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• Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)– Identified two forms of leader behavior
• Job-centered behavior—managers who pay close attention to subordinates’ work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance.
• Employee-centered behavior—managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction.
• These two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum and similar to (respectively) Likert’s System 1 and System 4 of organizational design.
• Michigan Studies (Rensis Likert)– Identified two forms of leader behavior
• Job-centered behavior—managers who pay close attention to subordinates’ work, explain work procedures, and are keenly interested in performance.
• Employee-centered behavior—managers who focus on the development of cohesive work groups and employee satisfaction.
• These two forms of leader behaviors were considered to be at opposite ends of the same continuum and similar to (respectively) Likert’s System 1 and System 4 of organizational design.
• Ohio State Studies (cont’d)– Initial assumption of the research was that leaders who
exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders. Subsequent research indicated that:• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on initiating structure were
high performers, although they expressed low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism.
• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on consideration had low- performance ratings, but they had high levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism.
• Other situational variables were making consistent leader behavior predictions difficult.
• There is no universal or “one best way” model of leadership.
• Ohio State Studies (cont’d)– Initial assumption of the research was that leaders who
exhibit high levels of both behaviors would be most effective leaders. Subsequent research indicated that:• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on initiating structure were
high performers, although they expressed low levels of satisfaction and had higher absenteeism.
• Employees of supervisors ranked highly on consideration had low- performance ratings, but they had high levels of satisfaction and had less absenteeism.
• Other situational variables were making consistent leader behavior predictions difficult.
• There is no universal or “one best way” model of leadership.
Middle of the RoadManagementAdequate organization performance is
possible through balancing the necessity
to get out work with maintaining moraleof people at a satisfactory level.
Impoverished Management
Exertion of minimum effortto get required work done
is appropriate to sustain
organization membership.
Authority-Compliance
Efficiency in operations
results from arrangingconditions of work in
such a way that
human elementsinterfere to a
minimum degree.
5,5
Country Club Management
Thoughtful attention to theneeds of people for satisfying
relationships leads to a
comfortable, friendlyorganization atmosphere
and work tempo.
Co
nce
rn f
or
peo
ple
The Leadership Grid® is a method of evaluating leadership styles. The Grid® is used to train managers so that they are simultaneously more concerned for people and for production (9,9 style on the Grid®).
Situational Approaches to Situational Approaches to LeadershipLeadership
• Situational Models of Leader Behavior– Assume that:
• Appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another.
• Key situational factors that are interacting to determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified.
• Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt)– Variables influencing the decision-making continuum:
• Leader’s characteristics—value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security.
• Subordinates’ characteristics—independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations.
• Situational Characteristics—type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures.
• Situational Models of Leader Behavior– Assume that:
• Appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another.
• Key situational factors that are interacting to determine appropriate leader behavior can be identified.
• Leadership Continuum (Tannenbaum and Schmidt)– Variables influencing the decision-making continuum:
• Leader’s characteristics—value system, confidence in subordinates, personal inclinations, and feelings of security.
• Subordinates’ characteristics—independence needs, readiness for responsibility, tolerance of ambiguity, interest in the problem, understanding goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations.
• Situational Characteristics—type of organization, group effectiveness, the problem itself, and time pressures.
Situational Approaches to Leadership Situational Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)– The primary functions of a leader are to make valued or
desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards.
– Leader Behaviors:• Directive leader behavior—letting subordinates know what is
expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.
• Supportive leader behavior—being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.
• Participative leader behavior—consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.
• Achievement-oriented leader behavior—setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates.
• Path-Goal Theory (Evans and House)– The primary functions of a leader are to make valued or
desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinate the kinds of behavior that will lead to goal accomplishment or rewards.
– Leader Behaviors:• Directive leader behavior—letting subordinates know what is
expected of them, giving guidance and direction, and scheduling work.
• Supportive leader behavior—being friendly and approachable, having concern for subordinate welfare, and treating subordinates as equals.
• Participative leader behavior—consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making.
• Achievement-oriented leader behavior—setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging and showing confidence in subordinates.
Situational Approaches to Leadership Situational Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Vroom Decision Tree Approach– Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a
given situation.– Basic Premises
• The degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation.
• No one decision-making process is best for all situations.
• After evaluating the different problem attributes, a leader can choose a decision path on one of two decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation.– Decision significance—the degree to which the decision will have
an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high.
– Decision Timeliness—the degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates.
• Vroom Decision Tree Approach– Attempts to prescribe a leadership style appropriate to a
given situation.– Basic Premises
• The degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation.
• No one decision-making process is best for all situations.
• After evaluating the different problem attributes, a leader can choose a decision path on one of two decision trees that determines the decision style and specifies the amount of employee participation.– Decision significance—the degree to which the decision will have
an impact on the organization. Subordinates are involved when decision significance is high.
– Decision Timeliness—the degree of time pressure for making a decision in a timely basis; may preclude involving subordinates.
Situational Approaches to Leadership Situational Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)(cont’d)
• Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)– Decision-Making Styles
• Decide—manager makes decision alone and then announces or “sells” it to the group.
• Consult (individually)—manager presents program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision.
• Consult (group)—manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision.
• Facilitate—manager presents the problem to the group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision.
• Delegate—manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution.
• Vroom Decision Tree Approach (cont’d)– Decision-Making Styles
• Decide—manager makes decision alone and then announces or “sells” it to the group.
• Consult (individually)—manager presents program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, then makes the decision.
• Consult (group)—manager presents problem to group at a meeting, gets their suggestions, then makes the decision.
• Facilitate—manager presents the problem to the group, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision.
• Delegate—manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then develop a solution.