Body and Texture In sensory evaluation, the body and texture of commodity is vital parameter. Texture
describes quality of the yoghurt and affects its mouth feel, appearance, and overall suitability
(Yoon, 2002).The data on body and texture score of yoghurt under various treatments during
storage was shown in Table 4.14b.
It is evident from statistical analysis of means that results were highly significant for
treatments and storage period and non-significant for their interaction. The mean body and
texture scores after 28 days of storage time decreased from 7.33 to 5.20, 7.13 to 5.86, 7.73 to
5.86, 7.30 to 5.76, 6.86 to 4.03, for the treatments of To, T1, T2, T3, and T4 correspondingly.
Body and texture of the yoghurt is influence by many factors including acidity and total
solids. This was due to less acidity and as well as due to low proteolytic activity in yoghurt
samples with less protein contents other than the plain yoghurt and increase in total solid
contents could be the second reason for higher body and texture score of yoghurt. The
consequences were comparable with findings of Farooq and Haque, 1992.They observed that
there was decrease in scores for body and texture of yoghurts throughout period of storage. The
consequences are agreed to Salwa et al. (2004) who reported a decrease in score of body and
texture of yoghurts during storage period.
Page 69
Table 4.14a: Analysis of variance table for body and texture of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.14b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on body and texture of yoghurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
To 7.33 6.86 6.13 5.76 5.20 6.26 c
T1 7.13 7.5 7.00 6.23 5.86 6.74 a
T2 7.73 7.33 6.83 6.23 5.86 6.80 a
T3 7.30 6.96 6.56 6.13 5.76 6.54 a
T4 6.86 6.3 5.76 5.03 4.03 5.60 b
Means 7.27 a 6.99 b 6.46 c 5.88 d 5.34 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 14.41 3.60 29.00**
Treatment 4 37.46 9.36 75.38**
Days × treatment 16 3.00 0.18 1.51
Error 50 6.21 0.12
Total 74 61.10
Page 70
4.5.6. Overall Acceptability:
The overall acceptability of the yoghurt is also a quality indicator of the product. The data
relevant to the mean scores for overall acceptability of yoghurt under various treatments during
storage was shown in Table 4.15b.
In overall acceptability parameter there were significant differences among treatments and
storage days. And non-significant differences observed in all other interactions. So the
organoleptic evaluation of overall acceptability of yoghurt was decreased from day 0 to day 28th
in all treatments. The mean values for overall acceptability was decreased from 7.66 to 4.06, 7.0 to
5.93, 7.5 to 5.93, 7.43 to 4.86, 6.56 to 4.06 for To, T1, T2, T3 and T4 at different days of storage at
0, 7, 14, 21 and 28 days correspondingly.
After storage overall acceptability of yoghurt was found to be decreased with the passage
of time. With respect to statistical analysis of variance it was concluded that the treatments and
storage time were highly significant whereas the other interactions was non-significant. Sarkar et
al. (1996) and Shahid Younus (2002) reported similar results and found that there is little bit
change in the overall acceptability of the product during storage.
Page 71
Table 4.15a: Analysis of Variance Table for overall acceptability of yoghurt
** Highly Significant (P<0.05)
Table 4.15b: Mean values of effect of partially depolymerized guar galactomannans and
storage time on overall acceptability of yogurt
Treatments Days of Storage
Means 0 7 14 21 28
To 7.66 6.73 5.96 4.40 4.06 5.77 b
T1 7.0 7.13 6.8 6.30 5.93 6.63 a
T2 7.5 7.13 6.7 6.36 5.93 6.72 a
T3 7.43 6.76 5.8 5.30 4.86 6.03 b
T4 6.56 6.73 5.96 4.46 4.06 5.54 c
Means 7.23 a 6.89 b 6.24 c 5.37 d 4.97 e
To = Control (without galactomannans)
T1= PDGG (1hr) T2= PDGG (2hrs)
T3= PDGG (3hrs) T4=PDGG (4hrs)
Source DF SS MSS F value
Days 4 110.15 27.53 354.80**
Treatment 6 160.43 26.73 344.50**
Days × treatment 24 3.44 0.14 1.85
Error 70 5.43 0.07
Total 104 279.47
Page 72
Chapter No 5 Summary
Milk is defined as the lacteal secretion, practically free from colostrums, obtained by the
complete milking of one or more healthy milking animals which contain not less than 8.25 % of
milk solids not fat and not less than 3.25% of milk fat. Yogurt” also known as thick milk” is a
fermented milk product which was initially done to increase the preservation of the milk.
Yoghurt is a wholesome food as it contains almost all the important nutrients that milk has and it
also provides it‟s consumers with probiotics. Milk is fermented into yoghurt and is mainly done
by two lactic acid producing bacteria like Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus
thermophillus. These microbes help to develop not only characteristic flavor but also help the
consumer to improve their health
Fermented milk products such as yoghurt, increases the nutritional properties of the food
when we compared it with the original plain milk. Yoghurt has handsome amounts of vitamin A,
C and mineral contents like calcium, phosphorus etc. Apart from that yoghurt also have the
power to lower the blood cholesterol level, improve the formation mechanism of bones, retard
the growth of the cells of cancer and prevents coronary heart diseases with the help of lactic
acid micro flora. The behavior and aptitude of yoghurt when it is stored for a long time is very
important as the life of the yoghurt is based on whether the yoghurt display any physical,
chemical or sensory characteristics that are unaccepted for the consumption.
The current project was planned to determine the suitability and effect of partially
depolymerized guar gum on the storage stability of plain yoghurt and also to elucidate its effect
on the physicochemical and sensory properties of plain yoghurt. The PDGG was produced by the
partial depolymerization of guar gum by treating it with a strong acid. Guar gum acts as a good
stabilizer in this study as it reduces the problem of synersis in yoghurt which is a big problem in
the current scenario and also increases the shelf life and maintains the properties like flavor,
taste, improves texture of yoghurt and overall improves the quality parameters of yoghurt.
Partial depolymerization of guar gum is done to make its use easier in the fortification of
yoghurt. Partial Depolymerization doesn‟t affect the stability of the guar gum. So the PDGG
Page 73
seems to decrease the synerisis, increase the water holding capacity and viscosity of the product,
finally increasing its shelf life and improving the texture.
Yoghurt was processed in five treatments, in the first treatment controlled yoghurt was
made without the addition of PHGG, in second treatment fraction of PDGG(1%) was added
which was depolymerized for 1 hour, in third treatment the fraction of PDGG was
depolymerized for 2 hours, and in fourth treatment PDGG was treated acidically for 3 hours
beforing adding in the yogurt and in the last treatment PDGG was added which was developed
after depolymerizing gua gum for 4 hours. And the treatments were given the names as T0 to T4.
All the treatments were stored at 4-60C for 15 days and then there physical, chemical,
microbiological and sensory characteristics analysis was done at 0, 5th
, 10th and 15
th days of
storage.
The results of the textural analysis showed a great response in the favour of treatments
containing PDGG in the yogurt as compared to the control treatment which was without any
stabilizing and emulsifying agent. Syneresis in yogurt is an important parameter of the yogurt
industry. Highest mean was observed in treatment T0 and T4 and the lowest mean was observed
in T1 and T2 which contain PDDG treated for 1 and 2 hours respectively in equal amounts. As total
solids decreases, the problem of higher syneresis occurs. The lowest mean for T1 was
comparable with the highest mean observed for control for syneresis of the yogurt which means
the addition of PDGG has a positive effect on controlling the syneresis during storage and best
treatment for controlling the syneresis was T1.
Similarly results of viscosity and firmness were observed as best for the yogurt
containing the PDGG as compared to the control having no stabilizing agent. A relationship was
observed in viscosity and addition of PDGG used in the processing of the yogurt. It can be
cleared by the means of T1 and T0 (1776.7 centipoises and 1421.9 centipoises respectively) that
the addition of PDGG had significant effect on the viscosity.
Sensory evaluation based on color, flavor, mouth feel, texture, firmness and overall
acceptability was conducted using 9-point hedonic scale (9 = like extremely; 1 = dislike
extremely). Colour and cutting were observed similar for al treatments. Whereas best scores
were attained by treatment containing guar gum , for surface appearance, Taste, flavor, mouth
Page 74
feel, surface syneresis, texture, palatability and overall acceptability by the judges as compared
to the lowest rating of control treatment.
CONCLUSION:
It was concluded that partially depolymerized guar gum (PDGG) which were treated for
1 and 2 hours gave best results for physicochemical, and for the overall acceptability of plain
yoghurt. It was also observed that with the addition of PDGG the synersis in the yogurt was
reduced, and water holding capacity of the yogurt was also increased with the addition of PDGG,
it gave firm texture and body of yogurt, increased the viscosity and ultimately there was increase
in the shelf life of yoghurt.
Page 75
Literature Cited
AACC. (2001). The definition of dietary fiber. Publication no. W-2001-0222-01O., 112 / March
2001, Vol. 46, No. 3
AACC. 2000. Approved Methods of American Association of Cereal Chemists. The American
Association of Cereal Chemists, Inc. St. Paul. Minnesota, USA.
Abrahamsen, R. K. 1978. The content of lactic acid and acetaldehyde in yogurt at different
temperatures. Int. Dairy Congress. E: 829-830.
Abu-Jdayil, B. and H. Mohameed. 2002. Experimental and modelling studies of the flow
properties of concentrated yogurt as affected by the storage time. J. Food Engin. 56: 359-365.
Adolfsson, O., S. N. Meydani and R. M. Russell. 2004. Yoghurt and gut function. American
Journal of clinical Nutrition, 80: 245-256.
Ahmed, M. 1999. Preparation and evaluation of mango fruit yogurt. M.Sc. (Hons.) Thesis, Deptt.
Food Tech. Univ. Agri., Faisalabad.
Akin, S.M. and A. Konar. 1999. A comparative study of physicochemical and organoleptic
qualities of flavored yogurts made from cow's and goat's milk and stored for 15 days. Turkish
J. Agric. Forestry. 23: 557-565.
Amatayakul, T., F. Sherkat and N.P. Shah. 2006. Syneresis in set yogurt as affected by EPS
starter cultures and levels of solids. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 59: 216-221.
Anema, S.G. and Y. Li. 2003. Effect of pH on the association of denatured whey proteins with
casein micelles in heated reconstituted skim milk. J. Agric. and Chem. 51(6): 1640-1646.
AOAC. 2000. Official Methods of Analysis. The Association of Official Analytical Chemists.
15th Ed. Arlington, USA.
Ares, G., C.A. Paroli and F. Harte. 2006. Measurement of firmness of stirred yogurt in routine
quality control. J. Food Quality. 29: 628-642.
Page 76
Aryana, K.J. and P. McGrew. 2007. Quality attributes of yogurt with Lactobacillus casei and
various prebiotics. LWT. 40: 1808-1814.
Asp, N.G. and Johansson, C.G (1984) “dietary fiber analysis” Nutr. Abstr. Rev., 54:736-752
Athar, I.H., M.A. Shah and U.N. Khan. 2000. Effect of various stabilizers on whey separation
(syneresis) and quality of yoghurt. Pak. J. Biological Sci. 3(8): 1336-1338.
Avena, R.J., C.W. Olsen, B.Chiou, E.Yee, P.J. Bechtel and T.H.McHugh. 2006. Water vapor
permeability of mammalian and fish gelatin films. J. of Food Sci. 71: E202-E207.
Beal, C., J. Skokanova, E. Latrille, N. Martin and G. Corrieu.1999. combined effects of culture
conditions and storage time on acidification and viscosity of stirred yogurt. J. Dairy Sci.
82:673-681.
Becker, T. and Z. Puhan. 1989. Effect of different processes to increase the milk solids non-fat
content on the rheological properties of yoghurt. Milchwiss. 44: 626-29.
Bhatty, R.S. 1996. Production of food malt from hull-less barley. Cereal Chemistry, 73(1):75-80.
Blake, D.E., Hamblett, C.J., Frost, P.G., Judd, P.A. and Ellis, P.R. (1997) “wheat bread
supplemented with depolymerized guar gum reduces the plasma cholesterol concentration in
hypercholesterolemic human subjects” Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65:107-113.
Breene, W. M. 1975. Application of texture profile analysis to instrumental food texture
evaluation. J. Texture Stud., 6: 53-82.
Burkus, Z. and F. Temelli. 2005. Stabilization of emulsions and foams using barley b- glucan.
Food Research International, 33:101-118.
Butt, M.S., N. Shahzadi, M.K. Sharif and M. Nasir. 2007. Guar gum: A miracle therapy for
hypercholesterolemia, hyperglycemia and obesity. Critic. Rev. in Food Sci. Nutr. 47: 389-396.
Celik, S. and I. Bakirci. 2003. Some properties of yoghurt produced by adding mulberry pekmez
(concentrated juice). Int. J. Dairy Technol. 56: 26-29.
Page 77
Champagne, C.P., J. Green-Johnson, Y. Raymond, J. Barrette and N. Buckley. 2009. Selection of
probiotic bacteria for the fermentation of a soy beverage in combination with Streptococcus
thermophilus. Food Research International, 42: 612-621.
Chander, H., V.K. Batish, M. Mohan and L.K. Bhatia. 1989. Effect of heat treatment on the
physicochemical characteristics of dahi, an Indian fermented dairy product. Cultured Dairy
Product. J. 24: 11-13.
Chaudhry, S. 2007. Livestock share in GDP rises to 49.5%. Daily Times. Thursday, May 10.
Chauhan, K. G. and J. A. Chauhan .2009. Synthesis and characterization of novel guar gum
hydrogels and their use as Cu2+ sorbents. Bioresource Technology. 100. 3599–3603.
Chee, C.P., J.J. Gallaher, D.D. H. Faraji, D.J. McClements, E.A. Decker, R. Hollender, D.G.
Peterson, R.F. Roberts and J.N. Coupland. 2005. Chemical and sensory analysis of
strawberry flavored yogurt supplemented with an algae oil emulsion. J. Dairy Res. 72: 311-
316.
Chougrani, F., A. Cheriguene and A. Bensoltane. 2008. Use of lactic strains isolated from
algerian ewe„s milk in the manufacture of a natural yoghurt. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 7: 1181-
1186.
Cogan, T.M. 2007. Cultured dairy products are driving the growth of dairy foods consumptions.
Intl. Dairy.J. 82:2805-2817.
Courts, A. 2010. N-Terminal amino acid residues of gelatin. Chain weight and rigidity of relation
in fractionated gelatins. Biochemical J., 73: 596-600.
Coussement, P. A. A. (1999). Inulin and oligofructose: Safe intakes and legal status. Journal of
Nutrition, 129, 1412S-1417S.
Damin, M.R. and M.N. Oliveira. 2003. Effect of total solids and sucrose contents on acidity,
firmness and viability of yogurt and probiotic bacteria in fermented milk. Sci. Tech.
Alimentos. 23: 172-176.
David W., Everett, E. Rosalind and McLeod. 2005. Interactions of polysaccharide stabilizers with
casein aggregates in stirred skim-milk yoghurt, Int. Dairy J. 15: 1175-1183.
Page 78
De Brabandere and De Baerdemaeker. 2002. Role of yoghurt in the prevention of colon cancer.
Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 56: S65-S68.
Dello Staffolo, M., N. Bertola, M. Martino and Bevilacqua. 2004. Influence of dietary fiber
addition on sensory and rheological properties of yogurt. Int. Dairy J. 14: 263-268.
Djurdjević, J.D., O. Maćej and S. Jovanović. 2002. Viscosity of set-style yogurt as influenced by
heat treatment of milk and added demineralized whey powder. J. Agric. Sci. 47(1): 45-56.
Domagala, J., M. Sady, T. Grega, and G. Bonczar. 2007. The influence of storage time on
rheological and texture of yoghurts with the addition of oat-maltodextrin as the fat substitute.
Journal of Food Properties, 8:395–404.
Donkor, O.N., A. Henriksson, T. Vasiljevic and N.P. Shah. 2007c. Rheological properties and
sensory characteristics of set-type soy yogurt. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry,
55: 9868-9876.
Drake, M.A., X.Q. Chen, S. Tamarapu and B. Leenanon. 2000. Soy protein fortification affects
sensory, chemical and microbiological properties of dairy yoghurts. J. of Food Sci. 65: 1244-
1247.
Ellis, PR., Wang, Qi., Rayment, P. and Ren, Y. 2001. Guar gum: agricultural and botanical
aspects, physiochemical and nutritional properties, and its use in the development of
functional foods. In: Cho SS, Dreher ML, eds. Handbook of dietary fiber. New York: Marcel
Dekker, 613-657.
El-Sayed, E.M., I.A. Abd El-Gawad, H.A. Murad and S.H. Salah. 2002. Utilization of laboratory-
produced xanthan gum in the manufacture of yogurt and soy yogurt. Eur Food Res
Technology, 215: 298-304.
Evans, A.J., Hood, R.L., Oakenfull, D.G., and Sidhu, G.S. (1992) “relationship between structure
and function of dietary fibre: a comparative study of the effects of three galactomannans on
cholesterol metabolism in the rat”Br. J. Nutr., 68:217-229.
Page 79
FAO/WHO, 2009. "Health and Nutritional Properties of Probiotics in Food including Powder
Milk with Live Lactic Acid Bacteria". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, World Health Organization.Retrieved, 20: 11-04.
Faraj, A., T. Vasanthan and R. Hoover. 2006. The influence of a-amylase-hydrolysed barley
starch fractions on the viscosity of low and high purity barley b-glucan concentrates.
Food Chemistry, 96:56–65.
Farooq, K. 1997. Effect of fat replacers on the physicochemical properties of low fat and nonfat
dairy products [PhD dissertation]. Mississippi State Univ. Mississippii State. pp: 184-188.
Farooq, K. and Z. U. Haque. 1992. Effect of sugar esters on the textural properties of non-fat low
calorie yogurt. J. Dairy Sci. 75: 2676-2680.
Fatemeh Azarikia and Soleiman Abbasi. 2009. On the stabilization mechanism of Doogh (Iranian
yoghurt drink) by gum tragacanth. Food Hydrocolloids. Xxx: 1-6.
Fernandez-Dıaz M.D., P. Montero and M.C. Gomez-Guillen. 2003. Effect of freezing fish skins
on molecular and rheological properties of extracted gelatin. Food Hydrocolloids, 17: 281-
286.
Fiszman, M., M.A. Lluch and A. Salvador. 1999. Effect of addition of gelatin on microstructure
of acidic milk gels and yoghurt and on their rheological properties. Int. Dairy J. 9: 895-901.
Frank, A. M. E. (2002). Technological functionality of inulin and oligofructose. British Journal of
Nutrition, 87, S287-S291.
Frias, A.C.D. and V.C. Sgarbieri. 1999. Guar gum effects on food intake, blood serum lipids and
glucose levels of Wistar rats. Plant Foods Human Nutr. 53(1): 15-28.
Gassem, M. A. and J. F. Frank.1991. Physical properties of yogurt made from milk treated with
proteolytic enzymes. J. Dairy Sci. 74: 1503-1511.
Giaccari, S., Grasso, G., Tronci, S., Candiani, C. and Chiri, S. (2001) “Partially Hydrolyzed Guar
Gum: fiber added to treat irritable bowel syndrome” Clinicaterapeutica, 152:21-25
Page 80
Glicksman, M. 1982. Food hydrocolloids, Vol. (3): CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida.
Goldstein, A.M., E.N. Alter and J.K. Seaman. 1973. Guar gum, in Industrial Gums, 2nd ed., eds.
By Whistler, R.L., and BeMiller, J.N., Academic Press, New York. pp 303-321.
Grattepanche, F., Ozer, D., Akin, S., & Ozar, B. 2007. Effect of inulin and lactulose on survival
of Lactobacillus acidophilus LA-5 and Bifidobacterium bifidum BB-02 in acidophilus yoghurt.
Greenberg, N.A. and D. Sellman.1998 Partially hydrolyzed guar gum as a source of fiber. Cereal
Foods World. 43:703-707.
Gueimonde, M., L. Alonso, T. Delgado, J.C. Bada-Gancedo and C.G. Reyes-Gavilan. 2003.
Quality of plain yoghurt made from refrigerated and CO2 treated milk. J. Food Chem. 36:
43-48.
Guinee, T.P., C.G. Mullins, W.J. Reville and M.P. Cotter. 1995. Physical properties of stirred-
curd unsweetened yoghurts stabilised with different dairy ingredients. Milchwissenschaft,
50(4): 196-200.
Guven, M., K. Yasar, O. B. Karaca and A.A. Hayaloglu. 2005. The effect of inulin as a fat
replacer on the quality of set type low fat yoghurt manufacture. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 58:
180-184.
Hansen, P.M.T. 1993. Food hydrocolloids in the dairy industry. In K. Nishinari and E. Doi (Eds.),
Food hydrocolloids: structures, properties and functions. New York, Plenum Press. 211-224.
Hardi, J. and V. Slacanac. 2000. Examination of coagulation kinetics and rheological properties
of fermented milk products; influence of starter culture, milk fat content, addition of inulin.
Mljekarstvo. 50: 217-226.
Harper, S.J., D.L. Barnes, F.W. Bodyfelt and M.R. Mcdaniel. 1991. Sensory ratings of
commercial plain yogurts by consumer and descriptive panels. J. Dairy Sci. 74: 2927-2935.
Hernández, K. Harte, I. and M. Phillips. 2008. Survival of Lactobacillus acidophilus and
Bifidobacterium animalis ssp. lactis in stirred fruit yoghurts. LWT Food Science and
Technology, 41: 1317–1322
Page 81
Huma, N., K. Hafeez and I. Ahmad. 2003. Preparation and evaluation of apple stirred yoghurt.
Pak. J. Food Sci. 13(3-4): 5-9.
Isanga, J. and G. Zhang. 2009. Production and evaluation of some physicochemical parameters of
peanut milk yogurt. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 42: 1132-1138.
Jawalekar, S.D., U.M. Ingle, P.S. Waghmare and P.N. Zanjad. 1993. Influence of hydrocolloids
on rheological and sensory properties on cow and buffalo milk yoghurt. Indian J. of Dairy
Sci. 46: 217-219.
Jaziri, I., M.B. Slama, H. Mhadhbi, M.C. Urdaci and M. Hamdi. 2009. Effect of green and black
teas (Camellia sinensis) on the characteristic microflora of yogurt during fermentation and
refrigerated storage. Journal of Food Chemistry, 112: 614-620.
Jogdand, S.B., A.F. Lembhe, R.K. Ambadkar and S.S. Chopade. 1991. Incorporation of additives
to improve the quality of dahi. Indian J. Dairy Science. 44: 459-460.
Jumah, R.Y., R.R. Shaker and B. Abu-Jdayil. 2001. Effect of milk source on the rheological
properties of yogurt during the gelation process. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 54: 89-93.
Kalab, M., D.M. Emmons and A.G. Sargant. 1975. Milk gel structure. IV. Microstructure of
yoghurt in relation to the presence of thickening agents. J. Dairy Res. 42: 453-458.
Keating, K. R. and C. H. White. 1990. Effect of alternative sweeteners in plain and fruit-flavored
yogurts. J. Dairy Sci. 73:54-62.
Khalifa, E.A., A.E. Elgasim, A.H. Zaghloul and M.B. Mahfouz. 2011. Application of inulin and
mucilage as stabilizers in yoghurt production. American J. Food Tech. 6: 31-39.
Kip, P., Meyer, D., & Jellema, R. H. (2006). Inulins improve sensoric and texture properties of
low-fat yoghurts. International Dairy Journal, 16, 1098-1103.
Kirk, R. S. and R. Sawer. 1991. Pearson„s composition and analysis of foods. 9th Ed. Longman
Scientific and Techno, London, U.K.
Koksoy., A and M. Kilic. 2004. Use of hydrocolloids in textural stabilization of a yoghurt drink,
aryan. J. Food Eng. 81(2): 437-446.
Page 82
Krasaekoopt, W., B. Bhandari and H. Deeth. 2005. Comparison of gelation profile of yogurts
during fermentation measured by RVA and ultrasonic spectroscopy. International Journal of
Food Properties, 8: 193-198.
Labell, F. 1990. Designer food in cancer prevention. Food Process. 51: 23-32.
Larmond, 1997. Develop appearance, color, taste, body/texture and overall acceptability scale by
a panel of 6 judges by using a 9 point hedonic scale.
Lee, W.J. and J.A. Lucey. 2003. Rheological properties, whey separation, and effects of heating
temperature and incubation temperature microstructure in set-style yogurt. J. Texture Stud.
34: 515-536.
Lee, W.J. and J.A. Lucey. 2004. Structure and physical properties of yogurt gels: effect of
inoculation rate and incubation temperature. J. Dairy Sci. 87: 3153-3164.
Lee, W.J. and J.A. Lucey. 2010. Formation and Physical Properties of Yogurt. Asian-Aust. J.
Anim. Sci. 23(9): 1127-1136.
Mahmood, M., N. Abbas, and A. H.Gilani. 2008. Quality of Stirred Buffalo Milk Yogurt Blended
With Apple and Banana Fruits. Pakistan. Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 45: 2-9.
McGregor, J.U. Fernandez and E. Garcia. 1987. Fortification of sweetened plain yogurt with
insoluble dietary fiber. Z. Lebensm unters Forsch A. 204: 433-437.
McKinley, M.C. 2005. The nutrition and health benefits of yogurt. International Journal of Dairy
Technology, 58: 1-12.
Mehmood, S.T., T. Masud, T. Mahmood and S. Maqsud. 2008. Effect of different additives from
local source on the quality of yoghurt. Pak. J. Nutr. 7(5): 695-699.
Milani, E. and A. Koocheki. 2011. The effects of date syrup and guar gum on physical,
rheological and sensory properties of low fat frozen yoghurt dessert. Intl. J. Dairy Technol.
64(1): 121-129.
Page 83
Mottar, J., G. Waes, R. Moermans and M. Navdts. 1979. Sensoric changes in UHT milk during
uncooled storage. Milchwissens cheft. 34: 257-262.
Nalinanon S., S. Benjakul, W. Visessanguan and H. Kishimura. 2008. Improvement of gelatin
extraction from bigeye snapper skin using pepsin-aided process in combination with protease
inhibitor. Food Hydrocolloids. 22: 615-622.
O‟Rell, K.R. and R.C. Chandan. 2006. Yogurt: Fruit preparations and flavouring materials. In
Manufacturing Yogurt and Fermented Milks. Blackwell Publishing: Iowa, U. S.
Olivera, M., M. Caric., R. Bozanic and L. Tratnik. 1996. The influence of whey protein
concentrates on the viscosity of yogurt, acidophilus and acidophilus yogurt. Int. J. Dairy. 46:
91–100.
Ozer, B.H., R.A. Stenning, A.S. Grandison and R.K. Robinson. 1998. Rheology and
Microstructure of Labneh (Concentrated Yogurt). J. Dairy Sci. 82:682-689.
Pandya, N., S. Kanawjial and R. Dave. 2004. Effects of fat contents on physico-chemical and
sensory properties of buffalo milk yoghurt. J. Dairy Sci. 87: 298.
Peri, C.M., Lucisano., Donati, E. 1985. Studies on coagulation of milk ultrafiltration retentates-II
Kinetics of whey synerisis. Milchwissenschaft, 40: 650-652.
Phillips, G.O. and P.A. Williams. 2000. Handbook of hydrocolloids. CRC Press LLC, Boca
Raton, FL
Ramaswamy, H.S and S. Basak. 1992. Pectin and raspberry concentrate effects on the rheology of
stirred commercial yogurt. J. Food Sci. 57: 357-360.
Rasic, J.I. and J.A. kurmann. 1987. in yoghurt-scientific Grounds, Technology, Manufacture and
Preparations, Technical Dairy Publishing House, Copenhagen.
Rezaei, R., M. Khomeiri, M. Kashaninejad and M. Aalami. 2011. Effects of guar gum and arabic
gum on the physicochemical, sensory and flow behaviour characteristics of frozen yoghurt.
Intl. J. Dairy Technol. 64(4): 563-568.
Page 84
Regmi, A., Takeshima, H., & Unnevehr, L. (2008). Convergence in global food demand and
delivery. Economic Research Report, P. 56. Retrieved December 16, 2008 from:
http://www.ers.usda.gov/Publications/ERR56/ERR56.pdf
Salvador, A. and S.M. Fiszman. 2004. Textural and sensory characteristics of whole and skimmed
flavored set-type yogurt during long storage. J. Dairy Sci. 87: 4033-4041.
Salwa, A.A., E.A. Galal and N.A. Elewa. 2004. Carrot yoghurt: sensory, chemical,
microbiological properties and consumer acceptance. Pakistan J. Nutrition 3: 322-330.
Sarkar, S., R.K. Kulia and A.K. Misra. 1996. Organoleptic, microbiological and chemical quality
of misti dahi sold in different districts of West Bengal. Indian J. Dairy Sci. 49: 54-61.
Schmidt, K.A., T.J. Herald and K.A. Khatib. 2000. Modified wheat starches used as stabilizers in
set-style yoghurt. J. of Food Quality 24: 421-434.
Schorsch, J. and C. Norton. 1999. Thermodynamic incompatibility and microstructure of milk
protein/ locust bean gum/ sucrose systems. J. Food hydrocolloids. 13: 89-99.
Seckin, A.K., B. Ergönül, H. Tosun and P.G. Ergönül. 2009. Effects of prebiotics (inulin and
fructooligosaccharide) on quality attributes of dried yoghurt (kurut). Food Sci. Technol. Res.
15(6): 605- 612.
Serra, M., A.J. Trujillo, B. Guamis and V. Ferragut. 2009. Evaluation of physical properties
during storage of set and stirred yogurts made from ultra-high pressured homogenization-
treated milk. Food Hydrocolloids. 23(1): 82-91.
Shah, N.P. 2003. Yogurt: The Product and its Manufacture. In Encyclopedia of Food Sciences
and Nutrition. B. Caballero, L.C. Trugo and P.M. Finlas. (Ed.). Academic Press: New York,
U.S.A. 6252-6259.
Shah, N.P. 2007. Functional cultures and health benefits. International Dairy Journal, 17: 1262-
1277.
Page 85
Shahid, Y., M. Tariq and A. Tariq. 2002. Quality evaluation of market yoghurt/ dahi. Pakistan J.
Nutrition. 1: 226-230.
Shukla, F.C., S.C. Jane and K.S. Sekhom. 1998. Effect of additives on the quality of yoghurt.
Indian J. of Dairy Sci. 41: 467-468.
Singh, G. and K. Muthukumarappan. 2008. Influence of calcium fortification on sensory, physical
and rheological characteristics of fruit yogurt. LWT. 41: 1145-1152.
Singh, M and J.A. Byars. 2007. Starch-lipid composites in plain set yogurt. Int. J. of Food Sci.
and Technology, 44: 106-110.
Skriver, A., J. Holstborg and K.B. Qvist. 1999. Relation between sensory texture analysis and
rheological properties of stirred yogurt. J. Dairy Res. 66: 609-618.
Sodini, I., A. Lucas, J.P. Tisier and G. Corrieu. 2005. Physical properties and microstructure of
yogurts supplemented with milk protein hydrolytes. Int. J. Dairy. 15:29-35.
Srividya, D.N. and S.M. Rao. 2003. Dahi a health giving diet. Ind. J. Dairy Chem. 75: 95-102.
Steel, R.G.D., J.H. Torrie and D. Dickey. 1997. Principles and procedures of statistics: a
biometrical approach, 3rd ed. McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc., New York.
Stelio, K and A. Emmanuel. 2004. Characteristics of set type yoghurt made from caprine or ovine
milk and mixtures of two. Agri. Uni. Athens, Greece. International Journal of Food Science
and Technology, 39:319-24.
Stephen, A.M. 1983. Other plant polysaccharides, in The polysaccharides, ed. By Aspinall, G.O.,
Academic Press, New York, pp 97-193.
Sukumar, D.E. 1983. Outlines of dairy technology. Oxford Uni. Press, New Dehli, India.
Tamime, A.Y and R.K. Robinson. 2007. In Dairy Microbiology – The Microbiology of Milk
Products, Vol. 2, 2nd Edition, Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, London, pp. 291–343.
Tamime, A.Y. and H.C. Deeth. 1985. Yoghurt technology and biochemistry. Journal of food
protection, 43: 939-965.
Page 86
Tamime, A.Y. and R.K. Robinson. 1999. Yogurt Science and Technology, 2nd edition, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. pp 11-108.
Tamime, A.Y. and R.K. Robinson. 1985. Yogurt Science and Technology, 2nd edition, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. pp 18-1114.
Tarakci, Z. and E. Kucukoner. 2003. Physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory
characteristics of some fruit-flavored yoghurt.YYU vet. Fak. Derg. 14: 10-14.
Tayar, M., C. Sen and E. Gunes. 1995. The study on some stabilizers in yogurt production. Gida.
20: 103-106.
Teggatz, J.A and H.A. Morris. 1990. Changes in the rheology and microstructure of ropy yoghurt
during shearing. Food Structure. 9: 133-138.
USDA.(2008). The Food Supply and dietary fiber: Its availability and effect on health. Available
on November 17, 2008 from: http://www.
cnpp.usda.gov/Publications/NutritionIsights/Insights
Villegas-Ruiz, X., O. Angulo and M. O‟Mahony. 2008. Hidden and false “preferences” on the
structured 9-point hedonic scale. J. Sensory Studies. 23: 780-790.
Walstra, P., J.M.V. Dijk and T.J. Geurts. 1985. Tue synersis of curd. J. Milk and Dairy. 39: 209-
246.
Weid, T., C. Bulliard and J. Schiffrin. 2001. Induction by a lactic acid bacterium of hydrocolloids
in textural stabilization of a yoghurt drink, Ayran. Food Hydrocolloids. 18: 593-600.
Wofschoon, A.F., G.C.M. Grazinidi and R.M. Fernandes. 1983. The total solid contents and the
acidity, pH and viscosity of yoghurt. Revistado Ins. De Laticinos Candido Tostes. 38: 10-24.
Wood, B.J.B. 1992. The lactic acid bacteria in health and disease. London: Elsevier Appl. Sci.
151-339.
Yadav, H., S. Jain and P.R. Sinha. 2007. Evaluation of changes during storage of probiotic dahi at
7°C. Int. J. Dairy Technol. 60(3): 205-210.
Page 87
Yamatoya, K., Sekiya, K., Yamada, H. and Ichikawa, T. (1993) “effect of partially
hydrolyzedguar gum on postprandial plasma glucose and lipid levels in humans”J. Jpn. Soc.
Nutr. FoodSci., 46:199-203
Yoon, S-J., D-C. Chu and L.R. Juneja. 2006. Physiological functions of partially hydrolyzed guar
gum. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 39: 134-144.