Greek mythologyBust ofZeus, Otricoli (SalaRotonda,
MuseoPio-Clementino,Vatican).Greek mythology is the body of myths
and teachings thatbelong to the ancient Greeks, concerning their
gods andheroes, the nature of the world, and the origins and
signif-icance of their own cult and ritual practices. It was a
partof the religion in ancient Greece. Modern scholars referto and
study the myths in an attempt to shed light on thereligious and
political institutions of Ancient Greece andits civilization, and
to gain understanding of the nature ofmyth-making itself.[1]Greek
mythology is explicitly embodied in a large col-lection of
narratives, and implicitly in Greek representa-tional arts, such as
vase-paintings and votive gifts. Greekmyth attempts to explain the
origins of the world, anddetails the lives and adventures of a wide
variety of gods,goddesses, heroes, heroines and mythological
creatures.These accounts initially were disseminated in an
oral-poetic tradition; today the Greek myths are known pri-marily
from Greek literature. The oldest known Greekliterary sources,
Homers epic poems Iliad and Odyssey,focus on the Trojan War and its
aftermath. Two poemsby Homer's near contemporary Hesiod, the
Theogony andthe Works and Days, contain accounts of the genesis
ofthe world, the succession of divine rulers, the successionof
human ages, the origin of human woes, and the ori-gin of sacricial
practices. Myths are also preserved inthe Homeric Hymns, in
fragments of epic poems of theEpic Cycle, in lyric poems, in the
works of the tragediansof the fth century BC, in writings of
scholars and poetsof the Hellenistic Age, and in texts from the
time of theRoman Empire by writers such as Plutarch and
Pausanias.Archaeological ndingsprovideaprincipal sourceofdetail
about Greekmythology,
withgodsandheroesfeaturedprominentlyinthedecorationofmanyarti-facts.
Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth cen-tury BC depict
scenes from the Trojan cycle as well asthe adventures of Heracles.
In the succeeding Archaic,Classical, and Hellenistic periods,
Homeric and variousother mythological scenes appear, supplementing
the ex-isting literary evidence.[2] Greek mythology has had
anextensive inuence on the culture, arts, and literature ofWestern
civilization and remains part of Western heritageand language.
Poets and artists from ancient times to thepresent have derived
inspiration from Greek mythologyand have discovered contemporary
signicance and rele-vance in the themes.[3]1 SourcesGreek mythology
is known today primarily from Greekliterature and representations
on visual media dating fromthe Geometric period from c. 900800 BC
onward.[4] Infact, literary and archaeological sources integrate,
some-times mutuallysupportiveandsometimes inconict;however, in many
cases, the existence of this corpus ofdata is a strong indication
that many elements of Greekmythology have strong factual and
historical roots.[5]1.1 Literary sourcesMythical narration plays an
important role in nearly everygenre of Greek literature.
Nevertheless, the only generalmythographical handbook to survive
from Greek antiq-uity was the Library of Pseudo-Apollodorus. This
workattempts to reconcile the contradictory tales of the po-ets and
provides a grand summary of traditional Greekmythology and heroic
legends.[6] Apollodorus of Athens12 1 SOURCESlived from c. 180125
BC and wrote on many of thesetopics. His writings may have formed
the basis for thecollection;however the Library discusses events
thatoccurred long after his death, hence the name
Pseudo-Apollodorus.Prometheus (1868 by Gustave Moreau). The myth
ofPrometheusrst
wasattestedbyHesiodandthenconstitutedthebasisforatragictrilogyofplays,
possiblybyAeschylus,consistingofPrometheus Bound,Prometheus
Unbound, andPrometheus Pyrphoros.Among the earliest literary
sources are Homer's two epicpoems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other
poets completedthe epic cycle, but these later and lesser poems
noware lost almost entirely. Despite their traditional name,the
Homeric Hymns have no direct connection withHomer. They are choral
hymns from the earlier part ofthe so-called Lyric age.[7] Hesiod, a
possible contempo-rary with Homer, oers in his Theogony (Origin of
theGods) the fullest account of the earliest Greek myths,dealing
with the creation of the world; the origin of thegods, Titans, and
Giants; as well as elaborate genealo-gies,folktales,and etiological
myths. HesiodsWorksand Days, a didactic poem about farming life,
also in-cludes the myths of Prometheus, Pandora, and the
FiveAges.The poet gives advice on the best way to succeedin a
dangerous world, rendered yet more dangerous by itsgods.[2]Lyrical
poets often took their subjects from myth, buttheir treatment
became gradually less narrative andmore allusive. Greeklyric poets
including Pindar,Bacchylides, Simonides, and bucolic poets such
asTheocritus and Bion, relate individual
mythologicalincidents.[8]Additionally, mythwascentral toclassi-cal
Athenian drama. The tragic playwrights Aeschylus,Sophocles, and
Euripides took most of their plots frommyths of the age of heroes
and the Trojan War. Manyof the great tragic stories (e.g. Agamemnon
and hischildren,Oedipus,Jason,Medea,etc.) took on theirclassic form
in these tragedies. The comic playwrightAristophanesalsousedmyths,
inTheBirdsandTheFrogs.[9]Historians Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus,
and geogra-phers Pausanias and Strabo, who traveled throughout
theGreek world and noted the stories they heard, suppliednumerous
local myths and legends,often giving little-known alternative
versions.[8]Herodotus in particular,searched the various traditions
presented him and foundthe historical or mythological roots in the
confrontationbetween Greece and the East.[10] Herodotus attempted
toreconcile origins and the blending of diering
culturalconcepts.The poetry of the Hellenistic and Roman ages was
pri-marily composed as a literary rather than cultic exer-cise.
Nevertheless, it contains many important details thatwould
otherwise be lost. This category includes the worksof:1. The Roman
poets Ovid, Statius, Valerius Flaccus,Seneca and Virgil with
Servius's commentary.2. The Greek poets of the Late Antique
period:Nonnus,Antoninus Liberalis,and Quintus Smyr-naeus.3. The
Greek poets of the Hellenistic period:Apollonius of Rhodes,
Callimachus, Pseudo-Eratosthenes, and Parthenius.Prose writers from
the same periods who make refer-ence to myths include Apuleius,
Petronius, Lollianus, andHeliodorus. Two other important
non-poetical sourcesare theFabulae andAstronomica of the Roman
writerstyled as Pseudo-Hyginus, the Imagines of Philostratusthe
Elder and Philostratus the Younger, and the Descrip-tions of
Callistratus.Finally,a number of Byzantine Greek writers
provideimportant details of myth, much derived from earliernow lost
Greek works. These preservers of myth includeArnobius, Hesychius,
the author of the Suda, John Tzet-zes, and Eustathius. They often
treat mythology from aChristian moralizing perspective.[11]31.2
Archaeological sourcesThe Roman poet Virgil, here depicted in the
fth-centurymanuscript, the Vergilius Romanus, preserved details of
Greekmythology in many of his writings.The discovery of the
Mycenaean civilization by the Ger-man amateur archaeologist
Heinrich Schliemann in thenineteenth century, and the discovery of
the Minoan civ-ilization in Crete by the British archaeologist Sir
ArthurEvans in the twentieth century, helped to explain
manyexisting questions about Homers epics and provided
ar-chaeological evidence for many of the mythological de-tails
about gods and heroes. Unfortunately, the evidenceabout myths and
rituals at Mycenaean and Minoan sitesis entirely monumental, as the
Linear B script (an an-cient form of Greek found in both Crete and
mainlandGreece) was used mainly to record inventories,
althoughcertain names of gods and heroes have been
tentativelyidentied.[2]Geometric designs on pottery of the eighth
century BCdepict scenes from the Trojan cycle, as well as the
ad-ventures of Heracles.[2] These visual representations ofmyths
are important for two reasons. Firstly, many Greekmyths are
attested on vases earlier than in literary sources:of the twelve
labors of Heracles, for example, only theCerberus adventure occurs
in a contemporary literarytext.[12]Secondly, visual
sourcessometimesrepresentmyths or mythical scenes that are not
attested in any ex-tant literary source. In some cases, the rst
known rep-resentation of a myth in geometric art predates its
rstknown representation in late archaic poetry, by
severalcenturies.[4] In the Archaic (c. 750c. 500 BC), Clas-sical
(c. 480323 BC), and Hellenistic (323146 BC)periods, Homeric and
various other mythological scenesappear, supplementing the existing
literary evidence.[2]2 Survey of mythic historyGreek mythology has
changed over time to accommo-date the evolution of their culture,
of which mythology,both overtly and in its unspoken assumptions, is
an in-dex of the changes. In Greek mythologys surviving liter-ary
forms, as found mostly at the end of the progressivechanges, it is
inherently political, as Gilbert Cuthbertsonhas argued.[13]The
earlier inhabitants of the Balkan Peninsula were anagricultural
people who, using Animism, assigned a spiritto every aspect of
nature. Eventually, these vague spiritsassumed human forms and
entered the local mythology asgods.[14] When tribes fromthe north
of the Balkan Penin-sula invaded, they brought with them a new
pantheon ofgods, based on conquest, force, prowess in battle, and
vi-olent heroism. Other older gods of the agricultural worldfused
with those of the more powerful invaders or elsefaded into
insignicance.[15]After the middle of the Archaic period, myths
about re-lationships between male gods and male heroes becamemore
and more frequent, indicating the parallel devel-opment of
pedagogic pederasty (eros paidikos, ), thought to have been
introduced around 630 BC.By the end of the fth century BC, poets
had assigned atleast one eromenos, an adolescent boy who was their
sex-ual companion, to every important god except Ares andto many
legendary gures.[16] Previously existing myths,such as those of
Achilles and Patroclus, also then werecast in a pederastic
light.[17] Alexandrian poets at rst,then more generally literary
mythographers in the earlyRoman Empire, often readapted stories of
Greek mytho-logical characters in this fashion.The achievement of
epic poetry was to create story-cyclesand, as a result, to develop
a new sense of mythologicalchronology. Thus Greek mythology unfolds
as a phase inthe development of the world and of humans.[18]
Whileself-contradictions in these stories make an absolute
time-line impossible, an approximate chronology may be dis-cerned.
The resulting mythological history of the worldmay be divided into
three or four broader periods:1. Themyths oforigin or ageofgods
(Theogonies,birthsofgods): myths about the origins of theworld, the
gods, and the human race.2. The age whengods andmortals
mingledfreely:stories of the early interactions between
gods,demigods, and mortals.3. The age of heroes (heroic age), where
divine activ-ity was more limited. The last and greatest of
theheroic legends is the story of the Trojan War andafter (which is
regarded by some researchers as aseparate fourth period).[19]While
the age of gods often has been of more interestto contemporary
students of myth, the Greek authors of4 2 SURVEY OF MYTHIC
HISTORYthe archaic and classical eras had a clear preference forthe
age of heroes, establishing a chronology and recordof human
accomplishments after the questions of howthe world came into being
were explained. For example,the heroic Iliad and Odyssey dwarfed
the divine-focusedTheogony and Homeric Hymns in both size and
popular-ity. Under the inuence of Homer the hero cult leadsto a
restructuring in spiritual life, expressed in the sep-aration of
the realm of the gods from the realm of thedead (heroes), of the
Chthonic from the Olympian.[20] Inthe Works and Days, Hesiod makes
use of a scheme ofFour Ages of Man (or Races): Golden, Silver,
Bronze,and Iron. These races or ages are separate creations of
thegods, the Golden Age belonging to the reign of Cronos,the
subsequent races the creation of Zeus. The presenceof evil was
explained by the myth of Pandora, when allof the best of human
capabilities, save hope, had beenspilled out of her overturned
jar.[21] In Metamorphoses,Ovid follows Hesiods concept of the four
ages.[22]2.1 Origins of the world and the godsSee also: Greek
primordial gods and Family tree of theGreek godsMyths of origin or
"creation myths" represent an at-Amor Vincit Omnia (Love Conquers
All), a depiction of thegod of love, Eros. By Michelangelo Merisi
da Caravaggio, circa16011602.tempt to explain the beginnings of the
universe in hu-man language.[23] The most widely accepted version
atthe time, although a philosophical account of the begin-ning of
things, is reported by Hesiod, in his Theogony. Hebegins with
Chaos, a yawning nothingness. Out of thevoid emerged Gaia (the
Earth) and some other primarydivine beings: Eros (Love), the Abyss
(the Tartarus),and the Erebus.[24] Without male assistance, Gaia
gavebirth to Uranus (the Sky) who then fertilized her.Fromthat
union were born rst the Titanssix males: Coeus,Crius, Cronus,
Hyperion, Iapetus, and Oceanus; and sixfemales: Mnemosyne, Phoebe,
Rhea, Theia, Themis, andTethys. After Cronus was born, Gaia and
Uranus de-creed no more Titans were to be born. They were fol-lowed
by the one-eyed Cyclopes and the Hecatonchires orHundred-Handed
Ones, who were both thrown into Tar-tarus by Uranus. This made Gaia
furious. Cronus (thewily, youngest and most terrible of Gaias
children[24]),was convinced by Gaia to castrate his father. He
didthis, and became the ruler of the Titans with his sister-wife
Rhea as his consort, and the other Titans becamehis court.A motif
of father-against-son conict was repeated whenCronus was confronted
by his son, Zeus. Because Cronushad betrayed his father, he feared
that his ospring woulddothesame, andsoeachtimeRheagavebirth,
hesnatched up the child and ate it. Rhea hated this andtricked him
by hiding Zeus and wrapping a stone in ababys blanket, which Cronus
ate. When Zeus was fullgrown, he fed Cronus a drugged drink which
caused himto vomit, throwing up Rheas other children and the
stone,which had been sitting in Cronuss stomach all along.Zeus then
challenged Cronus to war for the kingship ofthe gods. At last, with
the help of the Cyclopes (whomZeus freed fromTartarus), Zeus and
his siblings were vic-torious, while Cronus and the Titans were
hurled down toimprisonment in
Tartarus.[25]Atticblack-guredamphoradepictingAthenabeingrebornfrom
the head of Zeus, who had swallowed her mother, Metis,the goddess
of childbirth. Eileithyia, on the right assists, circa550525 BC
(Muse du Louvre, Paris).Zeuswasplaguedbythesameconcernand,
aftera2.1 Origins of the world and the gods 5prophecy that the
ospring of his rst wife, Metis, wouldgive birth to a god greater
than heZeus swallowedher.[26]Shewasalreadypregnant withAthena,
how-ever, and she burst forth from his headfully-grown anddressed
for war.[27]The earliest Greek thought about poetry considered
thetheogonies to be the prototypical poetic genrethe pro-totypical
mythosand imputed almost magical powers toit. Orpheus, the
archetypal poet, also was the archety-pal singer of theogonies,
which he uses to calm seas andstorms in Apollonius Argonautica, and
to move the stonyhearts of the underworld gods in his descent to
Hades.When Hermes invents the lyre in the Homeric Hymn toHermes,
the rst thing he does is sing about the birthof the gods.[28]
Hesiods Theogony is not only the fullestsurviving account of the
gods, but also the fullest sur-viving account of the archaic poets
function, with itslong preliminary invocation to the Muses.
Theogony alsowas the subject of many lost poems, including those
at-tributed to Orpheus, Musaeus, Epimenides, Abaris, andother
legendary seers,which were used in private rit-ual purications and
mystery-rites. There are indicationsthat Plato was familiar with
some version of the Orphictheogony.[29] A silence would have been
expected aboutreligious rites and beliefs, however, and that nature
of theculture would not have been reported by members of thesociety
while the beliefs were held. After they ceased tobecome religious
beliefs, few would have known the ritesand rituals. Allusions often
existed, however, to aspectsthat were quite public.Images existed
on pottery and religious artwork that wereinterpreted and more
likely, misinterpreted in many di-verse myths and tales. A few
fragments of these workssurvive in quotations by Neoplatonist
philosophers andrecently unearthed papyrus scraps.One of these
scraps,the Derveni Papyrus now proves that at least in the
fthcentury BC a theogonic-cosmogonic poem of Orpheuswas in
existence.[30]The rst philosophical cosmologists reacted against,
orsometimes built upon, popular mythical conceptions thathad
existed in the Greek world for some time.Some ofthese popular
conceptions can be gleaned fromthe poetryof Homer and Hesiod. In
Homer, the Earth was viewed asa at disk aoat on the river of
Oceanus and overlookedby a hemispherical sky with sun, moon, and
stars. TheSun (Helios) traversed the heavens as a charioteer
andsailed around the Earth in a golden bowl at night. Sun,earth,
heaven, rivers, and winds could be addressed inprayers and called
to witness oaths. Natural ssures werepopularly regarded as
entrances to the subterranean houseof Hades and his predecessors,
home of the dead.[31] In-uences from other cultures always aorded
new themes.2.1.1 Greek pantheonSee also: Ancient Greek religion,
Twelve Olympians,Family Tree of the Greek Gods and List of
MycenaeangodsAccording to Classical-era mythology, after the
over-Zeus, disguised as a swan, seduces Leda, the Queen of Sparta.
Asixteenth century copy of the lost original by
Michelangelo.throwoftheTitans, thenewpantheonofgods andgoddesses
was conrmed. Among the principal Greekgods were the Olympians,
residing on Mount Olympusunder the eye of Zeus. (The limitation of
their num-ber to twelve seems to have been a comparatively mod-ern
idea.)[32]Besides the Olympians,the Greeks wor-shipped various gods
of the countryside, the satyr-godPan, Nymphs (spirits of rivers),
Naiads (who dwelled insprings), Dryads (who were spirits of the
trees), Nereids(who inhabited the sea), river gods, Satyrs, and
others. Inaddition, there were the dark powers of the
underworld,such as the Erinyes (or Furies), said to pursue those
guiltyof crimes against blood-relatives.[33] In order to honor
theAncient Greek pantheon, poets composed the HomericHymns (a group
of thirty-three songs).[34] Gregory Nagyregards the larger Homeric
Hymns as simple preludes(compared with Theogony), each of which
invokes onegod.[35]The gods of Greek mythology are described as
having es-sentially corporeal but ideal bodies. According to
WalterBurkert, the dening characteristic of Greek anthropo-morphism
is that the Greek gods are persons, not ab-stractions, ideas or
concepts.[36] Regardless of their un-derlying forms, the Ancient
Greek gods have many fan-tastic abilities; most signicantly,the
gods are not af-fected by disease, and can be wounded only under
highlyunusual circumstances. The Greeks considered immor-tality as
the distinctive characteristic of their gods; thisimmortality, as
well as unfading youth, was insured bythe constant use of nectar
and ambrosia, by which the di-vine blood was renewed in their
veins.[37]Each god descends from his or her own genealogy, pur-sues
diering interests, has a certain area of expertise,and is governed
by a unique personality; however, these6 2 SURVEY OF MYTHIC
HISTORYdescriptions arise from a multiplicity of archaic
localvariants, which do not always agree with one another.When
these gods are called upon in poetry, prayer orcult, they are
referred to by a combination of their nameandepithets, that
identifythembythesedistinctionsfromothermanifestationsofthemselves(e.g.,
ApolloMusagetes is "Apollo, [as] leader of the Muses").
Alter-natively the epithet may identify a particular and local-ized
aspect of the god, sometimes thought to be alreadyancient during
the classical epoch of Greece.Most gods were associated with specic
aspects of life.For example, Aphrodite was the goddess of love
andbeauty, Ares was the god of war, Hades the ruler ofthe
underworld, and Athena the goddess of wisdom andcourage.[38] Some
gods, such as Apollo and Dionysus, re-vealed complex personalities
and mixtures of functions,while others, such as Hestia (literally
hearth) and Helios(literally sun), were little more than
personications.The most impressive temples tended to be dedicated
toa limited number of gods, who were the focus of largepan-Hellenic
cults. It was, however, common for individ-ual regions and villages
to devote their own cults to mi-nor gods. Many cities also honored
the more well-knowngods with unusual local rites and associated
strange mythswith them that were unknown elsewhere. During
theheroic age, the cult of heroes (or demi-gods) supple-mented that
of the gods.2.2 Age of gods and mortalsBridging the age when gods
lived alone and the age whendivine interference in human aairs was
limited was atransitional age in which gods and mortals moved
to-gether. These were the early days of the world when thegroups
mingled more freely than they did later. Most ofthese tales were
later told by Ovids Metamorphoses andthey are often divided into
two thematic groups: tales oflove, and tales of
punishment.[39]Tales of love often involve incest, or the seduction
or rapeof a mortal woman by a male god, resulting in heroic
o-spring. The stories generally suggest that relationshipsbetween
gods and mortals are something to avoid; evenconsenting
relationships rarely have happy endings.[40] Ina few cases, a
female divinity mates with a mortal man,as in the Homeric Hymn to
Aphrodite, where the goddesslies with Anchises to produce
Aeneas.[41]The second type (tales of punishment) involves the
ap-propriation or invention of some important cultural ar-tifact,
aswhenPrometheusstealsrefromthegods,when Tantalus steals nectar and
ambrosia from Zeus ta-ble and gives it to his own subjectsrevealing
to themthe secrets of the gods, when Prometheus or Lycaon in-vents
sacrice, when Demeter teaches agriculture and theMysteries to
Triptolemus, or when Marsyas invents theaulos and enters into a
musical contest with Apollo.IanMorris considers Prometheus
adventures as a place be-Dionysus with satyrs. Interior of a cup
painted by the BrygosPainter, Cabinet des Mdailles.tween the
history of the gods and that of man.[42] Ananonymous papyrus
fragment, dated to the third cen-tury, vividly portrays Dionysus'
punishment of the kingof Thrace, Lycurgus, whose recognition of the
new godcame too late, resulting in horric penalties that
extendedinto the afterlife.[43] The story of the arrival of
Dionysusto establish his cult in Thrace was also the subject of
anAeschylean trilogy.[44] In another tragedy, Euripides TheBacchae,
the king of Thebes, Pentheus, is punished byDionysus, because he
disrespected the god and spied onhis Maenads, the female
worshippers of the god.[45]Demeter and Metanira in a detail on an
Apulian red-gure hy-dria, circa 340 BC (Altes Museum, Berlin).In
another story, based on an old folktale-motif,[46] andechoing a
similar theme, Demeter was searching for herdaughter, Persephone,
having taken the form of an oldwoman called Doso, and received a
hospitable welcomefrom Celeus, the King of Eleusis in Attica. As a
gift toCeleus, because of his hospitality, Demeter planned to2.3
Heroic age 7make his son Demophon a god, but she was unable
tocomplete the ritual because his mother Metanira walkedin and
sawher son in the re and screamed in fright, whichangered Demeter,
who lamented that foolish mortals donot understand the concept and
ritual.[47]2.3 Heroic ageThe age in which the heroes lived is known
as the heroicage.[48] The epic and genealogical poetry created
cycles ofstories clustered around particular heroes or events
andestablished the family relationships between the heroesof
dierent stories; they thus arranged the stories in se-quence.
According to Ken Dowden, There is even a sagaeect:We can follow the
fates of some families in suc-cessive generations.[18]After the
rise of the hero cult, gods and heroes constitutethe sacral sphere
and are invoked together in oaths andprayers which are addressed to
them.[20] In contrast to theage of gods, during the heroic age the
roster of heroes isnever given xed and nal form; great gods are no
longerborn, but new heroes can always be raised up from thearmy of
the dead. Another important dierence betweenthe hero cult and the
cult of gods is that the hero becomesthe centre of local group
identity.[20]The monumental events of Heracles are regarded as
thedawn of the age of heroes. To the Heroic Age are alsoascribed
three great events: the Argonautic expedition,the Theban Cycle and
the Trojan War.[49]2.3.1 Heracles and the HeracleidaeSee also:
Heracles, Heracleidae and HerculesSome scholars believe[50] that
behind Heracles compli-cated mythology there was probably a real
man, perhapsa chieftain-vassal of the kingdom of Argos. Some
schol-ars suggest the story of Heracles is an allegory for thesuns
yearly passage through the twelve constellations ofthe zodiac.[51]
Others point to earlier myths from othercultures, showing the story
of Heracles as a local adap-tation of hero myths already well
established. Tradition-ally, Heracles was the son of Zeus and
Alcmene, grand-daughter of Perseus.[52]His fantastic solitary
exploits,with their many folk-tale themes, provided much mate-rial
for popular legend. He is portrayed as a sacricier,mentioned as a
founder of altars, and imagined as a vo-racious eater himself; it
is in this role that he appears incomedy, while his tragic end
provided much material fortragedy Heracles is regarded by Thalia
Papadopoulouas a play of great signicance in examination of
otherEuripidean dramas.[53] In art and literature Heracles
wasrepresented as an enormously strong man of moderateheight;his
characteristic weapon was the bow but fre-quently also the club.
Vase paintings demonstrate the un-paralleled popularity of
Heracles, his ght with the lionbeing depicted many hundreds of
times.[54]Heracles with his baby Telephus (Louvre Museum,
Paris).Heracles also entered Etruscan and Roman mythologyand cult,
and the exclamation mehercule became as fa-miliar to the Romans as
Herakleis was to the Greeks.[54]In Italy he was worshipped as a god
of merchants andtraders, although others also prayed to him for his
char-acteristic gifts of good luck or rescue from
danger.[52]Heracles attained the highest social prestige through
hisappointment as ocial ancestor of the Dorian kings. Thisprobably
served as a legitimation for the Dorian migra-tions into the
Peloponnese.Hyllus, the eponymous heroof one Dorian phyle, became
the son of Heracles and oneof the Heracleidae or Heraclids (the
numerous descen-dants of Heracles, especially the descendants of
Hyllus other Heracleidae included Macaria, Lamos, Manto,Bianor,
Tlepolemus, and Telephus). These
HeraclidsconqueredthePeloponnesiankingdoms of Mycenae,Sparta and
Argos, claiming, according to legend, a rightto rule them through
their ancestor. Their rise to dom-inance is frequently called the
"Dorian invasion". TheLydian and later the Macedonian kings, as
rulers of thesame rank, also became Heracleidae.[55]Other members
of this earliest generation of heroes such8 2 SURVEY OF MYTHIC
HISTORYas Perseus, Deucalion, Theseus and Bellerophon, havemany
traits in common with Heracles. Like him, theirexploits are
solitary, fantastic and border on fairy tale,as they slay monsters
such as the Chimera and Medusa.Bellerophons adventures are
commonplace types, simi-lar to the adventures of Heracles and
Theseus. Sendinga hero to his presumed death is also a recurrent
theme ofthis early heroic tradition, used in the cases of
Perseusand Bellerophon.[56]2.3.2 ArgonautsFor more details on this
topic, see Argonauts.The only surviving Hellenistic epic, the
Argonautica ofApollonius of Rhodes (epic poet, scholar, and
director ofthe Library of Alexandria) tells the myth of the
voyageof Jason and the Argonauts to retrieve the Golden Fleecefrom
the mythical land of Colchis. In the Argonautica,Jason is impelled
on his quest by king Pelias, who re-ceives a prophecy that a man
with one sandal would behis nemesis. Jason loses a sandal in a
river, arrives at thecourt of Pelias, and the epic is set in
motion. Nearly everymember of the next generation of heroes, as
well as Hera-cles, went with Jason in the ship Argo to fetch the
GoldenFleece. This generation also included Theseus, who wentto
Crete to slay the Minotaur; Atalanta, the female hero-ine, and
Meleager, who once had an epic cycle of his ownto rival the Iliad
and Odyssey. Pindar, Apollonius and theBibliotheca endeavor to give
full lists of the Argonauts.[57]Although Apollonius wrote his poem
in the 3rd centuryBC, the composition of the story of the Argonauts
is ear-lier than Odyssey, which shows familiarity with the
ex-ploits of Jason (the wandering of Odysseus may havebeen partly
founded on it).[58] In ancient times the ex-pedition was regarded
as a historical fact, an incident inthe opening up of the Black Sea
to Greek commerce andcolonization.[59] It was also extremely
popular, forminga cycle to which a number of local legends became
at-tached. The story of Medea, in particular, caught theimagination
of the tragic poets.[60]2.3.3 House of Atreus and Theban CycleSee
also: Theban Cycle and Seven Against ThebesIn between the Argo and
the Trojan War, there was ageneration known chiey for its horric
crimes. This in-cludes the doings of Atreus and Thyestes at Argos.
Be-hind the myth of the house of Atreus (one of the twoprincipal
heroic dynasties with the house of Labdacus)lies the problem of the
devolution of power and of themode of accession to sovereignty. The
twins Atreus andThyestes with their descendants played the leading
role inthe tragedy of the devolution of power in Mycenae.[61]The
Theban Cycle deals with events associated especiallywith Cadmus,
the citys founder, and later with the do-ings of Laius and Oedipus
at Thebes; a series of storiesthat lead to the eventual pillage of
that city at the handsof the Seven Against Thebes and Epigoni.[62]
(It is notknown whether the Seven Against Thebes gured in
earlyepic.) As far as Oedipus is concerned, early epic accountsseem
to have him continuing to rule at Thebes after therevelation that
Iokaste was his mother, and subsequentlymarrying a second wife who
becomes the mother of hischildren markedly dierent from the tale
known to usthrough tragedy (e.g. Sophocles Oedipus the King)
andlater mythological accounts.[63]2.3.4 Trojan War and aftermathEl
Juicio de Paris by Enrique Simonet, 1904. Paris is holding
thegolden apple on his right hand while surveying the goddesses ina
calculative manner.For more details on this topic, see Trojan
Warand Epic CycleGreek mythology culminates in the Trojan War,
foughtbetween Greece and Troy, and its aftermath. In Homersworks,
such as the Iliad, the chief stories have alreadytaken shape and
substance, and individual themes wereelaborated later, especially
in Greek drama.The TrojanWar also elicited great interest in the
Roman culture be-cause of the story of Aeneas, a Trojan hero whose
journeyfrom Troy led to the founding of the city that would oneday
become Rome, as recounted in Virgils Aeneid (BookII of Virgils
Aeneid contains the best-known accountof the sack of Troy).[64]
Finally there are two pseudo-chronicles written in Latin that
passed under the namesof Dictys Cretensis and Dares
Phrygius.[65]The Trojan War cycle, a collection of epic poems,
startswith the events leading up to the war: Eris and the
goldenapple of Kallisti, the Judgement of Paris, the abductionof
Helen, the sacrice of Iphigenia at Aulis. To re-cover Helen, the
Greeks launched a great expedition un-der the overall command of
Menelaus' brother, Agamem-non, king of Argos or Mycenae, but the
Trojans refused9In The Rage of Achilles by Giovanni Battista
Tiepolo (1757,Fresco, 300 x 300 cm, Villa Valmarana, Vicenza)
Achilles isoutraged that Agamemnon would threaten to seize his
warprize,Briseis, and he draws his sword to kill Agamemnon. The
sud-den appearance of the goddess Athena, who, in this fresco,
hasgrabbed Achilles by the hair, prevents the act of violence.to
return Helen. TheIliad, which is set in the tenthyear of the war,
tells of the quarrel between Agamem-non and Achilles, who was the
nest Greek warrior, andthe consequent deaths in battle of Achilles
beloved com-rade Patroclus and Priam's eldest son, Hector. After
Hec-tors death the Trojans were joined by two exotic
allies,Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, and Memnon, kingof the
Ethiopians and son of the dawn-goddess Eos.[66]Achilles killed both
of these, but Paris then managed tokill Achilles with an arrow in
the heel. Achilles heelwas the only part of his body which was not
invulnera-ble to damage by human weaponry. Before they couldtake
Troy, the Greeks had to steal from the citadel thewooden image of
Pallas Athena (the Palladium). Finally,with Athenas help, they
built the Trojan Horse. Despitethe warnings of Priams daughter
Cassandra, the Trojanswere persuaded by Sinon, a Greek who feigned
deser-tion, to take the horse inside the walls of Troy as an
of-fering to Athena; the priest Laocoon, who tried to havethe horse
destroyed, was killed by sea-serpents. At nightthe Greek eet
returned, and the Greeks from the horseopened the gates of Troy. In
the total sack that followed,Priam and his remaining sons were
slaughtered; the Tro-jan women passed into slavery in various
cities of Greece.The adventurous homeward voyages of the Greek
lead-ers (including the wanderings of Odysseus and Aeneas(the
Aeneid), and the murder of Agamemnon) were toldin two epics, the
Returns (the lost Nostoi) and HomersOdyssey.[67] The Trojan cycle
also includes the adventuresof the children of the Trojan
generation (e.g., Orestes andTelemachus).[66]The Trojan War
provided a variety of themes and becamea main source of inspiration
for Ancient Greek artists(e.g. metopes on the Parthenon depicting
the sack ofTroy); this artistic preference for themes deriving
fromthe Trojan Cycle indicates its importance to the AncientGreek
civilization.[67] The same mythological cycle alsoinspired a series
of posterior European literary writings.For instance, Trojan
Medieval European writers, unac-quainted with Homer at rst hand,
found in the Troy leg-end a rich source of heroic and romantic
storytelling and aconvenient framework into which to t their own
courtlyand chivalric ideals. 12th century authors, such as Benotde
Sainte-Maure (RomandeTroie [Romance of Troy,115460]) and Joseph of
Exeter (De Bello Troiano [Onthe Trojan War, 1183]) describe the war
while rewrit-ing the standard version they found in Dictys and
Dares.They thus follow Horace's advice and Virgils example:they
rewrite a poem of Troy instead of telling somethingcompletely
new.[68]Some of the more famous heroes noted for their inclusionin
the Trojan War were:On the Trojan side:AeneasHectorParisOn the
Greek side:Ajax (there were two Ajaxes)AchillesKing
AgamemnonMenelausOdysseus3 Greek and Roman conceptions
ofmythMythology was at the heart of everyday life in
AncientGreece.[69] Greeks regarded mythology as a part of
theirhistory. They used myth to explain natural phenomena,cultural
variations, traditional enmities and friendships.It was a source of
pride to be able to trace the descentof ones leaders from a
mythological hero or a god. Fewever doubted that there was truth
behind the account ofthe Trojan War in the Iliad and Odyssey.
According toVictor Davis Hanson, a military historian, columnist,
po-litical essayist and former Classics professor, and John10 3
GREEK AND ROMAN CONCEPTIONS OF MYTHHeath, associate professor of
Classics at Santa Clara Uni-versity, the profound knowledge of the
Homeric eposwas deemed by the Greeks the basis of their
accultura-tion. Homer was the education of Greece (), and his
poetry the Book.[70]3.1 Philosophy and mythRaphael's Plato in The
School of Athens fresco (probably in thelikeness of Leonardo da
Vinci). The philosopher expelled thestudy of Homer, of the
tragedies and of the related mythologicaltraditions from his
utopian Republic.After the rise of philosophy, history, prose
andrationalism in the late 5th century BC, the fate of
mythbecameuncertain, andmythological genealogiesgaveplace to a
conception of history which tried to exclude thesupernatural (such
as the Thucydidean history).[71] Whilepoets and dramatists were
reworking the myths, Greekhistorians and philosophers were
beginning to criticizethem.[7]A few radical philosophers like
Xenophanes of Colophonwere already beginning to label the poets
tales as blasphe-mous lies in the 6th century BC; Xenophanes had
com-plained that Homer and Hesiod attributed to the gods allthat is
shameful and disgraceful among men; they steal,commit adultery, and
deceive one another.[72] This lineof thought found its most
sweeping expression in Plato'sRepublic andLaws. Plato created his
own allegoricalmyths (such as the vision of Er in the Republic),
attackedthe traditional tales of the gods tricks, thefts and
adul-teries as immoral, and objected to their central role
inliterature.[7] Platos criticism was the rst serious chal-lenge to
the Homeric mythological tradition,[70] referringto the myths as
old wives chatter.[73] For his part Aris-totle criticized the
Pre-socratic quasi-mythical philosoph-ical approach and underscored
that Hesiod and the the-ological writers were concerned only with
what seemedplausible to themselves, and had no respect for us ...
Butit is not worth taking seriously writers who show o inthe
mythical style; as for those who do proceed by prov-ing their
assertions, we must cross-examine them.[71]Nevertheless, even Plato
did not manage to wean him-self and his society from the inuence of
myth; his owncharacterization for Socrates is based on the
traditionalHomeric and tragic patterns, used by the philosopher
topraise the righteous life of his teacher:[74]But perhaps someone
might say: Are youthen not ashamed, Socrates, of having
followedsuch a pursuit, that you are nowin danger of be-ing put to
death as a result?" But I should maketo hima just reply: You do not
speak well, Sir,if you think a man in whomthere is even a
littlemerit ought to consider danger of life or death,and not
rather regard this only, when he doesthings, whether the things he
does are right orwrong and the acts of a good or a bad man.
Foraccording to your argument all the demigodswould be bad who died
at Troy, including theson of Thetis, who so despised danger, in
com-parison with enduring any disgrace, that whenhis mother (and
she was a goddess) said to him,as he was eager to slay Hector,
something likethis, I believe,My son, if you avenge the
deathofyourfriendPatroclusandkillHector, you yourself shall die;
forstraightway, after Hector, is deathappointeduntoyou. (Hom.
Il.18.96)he, when he heard this, made light of death anddanger, and
feared much more to live as a cow-ard and not to avenge his
friends, and said,StraightwaymayI die, after do-ing vengeance upon
the wrongdoer,that I may not stay here, jeered atbeside the curved
ships, a burden ofthe earth.Hanson and Heath estimate that Platos
rejection of theHomerictraditionwas not
favorablyreceivedbythegrassroots Greek civilization.[70] The old
myths were keptalive in local cults; they continued to inuence
poetry andto form the main subject of painting and
sculpture.[71]More sportingly, the 5th century BC tragedian
Euripi-des often played with the old traditions, mocking them,and
through the voice of his characters injecting notes ofdoubt. Yet
the subjects of his plays were taken, with-out exception,from myth.
Many of these plays werewritten in answer to a predecessors version
of the sameor similar myth. Euripides mainly impugns the mythsabout
the gods and begins his critique with an objection3.3 Syncretizing
trends 11similar to the one previously expressed by Xenocrates:the
gods, as traditionally represented, are far too
crasslyanthropomorphic.[72]3.2 Hellenistic and Roman
rationalismCicero saw himself as the defender of the established
order, de-spite his personal skepticism with regard to myth and his
inclina-tion towards more philosophical conceptions of
divinity.During the Hellenistic period, mythology took on
theprestige of elite knowledge that marks its possessors
asbelongingtoacertainclass. At thesametime, theskeptical turn of
the Classical age became even morepronounced.[75] Greek
mythographer Euhemerus estab-lished the tradition of seeking an
actual historical basisfor mythical beings and events.[76] Although
his originalwork (Sacred Scriptures) is lost, much is known about
itfrom what is recorded by Diodorus and
Lactantius.[77]Rationalizing hermeneutics of myth became even
morepopular under the Roman Empire, thanks to the physi-calist
theories of Stoic and Epicurean philosophy.
Sto-icspresentedexplanationsofthegodsandheroesasphysical phenomena,
while the Euhemerists rationalizedthem as historical gures. At the
same time, the Sto-ics and the Neoplatonists promoted the
moralsigni-cationsofthemythological tradition, oftenbasedonGreek
etymologies.[78] Through his Epicurean message,Lucretius had sought
to expel superstitious fears fromthe minds of his
fellow-citizens.[79] Livy, too, is skep-tical about themythological
traditionandclaimsthathe does not intend to pass judgement on such
legends(fabulae).[80] The challenge for Romans with a strong
andapologetic sense of religious tradition was to defend
thattradition while conceding that it was often a breeding-ground
for superstition. The antiquarian Varro, who re-garded religion as
a human institution with great impor-tance for the preservation of
good in society, devoted rig-orous study to the origins of
religious cults. In his An-tiquitates Rerum Divinarum (which has
not survived, butAugustine's City of God indicates its general
approach)Varro argues that whereas the superstitious man fearsthe
gods, the truly religious person venerates them asparents.[79] In
his work he distinguished three kinds ofgods:1. The gods of nature:
personications of phe-nomena like rain and re.2. The gods of the
poets: invented by un-scrupulous bards to stir the passions.3. The
gods of the city: invented by wise leg-islators to soothe and
enlighten the populace.Roman Academic Cotta ridicules both literal
and alle-gorical acceptance of myth, declaring roundly that
mythshave no place in philosophy.[81] Cicero is also
generallydisdainful of myth, but, like Varro, he is emphatic in
hissupport for the state religion and its institutions. It is
dif-cult to know how far down the social scale this ratio-nalism
extended.[80] Cicero asserts that no one (not evenold women and
boys) is so foolish as to believe in the ter-rors of Hades or the
existence of Scyllas, centaurs or othercomposite creatures,[82]
but, on the other hand, the oratorelsewhere complains of the
superstitious and credulouscharacter of the people.[83] De Natura
Deorumis the mostcomprehensive summary of Ciceros line of
thought.[84]3.3 Syncretizing trendsSee also: Roman mythologyIn
Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology wasborn through
syncretization of numerous Greek and otherforeign gods. This
occurred because the Romans had lit-tle mythology of their own and
inheritance of the Greekmythological tradition caused the major
Roman gods toadopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents.[80]
Thegods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mytholog-ical
overlap. In addition to the combination of the twomythological
traditions, the association of the Romanswith eastern religions led
to further syncretizations.[85]For instance, the cult of Sun was
introduced in Rome af-ter Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria.
The Asiaticdivinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al
werecombined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus,with
conglomerated rites and compound attributes.[86]12 4 MODERN
INTERPRETATIONSApollo (early Imperial Roman copy of a
fourth-century Greekoriginal, Louvre Museum).Apollo might be
increasingly identied in religion withHelios or even Dionysus, but
texts retelling his myths sel-dom reected such developments. The
traditional literarymythology was increasingly dissociated from
actual reli-gious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector
ofthe emperors and of the empire remained the chief im-perial
religion until it was replaced by Christianity.The surviving 2nd
century collection of Orphic Hymns(second century AD) and
theSaturnalia of MacrobiusAmbrosius Theodosius (fth century) are
inuenced bythe theories of rationalism and the syncretizing
trendsas well. The Orphic Hymns are a set of pre-classicalpoetic
compositions, attributed to Orpheus, himself thesubject of a
renowned myth. In reality, these poemswere probably composed by
several dierent poets, andcontain a rich set of clues about
prehistoric Europeanmythology.[87] The stated purpose of
theSaturnalia isto transmit the Hellenic culture Macrobius has
derivedfrom his reading, even though much of his treatment ofgods
is colored by Egyptian and North African mythol-ogy and theology
(which also aect the interpretationof Virgil). In Saturnalia
reappear mythographical com-ments inuenced by the Euhemerists, the
Stoics and theNeoplatonists.[78]4 Modern interpretationsFor more
details on this topic, see Modern understandingof Greek
mythology.The genesis of modern understanding of Greek mythol-ogy
is regarded by some scholars as a double reactionat the end of the
eighteenth century against the tra-ditional attitude of Christian
animosity, in which
theChristianreinterpretationofmythasalieorfablehad been
retained.[88] In Germany, by about 1795, therewasagrowinginterest
inHomerandGreekmythol-ogy. In Gttingen, Johann Matthias Gesner
began to re-vive Greek studies, while his successor, Christian
Gott-lob Heyne, worked with Johann Joachim Winckelmann,and laid the
foundations for mythological research bothin Germany and
elsewhere.[89]4.1 Comparative andpsychoanalytic ap-proachesSee
also: Comparative mythologyThe development of comparative philology
in the 19thcentury, togetherwithethnological discoveriesinthe20th
century, established the science of myth. Sincethe Romantics, all
study of myth has been comparative.Wilhelm Mannhardt, James Frazer,
and Stith Thompsonemployed the comparative approach to collect and
clas-sify the themes of folklore and mythology.[90] In 1871Edward
Burnett Tylor published his Primitive Culture, inwhich he applied
the comparative method and tried to ex-plain the origin and
evolution of religion.[91] Tylors pro-cedure of drawing together
material culture, ritual andmyth of widely separated cultures
inuenced both CarlJung and Joseph Campbell. Max Mller applied the
newscience of comparative mythology to the study of
myth,inwhichhedetectedthedistortedremainsofAryannature worship.
Bronisaw Malinowski emphasized theways myth fullls common social
functions. Claude Lvi-Strauss and other structuralists have
compared the formalrelations and patterns in myths throughout the
world.[90]4.2 Origin theories 13Max Mller is regarded as one of the
founders of comparativemythology. In his Comparative Mythology
(1867) Mller anal-ysed the disturbing similarity between the
mythologies of sav-age races with those of the early
Europeans.Sigmund Freud introduced a transhistorical and
biologi-cal conception of man and a view of myth as an expres-sion
of repressed ideas. Dream interpretation is the ba-sis of Freudian
myth interpretation and Freuds conceptof dreamwork recognizes the
importance of contextualrelationships for the interpretation of any
individual ele-ment in a dream. This suggestion would nd an
impor-tant point of rapprochment between the structuralist
andpsychoanalytic approaches to myth in Freuds thought.[92]Carl
Jung extended the transhistorical, psychological ap-proach with his
theory of the collective unconsciousand the archetypes (inherited
archaic patterns), oftenencoded in myth, that arise out of it.[2]
According to Jung,myth-forming structural elements must be present
in theunconscious psyche.[93] Comparing Jungs methodologywith
Joseph Campbell's theory, Robert A. Segal con-cludes that to
interpret a myth Campbell simply identi-es the archetypes in it. An
interpretation of the Odyssey,for example, would show how Odysseuss
life conformsto a heroic pattern. Jung, by contrast, considers
theidentication of archetypes merely the rst step in
theinterpretation of a myth.[94] Karl Kernyi, one of thefounders of
modern studies in Greek mythology, gave uphis early views of myth,
in order to apply Jungs theoriesof archetypes to Greek myth.[95]4.2
Origin theoriesSee also: Similarities between Roman, Greek and
Etr-uscan mythologiesMax Mller attempted to understand an
Indo-EuropeanFor Karl Kernyi mythology is a body of material
contained intalesabout godsandgod-likebeings,
heroicbattlesandjour-neys to the Underworldmythologem is the best
Greek wordfor themtales already well-known but not amenable to
furtherre-shaping.[96]religious form by tracing it back to its
Indo-European(or, in Mllers time, "Aryan") original
manifestation.In 1891, he claimed that the most important
discoverywhich has been made during the nineteenth century
withrespect to the ancient history of mankind ... was thissample
equation: Sanskrit Dyaus-pitar = Greek Zeus =Latin Jupiter = Old
Norse Tyr".[97] The question of Greekmythologys place in
Indo-European studies has gener-ated much scholarship since Mllers
time. For exam-ple, philologist Georges Dumzil draws a comparison
be-tween the Greek Ouranos and the Sanskrit Varuna, al-though there
is no hint that he believes them to be origi-nally connected.[98]
In other cases, close parallels in char-acter and function suggest
a common heritage, yet lackof linguistic evidence makes it dicult
to prove, as in thecase of the Greek Moirai and the Norns of Norse
mythol-ogy.[99]Archaeology and mythography, on the other hand,
haverevealed that the Greeks were also inspired by some ofthe
civilizations of Asia Minor and the Near East. Adonis14 5 MOTIFS IN
WESTERN ART AND LITERATUREseems to be the Greek counterpart more
clearly in cultthan in myth of a Near Eastern dying god.Cybeleis
rooted in Anatolian culture while much of Aphroditesiconography may
spring from Semitic goddesses.
Therearealsopossibleparallelsbetweentheearliest divinegenerations
(Chaos and its children) and Tiamat in theEnumaElish.[100]
According to Meyer Reinhold, nearEastern theogonic concepts,
involving divine successionthrough violence and generational
conicts for power,found their way ... into Greek mythology.[101] In
ad-dition to Indo-European and Near Eastern origins, somescholars
have speculated on the debts of Greek mythol-ogy to the
pre-Hellenic societies: Crete, Mycenae, Pylos,Thebes and
Orchomenus.[102] Historians of religion werefascinated by a number
of apparently ancient congura-tions of myth connected with Crete
(the god as bull, Zeusand Europa, Pasipha who yields to the bull
and givesbirth to the Minotaur etc.) Martin P. Nilsson
concludedthat all great classical Greek myths were tied to
Myce-naen centres and were anchored in prehistoric
times.[103]Nevertheless, according to Burkert, the iconography
ofthe Cretan Palace Period has provided almost no conr-mation for
these theories.[104]5 Motifs in Western art and litera-tureFor more
details on this topic, see Greek mythology inwestern art and
literature.See also: List of lms based on Greco-Roman mythologyThe
widespread adoption of Christianity did not curb theBotticellis The
Birth of Venus (c. 14851486, oil on canvas,Uzi, Florence) a revived
Venus Pudica for a new view ofpagan Antiquityis often said to
epitomize for modern viewersthe spirit of the
Renaissance.[2]popularity of the myths. With the rediscovery of
clas-sical antiquity in the Renaissance,the poetry of
Ovidbecameamajorinuenceontheimaginationofpo-ets, dramatists,
musicians and artists.[105] From the earlyyears of Renaissance,
artists such as Leonardo da Vinci,Michelangelo, and Raphael,
portrayed the Pagan subjectsof Greek mythology alongside more
conventional Chris-tian themes.[105] Through the medium of Latin
and theworks of Ovid, Greek myth inuenced medieval and Re-naissance
poets such as Petrarch, Boccaccio and Dante inItaly.[2]The Lament
for Icarus by Herbert James Draper, 1898.In Northern Europe,Greek
mythology never took thesame hold of the visual arts, but its eect
was very ob-vious on literature. The English imagination was red
byGreek mythology starting with Chaucer and John Miltonand
continuing through Shakespeare to Robert Bridgesin the 20th
century. Racine in France and Goethe inGermany revived Greek
drama,reworking the ancientmyths.[105]Although during the
Enlightenment of the18th century reaction against Greek myth spread
through-out Europe, the myths continued to provide an impor-tant
sourceofrawmaterial for dramatists, includingthose who wrote the
libretti for many of Handel's andMozart's operas.[106]By the end of
the 18th century,Romanticisminitiated a surge of enthusiasmfor all
thingsGreek, including Greek mythology. In Britain,
newtrans-lations of Greek tragedies and Homer inspired
contempo-rary poets (such as Alfred Lord Tennyson, Keats, Byronand
Shelley) and painters (such as Lord Leighton andLawrence
Alma-Tadema).[107] Christoph Gluck, RichardStrauss, Jacques Oenbach
and many others set Greekmythological themes to music.[2]American
authors ofthe 19th century, such as Thomas Bulnch and
NathanielHawthorne, held that the study of the classical mythswas
essential to the understanding of English and Ameri-can
literature.[108] In more recent times, classical themeshave been
reinterpreted by dramatists Jean Anouilh, JeanCocteau, and Jean
Giraudoux in France, Eugene O'Neillin America, and T. S. Eliot in
Britain and by novelistssuch as James Joyce and Andr Gide.[2]156
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translations ofworks of classical literatureLIMC-France provides
databases dedicated toGraeco-Roman mythology and its
iconography.Theoi Project, Guide to Greek Mythology biogra-phies of
characters from myth with quotes fromoriginal sources and images
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CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES9 Text and image sources, contributors,
and licenses9.1 Text Greek mythology Source:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology?oldid=673967896
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