Ground-Truthing the Emerald Avenue

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Ground-Truthing the Emerald Avenue

B. Jacob Skousen

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Paper presented at the 60th

Annual Meeting of the Midwest Archaeological Conference, Urbana,

Illinois, 2014

DO NOT CITE WITHOUT PERMISSION FROM THE AUTHOR

Abstract Historical documents, maps, and recent archaeological excavations show that a number of major roadways crossed

southern Illinois in the early 19th

century. Many of these routes were likely established during pre-Columbian times,

meaning that studying these features could show how and why ancient peoples moved through the landscape. This

paper describes my own research on one of these roads, dubbed the Emerald Avenue, which purportedly linked

Cahokia to the Emerald site 20 km to the east. Both magnetic survey and targeted excavations performed this

summer revealed that some of the anomalies previously identified as remnants of the pre-Columbian road actually

correspond to a historic road. Although no direct physical evidence of a pre-Columbian road was found in this area,

it is possible that this historic road followed a more ancient route. While indirect, this evidence sheds light on

Emerald’s importance in the greater Cahokia region.

Introduction

Historical documents and maps suggest that many modern highways throughout southern

Illinois were used by early European settlers and, before that, Native Americans (Boylan 1933;

Koldehoff 1996, 2014; Koldehoff and Galloy 2007; Kruchten 2012; Myer 1928) (Figure 1). It is

plausible that early versions of these roads were used during Cahokia’s heyday, as argued by

Brad Koldehoff (1996, 2014) and Jeff Kruchten (2012). While these and other associated roads

and trails would have enabled travel and communication between distant regions and groups,

some likely facilitated ritualized movements to and from special places throughout the greater

Cahokia region (Pauketat 2013; Skousen 2015; cf. Ferguson et al. 2009; Oetelaar 2012; Zedeño

and Stoffle 2003; Zedeño et al. 2009). Timothy Pauketat (2013) has argued that one of these

hypothesized roads, dubbed “the Emerald Avenue”, converged at the Emerald site, a major

mound center 24 km east of Cahokia (Figure 2). He suggests that this road was traversed by

pilgrims coming to and from Emerald to witness rare lunar events, all of which was part of a new

Cahokian religion.

Before this summer, the presence of this road had been documented by historical

documents, a 1940 aerial photograph, and resistivity survey. However, its presence had not been

confirmed through excavation, and exactly when and how the road was constructed was unclear.

This paper describes my 2014 field investigations on this road, which consisted of magnetic

survey and targeted excavations. This work verified the presence of the road and shed light on

when and how it was constructed. I begin by reviewing past descriptions of the road. Then I

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describe my own excavations and results, and conclude with a brief discussion on the historical

implications of these findings.

The Emerald Avenue

The Emerald Avenue was first described by John Francis Snyder in 1894 and again in

1909. His descriptions were based on the observations of local residents, who described it as “a

deeply-worn footpath”, “trail”, or “road” that led from Cahokia up the eastern bluffs and between

two “sugarloaf” mounds, across Silver Creek, and directly to Emerald’s primary mound

(Moorehead 2000:210; Pauketat 2013:108; Walton 1962:259).

In 1974, James Porter (1974:33-34) claimed to have found this same trail in old aerial

photographs of the Emerald site area. He described the trail as “a faint line” that was difficult to

follow due to modern disturbance. According to Porter, the trail ran from the primary mound

west toward Silver Creek. He also identified another part of the trail, not mentioned by Snyder,

that began south of the primary mound and ran east for an undisclosed distance.

In 1993, Brad Koldehoff, Timothy Pauketat, and John Kelly mentioned the trail during

their discussion of the Emerald site. Though they did not describe or identify the trail, they

suggested that it connected “the American Bottom to the Wabash Valley and beyond”, and that

“Emerald may have occupied a key position” along it (Koldehoff et al. 1993:333). This argument

has been reiterated by Koldehoff and Pauketat in more recent publications and presentations

(Koldehoff 1996, 2014; Pauketat 2013).

Pauketat (2013) has recently identified the roadway using a 1940 aerial photograph of the

Emerald site area (Figure 3). His findings generally correspond to Porter’s, though his

description is more detailed. According to Pauketat, the road leads from the west to the first

terrace of the primary mound; from the east, it passes south of the primary mound and seemingly

terminates at a possible plaza between the primary mound and one of Emerald’s smaller conical

mounds (Pauketat 2013:143). Furthermore, the aerial photo shows that in some places a second

line runs parallel to the original, which may represent two separate traces or the sides of a single

large road (Pauketat 2013:Figure 7.9). Resistivity survey was performed along portions of the

road in 2012, and the results revealed an anomaly about 40 cm below the surface that

corresponded to one of the lines in the aerial photo (Larson et al. 2013).

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2014 Fieldwork

The goals of the 2014 fieldwork were to verify the presence of the road and determine

when and how it was constructed. To do this, both magnetic survey and excavations were

performed.

Magnetic Survey

Magnetic survey was done in two areas (Figure 4). The first was situated west of the

primary mound in a place where the road was visible in the aerial photo. The position of the

survey grids was determined by georeferencing the 1940 aerial photo onto a modern one,

obtaining UTM coordinates for the corners of the grids, and finally staking out the corners using

a handheld GPS and measuring tapes. Fifteen 30 x 30 meter blocks were laid out. The magnetic

survey was performed by Liz Watts of Indiana University using a Bartington Grad-601 dual

fluxgate gradiometer, owned by Dr. Susan Alt of Indiana University.

The results show two parallel lines in the northern and southern extremes of the survey

blocks (Figure 5). These match with the lines seen in the aerial photos, identified by Pauketat

(2013:Figure 7.9) as the Emerald Avenue, though they are much clearer. Importantly, another

line located between and parallel to the other two lines was also visible. Based on its position and

orientation, this third line is likely associated with the other two. If the two lines are indeed

remnants of the pre-Columbian road, this third line may represent the edge of another

contemporaneous road or an earlier or later road.

Twenty-five 30 x 30 meter blocks situated east of the primary mound were also surveyed

(Figure 6). The results, however, were not as clear as those of the west-side survey blocks. A

linear feature with a stronger signature was clearly discernable in the eastern-most blocks and

corresponded to one of the road features in the aerial photo. While some remnants may be

discernable, the feature was generally less visible in the blocks closer to the mound, due in part

to erosional gullies and historic disturbances that presumably destroyed the feature. It is also

possible that the feature had eroded away because of the steeper slope.

Excavations

Due to land access issues, all excavations of the road took place east of the Primary

Mound (Figure 7). To obtain profiles of the road, four backhoe trenches were excavated

perpendicularly into portions of the roadway, and two discontinuous profiles were excavated

along the ditches paralleling the modern township roads.

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Several features identified in the four trenches corresponded to the features in the aerial

photo and magnetic survey. One of these features, found in the southern end of Trench 1, was

located just below the plow zone and measured about 4 meters wide in plan (Figure 8). The fill

was much darker near the middle of the feature with lighter fill near the edges. The fill was full

of natural manganese and iron concretions but devoid of artifacts. In profile, the feature consisted

of two inward-slanting basins (Figure 9). Both basins were approximately 1.8 meters wide; one

was 50 cm deep and the other was about 35 cm deep. Their bases were irregular due to several

narrow, square-shaped depressions at the bottom. Numerous fill zones were noted.

Two other similar features were found in Trench 2. The southern-most feature was 2.2

meters wide (Figure 10). In profile, the feature was an inward-slanting depression, 25 cm deep,

with square-shaped indentations in its base. The feature at the north end of Trench 2 only

measured about 65 cm in width (Figure 11). In profile, this feature was an amorphous, shallow

depression about 15 cm deep with incurving sides and an irregular bottom. No artifacts were

recovered from either of these features. Like the feature in Trench 1, both consisted of dark fill

and contained numerous manganese and iron concretions but no artifacts.

Two features were found in Trenches 3 and 4, but they did not resemble the features in

Trenches 1 or 2 (Figure 12). They were basin-shaped, but their fill was much lighter and the

depressions looked different in profile than those just described. It is unclear whether they

corresponded to the features in Trenches 1 and 2.

Two features were found in the profiles along one of the modern roads. The northern-

most feature consisted of two very wide, irregular-shaped basin features, each about 50 cm deep

that together measured approximately six meters across (Figure 13). The southern-most feature

consisted of only one irregular basin and was four meters wide and 35 cm deep (Figure 14). Both

contained the same dark fill, natural concretions, and irregular basins with squared-shaped

depressions in their base.

No features were found in the profiles along the other modern road. If any features were

present, they may have been plowed or eroded away. It is also possible that these profiles were

not dug in the right place due to the vagaries of georeferencing an 80 year-old aerial photo to a

modern one.

Discussion

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The magnetic survey clearly revealed a linear feature that corresponded to the road

identified by Pauketat (2013). Excavations further verified the presence of the feature, at least in

some areas. These features appear to be a road – they seem to represent two separate,

discontinuous traces or paths, not a single large roadway. These features are not natural gullies or

drainages. For one, the aerial photo and magnetic survey show that these features are ususually

straight and cut across the natural contours of the landscape, something that would not happen

with natural gullies (see Ferguson et al. 2009; Larson et al. 2013). More importantly, the shape of

these features in profile is similar to other roads throughout North America (Agbe-Davies 2009;

Stearns 1997). The paired depressions, and especially the square-shaped ruts in the base of the

depressions, are indicative of tire or wagon tracks.

The excavations also shed light on the chronology of the road. The morphology of the

features suggests that they are remnants of a historic road, not a pre-Columbian one. If it were a

large pre-Columbian road or causeway, one might expect a raised linear feature constructed of

layers of prepared fill like the Rattlesnake Causeway at Cahokia (see Baries 2014), or a sunken

roadbed with side ditches and mounded edges, reminiscent of Hopewell roads (see Squier and

David 1998 [1848]). Instead, these features consisted of single or paired deep depressions. While

such depressions or troughs are indicative of prehistoric trails in other parts of the world (see

Ferguson et al. 2009), the features in this case are remnants of what one might expect from

continual pounding and compression by draft animals and wheeled vehicles. The square-shaped

indentations at the base of the depressions are particularly telling, as they mimic wagon ruts

associated with historic roads (see Agbe-Davies 2009; Stearns 1997). Furthermore, the width

between opposing ruts range between three and five feet, which generally corresponds to the axel

widths of wagons and carts used during the 19th

century (cf. Stearns 1997). Therefore, this road

may have been associated with the home that was built into the base of the Primary Mound in

1840 (Walton 1962:260). An artist’s rendition of the homestead even depicts a wagon road

passing by the front of the house (Figure 15). Another possibility is that the road was associated

with an old fort or blockhouse located northwest of Emerald, identified on an early 19th

-century

GLO map of the area (Figure 16). However, more research is needed to verify this.

How the road was initially constructed is more difficult to determine. The depth of the

road suggests that it was formally dug, at least in some places. If the road was formally

excavated, however, its irregular and gradually-inward sloping shape shows that was not

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maintained. Furthermore, the wide, irregular depressions and ruts may have been caused by

occasional wet conditions, which would have caused wagons and horses to slide around,

resulting in broad, uneven depressions with occasional ruts. Furthermore, the many irregular

zones suggest that the road was filled gradually in numerous erosional events, which is what one

might expect from an abandoned wagon road.

Conclusion

In this paper I have shown that magnetic survey and excavations have verified the

presence of the Emerald Avenue. However, the features identified likely represent traces of a

historic road that was used in the mid-19th

century. Does this mean that there was no pre-

Columbian road that once connected Emerald to Cahokia? Not necessarily. As discussed earlier,

historic and modern roads throughout Illinois often cover and obliterate all remnants of pre-

Columbian paths, roads, and routes. Furthermore, no excavations were performed on the western

area – the roadway in this area had a slightly different magnetic signature and thus could be

remnants of a pre-Columbian road. I plan to excavate a part of this area later this fall. Regardless,

it is reasonable to assume that this historic road followed and erased a more ancient route

associated with Emerald and Cahokia.

While indirect, this evidence for the presence of a road or trail has important implications

for Emerald’s history and purpose. Throughout native North America, regular pilgrimages to

special places via well-known trails was a way to reinforce identity and boundaries, gain

knowledge, and renew relationships with the past, landscape, ancestral spirits, and other-worldly

realms (Basso 1996; Oetelaar 2012; Pauketat 2013; Skousen 2015; Sofaer et al. 2008; Zedeño

and Stoffle 2003; Zedeño et al. 2009). Archaeological evidence, now including the evidence

presented here, suggests that something similar took place at Emerald. Architectural and ceramic

evidence from ISAS’s 1998 and 2011 excavations suggest that Emerald was occupied regularly,

perhaps at distinct intervals, during the Edelhardt and early Lohmann phase. Occupation span

estimates suggest that each occupation in this area was short lived, a few years at the most. This

area was reoccupied for a decade during the early Stirling phase and again during the Moorehead

phase (Skousen 2013). Thus, in this area at least, Emerald was periodically occupied for short

periods of time just before and during Cahokia’s florescence as well as several other times

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throughout its history. It is also possible that these visits and occupations corresponded to lunar

standstill events that occurred every 18.6 years (Pauketat 2013).

Furthermore, the activities that took place at Emerald would have required and passed on

special knowledge, renewed relationships with the earth and sky, and required the negotiation of

disparate identities, perspectives, and histories (Pauketat 2013; Skousen 2014). According to

Katie Parker, the abundance of starchy seed cultigens throughout the site, particularly maygrass,

is suggestive of spring feasting activities (Katie Parker, personal communication, 2014; see also

Pauketat et al. 2002). Excavations into the primary mound suggest that it was built in numerous

stages that would have required large groups (Pauketat 2000; Skousen and Pauketat 2012; see

also Pauketat and Alt 2003). And certainly the building and rebuilding of structures and the

construction and renewal of mounds referenced lunar events and the memories and activities

associated with them (see Pauketat 2013). In short, the occupation history, the activities that

occurred, and the likely presence of a road or trail suggests that Emerald was a special place – a

pilgrimage center – that forged a new Cahokian identity, disseminated new practices and

cosmological principles, and created new relationships with various human and non-human

entities. All these things were foundational to Cahokia’s religion, rise, and continual formation.

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