1 Green Infrastructure Design Principles and Considerations November 5, 2009 Toledo, OH Daniel P. Christian, PE, D.WRE Tetra Tech [email protected]
Jan 23, 2015
1
Green InfrastructureDesign Principles and Considerations
November 5, 2009 Toledo, OHDaniel P. Christian, PE, D.WRETetra [email protected]
2
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
Source: FISRWG 2001 3
4
Large Storm Small Storm
Higher Baseflow
Higher and More Rapid Peak Discharge
More Runoff Volume
Lower and Less Rapid Peak
GradualRecession
Pre-developmentPost-development
Large Storm Small Storm
Higher Baseflow
Higher and More Rapid Peak Discharge
More Runoff VolumeLower and Less Rapid Peak
GradualRecession
Pre-development-Post-development
Consequences of Development to Urban Streams
4
55
66
77
8
Green InfrastructureGreen Infrastructure management approaches and technologies infiltrate, evapotranspire, capture and reuse stormwater to maintain or restore natural hydrologiesBenefits
Reduced and delayed stormwater runoff volumeEnhanced groundwater rechargeReduced stormwater pollutantsIncreased carbon sequestrationUrban heat island mitigation and reduced energy demandsImproved air qualityAdditional wildlife habitat and recreational spaceImproved human healthIncreased land values
Source: USEPA Green Infrastructure website
9
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
9
10
Water Storage - Surface
Traditional Retention•Poor infiltration•Good evaporation•Poor plant uptake and transpiration
Bioretention (rain garden)•Good infiltration•Poor evaporation•Good plant uptake and transpiration
Traditional Detention•No infiltration•Poor evaporation•Poor plant uptake and transpiration
Green Roof•No infiltration•Good evaporation•Good plant uptake and transpiration
10
11
Water Storage - Underground
CultecEnv21 Cultec
StormChamber
Xerxes
Rotondo
EcoRain
11
1212
Rainwater Harvesting and Conservation
12
13
Permeable Pavements
13
14
Other Stormwater BMPsTypes
Sand filtersHydrodynamic devicesInlet TrapsGross Solids Removal Devices
PurposeTarget floatable trash and suspended solidsMay be tailored to other pollutants (e.g. hydrocarbons)
What they don’t doIncrease evapotranspiration and infiltration
15
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
15
16
Plants
RoleWater UptakeStabilizationImpeding FlowFiltrationInfiltrationNutrient UptakeToxin UptakePollutant Breakdown
Example ApplicationsNurse crop/cover cropBuffer stripsVegetated trenchesBiofiltration/rain gardensVegetated swales and ditchesStormwater ponds/wetlandsGreen roofsNative plant reconstruction
R. Domm
Source: FISRWG 2001
17
Plant Selection and Installation Considerations
Site Conditions to InvestigateTexture, organic content and pHWater levels, soil moistureAdjacent plant communitiesSlopesAmount of sun/shade
Environmental ThreatsFlood depth, duration and frequencyLow water levelsSediment loadsPollutants and toxinsNutrientsSaltTurbidityErosionInvasive plantsHerbivores
18
Transpiration Rates of Various Plants
200-800 gpd/treeTree (mature)Weeping Willow
50-350 gpd/treeTree (mature)Cottonwood
20-40 gpd/treeTree (5 year old)Hybrid poplar
2-3.75 gpd/treeTree (2 year old)Cottonwood
0.48 in/dayPrairie speciesPrairie cordgrass
1.9 in/dayWetland/prairie speciesSedge
0.86 in/dayWetland speciesGreat bulrush
0.44 in/dayWetland speciesCommon reed
0.41 in/dayAgriculture cropAlfalfa
0.27 in/dayLawn grassPerennial rye
Transpiration RatePlant TypePlant Name
Source: Plants for Stormwater Design Volume II by D. Shaw and R. Schmidt (ITRC 2001)
1919
20
Native Vegetation Sources
Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)US Forest ServiceState and Local Stormwater ManualsState Environmental and Natural Resource AgenciesUniversity Extension ServicesFHWA Roadside Use of Native Plants www.fhwa.dot.gov/environment/rdsduse/wv.htmFind a local native plant nursery www.plantnative.org
21
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
21
22
Soil CharacteristicsPorosity: void space of soil (space for water)Infiltration: movement of water through soilField Capacity: proportion of void space that stays wet due to surface tension (i.e. after water drains by gravity)Wilting Point: point at which plants can no longer withdraw water fast enough to keep up with transpiration
Source: FISRWG 22
23
Consider this . . .
Consider a tree box sized for a 16” caliper tree (1,000 cf of soil)Fine sandy loam soil with 25% unfilled void space (0.45 porosity– 0.2 field capacity)Volume = 250 cf (1,000 cf * 0.25)Area of impervious surface needed to generate 250 cf of stormwater from a 1-inch of runoff = 3,000 sfAssuming drainage from ½ a 66-ft ROW equates to one tree box every 91-ftIgnored evaporation, infiltration, water uptake by plants, and depression storage
24
Infiltration CapacityDry Soils, Little or No Vegetation
Sandy soils: 5 in/hrLoam soils: 3 in/hrClay soils: 1 in/hr
Dry soils with Dense VegetationMultiply by 2
Saturated SoilsSandy soils: 1 to 4 in/hrLoam soils: 0.25 to 0.50 in/hrClay soils: 0.01 to 0.06 in/hr
Source: Rawls, W.J., D.L. Brakensiek, and N. Miller, “Green-Ampt Infiltration Parameters from Soil Data” J. Hydr Engr. 109:62, 1983), EPA SWMM 5 Users Manual, and FISRWG 24
25
What if you combineda basina water loving tree, andan engineered soil mix?
25
2626
Effects of Compaction on Infiltration Rates
Decreased infiltrationDecreased root growthIncreased runoff
Source: Pitt R., S.E. Chen, S. Clark
26
2.40.260All other clayey soils (compacted and dry, plus all wetter conditions)
1.59.818Noncompacted and dry clayey soils1.31.439Compacted sandy soils0.41336Noncompacted sandy soils
COVAvg Infil(in/hr)
Number of tests
Source: R. Pitt, S.E. Chen, S. Clark
26
27
KarstBackground
Karst refers to set of physical conditions, landforms and bedrock attributesSoluble carbonate rocks underlie the surface
Most common limestone, dolostone (dolomite) and marbleWeakly acidic rainwater seeps into joints and fractures and gradually enlarges themSinkholes are common, formed by dissolution of near-surface rocks or collapse of underground channels/caves
American Geologic Institute (www.agiweb.org/)
28
Karst FeaturesLow density of surface water drainagewaysClosed depressions with internal drainageSinkholesGround water levels that may vary appreciably over relatively short distancesThin soilsHigh flow rate springsHard groundwater and bicarbonate chemistry in streamsUndeveloped state, karst terrain produces less runoff
29
Karst Concerns
Highly variable subsurface conditions and often poorly understoodIncreased risk of groundwater contaminationIncreased risk of sinkhole formationPlugged sinkholes may increase the risk of flooding
intentionally through construction and land disturbance or,unintentionally through runoff and sedimentation
30
Karst StormwaterDesign PrinciplesDetailed site investigations to fully understand subsurface conditions, karst vulnerability and drainage patternsMinimize site disturbance and changes to soil profileTreat sheetflow runoff before it becomes concentratedLots of small scale practicesDiscourage centralized stormwater practices with large drainage areasMaintain quality and quantity of runoff to predevelopment levelsMinimize rerouting of stormwater from existing drainage
30
31
Stormwater Practice Selection in Karst
Prohibited
Discouraged
Adequate
PreferredSuitability
Use small-scale insteadLarge Scale InfiltrationLined. At least 6-ft of soil over bedrock. <6-ft of ponding depthDry Extended DetentionLined. At least 6-ft of soil over bedrock. <6-ft of ponding depthWet PondsLined and Linear Cells, at least 3-ft of soil over bedrockConstructed WetlandsIf sinkhole formation and groundwater contamination are not a concernPermeable PaversClosed systemsMicro-bioretentionNot at stormwater hotspotsSmall Scale Infiltration
Soil Compost AmendmentCompost amendment, discourage check damsGrass ChannelFlow to karst swalesFilter StripsLinedFiltering PracticesLined with underdrainDry Swale
Green RoofsExtend discharge at least 15-ft from buildingRooftop DisconnectionTanks above ground preferred over below ground installationRain Tank/Cistern
Underdrain if <3-ft of soil. Liner if groundwater contamination concern. Tributary area <20,000 sf. Surface ponding < 9-inches.
BioretentionNotesPractice
CSN 2009
32
Karst References
American Rivers. 2007. Using Green Infrastructure in Karst Regions. Washington, D.C. www.americanrivers.orgFennessey, L. 2003. Defining Natural Land Areas Critical to Stormwater Control in Karst Regions. Proceedings of the 2003 Pennsylvania Stormwater Management Symposium. October, 2003. Villanova University. Philadelphia, PA.Karst Working Group, 2009. Stormwater Design Guidelines for Karst Terrain in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed. CSN Technical Bulletin No. 1, Version 2.0. www.chesapeakestormwater.netRalston, M. and I. Oweis. 1999. Geotechnical Engineering Considerations for Stormwater Management in Karst Terrain. Proceedings of the 1999 Southeastern Pennsylvania Stormwater Management Symposium. Villanova University. Philadelphia, PA.
33
Engineered Soil Mix Examples
Prince Georges Co. MD: 50-60% sand; 20-30% compost; 20-30% topsoil (Minnesota added <5% clay stipulation)NCSU: 85% sand; 12% fines; 3-5% organicsPortland OR: 60-70% sand; 30-40% compost (35-65% organic); particle gradation specifiedLow Impact Development Center: 50% sand; 30% planting soil (50-85% sand, 0-50% silt, 10-20% clay, 1.5 -10% organic); 20% shredded hardwood mulchTypical infiltration rate of soil mixes is 1 to 8 in/hr
34
Soil Strategies
Protect native soil during construction by limiting access, grading/clearingIncrease soil volume by connecting planting areas, thereby sharing rooting spaceAlternative Soil Strategies
Soil TrenchesStructural Soil (use of stone to provide load bearing integrity while preserving void space)Suspended Pavements and Structural Cells
Avoid conflicts between rooting and infrastructure subgrade by using soil free aggregate under hardscape surfaces or use of root barriers
Urban Watershed Forestry Manual Part 3, 2006
35
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
35
36
Outlet Controls
UnderdrainsLinersOverflowsDiversionsInjection Wells
36
37
Outlet Controls
Filtration vs Infiltration
Underdrain Overflow/Diversion
Underdrained systems are flow-through systems, and discharge water from even small ‘design storms’.
38
Reasons to IncludeUnderdrains and Liners
Protect surrounding infrastructure
BasementsRoads/parking
Isolate contaminated soilsLeaky underground storage tanks
Prevent unwanted flora and fauna
Mosquitoes
38
39
Overflows and Diversions
Think about big stormsInline Systems
Water forced to flow through system
Offline SystemWater diverted after capacity reached
39
40
Class V Injection WellClass V wells are shallow wells used to place a variety of fluids directly below the land surface. An “injection well” is a “well” into which “fluids” are being injected (40 CFR §144.3).Memo & guide issued June 13, 2008 by EPA clarifies which infiltration practices are generally considered class V wells
If stormwater directed into hole that is deeper than it’s widest point orhas a subsurface distribution system
Potential examplesInfiltration trenchesCommercially manufactured stormwater infiltration devicesDry wells and seepage pits
Reporting requirements40
41
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
41
42
Consider a typical development example
Area = 2.98 acBuilding Footprint = 20.9%Parking/sidewalk = 36.5%Turf grass = 42.6%
B/C soilFlatEPA-SWMM V5 model
42
4343
No Stormwater Controls
Average Annual (from 50-years)
Natural Hydrology
Post Development
Evaporation 10% 19%
Infiltration 90% 38%
Surface Runoff <1% 43%
■ Traditional development with no stormwater controls
Rainfall
Post Development
Natural Hydrology
10-yr 24-hr SCS Type II
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26Time (hr)
Disc
harg
e (cfs
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Rainf
all (in
)
4444
Traditional Detention
Average Annual (from 50-years)
Natural Hydrology
Post Development
Evaporation 10% 19%
Infiltration 90% 38%
Surface Runoff <1% 43%
■ Traditional drainage system■ Detention sized with 0.15 cfs/acre maximum
release rate■ No change in average annual surface runoff
Time (hr)
Rainfall
Post Development
Natural Hydrology
10-yr 24-hr SCS Type II
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Disc
harg
e (cfs
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Rainf
all (in
)
4545
Impervious → Pervious
Average Annual (from 50-years)
Natural Hydrology
Post Development
Evaporation 10% 20%
Infiltration 90% 72%
Surface Runoff <1% 9%
■ Impervious surfaces discharge to green areas■ Green areas discharge to drainage system■ Decreased average annual surface runoff from
43% to 9%
Rainfall
Post Development
Natural Hydrology
10-yr 24-hr SCS Type II
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26Time (hr)
Disc
harg
e (cfs
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Rainf
all (in
)
4646
Added Storage
Average Annual (from 50-years)
Natural Hydrology
Post Development
Evaporation 10% 32%
Infiltration 90% 66%
Surface Runoff <1% 3%
■ Impervious → Pervious■ 1-inch roof storage (or equiv)■ 1-inch storage on pervious areas
Rainfall
Post Development
Natural Hydrology
10-yr 24-hr SCS Type II
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26Time (hr)
Disc
harg
e (cfs
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Rainf
all (in
)
4747
Enhanced Infiltration and Evapotranspiration
Average Annual (from 50-years)
Natural Hydrology
Post Development
Evaporation 10% 32%
Infiltration 90% 67%
Surface Runoff <1% 1%
■ Impervious → Pervious■ 1-inch roof storage (or equivalent)■ 1-inch storage on pervious areas with
enhanced rates
Note peak flow difference
Rainfall
Post Development
Natural Hydrology
10-yr 24-hr SCS Type II
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26Time (hr)
Disc
harg
e (cfs
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
Rainf
all (in
)
48
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
48
49
Design StrategiesPreserve natural systemsEngineer systems to mimic natural functions
Evapotranspiration ↑Plants (water uptake and transpiration)Surface water (evaporation)
Infiltration ↓SoilsStorage (provides additional time to infiltrate)
Surface Runoff →Pipes, gutters, swales, ditches, underdrainsTime of concentration (longer is better)
“Treat” raindrop as close as possible to where it fellLots of little BMPs instead of few regional systemsBMPs in series not parallel
50
PlanningDuring Design
Design BMPs with maintenance in mindROW, easements, vehicle access, cleanouts, manholesAt what depth should sediment be removed?Involve maintenance staff on BMP selection and design
Prepare a site specific maintenance guideThink about
Staff gauges or offset pointsDewatering pipes and valvesGeese, mosquitoes, rodents, etc.
50
51
Design Details
Test infiltration capacity, don’t assume itObservation ports for water levelsUnderdrains designed to be cleanedPonding depth in bio-systems approximately 6-12 inchExtend time of concentration
51
52
Ideas to ConsiderRoto-till pervious surfaces before topsoil/seedAmend soilsLoosen up compacted soils with a ditchwitch/auger and leaf compostValves on underdrainsIf you need an underdrain, don’t put it at the bottomTake every opportunity to educate the publicAdopt-a-rain gardenTry something. Anything is better than nothing.
52
53
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
53
54
Residential Rain Gardens
55
Bioretention Swale
56
Bioretention Swale
57
Bioretention Swalewith Parking
58
Bioretention atOffice Complex
59
Bioretention Planter
60
Bioretention Planter
61
Planter Box Style Bioretention
62
Curb Extension
63
Green Roof
64
Porous Pavement
65
Filter Strip
66
Rainwater Harvesting
67
Interpretive Sign
6868
69
AgendaIntroductionTypes of Practices and What They DoPlantsSoilsOutletsExample ApproachStrategies for Design/ImplementationImplementation ExamplesSummary
69
7070
Putting it All Together . . . Recreating Natural HydrologyProtect natural featuresLet pervious be perviousMinimize impervious surfacesRoute grey to greenPromote vigorous plant growthSlow the water downDesign for stormwater as an asset and amenity